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[ { "answer": "From \"The Matrix: Revolutions\" (the final battle between Neo and Smith) \n\nSmith: \"Why, Mr. Anderson? Why do you do it? Why get up? Why keep fighting? Do you believe you're fighting for something? For more than your survival? Can you tell me what it is? Do you even know? Is it freedom? Or truth? Perhaps peace? Could it be for love? Illusions, Mr. Anderson. Vagaries of perception. The temporary constructs of a feeble human intellect trying desperately to justify an existence that is without meaning or purpose. And all of them as artificial as the Matrix itself. Although, only a human mind could invent something as insipid as love. You must be able to see it, Mr. Anderson. You must know it by now. You can't win. It's pointless to keep fighting. Why, Mr. Anderson, Why? Why do you persist?\"\n\nNeo: \"Because I choose to.\"\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Edit: the following is not existentialism, it is [epistemology](_URL_2_).\n\nIt's a part of philosophy that deals with what it means to exist. What is real? How do you know you are real? How do you \"know\" anything? When does something become alive? Here's a philosophy based thought experiment known as the [Ship of Theseus](_URL_1_):\n\nYou have a large ship that goes out to sea every season to fish and travel. Every time the ship returns to port, a single slab of wood is replaced to make sure the boat stays in top condition. Eventually, you can completely reconstruct an entirely \"new\" ship with the parts of the \"old\" ship that have been replaced. \n\n*Which ship is the original ship?* At what point did one ship become the \"old\" and the other become the \"new\"? Was it when the first slab of wood was replaced? Or when the final slab of wood was nailed down to the \"new\" ship?\n\nThis kind of \"[logical paradox](_URL_0_)\" is what philosophers use to stretch their brain muscles. ~~Existentialism~~ epistemology (and philosophy) deals with these tricky questions of what it means to \"be\" and how we \"know\". ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Existentialism is the belief that things like meaning, value, morality etc. are not inherent in the world around us. This differs from, say, traditional religious philosophy, which says such things come from God, and even many classical philosophies, which still argue that things have inherent value and meaning.\n\nWhile this may sound nihilistic (the belief that nothing has meaning or value at all ever), it isn't. Instead, an existentialist is tasked with defining these things for themselves. You must ask yourself what you find valuable, what you find right and wrong, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you want a pizza, eat a pizza.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Existentialism: Simply put, it's the belief that you create your *own* purpose in life. There is no destiny/fate, because that would rely on a 'purpose' defined by others.\n\nDefine your life's meaning.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Existentialism is the idea that a person decides what is right and wrong and what gives their life meaning, as opposed to letting a god or religion decide for them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wow, this sheds so much light on what I've been feeling these past few months.. especially \"Angst\" and \"Freedom\". There are times where I'm driving and realize, I could easily just swerve into the next lane and die, although I'm not depressed in the slightest bit but I realize I am capable of doing it and there's nothing stopping me. \n\nWhat are some good books to read to learn more about existentialism?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "([This](_URL_0_) is a good answer, but I figured I'd try for a more 5-year-old explanation.)\n\nYou know that game you play, where you keep asking \"Why?\" until your parents get annoyed? That's basically what a lot of philosophy is. We say that it's important to get good grades. A philosopher asks, \"Why?\". Then we say that it's because it's important to get a good job some day. But the philosopher just asks, \"Why?\" again. The label we give you as a philosopher depends on what you think the last answer is, where it's not possible to ask \"Why?\" any more.\n\nIf you think that you can just go on asking \"Why?\" forever, and there's never going to be a final answer, then you're a nihilist. You don't think that it's really true that it's important to get good grades, because there's nothing that says so.\n\nIf you think that the last answer is \"God says so\", then you're what we call a \"Divine Command\" theorist. You think that, ultimately, God is the one who decided it was good to get good grades.\n\nThere are lots of other possible answers. You might think it is something to do with the way people's minds work, or maybe even how the whole universe works. \n\nThe existentialist thinks you end at a different place than anyone else says. He thinks the last answer to the \"Why?\" game is just, \"Because you said so.\" He thinks that, in the end, *you* get to decide what is right and wrong, and what is important to your life. This isn't the same as nihilism, because there *is* a final answer. It's just that the final answer means that the whole thing was up to you all along. \n\nThis means that different things can be important to different people. You might ask Johnny and Billy whether it's important to get good grades, and they might disagree, but both be right. If Johnny says, \"It's important for me to get good grades, because I say so,\" then it's really true that it's important for him to get good grades. But if Billy says, \"It's not important for me to get good grades, because I say so,\" then that is true too.\n\nA lot of existentialists have more complicated versions of this. They might think that only certain people really understand their own minds well enough to know what is really important to them, or that it's a difficult process to make the decision of what's important to them. But the basic rule is that it is ultimately your own responsibility to decide what's important to you.\n\nEDIT: Nuwbs makes a really good point in the comments, that it's not quite true that you can just do whatever you want to. Most existentialists will say that the choice of what you decide is important is both really really hard, and really really important. A lot of what existentialists talk about is how to make that hard choice, and how to live once you've made that choice. In other words, how do you decide whether getting good grades is really important to you? And if you decide it *is* important, what does that mean about how you should act? (If you just decide grades are important because your mom said so, and you still don't really do your homework, you're not being a good existentialist.) Exactly how they answer those two questions is one of the main ways different existentialists disagree with each other.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Existentialism is the branch of philosophy concerned with existence. \n\nExistentialists (philosophers who study existentialism) ask the question \"what does it mean to *be*?\". This often leads to discussions on the existence of god, meaning, free will, value, good, evil or anything else along those lines.\n\nThe goal of existentialism is to find out what it means to be a subjective person living in the world. In simpler terms, existentialists ask how our own history, lives and perceptions affect the way we interact with the world and how we think about ourselves in relation to the world.\n\nThere is no one existential philosophy. For example, though many existentialist philosophers philosophers are atheists such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre there are many who believed in God, the most notable being Soren Kierkegaard. This is just one of the many debates among different existential philosophers.\n\nIn the end, existentialism is concerned with how people interact with the world around them, and what this means for the \"big\" questions (like the ones listed in the first paragraph).\n\nI am a philosophy major who took a course called Existential Problems in Human Life. If you are really interested, I suggest starting with *The Stranger* by Albert Camus. It is an easy read and touches upon some of the most important questions in existential philosophy. If that is too long, try his essay \"The Myth of Sisyphus.\" As you read more you can branch out to other philosophers. Below is a list of existential philosophers, listed from easiest reading to hardest (in my humble opinion)\n\nCamus, Sartre, Nietzsche, Simon de Beauvoir, Kierkegaard, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Martin Heidegger.\n\nHopefully this helps! For a more detailed reading (once you hit the 1st grade!) check out [the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on existentialism](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Im not sure if this has been posted but ill just put this in here. A core idea of existentialism is that \"existence precedes essence\". What i mean by this is that man first exists, and then rises up in the world and defines himself.\n\nThere is no \"human nature\" or \"human essence\", only human behaviour.\n\nIt is liberating, because by each decision we make, we are saying that this is the way the world should be. \n\nProbably a bit of a hazy explanation somebody please correct me if i am mistaken on any points.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The first day of my existentialism class, the proff gave an intro that went something along these lines:\n\n1. Life has no meaning beyond what we give it ourselves.\n2. It is assured that we're going to die and with that death the nullification of any meaning we might have found for ourselves.\n3. It is therefore safe to conclude that we are born knowing we're fucked from the get-go. \n\nOne thing that's noteworthy about existentialism is that it's one of only three schools of thought (the others being Marxism and American Pragmatism) that use the primacy of experience as a point of departure. That is, it starts with lived experience and works outward from there.\n\n(not a full definition by any means, just a few comments)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From \"The Matrix: Revolutions\" (the final battle between Neo and Smith) \n\nSmith: \"Why, Mr. Anderson? Why do you do it? Why get up? Why keep fighting? Do you believe you're fighting for something? For more than your survival? Can you tell me what it is? Do you even know? Is it freedom? Or truth? Perhaps peace? Could it be for love? Illusions, Mr. Anderson. Vagaries of perception. The temporary constructs of a feeble human intellect trying desperately to justify an existence that is without meaning or purpose. And all of them as artificial as the Matrix itself. Although, only a human mind could invent something as insipid as love. You must be able to see it, Mr. Anderson. You must know it by now. You can't win. It's pointless to keep fighting. Why, Mr. Anderson, Why? Why do you persist?\"\n\nNeo: \"Because I choose to.\"\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9593", "title": "Existentialism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "Existentialism () is the philosophical study that begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. It is associated mainly with certain 19th and 20th-century European philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief in that beginning of philosophical thinking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22384374", "title": "Abandonment (existentialism)", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 304, "text": "BULLET::::3. Atheist Existentialism: The philosophy that there is no “human nature” because there is no creator, no definition of man until he encounters himself. The “human reality” is subjective to the journey of the individual, existence comes before the development of the meaning of that existence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8834011", "title": "Existence precedes essence", "section": "Section::::Sartre's view.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1294, "text": "Existentialism tends to focus on the question of human existence and the conditions of this existence. What is meant by existence is the concrete life of each individual, and their concrete ways of being in the world. Even though this concrete individual existence must be the primary source of information in the study of people, certain conditions are commonly held to be \"endemic\" to human existence. These conditions are usually in some way related to the inherent meaninglessness or absurdity of the earth and its apparent contrast with our pre-reflexive lived lives which normally present themselves to us as meaningful. A central theme is that since the world \"in-itself\" is absurd, that is, not \"fair\", then a meaningful life can at any point suddenly lose all its meaning. The reasons why this happens are many, ranging from a tragedy that \"tears a person's world apart\", to the results of an honest inquiry into one's own existence. Such an encounter can make a person mentally unstable, and avoiding such instability by making people aware of their condition and ready to handle it is one of the central themes of existentialism. Albert Camus, for instance, famously claimed in \"Le Mythe de Sisyphe\" that \"there is only one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16340", "title": "Jean-Paul Sartre", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 714, "text": "Some philosophers argue that Sartre's thought is contradictory. Specifically, they believe that Sartre makes metaphysical arguments despite his claim that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse criticized \"Being and Nothingness\" for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: \"Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory.\" In \"Letter on Humanism\", Heidegger criticized Sartre's existentialism:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "806560", "title": "Contemporary philosophy", "section": "Section::::See also.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 237, "text": "BULLET::::- Existentialism – Existential philosophy is the \"explicit conceptual manifestation of an existential attitude\" that begins with a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "272065", "title": "Al-Kindi", "section": "Section::::Philosophical thought.:Metaphysics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 834, "text": "Central to al-Kindi's understanding of metaphysics is God's absolute oneness, which he considers an attribute uniquely associated with God (and therefore not shared with anything else). By this he means that while we may think of any existent thing as being \"one\", it is in fact both \"one\" and many\". For example, he says that while a body is one, it is also composed of many different parts. A person might say \"I see an elephant\", by which he means \"I see \"one\" elephant\", but the term 'elephant' refers to a species of animal that contains many. Therefore, only God is absolutely one, both in being and in concept, lacking any multiplicity whatsoever. Some feel this understanding entails a very rigorous negative theology because it implies that any description which can be predicated to anything else, cannot be said about God.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13704154", "title": "Western philosophy", "section": "Section::::Contemporary (20th and 21st centuries).:Continental philosophy.:Existentialism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 699, "text": "Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called \"the existential attitude\", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Female agency is a complex matter and I cannot even pretend to address all aspects here, nor will I pretend to be an expert on this question. I will focus mainly on money and general mobility as the factors I’d consider most important. I hope this helps.\n\nFirst, it is important to note that our knowledge of Greek law is unfairly dominated by the relative “abundance” of sources for Athenian law. Athenian law treated women harshly, but may not have been representative of “the Greek world”. The extant law of Gortyn, for instance, treats women quite differently in some respects (for instance in cases of sexual assault) and the normative potential of women in the lower classes to act on their own behalf was probably always greater than that of daughters of wealthy families; agency also always increased with age.\n\nFundamentally, the increased mobility of the Hellenistic world caused stricter, traditional, local norms to soften (as may be familiar in the form of Perikles’ restrictive citizenship law). With mobility and more monetary, less land-based forms of wealth came the need to compromise in marriage contracts and ensure, in the interest of the wife’s family, that her property was protected to a greater extent, allowing her more economic freedom as a result. This mobility was due, among other things, to the kingdoms, the infusion of wealth they caused, the banking systems provided, and the professionalization and “internationalisation” of soldiers, engineers, doctors, performers, athletes, etc. that they fostered. As the Hellenistic world made the Greek cities wealthier, the number of festivals they held also increased, including night festivals, which allowed women more legitimate opportunities to leave the household. In the late Hellenistic period, women’s associations with not purely cultic functions also began to appear, along with their own financial administration, providing another space, in which women could have their own social circles and financial independence.\n\nAnother factor that contributes to the idea of a revolution is the increase in epigraphic culture in the Greek cities and the proliferation of honorific inscriptions. Elite women who controlled property are more tangible in this medium than before, because they engaged in the giving of benefactions to cities and temples, paying for sacrifices, buildings, games etc. In return, they were granted public honours or left dedicatory inscriptions, allowing us greater insight into their background. Funerary stele of elite women also show a greater emphasis on learning, with book rolls appearing for instance, so the value of educated daughters may generally have increased, though this was surely also a side-effect of increasing wealth.\n\nDue to the revitalisation of monarchy in the Hellenistic world, and potentially the influence of Near Eastern (e.g. Achaemenid) models of female (elite) agency, the role of the Hellenistic queens, such as Stratonike, Apama or Laodike, probably also played a part in this process of relaxing the limits imposed upon female agency, since they were experienced as powerful actors in politics not only among the elite, but also at ground level. The queens appear not only to have used their familial connections to conduct politics, but also to have supported more familial aspects of life through benefactions (such as providing dowries for poor women, supporting cults new couples sacrificed to, marking their own agency by means of gifts to prominent sanctuaries such as Delos, etc.). This in turn granted the familial sphere more prominence in the world and the queens provided models other elite women could follow.\n\nThat said, it is important to remember that not everything changed for the better. There were conservative moves as well, for instance the renewal of institutions for the control of decorum and decency (gynaikonomoi) in some cities, notably Athens, and the insistence on traditional rules especially in cities that had enough citizens and wealth enough to do so. Even in Ptolemaic Egypt women generally held very little land, the true mark of elite independence in Antiquity, and that is where their legal standing was probably best. Even in relation to just land dealings women really occur only occasionally, though there are, as always, exceptional cases, such as Eirene, who acted as an entrepreneur in her own right despite being a married woman. Overall, the level of women’s engagement in the economy on largely their own terms was nevertheless probably higher in the Hellenistic world, especially in Egypt, than in Classical Greece. Since women were still subject to *kyrios* approval for entering into substantial contracts under Greek law (as in Athenian law, though not under Egyptian), widows may have generally enjoyed the most freedom of action. This approval may, however, have become a mere formality at least in some cases.\n\nFinally, a general word of caution may be in order, since the wealth of papyrological evidence from Egypt that attests such female agency in concrete detail may be skewing the general view of how much women’s agency grew in the Hellenistic period, since Egypt had different legal traditions that created a second set of expectations Greek norms had to engage with. Egyptian evidence is thus not necessarily representative of the Hellenistic world, but comparable material does not really exist elsewhere. Our other written material mainly illuminates the world of elite, propertied women, so while it seems that their constraints relaxed on average – though certainly not everywhere – it is difficult to say the same for the lower classes; providing an actual statistical assessment of this question is prohibited by the material.\n\nOverall, I would therefore hardly speak of a revolution. The changes also hardly stemmed from any sort of structural awareness of an injustice that deserved to be rectified. The changes were a result of increasing wealth (especially in the form of coined money), greater mobility, and the ideological and political superstructure of the Hellenistic kingdoms.\n\n\n\n*Some reading:*\n\nChaniotis, Angelos, Age of Conquests, London 2018.\n\nPomeroy, Sarah B. Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra, Detroit 1990.\n\nThe paper by Gillian Ramsey in Coşkun, Altay; McAuley, Alex (eds.), Seleukid royal women: creation, representation and distortion of Hellenistic queenship in the Seleukid empire, Stuttgart 2016.\n\nJames, Sharon L.; Dillon, Sheila (eds.), A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, Malden, MA 2012, esp. part 3.\n\nThompson, D., “The Hellenistic Family”, in: G. Bugh (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, Cambridge 2006, 93-112.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6382400", "title": "Hellenistic art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 557, "text": "The term \"Hellenistic\" refers to the expansion of Greek influence and dissemination of its ideas following the death of Alexander – the \"Hellenizing\" of the world, with Koine Greek as a common language. The term is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean, rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta, but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of \"Hellenistic Art\" for convenience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26714", "title": "Sculpture", "section": "Section::::History.:Europe.:Ancient Greece.:Hellenistic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 829, "text": "After the conquests of Alexander Hellenistic culture was dominant in the courts of most of the Near East, and some of Central Asia, and increasingly being adopted by European elites, especially in Italy, where Greek colonies initially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and artists, spread very widely, and was especially influential in the expanding Roman Republic and when it encountered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hellenistic area. The massive so-called Alexander Sarcophagus found in Sidon in modern Lebanon, was probably made there at the start of the period by expatriate Greek artists for a Hellenized Persian governor. The wealth of the period led to a greatly increased production of luxury forms of small sculpture, including engraved gems and cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455379", "title": "Hellenistic period", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 748, "text": "\"Hellenistic\" is a modern word and a 19th-century concept; the idea of a Hellenistic period did not exist in Ancient Greece. Although words related in form or meaning, e.g. \"Hellenist\" (, \"Hellēnistēs\"), have been attested since ancient times, it was Johann Gustav Droysen in the mid-19th century, who in his classic work \"Geschichte des Hellenismus\" (\"History of Hellenism\"), coined the term \"Hellenistic\" to refer to and define the period when Greek culture spread in the non-Greek world after Alexander's conquest. Following Droysen, \"Hellenistic\" and related terms, e.g. \"Hellenism\", have been widely used in various contexts; a notable such use is in \"Culture and Anarchy\" by Matthew Arnold, where Hellenism is used in contrast with Hebraism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455379", "title": "Hellenistic period", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 989, "text": "During the Hellenistic period Greek cultural influence and power reached the peak of its geographical expansion, being dominant in the Mediterranean World and most of West and Central Asia, even in parts of the Indian subcontinent, experiencing prosperity and progress in the arts, exploration, literature, theatre, architecture, music, mathematics, philosophy, and science. It is often considered a period of transition, sometimes even of decadence or degeneration, compared to the enlightenment of the Greek Classical era. The Hellenistic period saw the rise of New Comedy, Alexandrian poetry, the Septuagint and the philosophies of Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Pyrrhonism. Greek science was advanced by the works of the mathematician Euclid and the polymath Archimedes. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele and a syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism in Bactria and Northwest India.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39090706", "title": "Dehellenization", "section": "Section::::Hellenization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 499, "text": "The Hellenistic Period begins with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and ends with the emergence of the Roman Empire. For the purpose of defining dehellenization, the Hellenistic Period is known for the emergence of a number of philosophical theories, including Peripateticism, Epicureanism, Pyrrhonism, Academic Skepticism, Cynicism, and Stoicism, among others. An underlying element common to all of these schools of thought is an emphasis on human rationality and the ability to reason.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455379", "title": "Hellenistic period", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Sciences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 157, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 157, "end_character": 275, "text": "Technological developments from the Hellenistic period include cogged gears, pulleys, the screw, Archimedes' screw, the screw press, glassblowing, hollow bronze casting, surveying instruments, an odometer, the pantograph, the water clock, a water organ, and the Piston pump.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455379", "title": "Hellenistic period", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 880, "text": "In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories. The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature (including the works of the three great classical tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks. The museum and library of Alexandria was the center of this conservationist activity. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there. They were scholar poets, writing not only poetry but treatises on Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You don't need to go through a full sleep cycle to experience benefits from napping because your brain does different things at different stages of sleep. REM sleep (which takes about 1.5 hours) is important for making new connections in the brain and solving creative problems, but you don't need to do that in order to rest during the day. Shorter naps may allow to experience benefits of rest without the grogginess associated with longer nap times.\n\nPersonally I think naps are terrible and nothing is better than a full night's sleep. I was living life wrong when I used want to nap all the time. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21167095", "title": "Nap", "section": "Section::::Power nap.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 714, "text": "The 20-minute nap increases alertness and motor skills. Various durations may be recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration prevents nappers from sleeping so long that they enter the slow wave portion of the normal sleep cycle without being able to complete the cycle. Entering deep, slow-wave sleep and failing to complete the normal sleep cycle, can result in a phenomenon known as sleep inertia, where one feels groggy, disoriented, and even sleepier than before beginning the nap. In order to attain optimal post-nap performance, a Stage 2 nap must be limited to the beginning of a sleep cycle, specifically sleep stages N1 and N2, typically 18–25 minutes. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21167095", "title": "Nap", "section": "Section::::Power nap.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 418, "text": "People who regularly take these short naps, or catnaps, may develop a good idea of the duration which works best for them, as well as which tools, environment, position, and associated factors help produce the best results. Power naps are effective even when schedules allow a full night's sleep. Mitsuo Hayashi and Tadao Hori have demonstrated that a nap improves mental performance, even after a full night's sleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5632946", "title": "Shift work sleep disorder", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Prescribed sleep/wake scheduling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 515, "text": "Many night workers take naps during their breaks, and in some industries, planned napping at work (with facilities provided) is beginning to be accepted. A nap before starting a night shift is a logical prophylactic measure. However, naps that are too long (over 30 minutes) may generate sleep inertia, a groggy feeling after awakening that can impair performance. Therefore, brief naps (10 to 30 minutes) are preferred to longer naps (over 30 minutes). Also, long naps may also interfere with the main sleep bout.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21167095", "title": "Nap", "section": "Section::::Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 769, "text": "For years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, including the 30-minute nap as well as sleep durations of 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks. A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions and that long naps are more effective than short ones. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "624670", "title": "Power nap", "section": "Section::::Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 318, "text": "For several years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, both the power nap and much longer sleep durations as long as 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "624670", "title": "Power nap", "section": "Section::::Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 899, "text": "A Flinders University study of individuals restricted to only five hours of sleep per night found a 10-minute nap was overall the most recuperative nap duration of various nap lengths they examined (lengths of 0 min, 5 min, 10 min, 20 min, and 30 minutes): the 5-minute nap produced few benefits in comparison with the no-nap control; the 10-minute nap produced immediate improvements in all outcome measures (including sleep latency, subjective sleepiness, fatigue, vigor, and cognitive performance), with some of these benefits maintained for as long as 155 minutes; the 20-minute nap was associated with improvements emerging 35 minutes after napping and lasting up to 125 minutes after napping; and the 30-minute nap produced a period of impaired alertness and performance immediately after napping, indicative of sleep inertia, followed by improvements lasting up to 155 minutes after the nap.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "790999", "title": "Hypersomnia", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 334, "text": "According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You scout from the surface of the water with the snorkel, then when you see something you take a breath and dive down to check out what you saw. That way you dont have to hold your breath to scout and search.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With a snorkel you can swim with your face in the water, checking out all the fishies and coral and still being able to breathe just fine. This is when you're at the surface of course. Snorkelers sometimes dive deeper, and the snorkel fills with water and they hold their breath. Then they return to the surface and blow the water out of the tube and continue breather, but they never have to actually surface with their face above water. What you're seeing is temporary. They only dive under the surface for a few seconds at a time for a photo op or something, for most of the time they are using the snorkel as intended.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The snorkel is to \"surface swim\" back to the boat after you surface from diving. If you descend from a boat and then swim around for 45 min or so underwater with your scuba tank. When you surface you could be 100's of yards from the boat and because you have all the diving gear on you can't really swim and hold your face out of the water so you need a snorkel. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Other posters are right in general, but an additional piece of information is that it's just easier to swim with your face in the water. This is why SCUBA divers have a snorkle (see /u/denver989's comment), and why someone else might want one. Even if they planned on spending most of their time diving down, being on the surface floating/lazily swimming is much easier than keeping one's head above water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm a diver, although I haven't been in years. I was told it's a safety thing, so I've always had a snorkel attached to my mask when diving. For instance you're diving in the ocean off a boat and you surface farther away from the boat than you thought, and you might be low on air in the tank. So having a snorkel makes your swim to the boat safer because the swells in the ocean can really make it hard to swim without anything to help you breathe. That's really the only time I've ever used a snorkel when diving.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "66733", "title": "Snorkeling", "section": "Section::::Applications of snorkeling.:Scuba diving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 794, "text": "A snorkel can be useful when scuba diving as it is a safe way of swimming face down at the surface for extended periods to conserve the bottled air supply, or in an emergency situation when there is a problem with either air supply or regulator. Many dives do not require the use of a snorkel at all, and some scuba divers do not consider a snorkel a necessary or even useful piece of equipment, but the usefulness of a snorkel depends on the dive plan and the dive site. If there is no requirement to swim face down and see what is happening underwater, then a snorkel is not useful. If it is necessary to swim over heavy seaweed which can entangle the pillar valve and regulator if the diver swims face upward to get to and from the dive site, then a snorkel is useful to save breathing gas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44913298", "title": "Doing It Right (scuba diving)", "section": "Section::::Equipment and configuration.:Snorkel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 296, "text": "The snorkel is an adjunct to diving without breathing apparatus and face-down surface swimming. In overhead diving they are considered a significant entanglement hazard and are not worn on the mask strap while underwater, as this could interfere with deployment of the long hose in an emergency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1266475", "title": "Scuba diving", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1531, "text": "Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a new mixture called enriched air (Nitrox) has been gaining popularity due to its benefit of reduced nitrogen intake during repetitive dives. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open circuit scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1662618", "title": "Sump", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 230, "text": "A diving snorkel can have a sump section located below the mouthpiece. This allows excess moisture from the breath and liquid from the ocean to settle and remain in the sump, so that it does not impair the snorkeler's breathing. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66733", "title": "Snorkeling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 204, "text": "Snorkeling is also used by scuba divers when on the surface, in underwater sports such as underwater hockey and underwater rugby, and as part of water-based searches conducted by search and rescue teams.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66733", "title": "Snorkeling", "section": "Section::::Snorkel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1017, "text": "A snorkel is a device used for breathing air from above the surface when the wearer's head is face downwards in the water with the mouth and the nose submerged. It may be either separate or integrated into a swimming or diving mask. The integrated version is only suitable for surface snorkeling, while the separate device may also be used for underwater activities such as spearfishing, freediving, finswimming, underwater hockey, underwater rugby and for surface breathing with scuba equipment. A swimmer's snorkel is a tube bent into a shape often resembling the letter \"L\" or \"J\", fitted with a mouthpiece at the lower end and constructed of light metal, rubber or plastic. The snorkel may come with a rubber loop or a plastic clip enabling the snorkel to be attached to the outside of the head strap of the diving mask. Although the snorkel may also be secured by tucking the tube between the mask-strap and the head, this alternative strategy can lead to physical discomfort, mask leakage or even snorkel loss.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1266475", "title": "Scuba diving", "section": "Section::::Safety.:Hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 1078, "text": "Most scuba diving, particularly recreational scuba, uses a breathing gas supply mouthpiece which is gripped by the diver's teeth, and which can be dislodged relatively easily by impact. This is generally easily rectified unless the diver is incapacitated, and the associated skills are part of entry-level training. The problem becomes severe and immediately life-threatening if the diver loses both consciousness and the mouthpiece. Rebreather mouthpieces which are open when out of the mouth may let in water which can flood the loop, making them unable to deliver breathing gas, and will lose buoyancy as the gas escapes, thus putting the diver in a situation of two simultaneous life-threatening problems. Skills to manage this situation are a necessary part of training for the specific configuration. Full-face masks reduce these risks and are generally preferred for professional scuba diving, but can make emergency gas sharing difficult, and are less popular with recreational divers who often rely on gas sharing with a buddy as their breathing gas redundancy option.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "_URL_1_\n\nPDF here: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1732624", "title": "Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center", "section": "Section::::Focus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 534, "text": "The library has continued its special interest in Rutherford B. Hayes and concentrates on the history of the U.S. from 1850 to 1917, especially the Civil War, Reconstruction, the Spanish–American War, railroad, education, black history and Indian/government relations. Second, the history of Ohio and the Sandusky River Valley and the Northwest are of interest. There is a large genealogical collection. The library contains history books on nearly every county of Ohio, but also on counties of many other states of the United States\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1221744", "title": "Benson John Lossing", "section": "Section::::Works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 221, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History from 458 A.D to 1909. Based Upon the Plan of Benson John Lossing\" (1909). This 10 volume set included contributions from Woodrow Wilson and Alfred Thayer Mahan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265084", "title": "History of the United States (1865–1918)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 299, "text": "The history of the United States from 1865 until 1918 covers the Reconstruction Era, the Gilded Age, and the Progressive Era, and includes the rise of industrialization and the resulting surge of immigration in the United States. This article focuses on political, economic, and diplomatic history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40521", "title": "1868 United States presidential election", "section": "Section::::References.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 243, "text": "BULLET::::- Edward McPherson. \" The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction\" (1875) large collection of speeches and primary documents, 1865–1870, complete text online.[The copyright has expired.]\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10390256", "title": "Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era", "section": "Section::::Primary sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 337, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 337, "end_character": 245, "text": "BULLET::::- Edward McPherson, \" The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction\" (1875), large collection of speeches and primary documents, 1865–1870, complete text online. [The copyright has expired.]\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "352697", "title": "Radical Republicans", "section": "Section::::References and further reading.:Primary sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 124, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 124, "end_character": 245, "text": "BULLET::::- Edward McPherson, \" The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction\" (1875), large collection of speeches and primary documents, 1865–1870, complete text online. [The copyright has expired.]\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55040", "title": "Reconstruction era", "section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Primary sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 328, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 328, "end_character": 245, "text": "BULLET::::- Edward McPherson, \" The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction\" (1875), large collection of speeches and primary documents, 1865–1870, complete text online. [The copyright has expired.]\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Technically yes due to [Alfvens frozen flux theorem](_URL_0_). We know that the solar wind (and hence solar flares) interact and move the magnetic field lines. Due to Alfvens theorem field lines are \"frozen\" to the fluid flow. So if you move the field lines you move the flow and vice versa. So technically a solar flare would have an effect on the fluid flow inside the Earth which in turn dictates the magnetic field. \n\nNo disaster movies here though it would be complete negligible due to the timescale of the event and how little it would change the flow in comparison to turbulent motion. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "146983", "title": "Earth's magnetic field", "section": "Section::::Time dependence.:Short-term variations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 303, "text": "Data from THEMIS show that the magnetic field, which interacts with the solar wind, is reduced when the magnetic orientation is aligned between Sun and Earth – opposite to the previous hypothesis. During forthcoming solar storms, this could result in blackouts and disruptions in artificial satellites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3201", "title": "Attribution of recent climate change", "section": "Section::::Non-consensus views.:Effect of cosmic rays.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 567, "text": "Henrik Svensmark has suggested that the magnetic activity of the sun deflects cosmic rays, and that this may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei, and thereby have an effect on the climate. The website ScienceDaily reported on a 2009 study that looked at how past changes in climate have been affected by the Earth's magnetic field. Geophysicist Mads Faurschou Knudsen, who co-authored the study, stated that the study's results supported Svensmark's theory. The authors of the study also acknowledged that plays an important role in climate change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2203131", "title": "Geomagnetic reversal", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 449, "text": "In some simulations, this leads to an instability in which the magnetic field spontaneously flips over into the opposite orientation. This scenario is supported by observations of the solar magnetic field, which undergoes spontaneous reversals every 9–12 years. However, with the Sun it is observed that the solar magnetic intensity greatly increases during a reversal, whereas reversals on Earth seem to occur during periods of low field strength.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37845", "title": "Magnetic sail", "section": "Section::::Modes of operation.:In a plasma wind.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 292, "text": "When operating away from planetary magnetospheres, a magnetic sail would force the positively charged protons of the solar wind to curve as they passed through the magnetic field. The change of momentum of the protons would thrust against the magnetic field, and thus against the field coil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12728898", "title": "Solar cycle 24", "section": "Section::::Speculation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 440, "text": "According to NASA, the intensity of geomagnetic storms during Solar Cycle 24 may be elevated in some areas where the Earth's magnetic field is weaker than expected. This fact was discovered by the THEMIS spacecraft in 2008. A 20-fold increase in particle counts that penetrate the Earth's magnetic field may be expected. Solar Cycle 24 has been the subject of various hypotheses and commentary pertaining to its potential effects on Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26903", "title": "Solar System", "section": "Section::::Interplanetary medium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 558, "text": "Earth's magnetic field stops its atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. Venus and Mars do not have magnetic fields, and as a result the solar wind is causing their atmospheres to gradually bleed away into space. Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun. The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth's magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth's upper atmosphere, where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37845", "title": "Magnetic sail", "section": "Section::::Modes of operation.:In a plasma wind.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 326, "text": "In this mode, the amount of thrust generated by a magnetic sail falls off with the square of its distance from the Sun as the flux density of charged particles reduces. Solar weather also has major effects on the sail. It is possible that the plasma eruption from a severe solar flare could damage an efficient, fragile sail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your question is a bit to vague.\n\nThe answer is that we don't know what we have not previously encountered. Unless you want to go \"star trek\", we cannot say what strange pathological things could happen to our bodies.\n\nIt is highly unlikely that with age our bodies would develop some totally new classification of pathology that we have no description for now in the broad classification of diseases. (i.e. neoplasm, infectious, toxic, immune disorder, inflammatory, genetic, psychologic, idiopathic, and anything else i might be missing, but i think i hit all my bases.)\n\nEdit - forgot the most obvious one - physical injury via trauma (including all types, weather physical, chemical, thermal, etc.)\n\nEdit 2 - As for new types of infectious diseases, sure, they happen all of the time. Every year the influenza virus mutates tremendously. HIV and ebola were unheard of 30 years ago. And bacteria constantly mutate into new forms that i guess you could consider \"new diseases\" in a way.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One has to assume yes on diseases never encountered before, but there isn't much of a detailed list at this time. A couple of things to think about.\n\n1) Nuclear DNA damage\n\nThere is some debate over whether accumulated nuclear DNA damage is relevant to human aging beyond cancer risk over the present human life span. But if we extend life significantly then it'll eventually cause issues through metabolic dysregulation if nothing else - a whole range of possible conditions that could look like metabolic syndrome or something completely different based on loss of tissue homeostasis.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n2) Buildup of waste metabolic byproducts\n\nExtending life will have to involve removing metabolic waste products, e.g. lipofuscin consistuents, cross-linked compounds in the skin, etc. There are any number of these, all building up at different paces, and early rejuvenation therapies will probably only target the bare minimum, i.e. those that definitely cause age-related disease, and are building up rapidly. If you look at lysosomal storage diseases, which are caused by accelerated build up of some of these waste products, you'll get the idea of what might happen when you let compounds build up over a very long time that normally don't cause issues because they never reach pathological levels:\n\n_URL_4_\n\nAnother thing to look at is TTR amyloidosis, which is likely what kills supercentenarians who survive everything else, for an example of this pathology:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n3) Brain mysteries\n\nIts an open question as to what happens when you run a brain for a long, long time, even if the damage that causes aging is periodically repaired. The general consensus seems to be \"expect issues, probably with memory\" but I'm not aware of anyone who has anything other than speculation on this.\n\n4) Unforeseen genetic programs\n\nIs aging programmed to any degree at all, or is it just a reaction to damage? i.e. is there a clock anywhere that will cause things like stem cells to shut down over time, or is that shut down just due to epigenetic changes resulting from levels of damage? The evidence suggests the latter, but it's always possible that some programs exist somewhere.\n\n5) Issues with never-replaced cells and macromolecules\n\nSome of your cells are never replaced. Some of the actual machinery in those cells is also never replaced over a lifetime. Dealing with this isn't on the list of things to do for the first rejuvenation biotechnology:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nSo given radically longer lives, this may come back to be a real issue. e.g. see the nuclear pore macromolecules:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n6) Damage is aging\n\nSo a general framework for thinking about this is that aging is nothing more than the accumulation of damage and the flailing of systems ill-suited to cope with that damage. So anything that's going to happen over very long lives has to be triggered by some form of damage that isn't being repaired. \"Damage\" here could mean broken cellular mechanisms, accumulated waste chemicals, cell populations dying, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23836909", "title": "Hypostatic model of personality", "section": "Section::::Description.:Biological and social adaptation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 505, "text": "In critical situations, biological and social fields of adaptation converge, forming an integrated, bio-social adaptation system: confronted with new and spreading disease and risk factors, modern medicine made people live longer, healthier, more productive lives, and that, in turn, set the ground for further progress of civilization. Nobel laureate Ralph M. Steinman prolonged his life with the help of his own scientific discoveries, and this allowed him to continue research in cancer immunotherapy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18832275", "title": "Drug eruption", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 386, "text": "The use of synthetic pharmaceuticals and biopharmaceuticals in medicine has revolutionized human health, allowing us to live longer lives. As a consequence, the average human adult is exposed to a large number of drugs over longer treatment periods throughout a lifetime. This unprecedented rise in pharmaceutical use has led to an increasing number of observed adverse drug reactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1033177", "title": "Convenience", "section": "Section::::Consequences.:Positive effects.:Health care.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 273, "text": "Some of the major improvements over the past century has been in improved health care. For example, modern medicine has made leaps in preventing infectious diseases in part due to improved water and sewage treatment. This is obvious in the marked rises in life expectancy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2245783", "title": "Medical research", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 721, "text": "The increased longevity of humans over the past century can be significantly attributed to advances resulting from medical research. Among the major benefits of medical research have been vaccines for measles and polio, insulin treatment for diabetes, classes of antibiotics for treating a host of maladies, medication for high blood pressure, improved treatments for AIDS, statins and other treatments for atherosclerosis, new surgical techniques such as microsurgery, and increasingly successful treatments for cancer. New, beneficial tests and treatments are expected as a result of the Human Genome Project. Many challenges remain, however, including the appearance of antibiotic resistance and the obesity epidemic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32808114", "title": "Monitoring (medicine)", "section": "Section::::Techniques in development.:Examples and applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 242, "text": "The development cycle in medicine is extremely long, up to 20 years, because of the need for U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals, therefore many of monitoring medicine solutions are not available today in conventional medicine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14194", "title": "History of medicine", "section": "Section::::19th century: rise of modern medicine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 551, "text": "The practice of medicine changed in the face of rapid advances in science, as well as new approaches by physicians. Hospital doctors began much more systematic analysis of patients' symptoms in diagnosis. Among the more powerful new techniques were anaesthesia, and the development of both antiseptic and aseptic operating theatres. Effective cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the decline in many of the most lethal diseases was due more to improvements in public health and nutrition than to advances in medicine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29462590", "title": "Mechanobiology", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 521, "text": "While medicine has typically looked for the genetic and biochemical basis of disease, advances in mechanobiology suggest that changes in cell mechanics, extracellular matrix structure, or mechanotransduction may contribute to the development of many diseases, including atherosclerosis, fibrosis, asthma, osteoporosis, heart failure, and cancer. There is also a strong mechanical basis for many generalized medical disabilities, such as lower back pain, foot and postural injury, deformity, and irritable bowel syndrome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I haven't read it, but I am inclined to do so. I'm nearly finished his *The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy* and I've been really impressed by it. While one good book doesn't guarantee the quality of the others, especially as *Heart of Europe* ventures a bit beyond his usual comfort zone, I'm willing to trust the quality of his scholarship enough to give it a try. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wilson has tackled a very large and complex subject, and he does so in a unique approach, combining chronological and topical approaches. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, and by explaining many things using these two different approaches, I find that Wilson has helped me understand things that would otherwise be difficult to appreciate. \n\nThe downside to this dual approach is that some topics seem to be impenetrable in the first few chapters, and repetitive in the last few chapters. But for such a complex topic, I can't really blame him. Overall I highly recommend this book, I really enjoyed it. \n\nThe TL;DR: The HRE is not the weak, ineffective, corrupt polity that many have made it up to be, but rather a highly adaptive and malleable one. To understand this is an arduous journey, but one that's worth it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "49024791", "title": "Storia d'Italia", "section": "Section::::Structure of the work.:Italy of the Dark Ages – The Middle Ages up to 1000 AD.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 381, "text": "The book talks about the history of Italy in the period of the High Middle Ages. Montanelli used as sources the work of the historic Ferdinand Gregorovius, who deeply admired, while the history of the Popes was inspired by Ludwig von Pastor. At the beginning of work is narrated the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire and then begin to tell the Italian medieval history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "419664", "title": "Denys Hay", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "Professor Denys Hay FRSE FBA (29 August 1915 – 14 June 1994) was a British historian specializing in medieval and Renaissance Europe, and notable for demonstrating the influence of Italy on events in the rest of the continent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36640212", "title": "A History of the University in Europe", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1036, "text": "The book has received high praise from several reviewers. Edward Grant regards the first part as \"the best single volume on the history of medieval universities\", noting its comprehensiveness, readability and authority produced by competent editorship and \"outstanding contributors\". Susan Rosa believes that this volume \"sets a standard for competency in historical research\", favourably mentioning the collaborative effort which produced little overlap between the various topics. Christopher Ocker lauds the first volume as the \"first attempt at a comprehensive survey of this distinctive European institution, the first thorough survey to span every country from the time of the university's birth to humanism since Rashdall\", but also thinks that the field of medieval science was somewhat neglected. Matthew Kempshall calls the book \"a product of an array of distinguished European scholars\", but feels that it might have gone too far in idealizing the university as a supranational institution transcending state particularisms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25476568", "title": "Estoria de España", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 502, "text": "The work is divided into four large parts. The first includes a history of Ancient Rome: the medieval European monarchs considered themselves heirs to the Roman Empire. The second tells the history of the barbarian and Gothic kings, treated as antecedents within the Iberian Peninsula. The third is a history of the Kingdom of Asturias from which the \"Reconquista\" (the Christian reconquest of Iberia from Muslim rule) began. The fourth and final part is a history of the Kingdoms of León and Castile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7884415", "title": "The Historians' History of the World", "section": "Section::::List of volumes.:Volume XIV: The Netherlands (concluded), the Germanic empires.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 1175, "text": "\"Book I: The Holy Roman Empire\" begins with the Hohenstaufens, detailing the Emperors Lothair II, Conrad III and his Crusade, Frederick Barbarossa and his conflicts with the Pope, the Peace of Constance, and his Crusade; moving on to the decline of this royal family, the book describes the reign of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor who peacefully acquired Jerusalem during the Sixth Crusade. Moving on to the House of Habsburg, it discusses Rudolf I of Germany who came to power in 1273, beginning that dynasty's power throughout Europe for centuries; Charles IV, Sigismund, and the rise of the Hanseatic League, the Swabian League, and the Hussites. Moving on to Frederick III, Maximilian I and the Diet of Worms, and to Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation; the Schmalkaldic War, the Protestant Union, the Thirty Years' War, the Grand Alliance, the Treaty of Ryswick, the Treaty of Passarowitz, and the Treaty of Versailles; a brief treatment of the Seven Years' War is given, the reign of Maria Theresa, and the decline of the Holy Roman Empire: the Treaty of Reichenbach, Leopold II, the Congress of Rastatt, to the abdication of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21616062", "title": "John M. Merriman", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1139, "text": "John Mustard Merriman (born 1946) is a Charles Seymour Professor of History at Yale University. He is the author of many books including his most well known \"A History of Modern Europe since the Renaissance\" (1996 & 2002), a popular survey text for undergraduate history classes at many American universities and colleges. Merriman was born and raised in Oregon where he attended a Jesuit all-boys high-school, although he does not consider himself religious. His favorite music is The Rolling Stones, \"[I’ve] never written a thing without a record on.\" Merriman formed many of his current political views during the volatile Vietnam years; he still describes himself as \"virulently anti-establishment\". His recent books include \"The Dynamite Club: How a Bombing in the Fin-De-Siecle Paris Ignited The Age of Modern Terror\" (2009) about the French Anarchist Emile Henry (1872-1894), \"Massacre: The Life and Death of the Paris Commune\" (2014) focusing on the Paris Commune of 1871, particularly on \"The Bloody Week\"; and \"Ballad of the Anarchist Bandits: The Crime Spree that Gripped Belle Epoque Paris\" (2017) a story of the Bonnot Gang. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2438960", "title": "Edward James (historian)", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 380, "text": "He has researched Late Roman and early medieval history; the history of the barbarians, particularly of the Franks; the writings of Gregory of Tours (whom he has also translated); and the history of science fiction, fantasy, and utopian literature. He was Professor of Medieval History, in the School of History, University College Dublin, from 2004 until his retirement in 2012.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "if you know where to look, you can find tutorials on the internet. others learn by working with more experienced drug manufacturers. it really isn't that hard as long as you can get the basic starting materials.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It doesn't really take skill; all you need is a \"recipe\" and the necessary equipment.\n\nDiscovering new compounds to get people high is where it takes skill. That's more the purview of designer drug manufacturers than meth cookers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was a time where meth was made by US based lab techs, often in graduate school for chemistry. Those days are long gone. Buying laboratory grade the compounds necessary to make meth are regulated and monitored. Perhaps a lab tech might be able to sneak a bit of chemical to make a small batch to sell to a few trusted friends, but nothing to the volume of breaking bad. \n\nThen there some trained chemists working for the cartels were making them in Mexico other central/south American countries. Even that's not as common anymore. \n\nToday it's street level cookers using incredibly dirty supplies, such as drain cleaner for the lye, brake cleaner or starting fluid for the ether, etc to make it. That's why today's meth looks yellowish or even brown, and has a waxy/oily sheen, instead of the clean, almost glass like clarity. \n\nThere's a method known as \"shake and bake\" which can be made with a backpack's worth of stolen supplies from Walmart. They'll leave the fairly hazardous waste from the process the production for some poor untrained employee to clean up. \n\nSorry, I don't know much about krokodil, but I would bet it's production similar, low quality reagents made by someone who is too high to follow proper lab procedures.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Chemists\"? \"Skills\"? Have you seen the average meth cook? \n\nThere are all sorts of ways to get information that would instruct anyone to do these things. Or, rather, a close approximation. Because they cannot get the necessary chemicals easily and without a paper trail, meth cooks and people making krokodil are using over the counter stuff mostly, and adding dangerous chemicals to mimic the effects of the actual chemicals used in the production of pharmaceutical grade drugs. Krokodil, for example, is a bastardization of desomorphine, which was a powerful pain killer, 8 to 10 times more potent than an equal dose of morphine. Home cooks use bad ingredients, tainted and dirty equipment, and have no way to filter out the phosphorous and iodine in the final product, therefore krokodil causes significantly more damage than an actual pharmaceutical grade dose of desomorphine would.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most of them aren't very skilled actually. A lot of the chemist type drugs that are out there are very impure and often it's the impurities that cause worse issues than the drug itself.\n\nAs for how they learn it is mostly passed from person to person. They call it cooking for a reason - they don;t understand the processes they are using they are just following a recipe that they learned from someone else.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A serious answer: firstly desomorphine is not chemically complicated at all- mix heat, inject, rot, die. Nothing to it, you could make it with otc chemicals if I told you how. Very simple. \n\nMeth is a bit more complex, and there's not just one way- you can use methylamine like Walter White, or you can go p2p or you can use hypophosphic acid, etc etc. The expertise is sometimes gained off the internet, but I sincerely doubt any real meth cooks learn that way. In truth its an apprenticeship system, very informal, but you learn off someone who knows how. Prisons are advanced Chem symposiums where ideas get tossed around. Cooks improvise based on what they have and what they lack. The hells angels in Australia had access to one of the key precursors that the Americans couldn't get, so they shipped cooks out to give the Masterclass for payment in kind. Suddenly Australia had a meth epidemic. \n\nThere's a few ur textbooks floating around shulgins books, uncle festers cookbook etc- those are the base to a lot of what gets done. \n\nThere are trained chemists working for cartels in Mexico of course, and that's another source of expertise. \n\nThe popularity of meth really rose in California in the sixties, and while its shrouded in mystery my theory is that the expertise was handed to the Angels by people like ken Kesey and the hippie chemists like owsley. They ran with it and a great secret learning happened over the time between then and now. Meth is easy to cook, but it's very dangerous so idiot cooks don't last long. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Considering a new line of work OP?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In some countries working as chemist for organized crime pays better then working at university.\nEspecially when organized crime make drugs on industrial scale, as opposed to typical meth or heroin \"cooking\" done by junkies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My cousin went to University for Chemical Engineering. Within a month he said he had enough knowledge to easily make ecstasy. I'm sure it works the same way with meth or krokodil.. It's not illegal to learn how to create certain chemical bonds. When it becomes illegal is when you're doing it to make drugs.\n\nAn easier way of thinking about this is: \"Illegal Drug Chemists\" start out as regular chemists, and then just fall into the illegal side of the business.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Breaking Bad has people thinking that there is a meth empire out there where there are top notch chemists, using state of the art equipment to cook methamphetamine. \n\nThis couldn't be further from the truth. Your \"state of the art\" method labs are still extremely basic kitchens and extremely basic men with a recipe. In a giant method lab I have seen busted, there were miles of countertops (folding tables) in a warehouse and Mexican women wearing rubber gloves cooking meth. All using a simple recipe and a very simple method. Still probably a multi million dollar operation. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Something like krocodil can be make from a simple recipe and a list of easily obtained ingredients - no harder than cooking a meal.\n\nThe problem is that done on this level leaves the end product full of impurities (all the other chemicals in the pills you crushed up, all the dirt from working with manky equipment in a squat...) that do a huge amount of harm - something a junkie will ignore in the pursuit of another high, and why drugs like krocodil or meth are quite so harmful.\n\nDrugs like these are not a sane thing taken by people wanting to go clubbing at the weekend, they are a desperate existence for those sucked in with little care left to life beyond more drugs at whatever expense they come...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Meth is actually REALLY easy to make. Like easier than making some cakes. It only has a few ingreadents, and the process is very simple. Also it is really hard to mess up any stage.\nSource: I am a chemist and part of my job is to take apart active clandestine meth labs. \n\nI have no idea about Krokodil though as I haven't been trained on how it is made, nor have I ever seen a production facility. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some people have taken college level chemistry. Drugs aren't really special in the sense that they need a highly specialized skill set to produce (typically).... if you can follow a recipe and know how to work in a lab, you're 95% of the way there. Other people just blow themselves up.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "610329", "title": "Clandestine chemistry", "section": "Section::::Explosives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 274, "text": "Clandestine chemistry is not limited to drugs; it is also associated with explosives, and other illegal chemicals. Of the explosives manufactured illegally, nitroglycerin and acetone peroxide are easiest to produce due to the ease with which the precursors can be acquired.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19218324", "title": "Anabolic steroid", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Economics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 174, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 174, "end_character": 520, "text": "AAS are frequently produced in pharmaceutical laboratories, but, in nations where stricter laws are present, they are also produced in small home-made underground laboratories, usually from raw substances imported from abroad. In these countries, the majority of steroids are obtained illegally through black market trade. These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries, and therefore must be smuggled across international borders. As with most significant smuggling operations, organized crime is involved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8709666", "title": "Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005", "section": "Section::::Justification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 489, "text": "Ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine are precursor chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine or amphetamine. They are also common ingredients used to make cough, cold, and allergy products. It was argued that the CMEA would curtail the clandestine production of methamphetamine. The U.S. Department of Justice claimed that states that had enacted similar or more restrictive retail regulations saw dramatic drops in the numbers of small clandestine labs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17588523", "title": "Organised crime in Australia", "section": "Section::::Activities.:Drug trafficking.:Clandestine chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 791, "text": "Mainly clan labs manufacture methylamphetamine but other drugs produced in Australia and reported on in connection with clandestine laboratories are ecstasy, methcathinone, cannabis oil, ‘crack’ cocaine, pethidine and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB, or fantasy). Because of the increase in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Australia, it was determined that there was a need for better exchange of information between the various jurisdictions. As a result, in August 1997 the first Chemical Diversion Conference was held at the Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence; among other things, a categorisation of the various types of clandestine laboratories was developed. Initially there were three categories but a fourth has since been added. The categories are as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40542151", "title": "History and culture of substituted amphetamines", "section": "Section::::Illicit drug culture.:Illegal synthesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 436, "text": "Illicit methamphetamine is more commonly made by the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, which produces the more active d-methamphetamine isomer. The maximum conversion rate for ephedrine and pseudoephedrine is 92%, although typically, illicit methamphetamine laboratories convert at a rate of 50% to 75%. Most methods of illicit production involve protonation of the hydroxyl group on the ephedrine or pseudoephedrine molecule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "822244", "title": "Medicinal plants", "section": "Section::::In practice.:Drug discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 279, "text": "The pharmaceutical industry has remained interested in mining traditional uses of medicinal plants in its drug discovery efforts. Of the 1073 small-molecule drugs approved in the period 1981 to 2010, over half were either directly derived from or inspired by natural substances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "610329", "title": "Clandestine chemistry", "section": "Section::::Suppliers of precursor chemicals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 244, "text": "Chemicals critical to the production of cocaine, heroin, and synthetic drugs are produced in many countries throughout the world. Many manufacturers and suppliers exist in Europe, China, India, the United States, and a host of other countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The trade agreement would give tariff free access to the $1 billion wealthiest people on the planet. It would significantly lower the cost for businesses that are based in the USA and export to the EU and vice versa. \n\nIt is basically an attempt to compete with China both now and in the future, if EU and USA based firms can trade tariff free with each other it gives them a competitive advantage over Chinese business. So the idea is free trade, but the result is protectionism on a large scale.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4305070", "title": "History of Western civilization", "section": "Section::::Western nations: 1980–present.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 271, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 271, "end_character": 532, "text": "Free trade agreements were signed by many countries. The European nations broke down trade barriers with one another in the EU, and the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Although free trade has helped businesses and consumers, it has had the unintended consequence of leading companies to outsource jobs to areas where labor is cheapest. Today, the West's economy is largely service and information-based, with most of the factories closing and relocating to China and India.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38553645", "title": "Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 435, "text": "The United States and European Union together represent 60% of global GDP, 33% of world trade in goods and 42% of world trade in services. There are a number of trade conflicts between the two powers, but both depend on the other's economic market and disputes only affect 2% of total trade. A free trade area between the two would represent potentially the largest regional free-trade agreement in history, covering 46% of world GDP.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38553645", "title": "Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership", "section": "Section::::Proposed benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 285, "text": "A 2018 paper by KU Leuven economists estimated that a \"deep\" free-trade agreement, such as TTIP, between the United States and the European Union would increase EU GDP by 1.3% and US GDP by 0.7%. These gains would primarily be the result of reductions in non-tariff barriers to trade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38553645", "title": "Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 602, "text": "The United States investment in the European Union is three times greater than US investment in the entire continent of Asia and EU investment in the United States is eight times that of European Union investment in India and China combined. Intra-company transfers are estimated to constitute a third of all transatlantic trade. The United States and European Union are the largest trading partners of most other countries in the world and account for a third of world trade flows. Given the already low tariff barriers (under 3%), to make the deal a success the aim is to remove non-tariff barriers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59212", "title": "Free trade", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 745, "text": "Most countries in the world are members of the World Trade Organization which limits in certain ways but does not eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers. Most countries are also members of regional free trade areas that lower trade barriers among participating countries. The European Union and the United States are negotiating a Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership. Initially led by the United States, twelve countries that have borders on the Pacific Ocean are currently in private negotiations around the Trans-Pacific Partnership which is being touted by the negotiating countries as a free trade policy. In January 2017, President Donald Trump pulled the United States out of negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Parternship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26614167", "title": "Commercial policy", "section": "Section::::Types and aspects of Commercial policy.:Bilateral Free Trade Agreements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 754, "text": "When two countries enter into a bilateral trade agreement, they are essentially giving one another special deals and favorable treatment in the arrangements. These privileges can include lowering tariffs on each others goods and services. The United States has signed such treaties as the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994 as well as with Israel in the 1980s. Experts who support such free trade agreements argue that these deals help to increase competition and offers larger markets that businesses can reach out to. Critics of bilateral agreements claim that a larger nation, such as the United States, can use these agreements to unfairly push smaller states into much harsher work loads than the World Trade Organization already requires.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3176527", "title": "Regional integration", "section": "Section::::Regional integration agreements.:Trade blocks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 544, "text": "An important example would be the North American Free Trade Area, formed in 1994 when the Canada - US Free Trade Agreement was extended to Mexico. Another vibrant example would entail as to how EU has formed linkages incorporating the transition economies of Eastern Europe through the Europe Agreements. It has signed agreements with the majority of Mediterranean countries by highly developing the EU-Turkey customs union and a Mediterranean policy. Vysegrád four is a group of states co-operating in order to achieve higher economic results\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "First off, there's a specific distinction in biology of a phenomenon called transcription, which is the copying of DNA into a messenger RNA molecule. This process is carried out by a complex protein called RNA polymerase. It has an error rate of about 1 in 10,000 bases, but there are also proofreading and error correction mechanisms that affect this.\n\nHowever, from your question, I assume you're meaning to sequence a genome. The way we currently sequence a genome is to take a bunch of DNA, chop it up into little pieces, multiply (PCR) the pieces so we have several copies and then sequence the little bits. Then after you sequence those bits, we use a computer to try to match up pieces of those bits to assemble an entire genome. A genome is basically a long string of A's T's G's and C's that make up the code of the DNA. During the human genome project, the government specified an error rate of no more than 1 in 10,000 bases. For reference, the human genome contains about 3 Billion base pairs, which means that there are about 300,000 incorrect bases in a genome.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are actually many instances of errors when transcribing a genome. When you're looking at sequencing something larger than say, 1kb of DNA, a common method is shotgun sequencing. While this can sequence entire chromosomes, it has to break them up into smaller parts and reassemble them after. There can be many gaps in the sequence after reassembly, usually at points of sequence repeats. Other errors in the output can pertain to base calls, insertions, deletions, no-calls and miscalls, all of which can have minor differences from the actual sequence.\n\nThere are plenty of formats for sequences. Plain text, FASTA, EMBL, GenBank or GCG, just to name a few. [This](_URL_1_) website shows several formats and what they look like. Formats for FASTA, for example, can be broken down into coding regions, nucleic acids, amino acids, non-coding RNA regions like tRNA or rRNA, each with their own file extension.\n\nThese files are called *chromatograms* and some have different extensions (such as .ab1 or .fsa) which require a program to run them. For viewing .ab1 chromatograms for routine sequencing I usually start with Chromas, but [here](_URL_0_) is a good list of available programs. After Chromas you need to input the sequence into a program that can manipulate the sequence, such as DNAman or any of the other programs available.\n\n > Is there a tool out there that does regular expression matching for every known genetic sequence of diseases or pretty much anything correlated to anything?\n\nThat would be nice, but you're assuming we are much further along than the current state of the science is. Only a small fraction of genes that cause human genetic disease have been identified. Within the human genome is an estimated total of 6000 genes that have a direct impact on the diagnosis and treatment of human genetic diseases. Also know that some diseases have many genes causing them, so it's not as easy as \"gene x = disease y\". I'm not sure of the exact number of genes identified, and I'm not aware of any programs that can scan your file for genetic diseases; to my knowledge this is still only done by professionals with the appropriate tools.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7955", "title": "DNA", "section": "Section::::Interactions with proteins.:DNA-modifying enzymes.:Polymerases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 626, "text": "Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator, where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases, RNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7663895", "title": "Protein metabolism", "section": "Section::::Protein synthesis.:Polypeptide synthesis.:Transcription.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1117, "text": "In transcription, RNA polymerase reads a DNA strand and produces an mRNA strand that can be further translated. In order to initiate transcription, the DNA segment that is to be transcribed must be accessible (i.e. it cannot be tightly packed). Once the DNA segment is accessible, the RNA polymerase can begin to transcribe the coding DNA strand by pairing RNA nucleotides to the template DNA strand. During the initial transcription phase, the RNA polymerase searches for a promoter region on the DNA template strand. Once the RNA polymerase binds to this region, it begins to “read” the template DNA strand in the 3’ to 5’ direction. RNA polymerase attaches RNA bases complementary to the template DNA strand (Uracil will be used instead of Thymine). The new nucleotide bases are bonded to each other covalently. The new bases eventually dissociate from the DNA bases but stay linked to each other, forming a new mRNA strand. This mRNA strand is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction. Once the RNA reaches a terminator sequence, it dissociates from the DNA template strand and terminates the mRNA sequence as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "167544", "title": "Transcription (biology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 597, "text": "The stretch of DNA transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a \"transcription unit\" and encodes at least one gene. If the gene encodes a protein, the transcription produces messenger RNA (mRNA); the mRNA, in turn, serves as a template for the protein's synthesis through translation. Alternatively, the transcribed gene may encode for non-coding RNA such as microRNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), or enzymatic RNA molecules called ribozymes. Overall, RNA helps synthesize, regulate, and process proteins; it therefore plays a fundamental role in performing functions within a cell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5556009", "title": "Termination signal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 274, "text": "A termination signal is found at the end of the part of the chromosome being transcribed during transcription of mRNA. It is needed because only parts of the chromosome are transcribed. The beginning part is started at the promoter and then ended at the termination signal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24553", "title": "Protein biosynthesis", "section": "Section::::Transcription.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 933, "text": "Transcription occurs in the cell nucleus, where the DNA is held and is never able to leave. The DNA structure of the cell is made up of two helixes made up of sugar and phosphate held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases of opposite strands. The sugar and the phosphate in each strand are joined together by stronger phosphodiester covalent bonds. The DNA is \"unzipped\" (disruption of hydrogen bonds between different single strands) by the enzyme helicase, leaving the single nucleotide chain open to be copied. RNA polymerase reads the DNA strand from the 3-prime (3') end to the 5-prime (5') end, while it synthesizes a single strand of messenger RNA in the 5'-to-3' direction. The general RNA structure is very similar to the DNA structure, but in RNA the nucleotide uracil takes the place that thymine occupies in DNA. The single strand of mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores, and migrates into the cytoplasm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4250553", "title": "Gene", "section": "Section::::Gene expression.:Transcription.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 965, "text": "Transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed. The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5' to 3'. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "510237", "title": "Reading frame", "section": "Section::::Genetic code.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 653, "text": "DNA encodes protein sequence by a series of three-nucleotide codons. Any given sequence of DNA can therefore be read in six different ways: Three reading frames in one direction (starting at different nucleotides) and three in the opposite direction. During transcription, the RNA polymerase read the template DNA strand in the 3′→5′ direction, but the mRNA is formed in the 5′ to 3′ direction. The mRNA is single-stranded and therefore only contains three possible reading frames, of which only one is translated. The codons of the mRNA reading frame are translated in the 5′→3′ direction into amino acids by a ribosome to produce a polypeptide chain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because alcohol is regulated by the ATF not the FDA. It looks like they're planning on requiring it soon though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is alcohol a meaningful source of nutrients beyond calories?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "337566", "title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption", "section": "Section::::Other systems.:Rheumatoid arthritis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 327, "text": "The researchers noted that moderate alcohol consumption also reduces the risk of other inflammatory processes such as cardiovascualar disease. Some of the biological mechanisms by which ethanol reduces the risk of destructive arthritis and prevents the loss of bone mineral density (BMD), which is part of the disease process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "311354", "title": "Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 386, "text": "In order to reduce the risk of developing WKS it is important to limit the intake of alcohol in order to ensure that proper nutrition needs are met. A healthy diet is imperative for proper nutrition which, in combination with thiamine supplements, may reduce the chance of developing WKS. This prevention method may specifically help heavy drinkers who refuse to or are unable to quit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "537792", "title": "Ketoacidosis", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 287, "text": "In alcoholic ketoacidosis, alcohol causes dehydration and blocks the first step of gluconeogenesis by depleting oxaloacetate. The body is unable to synthesize enough glucose to meet its needs, thus creating an energy crisis resulting in fatty acid metabolism, and ketone body formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "337566", "title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption", "section": "Section::::Digestive system and weight gain.:Body composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 325, "text": "Alcohol affects the nutritional state of the chronic drinkers. It can decrease food consumption and lead to malabsorption. It can create imbalance in the skeletal muscle mass and cause muscle wasting. Chronic consumption alcohol can also increase breakdown of important proteins in our body which can affect gene expression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1059599", "title": "Hypophosphatemia", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 312, "text": "BULLET::::- Alcohol abuse – Alcohol impairs phosphate absorption. Alcoholics are usually also malnourished with regard to minerals. In addition, alcohol treatment is associated with refeeding, and the stress of alcohol withdrawal may create respiratory alkalosis, which exacerbates hypophosphatemia (see above).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2230412", "title": "Empty calories", "section": "Section::::Impact on other nutrients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 538, "text": "A diet high in alcohol can have the same effect. According to one review, \"Micronutrient deficiencies occur in patients with ALD (alcoholic liver disease) because the major proportion of calories derived from alcohol lack minerals and vitamins. Specific emphasis is necessary for zinc, vitamin D, thiamine, folate, cyanocobalamin, and selenium.\" People with ALD also display sarcopenia - muscle wasting - but it is not clear if this is due to chronic low protein intake or the disease, which is known to inhibit muscle protein synthesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46695897", "title": "Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Current Treatments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 409, "text": "Treatments for alcoholism aim to end ethanol consumption and provide social support to prevent relapse. In some cases, sedating medications (benzodiazepines) may be necessary to prevent and/or reduce withdrawal symptoms. These benzodiazepines are only prescribed for a short period time to aid with withdrawal symptoms, for they too can become addictive. Some other commonly used drugs on the market include:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't know, on a physical level, how this system works. Frankly, I'm too tipsy to research it. However, I can answer some of this from a thermodynamics perspective:\n\nEnergy alone is not normally useful. It tends to become chaotically distributed everywhere. This is best demonstrated by heat, where the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules gets sort of distributed evenly between all of them and becomes useless. In order to use energy, we actually need to harness its transition into a more useless state.\n\nThe energy in sunlight is in a very useful state - we call this \"low-entropy\". Normally it just generates heat in small amounts, which is considered \"high-entropy\" and not very useful. The energy in a gas engine is fairly useful, as it is at high temperature, but could in theory be less useful than sunlight which is at even higher temperature.\n\nBasically, the get useful energy, we put a dam between energy in a more and less useful (lower and higher entropy) state. The warmth of the Earth is high entropy (as it is relatively low temperature) and so normally quite useless unless we find something of *even lower* temperature. Luckily for us, space is even lower temperature than the Earth, and so by putting a dam between the (relatively) low-entropy energy of Earth and the higher entropy of space, we can harness useful energy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48204219", "title": "Thermogalvanic cell", "section": "Section::::Working mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 817, "text": "Thermogalvanic cells are a kind of heat engine. Ultimately the driving force behind them is the transport of entropy from the high temperature source to the low temperature sink. Therefore, these cells work thanks to a thermal gradient established between different parts of the cell. Because the rate and enthalpy of chemical reactions depend directly on the temperature, different temperatures at the electrodes imply different chemical equilibrium constants. This translates into unequal chemical equilibrium conditions on the hot side and on the cold side. The thermocell tries to approach an homogeneous equilibrium and, in doing so, produces a flow of chemical species and electrons. The electrons flow through the path of least resistance (the outer circuit) making it possible to extract power from the cell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9127632", "title": "Biology", "section": "Section::::Foundations of modern biology.:Homeostasis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 305, "text": "Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments that are controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1859694", "title": "Bioindicator", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 433, "text": "The use of a biomonitor is described as biological monitoring and is the use of the properties of an organism to obtain information on certain aspects of the biosphere. Biomonitoring of air pollutants can be passive or active. Passive methods observe plants growing naturally within the area of interest. Active methods detect the presence of air pollutants by placing test plants of known response and genotype into the study area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18348178", "title": "Chlorine production", "section": "Section::::Membrane Industrial Production.:Cell room.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 655, "text": "The building that houses the many electrolytic cells is usually called a cell room or cell house, although some plants are built outdoors. This building contains support structures for the cells, connections for supplying electrical power to the cells and piping for the fluids. Monitoring and control of the temperatures of the feed caustic and brine is done to control exit temperatures. Also monitored are the voltages of each cell which vary with the electrical load on the cell room that is used to control the rate of production. Monitoring and control of the pressures in the chlorine and hydrogen headers is also done via pressure control valves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26322637", "title": "Electrochemical regeneration", "section": "Section::::Electrochemically regenerating activated carbons.:Principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 840, "text": "There are several mechanisms by which passing a current through the electrochemical cell can encourage pollutant desorption. Ions generated at the electrodes can change local pH conditions in the divided cell which affect the adsorption equilibrium and have been shown to promote desorption of organic pollutants such as phenols from the carbon surface. Other mechanisms include reactions between the ions generated and the adsorbed pollutants resulting in the formation of a species with a lower adsorptive affinity for activated carbon that subsequently desorb, or the oxidative destruction of the organics on the carbon surface. It is agreed that the main mechanisms are based on desorption induced regeneration as electrochemical effects are confined to the surface of the porous carbons so cannot be responsible for bulk regeneration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1068768", "title": "Phytoremediation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 385, "text": "Phytoremediation /ˌfaɪtəʊrɪˌmiːdɪˈeɪʃən/ () refers to the technologies that use living plants to clean up soil, air, and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants. It is defined as \"the use of green plants and the associated microorganisms, along with proper soil amendments and agronomic techniques to either contain, remove or render toxic environmental contaminants harmless\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13980", "title": "Homeostasis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 716, "text": "In biology, homeostasis is the state of steady internal physical and chemical conditions maintained by living systems. This dynamic state of equilibrium is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range). Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity. Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are databases of where to look called DNS servers. They translate the web address to an IP address; which the computer understands and uses to send messages to.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "An IP address is the formal street address of your building (e.g. 4242 South 3rd ST). Your Web address is like an informal name that describes you and your location to the computer (e.g. The McDonald's on 3rd). When you type in a Web address, you're telling your computer to go to the McDonald's on 3rd. The computer then looks up the exact address of the McDonald's on 3rd (which is 4242 South 3rd St) from a DNS server and goes there. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38203832", "title": "Web beacon", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 403, "text": "The identifying information provided by the user's computer typically includes its IP address, the time the request was made, the type of web browser or email reader that made the request, and the existence of cookies previously sent by the host server. The host server can store all of this information, and associate it with a session identifier or tracking token that uniquely marks the interaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5724494", "title": "Anonymous web browsing", "section": "Section::::Achieving anonymity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 795, "text": "When a user opens a web page, his or her IP address and other computer information (e.g. device fingerprint) becomes visible to the target web page's server. This information can be used to track the user. The user's IP address can be hidden via a proxy server or a VPN server, though this can be circumvented by just using the wrong browser. These types of servers work by sending a request to the target server from itself rather than from the user directly. For example, if a user requests to visit a link on a web page, the request will—instead of being sent directly to the web site server—be sent to the proxy server, which then relays the request to the targeted internet server. This hides the user's IP address from the target server, as only the proxy server's information is visible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31190827", "title": "Do Not Track", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 315, "text": "When a web browser requests content or sends data using HTTP, it can include extra information optionally in one or more items called \"headers\". \"Do not track\" adds a header (DNT: 1), indicating that the user does not want to be tracked. The browser user has no control over whether the request is honoured or not.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33139", "title": "World Wide Web", "section": "Section::::Privacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 2139, "text": "Every time a client requests a web page, the server can identify the request's IP address and usually logs it. Also, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record requested web pages in a viewable \"history\" feature, and usually cache much of the content locally. Unless the server-browser communication uses HTTPS encryption, web requests and responses travel in plain text across the Internet and can be viewed, recorded, and cached by intermediate systems. Another way to hide personally identifiable information is by using a VPN. A VPN encrypts online traffic and masks original IP address lowering the chance of user identification. When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information—such as their real name, address, e-mail address, etc.—web-based entities can associate current web traffic with that individual. If the website uses HTTP cookies, username and password authentication, or other tracking techniques, it can relate other web visits, before and after, to the identifiable information provided. In this way it is possible for a web-based organisation to develop and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may be able to build a record for an individual that includes information about their leisure activities, their shopping interests, their profession, and other aspects of their demographic profile. These profiles are obviously of potential interest to marketeers, advertisers and others. Depending on the website's terms and conditions and the local laws that apply information from these profiles may be sold, shared, or passed to other organisations without the user being informed. For many ordinary people, this means little more than some unexpected e-mails in their in-box or some uncannily relevant advertising on a future web page. For others, it can mean that time spent indulging an unusual interest can result in a deluge of further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. Law enforcement, counter terrorism, and espionage agencies can also identify, target and track individuals based on their interests or proclivities on the Web.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12800948", "title": "Click path", "section": "Section::::Information storage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 769, "text": "While navigating the World Wide Web, a \"user agent\" (web browser) makes requests to another computer, known as a web server, every time the user selects a hyperlink. Most web servers store information about the sequence of links that a user \"clicks through\" while visiting the websites that they host in log files for the site operator’s benefit. The information of interest can vary and may include: information downloaded, webpage visited previously, webpage visited afterwards, duration of time spent on page, etc. The information is most useful when the client/user is identified, which can be done through website registration or record matching through the client’s Internet service provider (ISP). Storage can also occur in a router, proxy server or ad server. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1129657", "title": "Default gateway", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Multi-router.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 1070, "text": "If any of the computers try to access a webpage on the Internet, like http://en.wikipedia.org/, the destination will first be resolved to an IP address by using DNS-resolving. The IP-address could be 91.198.174.2. In this example, none of the internal routers know the route to that host, so they will forward the packet through router1's gateway or default route.. Every router on the packet's way to the destination will check whether the packet's destination IP-address matches any known network routes. If a router finds a match, it will forward the packet through that route; if not, it will send the packet to its own default gateway. Each router encountered on the way will store the packet ID and where it came from so that it can pass the response packet back to the sender. The packet contains source and destination, not all router hops. At last the packet will arrive back to router1, which will check for matching packet ID and route it accordingly through router2 or router3 or directly to PC1 (which was connected in the same network segment as router1).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23882", "title": "Protocol stack", "section": "Section::::General protocol suite description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 672, "text": "A request on computer \"A\" to send a chunk of data to \"C\" is taken by the upper protocol, which (through whatever means) knows that \"C\" is reachable through \"B\". It, therefore, instructs the wireless protocol to transmit the data packet to \"B\". On this computer, the lower layer handlers will pass the packet up to the inter-network protocol, which, on recognizing that \"B\" is not the final destination, will again invoke lower-level functions. This time, the cable protocol is used to send the data to \"C\". There, the received packet is again passed to the upper protocol, which (with \"C\" being the destination) will pass it on to a higher protocol or application on \"C\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I haven't ever heard of someone praising them. I have heard people enthused by the mystery of the order, and the various myths that have sprung up around it. \n\nTo compare them to terrorists is fallacious in the extreme, as well as anachronistic. They were an international organization, authorized by the pope to guard pilgrims on their way top the holy land. That they were a militant group does not equate them to terrorists, as they were not furthering their own goals, but were simply protecting what had already been conquered by the first crusaders (or attempting to reconquer, but that still falls within that job description).\n\nThey also became a sort of \"proto-bank\". Pilgrims would donate their belongings to the order, in exchange for a note of appraisal for what the items/land were worth. they could then exchange the note at any branch of the order. The production from the land they accrued, in addition to the belongings of deceased pilgrims made them incredibly rich. \n\nThey were also very secretive, with secret rituals and draconian rules, they drew suspicion like a magnet. That, and after living with the Muslims (often quite peaceably) for decades, they had picked up some eastern habits, they were eventually disbanded for heresy. \n\nThe charges were brought up by the king of France, Philip IV, who owed huge sums to the templars, and it is believed that his main goal was to destroy his debt while acquiring as much of their own wealth as he could, and the heresy was just a plausible excuse.\n\nAccording to legend, while on his execution pyre, the grand-master of the order cursed the king, his torturer, and the pope, and that they all died within a year. Combine that with the fact that most of the order fled to ground, it's easy to see why there are so many myths and legends about them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4040841", "title": "Knights Templar (Freemasonry)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1034, "text": "The Knights Templar, full name The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta, is a fraternal order affiliated with Freemasonry. Unlike the initial degrees conferred in a regular Masonic Lodge, which (in most Regular Masonic jurisdictions) only require a belief in a Supreme Being regardless of religious affiliation, the Knights Templar is one of several additional Masonic Orders in which membership is open only to Freemasons who profess a belief in Christianity. One of the obligations entrants to the order are required to declare is to protect and defend the Christian faith. The word \"United\" in its full title indicates that more than one historical tradition and more than one actual order are jointly controlled within this system. The individual orders 'united' within this system are principally the Knights of the Temple (Knights Templar), the Knights of Malta, the Knights of St Paul, and only within the York Rite, the Knights of the Red Cross.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3980247", "title": "History of the Knights Templar", "section": "Section::::The Crusades and the Knights Templar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1892, "text": "The Knights Templar were the elite fighting force of their day, highly trained, well-equipped and highly motivated; one of the tenets of their religious order was that they were forbidden from retreating in battle, unless outnumbered three to one, and even then only by order of their commander, or if the Templar flag went down. Not all Knights Templar were warriors. The mission of most of the members was one of support – to acquire resources which could be used to fund and equip the small percentage of members who were fighting on the front lines. There were actually three classes within the orders. The highest class was the knight. When a candidate was sworn into the order, they made the knight a monk. They wore white robes. The knights could hold no property and receive no private letters. He could not be married or betrothed and cannot have any vow in any other Order. He could not have debt more than he could pay, and no infirmities. The Templar priest class was similar to the modern day military chaplain. Wearing green robes, they conducted religious services, led prayers, and were assigned record keeping and letter writing. They always wore gloves, unless they were giving Holy Communion. The mounted men-at-arms represented the most common class, and they were called \"brothers\". They were usually assigned two horses each and held many positions, including guard, steward, squire or other support vocations. As the main support staff, they wore black or brown robes and were partially garbed in chain mail or plate mail. The armor was not as complete as the knights. Because of this infrastructure, the warriors were well-trained and very well armed. Even their horses were trained to fight in combat, fully armored. The combination of soldier and monk was also a powerful one, as to the Templar knights, martyrdom in battle was one of the most glorious ways to die.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56250", "title": "York Rite", "section": "Section::::York Rite bodies.:Knights Templar (Grand Encampment of Knights Templar of the U.S.A.).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 739, "text": "The Knights Templar is the final order joined in the York Rite. Unlike other Masonic bodies which only require a belief in a Supreme Being regardless of religion, membership in the Knights Templar is open only to Christian Masons who have completed their Royal Arch and in some jurisdictions their Cryptic Degrees. This body is modeled on the historical Knights Templar to carry on the spirit of their organization. Throughout history it has been claimed that Freemasonry itself was founded by the Knights Templar or that the Knights Templar took refuge in Freemasonry after their persecution. The Grand Encampment of the United States acknowledges the existence of these theories but states that there is no proof to justify such claims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56768356", "title": "Political activity of the Knights of Columbus", "section": "Section::::Anti-discrimination efforts.:Religious liberty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 302, "text": "The Knights have worked since their founding to defend the religious liberty of Catholics and all people. They defended the rights of Catholics who were persecuted in the 1920s in Mexico, of Jews in Germany in the 1930s, people of all faiths during the Cold War, and more recently the victims of ISIL.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16728651", "title": "Knights Templar in popular culture", "section": "Section::::Modern organizations.:Freemasonry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 741, "text": "The best-known reference to the Knights Templar in Freemasonry is the Degree of Knight of the Temple, or \"Order of the Temple\", the final order joined in \"The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta\" commonly known as the Knights Templar. Freemasonry is traditionally open to men of all faiths, asking only that they have a belief in a supreme being, but membership in this Masonic body (and others) is open only to Freemasons who profess a belief in the Christian religion. These Knights Templar often take part in public parades and exhibitions, wearing distinctive uniforms and have had a number of high-profile members such as Henry Ford, and Harry S. Truman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16869", "title": "Knights Templar", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 677, "text": "The Templars became a favoured charity throughout Christendom and grew rapidly in membership and power. They were prominent in Christian finance. Templar knights, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. Non-combatant members of the order, who formed as much as 90% of the order's members, managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Christendom, developing innovative financial techniques that were an early form of banking, building its own network of nearly 1,000 commanderies and fortifications across Europe and the Holy Land, and arguably forming the world's first multinational corporation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4040841", "title": "Knights Templar (Freemasonry)", "section": "Section::::The Degrees or Orders.:The Degree of Knight of the Temple (Order of the Temple).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 297, "text": "The Knight Templar degree is associated with elaborate regalia (costume) the precise detail of which varies between nations. The ritual draws upon the traditions of medieval Knights Templar, using them to impart moral instruction consistent with the biblical teachings of the Christian tradition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Check out the recent book *A Line in the Sand* by James Barr. He's one of the first English-language writers to look at the British/French power games in the levant, and he also take advantage of recently de-classified French sources which have been ignored to date. It's also very readable.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28886318", "title": "Battle of al-Mazraa", "section": "Section::::Prelude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 936, "text": "France established its Mandate in Syria in 1920 following the Allied victory over the Ottoman Empire during World War I; from which France gained the territory of modern-day Syria. French authority over the area was finalized after their decisive victory over Emir Faisal's forces in the Battle of Maysalun on 24 July 1920. The French authorities divided the territory of Syria into separate autonomous entities based on the different sects in the country, including the Jabal al-Druze area of Hauran with its Druze majority of 90%. While the Druze, unlike their Arab Christian and Arab Sunni counterparts, were not as active in the Syrian nationalist movement during the early years of the Mandate, they feared the consequences of French rule. Because of their conflict with the Maronites of Lebanon who maintained close ties with the French before World War I, the Druze leadership worried about faring poorly under French authority.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "966524", "title": "Shukri al-Quwatli", "section": "Section::::Leader in Syrian independence movement.:Role in the National Bloc.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 558, "text": "On 20 March 1941, during World War II, when the Vichy French were in control of Syria, Quwatli called for immediate Syrian independence amid a period of food shortages, high unemployment and widespread nationalist rioting in the country. Vichy troops in the country were defeated by the Allied forces in July and Quwatli left Syria during the campaign. He returned in 1942. France officially recognized Syria's independence on 27 September. However, French troops were not withdrawn and national elections were postponed by the French Mandatory authorities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6572437", "title": "Franco-Syrian War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 682, "text": "The Franco-Syrian War took place during 1920 between the Hashemite rulers of the newly established Arab Kingdom of Syria and France. During a series of engagements, which climaxed in the Battle of Maysalun, French forces defeated the forces of the Hashemite monarch King Faisal, and his supporters, entering Damascus on July 24, 1920. A new pro-French government was declared in Syria on July 25, headed by 'Alaa al-Din al-Darubi. and eventually Syria was divided into several client states under the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon. The British government, concerned for their position in the new mandate in Iraq, agreed to declare the fugitive Faisal as the new king of Iraq.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33768500", "title": "Modern history of Syria", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 695, "text": "The Modern History of Syria spans from termination of Ottoman control of Syria by French forces and establishment of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration during World War I. The short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria emerged in 1920, which was however soon committed under French Mandate, which produced short-living autonomous State of Aleppo, State of Damascus (later State of Syria (1924–30)), Alawite State and Jabal al-Druze (state); the autonomies were transformed into the Mandatory Syrian Republic in 1930. Syrian Republic gained independence in April 1946. The Republic took part in the Arab-Israeli War, and remaining in a state of political instability during the 1950s and 1960s. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3212568", "title": "Fawzi al-Qawuqji", "section": "Section::::Interwar period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 402, "text": "After the unsuccessful outcome of the campaign to establish the Arab Kingdom of Syria, Syria became a French Mandate. Al-Qawuqji then joined the 'Syrian Legion' (also known as the French-Syrian Army) which had been created by the French mandatory authorities. Al-Qawuqji received formal training at the French \"École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr\". He became commander of a cavalry squadron in Hama.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "266410", "title": "Sykes–Picot Agreement", "section": "Section::::The Agreement in practice.:Syria, Palestine and the Arabs.:Paris Peace Conference (1919–20).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 638, "text": "France had decided to govern Syria directly, and took action to enforce the French Mandate of Syria before the terms had been accepted by the Council of the League of Nations. The French issued an ultimatum and intervened militarily at the Battle of Maysalun in June 1920. They deposed the indigenous Arab government, and removed King Faisal from Damascus in August 1920. Great Britain also appointed a High Commissioner and established their own mandatory regime in Palestine, without first obtaining approval from the Council of the League of Nations, or obtaining the formal cession of the territory from the former sovereign, Turkey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1647400", "title": "Syria–Lebanon Campaign", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 305, "text": "The Syria–Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the British invasion of Vichy French Syria and Lebanon from June–July 1941, during the Second World War. The French had ceded autonomy to Syria in September 1936, with the right to maintain armed forces and two airfields in the territory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "this isn't really the right forum, \n\n1: _URL_1_\n\n2: _URL_2_\n\n3: _URL_0_\n\n4: /r/outoftheloop\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5528374", "title": "Triple H (Sydney)", "section": "Section::::Present activities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 271, "text": "Triple H is a group of members working together to move the station forward. The station broadcasts a wide range of local programming, interspersed with programming from the Community Radio Network (CRN). The station provides the Aussie Music Weekly Program to the CRN. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15431389", "title": "WCPV", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 610, "text": "WCPV (101.3 FM) is an English-language American radio station broadcasting a sports format. Licensed to Essex, New York, United States, the station serves the Champlain Valley of New York and Vermont. Although licensed to Essex, New York, many listeners mistakenly believe that WCPV is licensed to Essex, Vermont, given that its offices and studios are located at Fort Ethan Allen in neighboring Colchester, Vermont. The station is owned by Vox AM/FM. WCPV is a Fox Sports Radio affiliate. On September 4, 2018, the station was rebranded as \"The Game\" to reflect the affiliation switch from ESPN Radio to FSR.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13763678", "title": "E:60", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 460, "text": "In January 2017, it was announced that \"E:60\", after having had no consistent timeslot since its October 2007 debut, would be re-launched as a live, Sunday-morning program hosted by Bob Ley and Jeremy Schaap, beginning on May 14, 2017. It replaced \"The Sports Reporters\" and the Sunday edition of Ley and Schapp's fellow program \"Outside the Lines\". The revamped program shares a new studio with \"Outside the Lines\", and features contributions from its staff.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31802560", "title": "H8R", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 281, "text": "H8R (a texting abbreviation for Hater) is an American television series for The CW. The hour-long series, hosted by Mario Lopez, premiered Wednesday, September 14, 2011. Due to low ratings, the show was canceled by the network on October 6, 2011, after broadcasting four episodes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2889387", "title": "WNYM", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 335, "text": "WNYM (\"AM 970 The Answer\") is an AM radio station licensed to Hackensack, New Jersey and serving the New York metropolitan area. The station is owned by Salem Media Group and programs a conservative talk radio format. Its studios are shared with co-owned WMCA (570 AM) in Lower Manhattan, and the transmitter is located in Hackensack.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11689115", "title": "National Runaway Safeline", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 663, "text": "The history of NRS goes back to the early 1970s. In 1971, Metro-Help was established to help Chicago youth in crisis as a clearinghouse to connect them with services throughout the region. In 1974, the crisis line received an 8-month demonstration grant from the federal government to expand its scope from a local line to a national call center and a short time later changed its name to National Runaway Switchboard. NRS was officially designated by the government as the country's \"national communication system\" to assist runaway youth and homeless teens. NRS is the oldest such hotline in the world, and has received over 3 million calls since its founding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58906131", "title": "2019 JLT Community Series", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 360, "text": "The 2019 JLT Community Series will be the Australian Football League (AFL) pre-season competition played before the 2019 home and away season. It will feature 18 matches across two weekends. For the sixth year in a row, the competition will not have a grand final or overall winner. All matches will televised live on Fox Footy as well as on the AFL Live app.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The [Lewis Gun](_URL_0_) had a 97 round pan magazine attached to the upper wing on a 'Foster Mounting' that allowed the pilot to pull the gun backwards and change the magazine. Bear in mind the rate of fire on the Lewis gun was around 500rpm and that gives the pilot around 12 seconds of firing time.\n\nThe SE.5a carried two spare magazines in the cockpit, and changing them in flight must have been an interesting operation! \n\n > I know that WWII planes often only carried enough ammo for something like 20 seconds of sustained fire, which considering the range of WWII planes isn't very much ammo at all.\n\nIts less about range and more about the weight of fire. The early models of Spitfire and Hurricane carried eight machine guns, with the SE.5a only carrying two - one of which was basically an infantry squad's light support weapon.\n\nThe British typically equipped their fighters with 300 to 350 rounds per gun, meaning they were carrying around 70kg of ammunition and firing 160 rounds per second with a mix of ball, AP, incendiary and tracer ammunition.\n\nEDIT: The rate of fire of the Lewis guns modified for use on aircraft was actually increased to 700-750 meaning the 97 round magazine would last about 8 seconds, not 12.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "454944", "title": "MG 17 machine gun", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 262, "text": "A mainstay fixed machine gun in German built aircraft (many of which were sold to other countries) well before World War II, by 1940 it was starting to be replaced with heavier caliber machine gun and cannons. By 1945 very few if any aircraft mounted the MG 17.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1615341", "title": "Darne machine gun", "section": "Section::::Variants.:Aircraft Variant.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 295, "text": "The aircraft variant equipped French aircraft until 1935 when it was replaced by the MAC 1934, except in naval aircraft. Often criticized for its lack of reliability in the aircraft role, as other similar rifle calibers, the 7.5 mm bullets proved to be too light for air combat in World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11721", "title": "Vought F4U Corsair", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 492, "text": "Reports coming back from the war in Europe indicated that an armament of two .30 in (7.62 mm) synchronized engine cowling-mount machine guns, and two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns (one in each outer wing panel) was insufficient. The U.S. Navy's November 1940 production proposals specified heavier armament. The increased armament comprised three .50 caliber machine guns mounted in each wing panel. This improvement greatly increased the ability of the Corsair to shoot down enemy aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10929", "title": "Fighter aircraft", "section": "Section::::Fighter weapons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 2133, "text": "From WWI to the present fighter aircraft have featured machine guns and automatic cannons as weapons, and they are still considered as essential back-up weapons today. The power of air-to-air guns has increased greatly over time, and has kept them relevant in the guided missile era. In WWI two rifle caliber machine guns was the typical armament producing a weight of fire of about per second. The standard WWII American fighter armament of six 0.50-cal (12.7mm) machine guns fired a bullet weight of approximately 3.7 kg/sec (8.1 lbs/sec), at a muzzle velocity of 856 m/s (2,810 ft/s). British and German aircraft tended to use a mix of machine guns and autocannon, the latter firing explosive projectiles. The modern M61 Vulcan 20 mm rotating barrel Gatling gun that is standard on current American fighters fires a projectile weight of about 10 kg/s (22 lb/s), nearly three times that of six 0.50-cal machine guns, with higher velocity of 1,052 m/s (3450 ft/s) supporting a flatter trajectory, and with exploding projectiles. Modern fighter gun systems also feature ranging radar and lead computing electronic gun sights to ease the problem of aim point to compensate for projectile drop and time of flight (target lead) in the complex three dimensional maneuvering of air-to-air combat. However, getting in position to use the guns is the challenge. The range of guns is longer than in the past but still quite limited compared to missiles, with modern gun systems having a maximum effective range of approximately 1,000 meters. High probability of kill also requires firing to usually occur from the rear hemisphere of the target. Despite these limits, when pilots are well trained in air-to-air gunnery and these conditions are satisfied, gun systems are tactically effective and highly cost efficient. The cost of a gun firing pass is far less than firing a missile, and the projectiles are not subject to the thermal and electronic countermeasures than can sometimes defeat missiles. When the enemy can be approached to within gun range, the lethality of guns is approximately a 25% to 50% chance of \"kill per firing pass\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "969076", "title": "SPAD S.XIII", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 689, "text": "While the forward Vickers machine guns were installed as standard, they were not always present upon all aircraft. As a result of fears of a shortage of Vickers guns during the last few months of the war, several American squadrons equipped with the S.XIII decided to replace their existing Vickers .303 machine guns with the lighter-weight (25 lbs/11.34 kg apiece) .30/06-calibre Marlin Rockwell M1917 and M1918 aircraft machine guns, saving some sixteen pounds (7.3 kg) in weight over the twin-mount Vickers' total weight of 66 lbs (29.94 kg) for the guns alone. Reportedly, by the end of the war, roughly one half of the aircraft in American service had been converted in this fashion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3135385", "title": "Type 97 heavy tank machine gun", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 286, "text": "The was the standard machine gun used in tanks and armored vehicles of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II, a heavy machine gun by infantry forces, This weapon was not related to the Type 97 aircraft machine gun used in several Japanese Navy aircraft including the A6M Zero.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21169396", "title": "Ship gun fire-control system", "section": "Section::::US Navy Systems.:MK 51 Fire Control System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 567, "text": "The Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns were arguably the best light anti-aircraft weapon of World War II., employed on almost every major warship in the U.S. and UK fleet during World War II from about 1943 to 1945. They were most effective on ships as large as destroyer escorts or larger when coupled with electric-hydraulic drives for greater speed and the Mark 51 Director (\"pictured\") for improved accuracy, the Bofors 40 mm gun became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The color of glow is dependent on temperature, not state. The glow you see is the [blackbody radiation](_URL_0_) from the metal. Since liquid mercury or gallium are only 300^o K or so, they don't glow very much in the visual spectrum. Additionally, since the radiation emitted is a function of T^4 , things around room temperature don't give off much radiation period. If you heated mercury to 1000^o K or so, it would glow. Likewise, if you poured molten iron into a ceramic crucible, the iron and the crucible would both glow the same color, despite one being solid and one being liquid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most metals have to be quite hot in order to melt. It takes a high temperature to melt these metals because their metallic bonds are quite strong. Once the melting point is reached the blackbody radiation associated with that temperature has some intensity in the visible range, and you'll see a colour similar to glowing embers.\n\nElemental mercury has an electronic structure of [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 -- but it just so happens that the 6s orbital is severely contracted due to relativistic effects. This makes the final pair of 6s2 electrons very stable and rather inert. Consequently, the forces that hold the mercury atoms together are quite weak, and it is no longer necessary to heat mercury to a high temperature before it becomes a liquid. It's already a liquid before the temperature is high enough for the mercury to glow red.\n\nI'm not sure what is the main reason for gallium having a low melting point though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27119", "title": "Silver", "section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 876, "text": "Silver does not react with air, even at red heat, and thus was considered by alchemists as a noble metal along with gold. Its reactivity is intermediate between that of copper (which forms copper(I) oxide when heated in air to red heat) and gold. Like copper, silver reacts with sulfur and its compounds; in their presence, silver tarnishes in air to form the black silver sulfide (copper forms the green sulfate instead, while gold does not react). Unlike copper, silver will not react with the halogens, with the exception of fluorine gas, with which it forms the difluoride. While silver is not attacked by non-oxidizing acids, the metal dissolves readily in hot concentrated sulfuric acid, as well as dilute or concentrated nitric acid. In the presence of air, and especially in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, silver dissolves readily in aqueous solutions of cyanide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31080818", "title": "Mercury regulation in the United States", "section": "Section::::What is mercury.:Forms of mercury.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 289, "text": "Inorganic mercury compounds or mercury salts, more commonly found in nature, include mercuric sulphide (HgS), mercuric oxide (HgO) and mercuric chloride (HgCl). Most of these are white powders or crystals, except for mercuric sulphide which is red and turns black after exposure to light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "550203", "title": "Red mercury", "section": "Section::::Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 492, "text": "Several common mercury compounds are indeed red, such as mercury sulfide (from which the bright-red pigment vermilion was originally derived), mercury(II) oxide, and mercury(II) iodide, and others are explosive, such as mercury(II) fulminate. No use for any of these compounds in nuclear weapons has been publicly documented. \"Red mercury\" could also be a code name for a substance that contains no mercury at all, perhaps another name for the mysterious, but acknowledged, FOGBANK compound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14756059", "title": "Environmental toxicology", "section": "Section::::Sources of environmental toxicity.:Mercury.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 467, "text": "Equally as toxic as the previous heavy metals, Mercury, A shiny silver-white, can transform into a colorless and odorless gas when heated up. Mercury highly affects the marine environment and there have been many studies conducted on the effects on the water environment. The biggest sources of mercury pollution include, \"agriculture, municipal wastewater discharges, mining, incineration, and discharges of industrial wastewater\" all relatively connected to water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1177234", "title": "Potassium dichromate", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Analytical reagent.:Silver test.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 435, "text": "When dissolved in an approximately 35% nitric acid solution it is called Schwerter's solution and is used to test for the presence of various metals, notably for determination of silver purity. Pure silver will turn the solution bright red, sterling silver will turn it dark red, low grade coin silver (0.800 fine) will turn brown (largely due to the presence of copper which turns the solution brown) and even green for 0.500 silver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "125293", "title": "Copper", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Physical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 370, "text": "Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells corresponds to orange light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "666", "title": "Alkali metal", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Physical and chemical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 764, "text": "The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint: it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). Additionally, the heavy alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, and barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So while it isn't 100 percent focused on your question, you may find [this answer](_URL_2_) to be of interest, as it does touch heavily on the pro-natal policies of the Soviet Union during and following the war as they attempted to encourage procreation. Edit: I've gone and reposted it here with some small additions to touch on demographics after quickly checking through to see what my sources noted there, but I would just doubly note that hard numbers are *really* hard to come by for the period, and we only have estimates for some of them!\n\n----------\n\nLooking at natalist policies in the Soviet Union, especially with regards to abortion, we can see a *lot* of policy being driven by concerns about the birthrate, and its rise and fall. Especially at the time of the war, there was very explicit concerns raised about the issue and policies were changed and created with the explicit goal of raising it.\n\nIn the Russian Empire, and the first few years of Bolshevik rule in Russia, abortion was illegal. But, as in most places where the procedure is illegal though, the procedure was nevertheless popular, but insanely dangerous. One observer pre-1920 noted:\n\n > Within the past six months, among 100 to 150 young people under age 25, I have seen 15 to 20 percent of them making abortions without a doctor's help. They simply use household products: They drink bleach and other poisonous mixtures.\n\nThe decision to legalize the procedure, and make it simple to obtain, was almost entirely a practical decision. In 1920 they became legal if done by a doctor, essentially in acknowledgement that it would happen no matter what, so the state should do its best to make it safe. They were subsidized by the state, so free to the woman. In 1926, the abortion rate was 42.8 per 1000 working women, and 45.2 per 1000 'housewives' (compare to the US today, at [13.2 per 1000 women](_URL_0_). Modern Russia continues to be very high, at [37.4 per 1000 or so](_URL_1_))\n\nBut this wasn't to remain. As noted, the change was not because abortion was seen as *good*, but that legalizing it was a necessary evil and that the state would work to eliminate the underlying economic reasons driving women to have them. As it turned out, poor women were no more likely to be using this 'service though'. If anything, it was the better off women who were getting more abortions. Even worse, the birthrate in the USSR was falling precipitously, from 42.2 per 1000 in 1928 to 31.0 in 1932, according to a government study released in 1934. Thus the law changed in 1936 when policies started to return to pushing more 'traditional' gender roles for women, and included restricting abortion again - it required a medical reason now. As before though, just because it is illegal doesn't mean women don't seek them. After 1936, \"back-alley\" abortions were on the rise, and they certainly carried additional risks with them, and penalties for obtaining one meant injured women would only be further harmed by not seeking treatment:\n\n > Women who became infected during these procedures or who sought assistance for heavy bleeding were often interrogated at the hospital before they were treated, as the authorities attempted to learn the names of underground abortionists. Abortionists were punished with one or two years’ imprisonment if they were physicians and at least three if they were not. The woman herself received a reprimand for her first offense and a fine if caught again. \n\nAbortion statistics aren't readily available for this period, but my book notes that as the birth rate didn't seem to change much - rising briefly through 1937 when it reached 39.6 per 1000 but again beginning to decline until leveling out at 33.6 per 1000 in 1940, the same rate as 1936 when the law went into effect - as the laws became restrictive again, this would imply women weren't especially deterred by the law and continued to seek them at the same rate as before (see 1926 numbers), if not higher. There was no ready access to, nor education regarding, other means of birth control (Aside from abortion as birth control, by far most common being 'coitus interruptus'), so it was really the only means of family planning available to women. \n\nThe massive population losses that occurred in the early 1940s further increased pro-natal policy planning, but with both carrots and sticks. Laws to assist so called \"war widows\" (referring not simply to women who lost husbands, but women who lost the *potential* for a husband due to the decline in the male population) both in raising their children as single mothers as well as having children in the first place.\n\nSoviet propaganda campaigns to encourage motherhood predated the war even, but the massive calamity of course kicked it into overdrive. During the war, there was a definite decline in the birthrate due to \"general decline in the reproductive health of mothers, as reflected in the high rate of premature births\", as characterized by the People’s Commissar of Public Health G.A. Miterev, and Soviet leadership worked hard to try to turn that around, with their clear awareness that to see further decline would imperil the ability of the USSR to bounce back in the long term.\n\nPrograms and incentives to encourage motherhood existed, such as awards for bearing a certain number of children and various state assistance programs for both married single mothers, while legal penalties were either added or increased, most especially with the Family Law of 1944, which further penalized abortion and increasingly penalized divorce as well. The shortage of men also meant a very important shift, in which the Soviets worked to try and both destigmatize single-motherhood by increasing state benefits they could receive and featuring mothers of ambiguous marital status in propaganda, while also tacitly encourage even *married* men to sleep around by preventing the single mothers from suing the father for child support, and making it harder for their irate wives to divorce them. The result being that many men would have numerous affairs, and even unmarried men would often bounce from relationship to relationship.\n\nNow as to your question, which is basically whether or not the Soviets were successful in reversing the trend during the war years? Well, not terribly. There *was* a definite boost in the fertility rate immediately after the war years, but it was rather short lived, and quickly began to decline again. Here is a table of the fertility rates of the US and USSR, which allows for a comparison of the 'Baby Boom' in America, for the period in question:\n\nYear | USA Total Fertility | USSR Total Fertility | - | Year | USA Total Fertility | USSR Total Fertility\n---|---|----|---|---|----|----|\n1926| 2,909| 5,566 | - |1944| 2,567| 1,942\n1927| 2,827| 5,418 | - |1945| 2,491| 1,762\n1928| 2,656| 5,318 | - |1946| 2,942| 2,868\n1929| 2,524| 4,985 | - |1947| 3,273| 3,232\n1930| 2,508| 4,826 | - | 1948| 3,108| 3,079\n1931| 2,376| 4,255 | - | 1949| 3,110| 3,007\n1932| 2,288| 3,573 | - | 1950| 3,090| 2,851\n1933| 2,147| 3,621 | - | 1951| 3,268| 2,914\n1934| 2,204| 2,904 | - | 1952| 3,357| 2,898\n1935| 2,163| 3,263 | - | 1954| 3,541| 2,974\n1936| 2,119| 3,652 | - | 1955| 3,578| 2,909\n1937| 2,147| 4,308 | - | 1956| 3,688| 2,899\n1938| 2,199| 4,351 | - | 1957| 3,767| 2,903\n1939| 2,154| 3,964 | - | 1958| 3,703| 2,940\n1940| 2,301| 3,752 | - | 1959| 3,712| 2,903\n1941| 2,399| 3,742 | - | 1960| 3,653| 2,940\n1942| 2,628| 2,933 | - | 1961| 3,627| 2,879\n1943| 2,718| 2,366 | - | 1962| 3,471| 2,755\n\nSo as you can see, they did bounce, with a sharp - and important - increase in 1946 and 1947, but certainly didn't regain pre-war levels like we see in the US, and even bigger, while they had been far higher than the US before the war, the total fertility rate is now noticeably lower (with a minor exception being, when broken into age cohorts, a higher rate in the USSR for women over 30) and stabilized much quicker within a few years of the war (stabilized being a relative term. there would be later drops). So all in all, yes, there was a brief boom that we can see, and it likely was quite important as far as the stability of Soviet population numbers go, but it wasn't as long lasting as we see in the US, puttering out somewhat quickly.\n\nEdit: Fixed the table to it is easier to see without having to scroll", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Russia's fertility rates were declining [since peaking](_URL_3_) close to 7 children per woman in the 1920s ([English version](_URL_4_) of the graph from that article).\n\nThe number of births fell from above 4 million annually (the famine years excepted) during the 1930s, to not more than 3 million during 1946-1960, and declining to a temporary trough of below 2 million by the mid-1960s before growing again through to the late 1980s (after which they collapsed again).\n\n[Russia Births 1946-2016](_URL_5_)\n\n[Russia Total Fertility Rate 1946-2016](_URL_1_)\n\n(Data sourced from: *Rosstat, the Russian State Statistics service; from the [Human Fertility Database](_URL_6_); and the book [Demographic History of Russia 1927-1959](_URL_7_) by Andreev et al.*)\n\nSo yes, Russia didn't see a baby boom like Western Europe and the US did after WW2, relative to the 1920s/30s, but this was largely a function of its [demographic transition](_URL_0_) - the tendency of countries to transition from high birth/death rates to lower birth/death rates as they develop - than of anything specifically related to the war. In contrast, Western Europe and the US had already undergone their demographic transitions several decades ago.\n\nThis demographic transition seems to have due to typical factors, such as rising industrialization/urbanization rates and the decline in infant mortality rates (here is a graph [from 1900-2015](_URL_2_) compiled from various sources). Abortion was re-legalized in the USSR in 1955, but does not seem to have played a major role in the falling fertility rates.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26779", "title": "Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Demographics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 792, "text": "The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, largely due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8210419", "title": "Mid-twentieth century baby boom", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 839, "text": "Jan Van Bavel and David S. Reher proposed that the increase in nuptiality (marriage boom) coupled with low efficiency of contraception was the main cause of the baby boom. They doubted the explanations (including the Easterlin hypothesis) which considered the post-war economic prosperity that followed deprivation of the Great Depression as main cause of the baby boom, stressing that GDP-birth rate association was not consistent (positive before 1945 and negative after) with GDP growth accounting for a mere 5 percent of the variance in the crude birth rate over the period studied by the authors. Data shows that only in few countries there was significant and persistent increase in the marital fertility index during the baby boom, which suggests that most of the increase in fertility was driven by the increase in marriage rates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "98606", "title": "Demographics of the Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Population dynamics in the 1970s and 1980s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 648, "text": "The rising infant mortality rates in the Soviet Union in the 1970s became the subject of much discussion and debate among Western demographers. The infant mortality rate (IMR) had increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise in infant mortality as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. Others regarded it as largely an artifact of improved reporting of infant deaths, and found the increases to be concentrated in the Central Asian republics where improvement in coverage and reporting of births and deaths might well have the greatest effect on increasing the published rates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70197", "title": "Demography of the United States", "section": "Section::::Generational cohorts.:U.S. demographic birth cohorts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 171, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 171, "end_character": 532, "text": "From the decline in U.S. birth rates starting in 1958 and the introduction of the birth control pill in 1960, the Baby Boomer normal distribution curve is negatively skewed. The trend in birth rates from 1958 to 1961 show a tendency to end late in the decade at approximately 1969, thus returning to pre-WWII levels, with 12 years of rising and 12 years of declining birth rates. Pre-war birth rates were defined as anywhere between 1939 and 1941 by demographers such as the Taeuber's, Philip M. Hauser and William Fielding Ogburn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24391116", "title": "Soviet famine of 1946–47", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 336, "text": "Partly as a result of this famine, unlike many countries in Europe and North America, the Soviet Union did not experience a post-war baby boom. Prompted by the drought and famine of 1946-47, the so-called \"Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature\" was put forth which consisted in a number of ambitious projects in land improvement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26779", "title": "Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Demographics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 138, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 138, "end_character": 994, "text": "The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government simply stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed and researchers could delve into the real causes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8210419", "title": "Mid-twentieth century baby boom", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 852, "text": "Matthias Doepke, Moshe Hazan, and Yishay Maoz all argued that the baby boom was mainly caused by the alleged crowding out from labor force of females who reached adulthood in 1950s by females who start to work during the Second World War and do not quit job after the economy recovered. Andriana Bellou and Emanuela Cardia promote similar argument, but they claiming that it were women who entered labor force during the Great Depression who crowded out women who participate in the baby boom. Glenn Sandström disagrees with both variants of this interpretation based on the data from Sweden showing that an increase in nuptiality (which was one of the main causes of an increase in fertility) was limited to economically active women. He pointed out that in 1939 a law prohibiting the firing of a woman when she got married was passed in the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They may have different idealogies, but from the perspective of global politics, they are on the same side. North Korea and China, and to an extent, Russia, all are not supporters of a world where the USA is a military leader/policing nation.\n\nPut simply, North Korea provides a buffer between China's border and US military bases in South Korea. If North Korea were to fall or be integrated into a USA leaning South Korea, the USA could set up bases, observatories etc much closer to China's border, and that is a big no no for China, as it gives the USA way too much potential information gathering that China doesn't approve of\n\nFurthermore, China wants to be the leader in Asia. Without supporting NK and having it fall, China's position as the dominant power in Asia would be threatened by US friendly nations such as SK and Japan\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why would he not do that? China supported then and today as a buffer state between them and South Korea with the US military presence. \n\nNorth Korea had two friendly neighbors China and Soviet Union. The independent on trade with both especially support from the Soviets.\n\nThe other countries in the region is South Korea, Japan and Taiwan that they did not friends with when they all are in practice US allies.\n\nSo even if you don't like what China does it would be stupid to criticize them publicly to potentially destroy your trade and other relations with them. You could criticize them privately to tire to get the to change. Public criticism could get some political support when you stand by you ides internal and with other communist states but at what cost? North Korean leaders are not stupid. \n\nI suspect the fact that China declared war on another communist neighbor Vietnam in 1979, where Deng Xiaoping also was in the leading role, showed them that China is not a benevolent neighbor. The reson for the war was the Vietnamese invaded Cambodia that was controlled by the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge. Vietnam was primary supported by the Soviets just before the war the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance was terminated by China that put the army on the Soviet border on emergency war alert and was prepared for war with them if the intervened in Vietnam.\n\nIt might not have been likely with a war but the knowledge of that and the lack of Soviet protection of Vietnam is a good motivation to be friendly with China.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Overlapping interests. China wanted a buffer between it and the West (SK and the US military) and a potential economic partner. NK wanted a powerful ally and economic partner. \n\nUnfortunately for China the Kim’s are not great partners in any way other than simple necessity. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Firstly your assumption that either party (lol) actually lives by their espoused political ideologies, is a joke. They're power and money hungry. Have absolute power, no regard for human life, international law or intellectual property rights. How can they NOT get along? They have tons of similar interests as nations, not the least of which is finding new ways to fuck over America or make Trump look stupid. Those two make great bedfellows. The ideologies you speak of, are just that. Things to be spoken of. They don't live a communist revolutionary dream just like normal Americans don't live the capitalistic American dream of wealth and freedom", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15980883", "title": "China–North Korea relations", "section": "Section::::History.:Post-Cold War era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 227, "text": "These events are said to have marked the beginning of Kim Jong-un's distrust of China, since they had failed to inform him of a plot against his rule, while China took a dislike to Kim for executing their trusted intermediary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25029163", "title": "North Korean leaders' trains", "section": "Section::::Outside North Korea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 443, "text": "In March 2018, the Kim family's train was reportedly sighted in Beijing, which, along with heightened security around the Chinese government's guesthouse Diaoyutai led to speculation which it confirmed that Kim Jong-un and his wife Ri Sol-ju were visiting China where they met with Chinese President Xi Jinping and his wife Peng Liyuan. This marked the first time that North Korea's leader had left the country since taking the power in 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23407118", "title": "Rail transport in North Korea", "section": "Section::::Presidential trains.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 311, "text": "The nation's former leader Kim Jong-il had a chronic fear of flying, and was known to use the country's railway network extensively, travelling to his palaces and for out-of-town appointments in one of his presidential trains, as did his father Kim Il-sung. Both Kims took their trains on trips abroad as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154099", "title": "Kim Jong-il", "section": "Section::::Personal life.:Personality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 493, "text": "United States Special Envoy for the Korean Peace Talks, Charles Kartman, who was involved in the 2000 Madeleine Albright summit with Kim, characterised Kim as a reasonable man in negotiations, to the point, but with a sense of humor and personally attentive to the people he was hosting. However, psychological evaluations conclude that Kim Jong-il's antisocial features, such as his fearlessness in the face of sanctions and punishment, served to make negotiations extraordinarily difficult.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30178244", "title": "Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (analysis of individual leaders)", "section": "Section::::North Korea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 584, "text": "BULLET::::- Kim Jong-il, leader of North Korea, was portrayed to diplomats by a source as a \"'flabby old chap' and someone who had suffered 'physical and psychological trauma' as a result of his stroke\". Chinese diplomats consider Kim irascible and unpredictable, mentioning they do not \"like\" North Korea, but \"they are a neighbour\". Kim has a reputation among Chinese diplomats as being \"quite a good drinker\". One Shanghai source says that he \"has a long history of recreational drug use that has resulted in frequent bouts of epilepsy and contributed to his poor health overall\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57661761", "title": "List of international trips made by Kim Jong-un", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 426, "text": "The following is a list of international trips made by Kim Jong-un during his tenure as Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea, Chairman of the State Affairs Commission and Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea. He has made nine foreign trips to five countries since he took office as Supreme Leader of North Korea in 2011. His first international state visit was to China in March 2018.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154099", "title": "Kim Jong-il", "section": "Section::::Personal life.:Personality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 241, "text": "The evaluation found Kim Jong-il appeared to pride himself on North Korea's independence, despite the extreme hardships it appears to place on the North Korean peoplean attribute appearing to emanate from his antisocial personality pattern.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Basically, to the dog it sounds like a wounded animal and so the dog gets a sort of \"thrill of the hunt.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was told the squeak mimics the sounds of small prey, ie: rabbit, and being descendants of wolves, It's their instinct to hunt. That being said, they could also probably just like the sound of squeaking. That seems logical to me too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because dogs love to murder small animals and squeeky toys sound like the distressed cries of a small animal being murdered.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My dog pays exactly 0 attention to any squeaky toys of any kind and has killed squirrels, rabbits, chickens, etc. Guess he's all about the real thing ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sounds like a crying wounded animal. Your dog likes that sound because it satisfies his desire to kill and eat prey. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It stimulates their prey drive, by sounding like a hurt animal, and it gives a primal gratification to be killing it. Some dogs have higher prey drive than others, which is why some don't go for it. Sighthounds (because they were bred to be hunters) tend to have high prey drive while toy dogs tend to be on the lower end. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "273885", "title": "Affenpinscher", "section": "Section::::Temperament.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 263, "text": "Affenpinschers are somewhat territorial when it comes to their toys and food, so they are not recommended for homes with very small children. This dog is mostly quiet, but can become very excited if attacked or threatened, and shows no fear toward any aggressor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10125321", "title": "Dog toy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 423, "text": "Dog toys serve different purposes. Puppies, for instance, need toys they can chew on when they are teething because their gums and jaws become very sore and chewing on things provides them relief. Also, playing with different toys encourages exercise, which benefits the pet's overall health. Toys also stimulate dogs' minds, discourage problem behavior resulting from boredom and excess energy, and promote dental health.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4368", "title": "Beagle", "section": "Section::::Health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 298, "text": "Beagles may exhibit a behaviour known as reverse sneezing, in which they sound as if they are choking or gasping for breath, but are actually drawing air in through the mouth and nose. The exact cause of this behaviour is not known, but it can be a common occurrence and is not harmful to the dog.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36681241", "title": "Squeaky toy", "section": "Section::::How it works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 319, "text": "The high-pitched noise produced by squeaky toys quickly attracts the attention of infants and small children, while their soft, squeezable nature makes them safe for young children to handle. Squeaky toys are also popular with pets, and examples shaped like bones or small furry animals are commonly marketed for dogs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10125321", "title": "Dog toy", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 209, "text": "Dog toys are not safe if small pieces can be chewed or pulled off as these could be swallowed by the dog. The toy should also be adequate for the dog, taking into consideration their size and activity levels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10125321", "title": "Dog toy", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 238, "text": "When choosing a dog toy, it is important that pet owners choose those made with non-toxic materials. Dog owners should avoid giving their dogs objects with small parts that could be chewed off and ingested (such as cooked chicken bones).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21693913", "title": "Pekapoo", "section": "Section::::Temperament.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 362, "text": "Like Pekingese, Pekapoos may be protective of their owners and may growl or attempt to nip. They can also bite when people or other animals come near their food. They can be slightly timid and uncomfortable around strangers. Like many small dogs, Pekapoos' barks can be loud and noisy. They tend to \"warning bark\" at strangers, other dogs, or suspicious noises.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't know how far back you want to go, but UV-vis and IR spectrometers have been around for quite a while, and those are immensely useful.\n\nBefore those, it's based on a lot of hard work and deduction based around chemical reactions. An example is how [Fischer determined the structure of glucose](_URL_0_) with nothing but a polarimeter.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Chemistry goes way back. \n\nJons Jacob Berzelius was the man I consider the true father of chemistry. He had a thing for blowing air on hot rocks, and measured the weight changes very carefully. He figured out that things always happened in proportions... 2:1, 1:1; 1:4. With Dalton's concept of atoms, and Lavoisier's hot new discovery of oxygen (well, like 20 years earlier, things were slower before the Internet), he was able to figure out that various atoms had various weights, and that they hook together in various proportions.\n\nOnce you have those three concepts, stoichiometry is not far behind. From there, you can do elemental analysis (burning things and weighing the various products, knowing how many oxygens go in per everything else) you can start systematically going through every known compound to figure out what it's made of.\n\nThis has its limits. In ~1828, a chemist named woehler published his compound for silver cyanate. His contemporary, a fellow named Liebig, was all \"listen schmuck, you can't have done it right, because I already found that compound. It's called silver fulminate, it's got the same ratios, and it's totally different! Why don't you move to Norway with the rest of the saps?\" We'll, long story short, Liebig was a jerk, and woehler had stumbled on the concept of isomerism, which was the first clue that how the atoms were connected was as important as their ratios.\n\nThis process goes on and on. Before long people are shining lights through materials to look for gaps in the rainbow- spectral lines- and using that. With every discovery comes a new tool, X-rays, infrared, ultraviolet, all of them have a niche and the sad result is that us poor chemists have to do a whole lot of work ;)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5659", "title": "Chemical element", "section": "Section::::Nomenclature and symbols.:Chemical symbols.:Specific chemical elements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 373, "text": "Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25110709", "title": "Nuclear magnetic resonance", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Chemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 582, "text": "By studying the peaks of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, chemists can determine the structure of many compounds. It can be a very selective technique, distinguishing among many atoms within a molecule or collection of molecules of the same type but which differ only in terms of their local chemical environment. NMR spectroscopy is used to unambiguously identify known and novel compounds, and as such, is usually required by scientific journals for identity confirmation of synthesized new compounds. See the articles on carbon-13 NMR and proton NMR for detailed discussions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12954620", "title": "Herbert S. Gutowsky", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 855, "text": "Herbert Sander Gutowsky (November 8, 1919 – January 13, 2000) was an American chemist who was a Professor of Chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Gutowsky was the first to apply nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods to the field of chemistry. He used nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to determine the structure of molecules. His pioneering work developed experimental control of NMR as a scientific instrument, connected experimental observations with theoretical models, and made NMR one of the most effective analytical tools for analysis of molecular structure and dynamics in liquids, solids, and gases, used in chemical and medical research, His work was relevant to the solving of problems in chemistry, biochemistry, and materials science, and has influenced many of the subfields of more recent NMR spectroscopy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39049", "title": "Robert S. Mulliken", "section": "Section::::Early years.:Early scientific career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1366, "text": "Up to this point, the primary way to calculate the electronic structure of molecules was based on a calculation by Walter Heitler and Fritz London on the hydrogen molecule (H) in 1927. With the conception of hybridized atomic orbitals by John C. Slater and Linus Pauling, which rationalized observed molecular geometries, the method was based on the premise that the bonds in any molecule could be described in a manner similar to the bond in H, namely, as overlapping atomic orbitals centered on the atoms involved. Since it corresponded to chemists' ideas of localized bonds between pairs of atoms, this method (called the Valence-Bond (VB) or Heitler-London-Slater-Pauling (HLSP) method), was very popular. However, particularly in attempting to calculate the properties of excited states (molecules that have been excited by some source of energy), the VB method does not always work well. With its description of the electron wave functions in molecules as delocalized molecular orbitals that possess the same symmetry as the molecule, Hund and Mulliken's molecular-orbital method, including contributions by John Lennard-Jones, proved to be more flexible and applicable to a vast variety of types of molecules and molecular fragments, and has eclipsed the valence-bond method. As a result of this development, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1966.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3246602", "title": "Cyanine", "section": "Section::::Common cyanine dyes and their uses.:Nomenclature and structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 431, "text": "Standard chemical names exactly specify the chemical structure of molecules. The Cy3 and Cy5 nomenclature was first proposed by Ernst, et al. in 1989, and is non-standard since it gives no hint of their chemical structures. In the original paper the number designated the count of the methines (as shown), and the side chains were unspecified. Due to this ambiguity various structures are designated Cy3 and Cy5 in the literature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1416046", "title": "History of chemistry", "section": "Section::::20th century.:Molecular biology and biochemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 155, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 155, "end_character": 646, "text": "By the mid 20th century, in principle, the integration of physics and chemistry was extensive, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom; Linus Pauling's book on \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond\" used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. However, though some principles deduced from quantum mechanics were able to predict qualitatively some chemical features for biologically relevant molecules, they were, till the end of the 20th century, more a collection of rules, observations, and recipes than rigorous ab initio quantitative methods. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56516812", "title": "20th century in science", "section": "Section::::Chemistry.:Molecular biology and biochemistry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 646, "text": "By the mid 20th century, in principle, the integration of physics and chemistry was extensive, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom; Linus Pauling's book on \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond\" used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. However, though some principles deduced from quantum mechanics were able to predict qualitatively some chemical features for biologically relevant molecules, they were, till the end of the 20th century, more a collection of rules, observations, and recipes than rigorous ab initio quantitative methods. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Art Nouveau is a pretty, delicate, girly, mostly interior style of decorating and art. Late 1800s. Think of Rivendell from Lord of the Rings, basically. If an elf would use it, it's probably Art Nouveau. Lots of whiplash curves. Alphonse Mucha posters. \n\nArt Deco, on the other hand, is the kind of stuff you see on Ayn Rand book covers. Lots of metallic stuff, very hard geometrical lines and so on. Or like, the type of skyscraper that a Dick Tracy, noir film, private investigator's offices would be in. Think the Chrysler Building, the Empire State building and so on. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60526598", "title": "Art Nouveau architecture in Russia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1893 and 1910. In Russian language it is called Modern (in cyrillic: Ар-нувó, Моде́рн). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1881", "title": "Art Deco", "section": "Section::::Preservation and Neo Art Deco.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 146, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 146, "end_character": 420, "text": "In the 21st century, modern variants of Art Deco, called Neo Art Deco (or Neo-Art Deco), have appeared in some American cities, inspired by the classic Art Deco buildings of the 1920s and 1930s. Examples include the NBC Tower in Chicago, inspired by 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City; and Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, which includes art deco features from Hoover Dam, fifty miles away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3132711", "title": "Futurist architecture", "section": "Section::::Art Deco.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 391, "text": "The Art Deco style of architecture with its streamlined forms was regarded as futuristic when it was in style in the 1920s and 1930s. The original name for both early and late \"Art Deco\" was Art Moderne — the name \"Art Deco\" did not come into use until 1968 when the term was invented in a book by Bevis Hillier. The Chrysler Building is a notable example of Art Deco futurist architecture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59551", "title": "Art Nouveau", "section": "Section::::Genres.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 159, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 159, "end_character": 273, "text": "Art Nouveau is represented in painting and sculpture, but it is most prominent in architecture and the decorative arts. It was well-suited to the graphic arts, especially the poster, interior design, metal and glass art, jewellery, furniture design, ceramics and textiles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1881", "title": "Art Deco", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 641, "text": "Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. From its outset, Art Deco was influenced by the bold geometric forms of Cubism; the bright colors of Fauvism and of the Ballets Russes; the updated craftsmanship of the furniture of the eras of Louis Philippe I and Louis XVI; and the exotic styles of China and Japan, India, Persia, ancient Egypt and Maya art. It featured rare and expensive materials, such as ebony and ivory, and exquisite craftsmanship. The Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York built during the 1920s and 1930s are monuments of the Art Deco style.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59551", "title": "Art Nouveau", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 623, "text": "Art Nouveau (; ) is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was most popular between 1890 and 1910. It was a reaction to the academic art, eclecticism and historicism of 19th century architecture and decoration. It was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants and flowers, and whiplash forms. Other defining characteristics of Art Nouveau were a sense of dynamism and movement, often given by asymmetry and by curving lines, and the use of modern materials, such as iron pillars, sculpted and curved in naturalistic designs. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1881", "title": "Art Deco", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 726, "text": "Art Deco, sometimes referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. Art Deco influenced the design of buildings, furniture, jewelry, fashion, cars, movie theatres, trains, ocean liners, and everyday objects such as radios and vacuum cleaners. It took its name, short for \"Arts Décoratifs\", from the Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes (International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris in 1925. It combined modern styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological progress.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I would argue that you're both wrong.\n\n > it was actually only a military conflict since it was never declared a war by Congress.\n\nThat's a terribly American-centric view of the war and of war in general. Had North Vietnam declared war on the United States would it not have constituted a war if Congress had failed to reciprocate? Revolutionary and civil wars (and the Vietnam war had elements of both) rarely involve formal \"declarations of war.\"\n\n > Until then he holds that it was a full fledged war and not a conflict\n\nWar is a subset of conflict. The reason why there is a preference for the terminology of \"conflict\" is precisely because \"war\" has legalistic objections surrounding issues like, for example, the treatment of detainees.\n\nIt's for that reason that over the course of the 20th century you've seen a shift from the Third Geneva Convention in 1929, that is, officially, \"Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva July 27, 1929\" to the universal adoption of the terminology of the [Universal Law of Armed Conflict.](_URL_0_) The use of the terminology of \"war\" and \"declarations of war\" (which are a historical rarity over the past two centuries) was too easy for states to abuse, particularly after the experience of WWII where it was almost universally abused by all sides to one extent or another (the incomparable extreme of course being the holocaust.)\n\nIf you want an academic article citing discussion of this, you could start here, as an example: _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38427879", "title": "Outline of war", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 376, "text": "War – organised and often prolonged armed conflict that is carried out by states and/or non-state actors – is characterised by extreme violence, social disruption, and economic destruction. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political communities, and therefore is defined as a form of political violence or intervention.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33158", "title": "War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 554, "text": "War is a state of armed conflict between states, governments, societies and informal paramilitary groups, such as mercenaries, insurgents and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, aggression, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces. Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "682482", "title": "Human", "section": "Section::::Behavior.:War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 127, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 127, "end_character": 802, "text": "War is a state of organized armed conflict between states or non-state actors. War is characterized by the use of lethal violence against others—whether between combatants or upon non-combatants—to achieve military goals through force. Lesser, often spontaneous conflicts, such as brawls, riots, revolts, and melees, are not considered to be warfare. Revolutions can be nonviolent or an organized and armed revolution which denotes a state of war. During the 20th century, it is estimated that between 167 and 188 million people died as a result of war. A common definition defines war as a series of military campaigns between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources, religion, or other issues. A war between internal elements of a state is a civil war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1659790", "title": "Anthropogenic hazard", "section": "Section::::Societal hazards.:War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 404, "text": "War is a conflict between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and police action. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and sometimes from disaster planning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46112", "title": "Violence", "section": "Section::::Types.:Warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 299, "text": "War is fought as a means of resolving territorial and other conflicts, as war of aggression to conquer territory or loot resources, in national self-defence or liberation, or to suppress attempts of part of the nation to secede from it. There are also ideological, religious and revolutionary wars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38481828", "title": "Outline of death", "section": "Section::::Causes of death.:Causes of death, by type.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 492, "text": "BULLET::::- War – organized and often prolonged conflict that is carried out by states or non-state actors. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, social disruption and an attempt at economic destruction. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political communities, and therefore is defined as a form of (collective) political violence or intervention. The set of techniques used by a group to carry out war is known as warfare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18537936", "title": "Uppsala Conflict Data Program", "section": "Section::::UCDP's definitions of organized violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 485, "text": "State-based conflict refers to what most people intuitively perceive as \"war\"; fighting either between two states, or between a state and a rebel group that challenges it. The UCDP defines an armed state-based conflict as: \"An armed conflict is a contested incompatibility that concerns government and/or territory where the use of armed force between two parties, of which at least one is the government of a state, results in at least 25 battle-related deaths in one calendar year\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So the Bourbon kings' use of a white banner as their standard was quite controversial, even unpopular, during the 19th Century. But I can't speak to whether any of this was due to the white flag's association with surrender. In all my sources that discuss the white Bourbon flag, it was unpopular not for what it was, but for what it wasn't: the tricolor.\n\n(Also worth noting: there are several variations on the \"white flag\" that were used, including a pure white version and one containing fleurs-de-lis on the white field.)\n\nThe issues arises on three major occasions in 19th Century French history.\n\nOne is in 1814-15, when King Louis XVIII is restored (twice) to the French throne. On both occasions, he insisted on using the white banner of French kings of old — white symbolizing purity. But the tricolor had been France's flag for more than two decades, and had been the flag under which the French armies had won victory after victory. \"The white flag of legitimacy, not the tricolor of the Revolution (including the constitutional monarchy of 1789-92) and the Empire, as to be the flag of Louis's reign,\" writes Louis's biographer Philip Mansel (177). \"The first mistakes had already begun.\"\n\nWhile some royalists preferred the white flag, and many other French people doubtless didn't care, significant shares of the population took it as an insult. Joseph Fouché, an intelligent if unscrupulous bureaucrat who served both Napoleon and the Bourbons in key roles, warned early on that the tricolor was \"little understood\" by the Bourbons and \"is only apparently a frivolous\" matter. \"The color of the flag,\" Fouché said, \"will decide the color of the reign.\" Louis ordered soldiers to burn their tricolors, as well their regimental eagle standards — provoking several instances of mutiny (Austin, 51; Jardin and Tudesq, 8). Louis persisted, and on the basis of English and Prussian arms managed to keep his throne despite this. \n\nThe second moment came in 1830, when a popular revolution overthrew Louis's younger brother Charles X and replaced him with the duc d'Orléans, a more liberal Bourbon cousin named Louis-Philippe. In the midst of the \"Three Glorious Days\" that overthrew Charles, a young journalist and activist named Adolphe Thiers grew up a manifesto calling on Louis-Philippe to replace Charles. It was only eight sentences long, so I'll reproduce it in full:\n\n > Charles X can never again enter Paris; he has caused the blood of the people to be shed.\n > \n > The republic would expose us to frightful divisions; it would embroil us with Europe.\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans is a prince devoted to the cause of the Revolution.\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans has never fought against us.\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans was at [Jemmapes](_URL_2_). \n > \n > **The duc d'Orléans has carried the tricolor under fire; the duc d'Orléans alone can carry it again; we want no others.**\n > \n > The duc d'Orléans has declared himself; he accepts [the Charter](_URL_1_) as we have always wanted it.\n > \n > It is from the French people that he will hold his crown. (From Price, 163)\n\nThis was a little over-ambitious — Louis-Philippe was still quite on the fence about becoming king — but it shows the importance people placed on the tricolor. A few days later, on the verge of assuming power, Louis-Philippe needed to win over the support of the Parisian crowds, so he traveled to the Hôtel de Ville of Paris for a famous scene with the aged Marquis de Lafayette:\n\n > Louis-Philippe promised to uphold the guarantees of public liberties... This was enough to satisfy Lafayette, who shook his hand. However, through the open windows loud shouts of 'Long live the republic!' and 'Down with the duc d'Orléans!' could be heard from the Place de Grève. At that moment Lafayette revealed once again his genius for the symbolic populist gesture. He took hold of one end of a large tricolor flag lying in the hall, gave the other end to Louis-Philippe, and the two of them advanced with it on to the balcony. At first the people only cried 'Long live Lafayette!', but when he dramatically embraced Louis-Philippe they gave both men a prolonged ovation. (Price, 175)\n\nIt was the support for the tricolor, and the symbolism it contained, that helped make Louis-Philippe king.\n\nThe tricolor would remain France's flag throughout Louis-Philippe's reign (dubbed the \"July Monarchy,\" after the July revolution that brought him to power), the short-lived Second Republic, and Napoleon III's Second Empire. The white flag enters the picture for a third and final time in the 1870s, after Napoleon III's downfall. A provisional government had been elected, with a dominant majority of monarchists — though the monarchists were crucially divided between those supporting restoring Louis-Philippe's heirs and those who wanted to bring back the Bourbons in the form of Charle's grandson, the [Comte de Chambord](_URL_0_). The two sides, after much acrimony, struck a deal: the childless Chambord would become king, and Louis-Philippe's grandson would become Chambord's heir.\n\n\"What their plan did not consider,\" writes historian Frederick Brown, \"was the obduracy of Chambord.\" Chambord insisted that the white flag of the Bourbons once again become France's flag. \"'[That flag] has always been for me inseparable from the absent fatherland; it flew over my cradle, I want it to shade my tomb,' he declared in a statement published on July 6 by the royalist newspaper *L'Union.* '[Under that flag] the unification of the nation was achieved; with it your fathers, led by mine, conquered Alsace-Lorraine [in 1697]... In the glorious folds of this unblemished standard I shall bring you order and victory!'\" (41-2)\n\nChambord's supporters pleaded with him to change his mind, but \"rational heads could not prevail upon him to bend.\" The white flag was so unpopular that even many legitimists refused to contemplate abolishing the tricolor now. There were around 180 \"legitimists\" — supporters of an old-style monarchy under the Bourbons — in the Assembly at that point (out of 638 deputies). But after Chambord's ultimatum became known, a majority of them \"dissociated themselves from his manifesto.\" Only around 80 stuck behind Chambord. The rest, Brown writes, \"finding revolution and anachronism almost equally objectionable... pledged allegiance to the Republican tricolor but yearned for a policy of ambiguous complexion — something neither lily white nor true blue.\" (Brown, 42)\n\nNone of these sources, in their discussions of the white flag, mention anything about people objecting to it because of its association with being a flag of truce or surrender. That's not to say there weren't those objections, and my sources mention the topic in passing while discussing broader political concerns. \n\nIf anyone has sources that discuss the fights over the French flag in the 19th Century, I would very much like to read them!\n\n**Sources**\n\n- Austin, Paul Britten. *1815: The Return of Napoleon*. Barnsley: Frontline Books, 2002.\n- Brown, Frederick. *For the Soul of France: Culture Wars in the Age of Dreyfus.* New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010.\n- Jardin, André, and André-Jean Tudesq. *Restoration & Reaction: 1815-1848.* Translated by Elborg Forster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.\n- Mansel, Philip. *Louis XVIII.* Rev. ed. Phoenix Mill: Sutton, 1999.\n- Price, Munro. *The Perilous Crown: France between Revolutions.* London: Macmillan, 2007.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "422019", "title": "White flag", "section": "Section::::Ancien Régime in France.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 277, "text": "During the period of the Ancien Régime, starting in the early 17th century, the royal standard of France became a plain white flag as a symbol of purity, sometimes covered in fleur-de-lis when in the presence of the king or bearing the ensigns of the Order of the Holy Spirit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "96957", "title": "Fleur-de-lis", "section": "Section::::Royal symbol.:\"France Modern\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 698, "text": "\"France Modern\" remained the French royal standard, and with a white background was the French national flag until the French Revolution, when it was replaced by the tricolor of modern-day France. The fleur-de-lis was restored to the French flag in 1814, but replaced once again after the revolution against Charles X of France in 1830. In a very strange turn of events after the end of the Second French Empire, where a flag apparently influenced the course of history, Henri, comte de Chambord, was offered the throne as King of France, but he agreed only if France gave up the tricolor and brought back the white flag with fleurs-de-lis. His condition was rejected and France became a republic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17599355", "title": "White", "section": "Section::::Associations and symbolism.:White flag.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 146, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 146, "end_character": 397, "text": "A white flag has long been used to represent either surrender or a request for a truce. It is believed to have originated in the 15th century, during the Hundred Years' War between France and England, when multicolored flags, as well as firearms, came into common use by European armies. The white flag was officially recognized as a request to cease hostilities by the Geneva Convention of 1949.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23547875", "title": "Ikurriña", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 329, "text": "In 1938, after the military defeat of the Basque Government, the regime of General Franco prohibited this flag —although it continued to be used in the Basque departements of France. In the following decades it became a symbol of defiance – the first actions of the clandestine group ETA involved placing flags in public places.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70764", "title": "Flag of France", "section": "Section::::History.:The \"Tricolore\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 366, "text": "When the Bourbon dynasty was restored following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the \"tricolore\"—with its revolutionary connotations—was replaced by a white flag, the pre-revolutionary naval flag. However, following the July Revolution of 1830, the \"citizen-king\", Louis-Philippe, restored the \"tricolore\", and it has remained France's national flag since that time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "422019", "title": "White flag", "section": "Section::::Ancien Régime in France.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 445, "text": "During the French Revolution, in 1794, the blue, white and red Tricolore was adopted as the official national flag. The white flag quickly became a symbol of French royalists. (The white part of the French Tricolor is itself originally derived from the old Royal flag, the tricolor having been designed when the revolution still aimed at constitutional monarchy rather than a republic; this aspect of the Tricolor was, however, soon forgotten.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15740322", "title": "Battle of Saint Cast", "section": "Section::::External links.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 289, "text": "BULLET::::- French Fleur-De-Lis:Prior to the French Revolution, there was no national flag which represented France. A variety of flags were used by troops, different types of ships and for other purposes. From 1590–1790 this flag is one of four that was used on warships and fortresses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some do, some don't. It depends entirely on the jurisdiction. In the US, for example, [up to 40% of those released from prison after being wrongfully incarcerated receive no compensation.](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In South Africa , you receive your freedom back. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It really depends on the situation in the US. If there was evidence of malicious prosecution (some willful violations of discovery, or ethical breaches by the state) you have a better shot.\n\nIf some new factor comes to light - sudden confession by someone else, the ability to test for DNA as tech improves - then you likely just get to walk and have your record cleared.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Does marriage count?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the United States, 29 states have compensation statutes. \n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nThese statutes are not always uniformly enforced, and sometimes people are denied compensation for reasons like prior criminal charges or having pled guilty to the crime. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Canada doesn't have any legal obligation to pay but does anyways in most cases. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1080015", "title": "Miscarriage of justice", "section": "Section::::Cases in specific countries.:United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 377, "text": "In the United Kingdom a jailed person, whose conviction is quashed, might be paid compensation for the time they were incarcerated. This is currently limited by statute to a maximum sum of £1,000,000 for those who have been incarcerated for more than ten years and £500,000 for any other cases, with deductions for the cost of food and prison cell during that time. See also .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3920403", "title": "Judgment summons", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 290, "text": "When a debtor has once been imprisoned, although for a period of less than six weeks, no second order of commitment can be made against him in respect of the same debt. But if the judgment be for payment by instalments a power of committal arises on default of payment for each instalment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18333391", "title": "Louisiana Department of Public Safety & Corrections", "section": "Section::::Corrections Services.:Operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 256, "text": "Legislation limits payments to those wrongfully convicted to $15,000 just for each year served in prison with a maximum of $250,000. Further the amount is paid in ten annual payments. Those who have served very long unjust terms may die before being paid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59736638", "title": "Debtors' Prison Relief Act of 1792", "section": "Section::::Clauses of the Act.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 702, "text": "BULLET::::- Which oath or affirmation being administered, the judge shall certify the same under his hand, to the prison keeper, and shall fix a reasonable allowance for the debtor's support, not exceeding one dollar per week; and if the creditor shall thereafter any week fail to furnish the debtor with such weekly support, by paying or advancing the money to him, or to the prison keeper, for his use, the debtor shall be discharged from his imprisonment on such judgment, and shall not be liable to be imprisoned again for the said debt; but the judgment shall remain good and sufficient in law, and may be satisfied out of any estate which may then or at any time afterwards belong to the debtor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1433899", "title": "Unfair dismissal in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Substantive fairness.:Conduct.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 567, "text": "Imprisonment is not just a pretty good proof of guilt, but can frustrate the contract if for more than a few months, which would bring the contract to an end without the need for procedure or compensation. Being held on remand could justify a short spell of suspension on full pay, but if this is without pay or for too long (more than a few months) it creates a constructive dismissal. The employer may simply be able to say that a court has decided there was sufficient probability of guilt to lock him up and this informed its investigation, justifying dismissal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3531923", "title": "Prisoners' Earnings Act 1996", "section": "Section::::Provisions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 708, "text": "Thus when a prisoner carries out any task or duty within the prison, such as catering or cleaning, and receives payment for this, the Government may subject the earnings to deductions for: income tax, national insurance, court order payments, and child maintenance. The monies raised from the deductions and levies are to be used for: payments to voluntary organisations concerned with crime support and prevention; payments to the Consolidated Fund to help pay for the cost of prisons; payments to any of the prisoner's dependants; or payments to an investment account on behalf of the prisoner for their benefit on release. The Act only applies in Great Britain and has no application in Northern Ireland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18453408", "title": "Insolvency law of Switzerland", "section": "Section::::Debt restructuring.:Debt restructuring moratorium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 619, "text": "If out-of-court settlement efforts fail or are not undertaken, the debtor or a creditor may initiate the statutory proceedings by petitioning the competent cantonal court for a provisional, then a definitive debt restructuring moratorium (\"Nachlassstundung / sursis concordataire\"). The moratorium may last for four to six months, but may be prolonged to up to 24 months in exceptionally complex cases. It suspends or prevents most debt enforcement proceedings against the debtor, but also makes most business decisions of the debtor subject to approval by a court-appointed administrator (\"Sachwalter / commissaire\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm going to ignore the example, but it's probably not true that you *can* hold two opposing ideas at the same time, far as the brain is concerned. The network of our neurons can be thought of as a map of attachments to ideas that are interrelated, and given the complexity of these interrelationships a contradictory idea isn't easily inserted into this map without a big rearrangement. The brain doesn't like to do this though, and cognitive dissonance results. This cognitive dissonance serves multiple functions, but most relative to your question is the fact that it results in odd connections (justifications) that make the contradictory idea *seem* logical to the subject. So for example, I think it was Oliver Sacks who wrote about a patient with a stroke (or a serious seizure) who could no longer identify his mother because the neurons that connected her face to his emotional attachment to her had been severed. The justification that his brain created to bridge the gap had him accusing his mother of being an imposter, even though he had no real reason to believe so. This ridiculous assumption was somehow less work? less problematic? than the idea that something was wrong with his sensory information.\n\nTLDR; the brain creates justifications for conflicted ideas because it doesn't like to adjust its assumptions about reality.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't think doublethink is truly possible either, short of a neurological abnormality. What I often see is people who act CONTRARY to their beliefs but rationalize this behavior via some screwy explanation..but subconsciously its motivated by fear of negative peer pressure or fear of change. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People don't hold conflicting views, it's just that most ideas are gross generalizations, and there are exceptions to every rule. Most of the time when someone seems to hold \"opposing views\", he is either lying, or he is in an argument, and his opponent is trying to discredit him by taking everything literally. For example:\n\n\"Do you think cars should keep the speed limit?\" -- > \"yes\"\n\n\"But that would mean ambulances can't go faster either in an emergency\" -- > \"ambulances can go faster when it's an emergency and it's safe to do so\"\n\n\"but you just said...\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't think it would be especially difficult, although I might be misunderstanding the nature of your question. The ability to hold two different opinions within your mind or consciousness is a ripe example of mental maturity, in my opinion. Ultimately all opinions are not true, simply on the basis of the fact that all thoughts and therefore spoken words are only half of the truth. If that doesn't seem to make sense, let me explain. No thought can explain something fully. A thought is, in its essence, a viewpoint. A perspective. And all perspectives or viewpoints are one-sided. Any situation, circumstance, condition, person, place, or thing, can be thought of and seen in many different lights and perspectives. However, what many people seem to miss is that every single one of these is accurate. You can say, \"The world is full of horrible people\" and your statement would be correct. But your friend could counteract your argument by saying, \"That's not so, I know many good hearted and genuine people\" and he would also be speaking the truth. And you can do this with anything. Ultimately, the way we see and experience everything is dependent upon the way we look at it. If we change the way we look at something, suddenly, it's different to us. And so, being able to hold two different opinions without create conflict within your mind is not impossible, but simply dependent on whether or not you realize that nothing exists \"as fact\" if you will. Everything can be thought of in a new way and so look different to us. Someone who is able to \"Doublethink\" is someone who realizes that there are two (or more) sides to everything, and that every one of them has some truth to it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20781912", "title": "Doublethink", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 436, "text": "Doublethink is the act of simultaneously accepting two mutually contradictory beliefs as correct, often in distinct social contexts. Doublethink is related to, but differs from, hypocrisy and neutrality. Also related is cognitive dissonance, in which contradictory beliefs cause conflict in one's mind. Doublethink is notable due to a lack of cognitive dissonance—thus the person is completely unaware of any conflict or contradiction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20781912", "title": "Doublethink", "section": "Section::::Origin and concepts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 439, "text": "Since 1949 (when \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" was published) the word \"doublethink\" has become synonymous with relieving cognitive dissonance by ignoring the contradiction between two world views—or even of deliberately seeking to relieve cognitive dissonance. Some schools of psychotherapy such as cognitive therapy encourage people to alter their own thoughts as a way of treating different psychological maladies (see cognitive distortions).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20781912", "title": "Doublethink", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 730, "text": "George Orwell created the word \"doublethink\" in his dystopian novel \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" (published in 1949); doublethink is part of Newspeak. In the novel, its origin within the typical citizen is unclear; while it could be partly a product of Big Brother's formal brainwashing programs, the novel explicitly shows people learning doublethink and Newspeak due to peer pressure and a desire to \"fit in\", or gain status within the Party—to be seen as a loyal Party Member. In the novel, for someone to even recognize—let alone mention—any contradiction within the context of the Party line was akin to blasphemy, and could subject that person to disciplinary action and to the instant social disapproval of fellow Party Members.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219447", "title": "German idealism", "section": "Section::::Theorists.:Maimon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 280, "text": "Schelling and Hegel, however, tried to solve this problem by claiming that opposites are absolutely identical. Maimon's concept of an infinite mind as the basis of all opposites was similar to the German idealistic attempt to rescue theism by positing an Absolute Mind or Spirit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27126981", "title": "DoubleThink", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 354, "text": "DoubleThink is the third album from hip hop artist Akala. It was released on 3 May 2010 by Illa State Records. The title refers to doublethink, a plot element in George Orwell's dystopian novel, \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\". Akala noted this novel, Aldous Huxley’s \"Brave New World\" and Yevgeny Zamyatin’s \"We\" as stimulus for the album's dystopian qualities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11367572", "title": "Triangulation (psychology)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 347, "text": "Triangulation is a manipulation tactic where one person will not communicate directly with another person, instead using a third person to relay communication to the second, thus forming a triangle. It also refers to a form of splitting in which one person manipulates a relationship between two parties by controlling communication between them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5318741", "title": "Right-libertarianism", "section": "Section::::Schools of thought.:Conservative libertarianism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 241, "text": "In American politics, fusionism is the philosophical and political combination or fusion of traditionalist and social conservatism with political and economic right-libertarianism. The philosophy is most closely associated with Frank Meyer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A star is basically a massive continuous H-bomb in space. The thermonuclear reaction at the center is constantly trying to blow it apart. Gravity pushes back in the other direction. Forcing the star's mass towards the center.\n\nAs a star burns up its hydrogen fuel it starts to fuse heavier atoms. That seriously amps up the energy output, and the star swells to a huge size. After it burns out its supply of iron there's nothing left to fuel the fusion reaction, and gravity takes over. The star's still gigantic mass collapses in on itself, and if there's enough it it, causes a catastrophic explosion. On last truly apocalyptic fusion bang that blows the whole thing into a trillion pieces.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thats not exactly how it works. Stars are constantly in an equilibrium between gravity pushing inwards and the force of nuclear fusion pushing outwards. Fusing heavier energy requires more heat and pressure to push the atoms together, so when a star runs out of lighter elements to fuse and doesnt have enough gravity pushing in to fuse the heavier elements they collapse. This collapse increases the heat and pressure in the core and allows fusion to briefly start again. Fusion of heavier elements produces too much outwards energy and overcomes the force of gravity and BOOM.\n\nEdit* keep in mind this is only one possible outcomes for a stars death. If it gets massive enough for gravity to win and the core starts to fuse an element that doesn't return energy on its fusion(iron) then it will collapse into a black hole. Its also possible for only the outer part of the star to be blown off while the inner core collapses into a dense white dwarf. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43752786", "title": "SDSS J001820.5−093939.2", "section": "Section::::Identification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 756, "text": "A star with ≲ M ≲ explodes because of the energy consumption arising from an electron-positron pair-production instability during the static O-burning stage, and is referred to as a pair-instability supernova (PISN). Theoretical estimates of early chemical enrichment predict that the metallicity produced by the PISN explosions of a first generation of very massive stars matches the Fe abundance of SDSS J0018-0939. They also predict that stars formed from gas enriched by PISN are quite rare; only one star among 500 stars. Although about 500 stars in the metallicity range –3 [Fe/H]–2 have been observed to date with high-resolution spectroscopy, SDSS J0018-0939 is unique in its observed abundance pattern. No other similar object has been found yet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1683536", "title": "Superbubble", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 685, "text": "When stars die, supernova explosions, similarly, drive blast waves that can reach even larger sizes, with expansion velocities up to several hundred km s. Stars in OB associations are not gravitationally bound, but they drift apart at small speeds (of around 20 km s), and they exhaust their fuel rapidly (after a few millions of years). As a result, most of their supernova explosions occur within the cavity formed by the stellar wind bubbles. These explosions never form a visible supernova remnant, but instead expend their energy in the hot interior as sound waves. Both stellar winds and stellar explosions thus power the expansion of the superbubble in the interstellar medium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43752786", "title": "SDSS J001820.5−093939.2", "section": "Section::::Identification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 251, "text": "Although it is not clear whether or not such a very massive star can explode, the yield of an explosion with energy of about 6 ×10 ergs (600 foe) can simultaneously explain both the low Si abundance (compared with Mg) and the low C and Mg abundances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152440", "title": "Stellar nucleosynthesis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 644, "text": "The advanced sequence of burning fuels is driven by gravitational collapse and its associated heating, resulting in the subsequent burning of carbon, oxygen and silicon. However, most of the nucleosynthesis in the mass range (from silicon to nickel) is actually caused by the upper layers of the star collapsing onto the core, creating a compressional shock wave rebounding outward. The shock front briefly raises temperatures by roughly 50%, thereby causing furious burning for about a second. This final burning in massive stars, called \"explosive nucleosynthesis\" or supernova nucleosynthesis, is the final epoch of stellar nucleosynthesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4650", "title": "Black hole", "section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Gravitational collapse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 521, "text": "The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. Which type forms depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left after the outer layers have been blown away. Such explosions and pulsations lead to planetary nebula. This mass can be substantially less than the original star. Remnants exceeding are produced by stars that were over before the collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11127278", "title": "Pair-instability supernova", "section": "Section::::Stellar behavior.:250 solar masses or more.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 276, "text": "A different reaction mechanism, photodisintegration, results after collapse starts in stars of at least 250 solar masses. This endothermic (energy-absorbing) reaction causes the star to continue collapse into a black hole rather than exploding due to thermonuclear reactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10055024", "title": "Gravitational compression", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 241, "text": "At the other end of the scale are massive stars. These stars burn their fuel very quickly, ending their lives as supernovae, after which further gravitational compression will produce either a neutron star or a black hole from the remnants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Several nations claim to inheritance to the Kievan Rus. The Vikings did indeed sail down through Russia's many rivers and settle in several areas, Kievan Rus being the most well known. Although it is debated whether the founders were Slavs or Varangians (I imagine it was both). It was perhaps the first powerful state in that part of Eastern Europe. The Rus kingdom spread beyond modern day Ukraine and into modern Russia, thus both nations can claim successorship from Kievan Rus. \n\nThe principalities set up by the Kievan Rus were largely left intact by the Mongols. Muscovy rose to prominence under the Mongols and it is this principality, under the Grand Duke of Moscovy, Ivan (later the Terrible) that united the others and finally defeated the Horde, making way for the Russian Empire. (_URL_0_) (_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "585629", "title": "Kiev", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 695, "text": "Kiev was the historic cultural centre of the East Slavic civilization and a major cradle for the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. Kiev retained through centuries its cultural importance and even at times of relative decay, it remained the centre of primary importance of Eastern Orthodox Christianity . Its sacred sites, which include the Kiev Pechersk Lavra (the Monastery of the Caves) and the Saint Sophia Cathedral are probably the most famous, attracted pilgrims for centuries and now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site remain the primary religious centres as well as the major tourist attraction. The above-mentioned sites are also part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine collection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2449699", "title": "History of Kiev", "section": "Section::::Russian Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 549, "text": "During the Russian industrial revolution in the late 19th century, Kiev became an important trade and transportation center of the Russian Empire, specializing in sugar and grain export by railroad and on the Dnieper river. By 1900, the city had also become a significant industrial center, having a population of 250,000. Landmarks of that period include the railway infrastructure, the foundation of numerous educational and cultural facilities as well as notable architectural monuments (mostly merchant-oriented, i.e. Brodsky Choral Synagogue).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17446303", "title": "Russia–Ukraine relations", "section": "Section::::History of relations.:Kievan Rus'.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 276, "text": "Russia and Ukraine share much of their history. Kiev, the modern capital of Ukraine, is often referred to as the \"mother of Russian cities\" or a cradle of the Rus' civilisation owing to the once powerful Kievan Rus' state, a predecessor of both Russian and Ukrainian nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9754158", "title": "National Philharmonic of Ukraine", "section": "Section::::History.:The Merchant's House.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 864, "text": "At the end of the nineteenth century, Kiev, at the time the leading commercial center in the south-west of the Russian Empire, flourished in its cultural development. In 1881, the Council of Elders of the Kiev Merchants Assembly acquired permission to establish a recreational area in the Tsarskaya (\"Tsar’s\") Square (now the \"European Square\") where a year later a brick building decorated with towers and metal eaves was erected by the famous Kiev architect Vladimir Nikolayev and named the \"Merchants' House\" (\"Merchants' Assembly\"). The building rapidly gained recognition among Kiev residents and became the center for cultural gatherings where society held masquerade balls, science and political conferences, charitable lotteries, and literary evenings. Because of the building's good acoustics the Merchants' House became popular for musical performances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "585629", "title": "Kiev", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 912, "text": "The city's name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, one of its four legendary founders. During its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a commercial centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the great trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until its capture by the Varangians (Vikings) in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of the Kievan Rus', the first East Slavic state. Completely destroyed during the Mongol invasions in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a provincial capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours; first by Lithuania, followed by Poland and ultimately Russia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31750", "title": "Ukraine", "section": "Section::::History.:Golden Age of Kiev.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 251, "text": "During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe. It laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians. Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "585629", "title": "Kiev", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 707, "text": "Kiev prospered during the late 19th century Industrial Revolution in the Russian Empire, when it became the third most important city of the Empire and the major centre of commerce of its southwest. In the turbulent period following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Kiev became the capital of several successive Ukrainian states and was caught in the middle of several conflicts: World War I, during which German soldiers occupied it from 2 March 1918 to November 1918, the Russian Civil War of 1917 to 1922, and the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. During the last three months of 1919, Kiev was intermittently controlled by the White Army. Kiev changed hands sixteen times from the end of 1918 to August 1920.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's parts of your question that I'll leave up to people far more educated than myself on the subject to answer, but I'll try to clear up some misconceptions.\n\nFirstly, you state that \"in 100 years it was all gone.\" That's not quite true: the entire eastern portion of the empire survived on the as the Byzantine Empire for almost another thousand years. However, the Western Empire rolled over and died completely. Also, Roman power returned to Italy during Justinian's reign, albeit briefly and weakly thanks to the plague and the Lombard invasion. \n\nSecondly, the empire of 375, while appearing in terms of territory similar to that of Rome's golden age, was far from the days of Augustus. Plague, famine, and constant war during the Crisis of the Third Century had diminished the population of the West, already less urbanized than the eastern part of the Empire, quite substantially. Furthermore, the empire was suffering from attacks and settlement by Germanic peoples like the Goths around the late 4th century: far before end of the Western empire, these \"barbarians\" came to dominate much of the military and part of the government as well. So, in fact, the final Romans' grandparents wouldn't have been born into the great empire you might be misled by a map into believing still existed. Most of those outer regions soon became extensively settled by \"barbarians\" like the Goths, Franks, and Burgundians, and were semi-autonomous if not independent in all but name anyway.\n\nThat being said, the Western Empire wasn't in an un-salvageable state at the beginning of the fourth century. When the province of Africa, a vital, rich, and mostly undisturbed region fell to the Vandals, everything really started to fall apart. \n\nFinally, I'll give a stab at you asking what people formerly part of the empire would have thought. I'll say, first of all, that it's difficult to determine what the common man would have thought: it's not like he had the ability or the will to express himself. However, the \"barbarian\" rule in certain parts of the empire, such as Italy, really wasn't that bad and not too much of a disruption from Roman rule. Rulers like Theodoric consciously tried to preserve Roman traditions and were respectful of the native culture. In Iberia, the formerly Roman populace had tensions with the Visigoths, who followed Arian Christianity as opposed the the mainstream Chalcedonian beliefs. In Carthage I know that the Vandals had some mildly prosperous trade and that the region was still rich enough to be Justinian's most valuable conquest, indicating the people were probably still doing alright for themselves. \n\nSources:\n\nA History of the Byzantine State and Society, Warren Treadgold\n\nByzantium, The Early Centuries, John Norwich\n\nHistory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon. (has more than a few issues...)\n\n\nI wish I could answer certain parts of your question more in-depth, but my specialty in is Byzantine history, which often lightly sweeps over the events in the Western Empire during late Antiquity. I think your questions are pretty good ones, though it's difficult for anyone to answer some of them. I'm looking forward to seeing one of our resident Roman experts try to take a crack at doing so! \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On the subject of Gothic Italy and Vandal Africa: in both cases these states can look from our perspective as post-Roman, i.e. whatever rose up inside the ruins of a fallen empire. As per your question, we might expect that in both cases there might be at least some nostalgia or regret for the empire that had gone. But in both cases there seems to have been a strong theme of Roman-ness and continuity with the forms Roman rule that gave legitimacy and stability to both regimes. James O'Donnell's Ruin of the Roman Empire, a book I really think quite good, advances this Roman continuity as the key to getting why these two states flourished (and why they proved such trouble for Justinian). Theoderic ruled very much as the emperors before him had done, and in the case of his immediate predecessors, his version of roman rule was much more effective. The Vandal case, although less well sourced than Theoderic, has similar outlines. In both cases when Justinian's armies arrived in the sixth century, ostensibly to bring these \"Roman\" places back into the empire to which they rightly belonged, the local populations treated Justinian's forces more like foreign invaders than fellow-countrymen come to rescue them from the barbarians. In Italy this stark resistance to the empire on the part of the \"Roman\" inhabitants of Italy explains why the Gothic war dragged on so long. In North Africa the Vandal regime fell quite quickly, but low level (guerrilla, to use the wrong term) resistance ensured that Constantinople would not have an easy time holding on to this conquest. I know that O'Donnell's book is controversial on these points, but if he's correct, or close to it, then the implication for your question seems to be that view the empire as something sadly lost, the citizens of the western successor states were much more likely to see Roman-ness as ongoing and the emperor in Constantinople as a dangerous foreign aggressor. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "62583", "title": "History of Italy", "section": "Section::::Roman period.:Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 543, "text": "After the death of Emperor Theodosius I (395), the Empire was divided into an Eastern and a Western Roman Empire. The Western part faced increasing economic and political crisis and frequent barbarian invasions, so the capital was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna. In 476, the last Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed by Odoacer; for a few years Italy stayed united under the rule of Odoacer, but soon after it was divided between several barbarian kingdoms, and did not reunite under a single ruler until thirteen centuries later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "223851", "title": "Exarch", "section": "Section::::Political exarchs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 608, "text": "After the dissolution of the Western Empire in the late fifth century, the Eastern Roman Empire remained stable through the beginning of the Middle Ages and retained the ability for future expansion. Justinian I reconquered North Africa, Italy, Dalmatia and finally parts of Spain for the Eastern Roman Empire. However, this put an incredible strain on the Empire's limited resources. Subsequent emperors would not surrender the re-conquered land to remedy the situation. Thus the stage was set for Emperor Maurice to establish the Exarchates to deal with the constantly evolving situation of the provinces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "543935", "title": "East–West Schism", "section": "Section::::History.:Separation of the West from the Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 504, "text": "In 476, when the last emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire was deposed and the western imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople, there was once again a single Roman Emperor. However, he had little power in the West, which was ruled almost entirely by various Germanic tribes. In the opinion of Randall R. Cloud, the permanent separation of the Greek East from the Latin West was \"the fundamental reason for the estrangement that soon followed between the Greek and the Latin Christians\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "923406", "title": "Fall of the Western Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::From 476; last Emperor, rump states.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 118, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 118, "end_character": 1231, "text": "By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self-defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors, they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9355223", "title": "History of Istanbul", "section": "Section::::Late Roman period and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 761, "text": "Throughout the fifth century, the western half of the Roman Empire lost most of its power through decline in political, economic and social situations, the last western emperor being deposed by Germanic mercenaries in AD 476; the eastern half, however, was flourishing. According to historians this flourishing Eastern Roman Empire was then classified as the Byzantine Empire to distinguish it from the Roman Empire. This empire was distinctly Greek in culture, and became the centre of Greek Orthodox Christianity after an earlier split with Rome, and was adorned with many magnificent churches, including Hagia Sophia, once the world's largest cathedral. The seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, spiritual leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church, remains. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34643", "title": "4th century", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 918, "text": "The last emperor to control both the eastern and western halves of the empire was Theodosius I. As the century progressed after his death it became increasingly apparent that the empire had changed in many ways since the time of Augustus. The two emperor system originally established by Diocletian in the previous century fell into regular practice, and the east continued to grow in importance as a centre of trade and imperial power, while Rome itself diminished greatly in importance due to its location far from potential trouble spots, like Central Europe and the East. Late in the century Christianity became the official state religion, and the empire's old pagan culture began to disappear. General prosperity was felt throughout this period, but recurring invasions by Germanic tribes plagued the empire from 376 AD onward. These early invasions marked the beginning of the end for the Western Roman Empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18836", "title": "Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Later Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 966, "text": "By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century. The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths. The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula (Gothic War) in the reign of Justinian (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is quite similar to [a question asked recently](_URL_1_) by /u/michelecaravaggio that I began drafting an answer to, so helpfully I can kill two birds with one stone here! Admittedly, I'm only really capable of taking the narrative up to the early Republic, before the KMT came to power in 1927, so hopefully someone with a much better grasp of the 20th century's dynamics of race and nationhood like /u/drdickles may be available to step in.\n\nThe concept of race is not at all alien to modern China, and there is indeed a character for it (which always makes things easier), 族 (Mandarin *zu*, Cantonese *zuk*, Hokkien *chok*, Hakka *chhuk*), often found in contemporary usage in the compound 種族 (Mandarin *zhongzu*, Cantonese *zong zuk*, Hokkien *cheng chok*, Hakka *chung chhuk*), itself at times compounded into 種族歧視, 'racism'.\n\nThe emergence of this concept is a bit murky, and there has been disagreement over when exactly conceptions of ethnicity became common across China. The crucial thing, though, is that there's a relative consensus that the first people to broadly accept the nootion of 'essentialist' ethnic identities were not the majority Han Chinese, but rather the Manchus. Manchu conceptions of ethnicity are again a source of controversy: those influenced by Mark C. Elliott's study of the provincial Banners err on the side of the Manchus having had a concept of ethnicity from at least the early 17th century, which was made a protected identity following the Banner reforms of the Qianlong reign, while those operating under the framework suggested by Pamela Crossley's study of imperial ideology prefer to view ethnicity as the product of the Qianlong Emperor's promotion of a new, essentialist mode of emperorship. Edward J.M. Rhoads, in his study of the development of Manchu and (to a lesser extent) Han identities in the period between the end of the Taiping War and the Northern Expedition, notes that even then, Manchu identity was still a shifting concept until the post-imperial governments equivocated it with Banner enrolment. And that's just for Manchu identity! While Han identity did change alongside Manchu identity, the move towards genuinely accepting a more 'essentialist' view of that identity began very much in the 19th century.\n\nI've recently discussed the shifting basis of Manchu identity [in this answer](_URL_0_). It may seem that discussions of Manchu identity are not directly relevant to the issue of Han identity, but as Crossley and Rhoads both suggest, ethnic policy towards one group almost invariably had bearings on the conception of others. For example, the Banner reforms of the Qianlong period recategorised most of the Hanjun (Han-martial or Military Han) portion of the Banners as either Manchus (if from Liaodong) or Han (if not), and while this liminal group had never been a major part of the population of the empire as a whole, this does point to a policy in which hybrid identities like those of the Hanjun would not be tolerated, and instead the empire's peoples would be increasingly lumped into immutable overarching categories, or as Crossley terms them, 'constituencies'. In her view, as with James Millward in *Beyond the Pass*, the main five constituencies were the Manchus, Han, Mongols, Tibetans and Muslims.\n\nThe exact basis for defining these was still somewhat unclear. To some extent, it was linguistic – Manchus speaking and reading Manchu, Han Chinese (in all its too-often-forgotten varieties), Mongols Mongolian, Tibetans Tibetan, and Muslims Chaghatai Turkic and sometimes Arabic. To some extent it was religious – Manchus were mostly shamanists, Han were (supposed to be) Confucians, Mongols and Tibetans practiced Yellow Hat Buddhism, and Muslims were, well, Muslims. However, both of these sorts of idealised identity construction were difficult to reconcile with the realities of identity on the ground. Manchus were increasingly Sinophone, Muslim enclaves in China tended to speak the Chinese variety of their particular locale rather than a Turkic language, and of course there are all the varieties of Chinese that were and are spoken across the vast expanse that is China proper. Shamanism seems to have declined outside the imperial court, Han were often Mahayana Buddhists, some Mongols further west were Muslims, the Red Hat sects of Tibetan Buddhism retained a presence in the Tibetan diaspora in Sichuan, and, Islam being a diverse religion despite modern stereotypes, by the 19th century orthodox Sunnism had to wrestle with growing Sufi sectarianism. The response from the Qing court was partly Procrustean, such as through military campaigns to suppress troublesome religious minorities, be they rebelling secret societies among the Han, the Jahriyya Sufi movement among the Hui, or the Bön- and Red Hat-practicing Jinchuan, a Tibetan diaspora group in Sichuan.\n\nBut aside from trying to force these groups to conform to certain cultural expectations, there was also a move towards altering the basis of identity itself. As with most Qing ethnic policy, this began with the Manchus but percolated down. In Crossley's analysis, this is first evident with Qianlong-era texts stressing the immutable, bloodline-derived nature of Manchu identity, including the 1743 *Ode to Mukden* (ᡥᠠᠨ ‍‍ᡳ ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ ‍‍ᡳ ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ *Han-i araha Mukden-i fu bithe*) and the 1783 *Discourses on Manchu Origins* (滿洲源流考 *Manzhou yuanliu kao*), which nonetheless still called on contemporary Manchus to at least perform their ethnic roles through, for example, revival of linguistic practice. My linked answer above goes into a bit more detail on this front, though at the time I wrote it I had overlooked the continued promotion of Manchu despite its gradual diminution as a point of ideological significance.\n\nBut let's turn our attention to China's numerically (and now politically) dominant ethnic group, the Han. During much of the Qing period, the Han conception of ethnicity was in very much a transitional state. The late Ming, when China's frontiers were decidedly closed off thanks to fortifications and embargoes against the steppe peoples, saw the emergence of a degree of ethnic essentialism, with its fiercest proponent being the political philosopher Wang Fuzhi, who lived through the Manchu conquest of China in the 1640s-60s. Under the Ming, he had confidently asserted that 'civilisation' and 'barbarism' were physically separated by cosmic design, and implicitly denied the transformative agenda of Mencian Neo-Confucianism.\n\nAt the same time, though, such essentialism was always a minority position, and under the Qing that sort of belief in cultural transformation remained standard. The Yongzheng Emperor's 1729 *Discourse on Righteousness to Dispel Confusion* (大義覺迷錄 *Dayi juemi lu*), aimed at a Han Chinese audience sceptical of Qing acculturation, stressed that by virtue of coming to rule China, the Qing had acculturated to its ways (in the original text, 'Manchu' appears only twice, referring both times to the pre-conquest state). However, just six years later, the Qianlong Emperor proscribed the text and began asserting hard boundaries between the imperial constituencies, as illustrated above. \n\nHowever, despite officially declaring his opposition to his father's programme of *gaitu guiliu* towards the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and southern China, a programme which very much played into the hands of Neo-Confucian transformative ideas, the Qianlong Emperor failed to completely halt attempts to 'civilise' (or perhaps more accurately 'make Han') the indigenous peoples of China's southern liminal zones. As put by William T. Rowe, notions of transformation were still evident from the 1820s (here, he comments on ethnographic interest in indigenous peoples being motivated by a rather Rousseau-like notion of 'noble savage' predecessors):\n\n > if these savages were indeed the ancestors of Han Chinese, was it not remotely possible that something had been lost as well as gained in the course of the civilizing process? This was suggested by one Chinese observer of Taiwanese aborigines in the 1820s. Deeply affected by the cultural malaise of the troubled Daoguang era, with its economic depression, recurrent natural disasters, and ominous threat of European expansion, he argued that the rampant commercialization of contemporary society had corrupted our [sic] inherent propriety and that we [sic] should “get back to fundamentals, like the ancients,” along the model presented by these noble primitives.\n\nRowe also cites two divergent examples of Sinophone groups who either sought to shed or obtain distinct identities during the close of the Early Modern period: the Tanka and the Hakka. The Tanka 'boat people' of Fujian and Guangdong plied the provinces' coastal waters thanks to a lack of good farmland, but many sought to obtain landed property, a crucial affirmation of Han status, and thereby gain, within a couple of generations, formal recognition as Han by their peers. The Hakka, on the other hand, also faced with economic hardship, though possessing somewhat stronger linguistic unity than the Tanka, gained a much more palpable sense of subgroup identity, distinct from the Yue-speaking Punti of Guangdong and Guangxi and the Min-speakers of Fujian, and maintained this sense of identity in spite of broad migration to Taiwan and Southeast Asia. The existence of Tanka and Hakka 'otherness' well into the 1860s does suggest that neither a singular notion of 'Han', nor one based purely on heritage and bloodline, was necessarily dominant at this point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/u/EnclavedMicrostate provided an excellent write up on identity development up to roughly the fall of the Qing. I'll add a bit more about the development of identity during the Republican and how minority groups were separated (or included) along the Han during the CCP period.\n\nNationality and race development after the fall of the Qing was greatly exacerbated by the continual education of elite children in foreign nations. The foremost choice for many Chinese intellectuals to send their children would be Japan. Now, someone could write an entire write-up on this question put replace Chinese with Japanese, and you'll get some similarities and some differences. Japanese ideas of nationalism and race are well documented during the late Meiji-Imperial period. But both Japanese and Chinese ideas of nationhood and race were fundamentally altered by Western thought and practice (the influence of minstrel shows on Japanese intellectuals throughout the mid-1800s is notable). As you may know, the late 1800s is when European colonization really kicks off, and ideas like Social Darwinism (1870s) began altering the way people and governments viewed themselves and 'the other;' that exotic, but barbarian group of humans which would come to make up the \"white man's burden.\" \n\nBy the 1920s, Chinese literati picked up on the notions of Social Darwinism and alike ideologies and began applying this to themselves. China had a lot of justifying to do during this time period. In 1800 they were the center of the Confucian order, lead by the *appointee* of Heaven himself, the emperor! Yet in 1842 they were defeated by Britain. Then again in 1860... Then another run in, in 1900... But the worst of it all was they were defeated by the Japanese in 1895! A former fringe member of the Confucian world. And the First Sino-Japanese war came directly after China's misled Self Strengthening Movement, influenced by Confucian ideals that ultimately overruled more ambitious and innovative leaders such as Li Hongzhang.\n\nThe fundamental ideals of Sun Yat-sen's revolutionary ideas included ethnic unity (an idea that will later influence the Maoists). In fact, the flag waved during the 1911 Xinhai Revolution looked like [this](_URL_2_). A lot of this was influenced by Woodrow Wilson's ideas of self-determination which were popular around the world for obvious reasons. It promoted the unity between what was officially recognized as the five major ethnic groups compromising China: The Han, Manchus, Mongols, Hui, and Tibetans. The acceptance of more minority groups inside China would evolve as time went on. Today, the CCP recognizes 55 minority groups. In the early years, the communists generally stayed dedicated to ideas of ethnic equality. To this very day the CCP's \"on paper\" theory is dedicated to equality. But under Chiang and beyond, this was very different practically.\n\nChina was, in many ways, like a lost child during the 1920-40s, fighting bullies (Japan) and disease (constant civil war). Throughout it all, China still had no definitive answer as to where they placed in the world. This is an important concept. Many early anthropologists made it a point to categorize humans into three separate sections, you may have seen it before: Civilized (Western), Semi-Civilized (the Far East, perhaps Russia as well), and Barbarian (Africans, SE Asians, etc.). It was unacceptable to Chinese elites that China fell under a category below another ethnic group, though for most this was regretfully acknowledged. By this time, more and more Chinese students were being sent beyond Japan, mainly to America, but also France or Britain, or even Germany (Chinese and Japanese liked Germany for many reasons, as they represented a bulwark against British and French colonialism). Tasking themselves with the objective of justifying China's relevancy in the modern world, a lot of propaganda was produced in various *manhua* and other media that showed that China... well, China didn't have much but at least they weren't India or an African state! The main point among the propaganda was comparisons between Chinese and any subjugated nation culture. [For example](_URL_1_) (view page 8-9), Africa was a heavy target . Extremely backward in Chinese eyes, and broken under European conquest, Chinese artists pointed out that China may have fallen victim to Western imperialism, but held onto its independence. \n\n The formation of China as a nation-state in Western terms is also pervasive by the 1920s. Not every elite was so open to the ideas of Social Darwinism, as more leftist ideas filtered into China from Russia and Europe. Consider the following quotes:\n\n > So long as there are nation-states (*guojia*), we must uphold nationalism (*minzu zhuyi*)... We are concerned not just for our own Han race, but for the other victimized nations, whose lands have been conquered, rights usurped, and people enslaved... A true nationalist is one who extends his sympathy to others who have suffered from the same (national) excruciation - Zhang Taiyan\n\n & #x200B;\n\n > The more I considered \\[China's problems\\], the more I thought, and then the more I grieved: the reason that **our** China is unlike foreign countries \\[*waiguo*\\] and indeed is bullied by these countries must have a good explanation. So I went to investigate \\[the histories of\\] other countries, and guess what? China is not the only country in this world being bullied by foreign countries! Look at Poland, Egypt, the Jews, India, Burma, Vietnam, and so on: they have all already been destroyed and turned into dependencies \\[*miezuo shuguo le*\\] - Chen Duxiu, co-founder of CCP\n\nThere is a lot of sense of nationalism and unity in these quotes. It shows that the new class of intellectuals in China were exploring, searching for a reason as to why China had fallen so low. Ultimately these ideas are the ones that greatly influence modern (contemporary) China's ideologies on race and nationhood.\n\nUpon taking control of the mainland in 1949, the communists expanded on the [importance of ethnic unity](_URL_0_). Under Mao, the various ethnic groups of China would become one big, happy family. Indeed, many researchers and historians have noted that under Mao, Han attitude towards minority groups tended to be more broadminded. Projects like the *Youhui Zengci,* which could be translated as Affirmative Action, began in 1949 and continues to this day. During the Jiangxi Soviet and Yan'an days the CCP was also active in integrating and giving high independence to minorities.\n\nBut things took a turn again in the 1960s. Following a more Soviet-influenced approach to minorities in a nation, the CCP began developing ideas of \"different races united under common tongue, common culture and common economic base.\" I.e., Cantonese children will now learn Mandarin in school rather than Cantonese and so on. This has led to the rapid dismantling of many minority groups within China, and many languages (or dialects) slowly die in China. But still, being a recognized minority has its benefits in Mao and modern China. They are often given special treatment on moral, religious, cultural and other issues that the government does not extend to the Han. Despite this, critics argue that this \"enables selective social control and formal structures for political inclusion or cooptation of groups which otherwise might alienate themselves from the system.\" To this day the status and survival of many minority groups in China is tenuous at best.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20756311", "title": "Hua–Yi distinction", "section": "Section::::China.:Republic of China.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 305, "text": "Historian Frank Dikötter (1990:420) says the Chinese \"idea of 'race' (\"zhong\" [種], \"seed\", \"species\", \"race\") started to dominate the intellectual scene\" in the late 19th-century Qing dynasty and completed the \"transition from cultural exclusiveness to racial exclusiveness in modern China\" in the 1920s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30091", "title": "Politics of the Republic of China", "section": "Section::::Political history.:Republic of China on Mainland China, 1911–1949.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 774, "text": "The original founding of the Republic centered on the Three Principles of the People (): nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. Nationalism meant the Han Chinese race standing up against Manchu rule and Japanese and Western interference, democracy meant elected rule modeled after Japan's parliament, and people's livelihood or socialism, meant government regulation of the means of production. Another lesser known principle that the Republic was founded upon was \"five races under one union\"\" (五族共和), which emphasized the harmony of the five major ethnic groups in China as represented by the colored stripes of the original Five-Colored Flag of the Republic. However, this five races under one union principle and the corresponding flag were abandoned in 1927.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152831", "title": "Ethnic minorities in China", "section": "Section::::History of ethnicity in China.:Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 621, "text": "Throughout much of recorded Chinese history, there was little attempt by Chinese authors to separate the concepts of nationality, culture, and ethnicity. Those outside of the reach of imperial control and dominant patterns of Chinese culture were thought of as separate groups of people regardless of whether they would today be considered as a separate ethnicity. The self-conceptualization of Han largely revolved around this center-periphery cultural divide. Thus, the process of Sinicization throughout history had as much to do with the spreading of imperial rule and culture as it did with actual ethnic migration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "113147", "title": "Barbarian", "section": "Section::::In international historical contexts.:East Asia.:China.:Cultural and racial barbarianism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 316, "text": "These things show that many times, pre-modern Chinese did view culture (and sometimes politics) rather than race and ethnicity as the dividing line between the Chinese and the non-Chinese. In many cases, the non-Chinese could and did become the Chinese and vice versa, especially when there was a change in culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "159836", "title": "Chinese Indonesians", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 675, "text": "The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars: clan associations, ethnic media, and Chinese-language schools. These flourished during the period of Chinese nationalism in the final years of China's Qing Dynasty and through the Second Sino-Japanese War; however, differences in the objective of nationalist sentiments brought about a split in the population. One group supported political reforms in China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government (1967–1998) dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of assimilation policies as a solution to the so-called \"Chinese Problem\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55800148", "title": "Zhu Dehai", "section": "Section::::Cultural Revolution and Downfall.:\"Fatherland\" Question.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 2082, "text": "Ethnic minorities in China struggled with how to define their own nationality since the late nineteenth century, when the idea of nationalism first introduced in China. The \"Fatherland\" (Chinese: 祖国; Pingying: Zǔguó) question, or the nationality question, was particularly raised in 1920s, along with the arrival of Marxism–Leninism. In 1925, Lenin published his thoughts about the liberation of oppressed nations, writing: \"Victorious socialism must achieve complete democracy and, consequently, not only bring about the complete equality of nations, but also give effect to the right of oppressed nations to self-determination, i.e., the right to free political secession.\"Lenin's thesis cast a question to some Han chauvinists and minority leaders on whether the ethnic minorities in China should claim independence. During the Yan'an period, however, Mao Zedong concluded that all Chinese people are part of the \"mighty \"Zhonghua\" nation (Chinese: 伟大的中华民族).\" With respect to Korean minority, Mao specifically mentioned, writing: \"China borders ... Korea in the east, where she is also a close neighbor of Japan... China has a population of 450 million, or almost a quarter of the world total. Over nine-tenths of her inhabitants belong to the Han nationality. There are also scores of minority nationalities, including the Mongol, Hui, Tibetan, Uighur, Miao, Yi, Chuang, Chungchia and Korean nationalities... All the nationalities of China have resisted foreign oppression and have invariably resorted to rebellion to shake it off... Thus the Chinese nation has a glorious revolutionary tradition and a splendid historical heritage... The contradiction between imperialism and the Chinese nation and the contradiction between feudalism and the great masses of the people are the basic contradictions in modern Chinese society... the contradiction between imperialism and the Chinese nation is the principal one.Mao and CCP believed that this discourse of the unitary nation could consolidate the Han nation and the other ethnic minorities in China during the War against Japan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "367843", "title": "Religion in China", "section": "Section::::Definition of what in China is spiritual and religious.:Centring and ancestrality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 604, "text": "The continuity of Chinese civilisation across thousands of years and thousands of square miles is made possible through China's religious traditions understood as systems of knowledge transmission. A worthy Chinese is supposed to remember a vast amount of information from the past, and to draw on this past to form his moral reasoning. The remembrance of the past and of ancestors is important for individuals and groups. The identities of descent-based groups are molded by stories, written genealogies (\"zupu\", \"books of ancestors\"), temple activities, and village theatre which link them to history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Spain didn't expel the Jews until 1492, and Portugal in 1497. They were among the last western European kingdoms to do so, as England had done so in 1290 and France twice--once in the 13th century and once in the 14th.\n\nI certainly don't have a comprehensive answer to your question, apart from confirming that you're right--it has happened many times.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Important note, the Babylonians did not expel the Jews from their [the Babylonians'] land as the Spanish, French, Portuguese, and English did. The Babylonians conquered Judea (the land of the Jews) and expelled them from there TO Babylonia, although it should be noted that mostly the Judean elite was expelled while the peasantry largely remained.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Side question. It at least seems as if pogroms were relatively common occurrence in Eastern Europe, but did any of those nations (e.g. Commonwealth, Russia) at any point actively try expel the Jews?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7773244", "title": "History of the Jews in Iran", "section": "Section::::Persian Jewry under Cyrus the Great.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1264, "text": "Three times during the 6th century BC, the Jews (Hebrews) of the ancient Kingdom of Judah were exiled to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. These three separate occasions are mentioned in Jeremiah (52:28-30). The first exile was in the time of Jehoiachin in 597 BC, when the Temple of Jerusalem was partially despoiled and a number of the leading citizens exiled. After eleven years (in the reign of Zedekiah) a new Judean uprising took place; the city was razed to the ground, and a further exile ensued. Finally, five years later, Jeremiah records a third exile. After the overthrow of Babylonia by the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great gave the Jews permission to return to their native land (537 BC). According to the Hebrew Bible (See Jehoiakim; Ezra; Nehemiah and Jews) more than forty thousand are said to have availed themselves of the privilege, however this is not supported by modern scholarship. Lester Grabbe argues that the immigration would probably only have amounted to a trickle over decades, with the archaeological record showing no evidence of large scale increases in population at any time during the Persian period. Cyrus also allowed them to practice their religion freely (See Cyrus Cylinder) unlike the previous Assyrian and Babylonian rulers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54347291", "title": "Expulsion of Jews from Spain", "section": "Section::::The expulsion.:The reasons for the expulsion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 1182, "text": "As highlighted Julio Valdeón, \"undoubtedly the expulsion of the Jews from the Iberian site is one of the most controversial issues of all that have happened throughout the history of Spain.\" It is not surprising, therefore, that historians have debated whether, in addition to the motives laid out by the Catholic Monarchs in the decree, there were others. Nowadays, some of those who argued at the time, such as the expulsion of the Jews to stay with their wealth, seem to have been discarded, since the majority of the Jews who left were the most modest, while the richest converted and they stayed, and on the other hand, the crown did not benefit at all from the operation - rather it was damaged because it stopped receiving the taxes paid by the Jews. Nor does the argument seem to hold that the expulsion was an episode of classes - the nobility wanted to get rid of an incipient bourgeoisie that represented the Jews and that supposedly threatened their interests - because many Jews were defended by some of the most important nobiliary families of Castile, and because he was also among the ranks of the \"bourgeoisie\" of \"old Christians\" where anti-Judaism grew the most.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40102920", "title": "The Invention of the Jewish People", "section": "Section::::Book summary.:Jewish origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 787, "text": "According to Sand, the original Jews living in Israel, contrary to popular belief, were not exiled by the Romans following the Bar Kokhba revolt. The Romans permitted most Jews to remain in the country. Rather, the story of the exile was a myth promoted by early Christians to recruit Jews to the new faith. They portrayed that event as a divine punishment imposed on the Jews for having rejected the Christian gospel. Sand writes that \"Christians wanted later generations of Jews to believe that their ancestors had been exiled as a punishment from God.\" Following the Arab conquest of Palestine in the 7th century, many local Jews converted to Islam and were assimilated among the Arab conquerors. Sand concludes that these converts are the ancestors of the contemporary Palestinians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "307916", "title": "Expulsions and exoduses of Jews", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 223, "text": "In Jewish history, Jews have experienced numerous mass expulsions and they have also fled from areas after experiencing ostracism and threats of various kinds by various local authorities seeking refuge in other countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24434254", "title": "Tsvi Misinai", "section": "Section::::Project on Palestinians.:Classification of the Palestinians.:Descendants of Israel.:Samaritans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1718, "text": "Later, when the exiled Israelites (now known as Jews) returned from the Babylonian exile under prophets Ezra and Nehemiah, they misidentified the Israelites who had stayed behind (now known as Samaritans) as foreigners. The reason for the misidentification was because the deportations had led the exiled Israelites and the Israelites who remained behind to develop in different ways. The Babylonian captivity had a number of serious effects on the exiled Israelites (Jews), their religion (Judaism) and their culture. Included among the most obvious of these changes was replacing the original Paleo-Hebrew alphabet (see also Samaritan script) with what is in fact a stylised form of the Aramaic alphabet (now commonly called the \"Hebrew alphabet\" because it is the normative form in which Hebrew is written due to Jewish numeric superiority), changes in the fundamental practices and customs of the Jewish religion, the culmination of Biblical prophecy (in the Jewish prophet Ezekiel), the compilation of not only of the \"Talmud\" and \"Halakha\" (Jewish religious law, absent in Samaritanism) but also the incorporation of \"Nevi'im\" (Prophets) and \"Ketuvim\" (Writings) as a part of the cannon together with the \"Torah \"(in Samaritanism, only the \"Torah\" is canonical, see \"Samaritan Torah\"), and the emergence of scribes and sages as Jewish leaders (see Ezra and the Pharisees). These resulting differences in religious practices between returnees and those who remained in Israel led to a schism in the Israelites, and whenceforth the creation of separate Samaritan and Jewish entities. Over the centuries, Judaism and world Jewry have come to the acceptance that the Samaritans are indeed descendants of Israelites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1935334", "title": "History of the Jews in Egypt", "section": "Section::::Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 206, "text": "Some authors estimate that around 100 thousand Jews were expelled from the city. The expulsion then continued in the nearby regions of Egypt and Palestine followed by a forced Christianization of the Jews.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14098762", "title": "History of Zionism", "section": "Section::::Background: The historic and religious origins of Zionism.:Biblical precedents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 537, "text": "The theme of return to their traditional homeland came up again after the Babylonians conquered Judea in 587 BCE and the Judeans were exiled to Babylon. In the book of Psalms (Psalm 137), Jews lamented their exile while Prophets like Ezekiel foresaw their return. The Bible recounts how, in 538 BCE Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and issued a proclamation granting the people of Judah their freedom. 50,000 Judeans, led by Zerubbabel returned. A second group of 5000, led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to Judea in 456 BCE.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Right-wing politics supports inequality of wealth as a natural and normal thing. Fascism links government closely to big businesses. Hence the right-wing connection.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The wings are an incomplete portrait of political spectrum, since an accurate description also needs to include the vertical authoritarian/libertarian axis. Communism falls under authoritarian left while anarchism is libertarian left. Conversely, fascism would fall under authoritarian right while something like Objectivism would be libertarian right.\n\nNot using that scale, however, there is a concept in sociopolitical studies known as horseshoe theory, which dictates that the farther an ideology drifts from center, the more it comes to resemble the opposite end of the spectrum.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to what others say, a core part of fascism is nationalism, which is also embraced by the right e.g. Third-Reich, American Exceptionalism. \n\nFor what it's worth, there is a [book](_URL_0_) that argues your point. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is a myth that the right wing strives for smaller government. They strive to shrink it in some areas and grow it in others. This ties in directly with fascism regimes typically claiming to be protecting \"the moral character\" of the nation they are in. That's where the racism/sexism/homophobia/etc of fascist regimes comes from. They claim the moral or religious high ground and enforce it. And the only way to enforce these moral declarations is by increasing governmental power and decreasing privacy. If you look at a lot of traditionally right-wing backed moral legislation (in America anyway), such as anti-sodomy laws, regulations regarding what a doctor can and cannot say in regards to abortions, or the current trend around what genders can enter what bathrooms, are all big increases in governmental power and a loss of privacy for civilians. In the examples I provided, enforcement of these laws would require knowing what is going on in the bedroom of consenting adults for anti-sodomy laws, the government inserting itself into private doctor/patient conversations for aborition regulations, and the government checking what gender someone is. That's all big government.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The terms 'left' and 'right' originate from the Roman Senate, where the plebeians gathered on the left and the land-owners opposite. French revolutionaries of the 18th century, generally neo-classicists, imitated this arrangement. So 'left' became associated with government by the mass of the people and 'right' became associated with the property-owning classes.\n\nSince both fascism and communism each degenerated into vicious totalitarianism during the 20th century, the words have little real meaning. Whether your government is far-left or far-right makes little difference when you're being hauled off to the concentration camp by the Gestapo or the gulag by the KGB.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "its nice to add that facism and nazism specially disgusted and had alot of hatred toward communists, many communist joined the jews, gypsys, disabled etc that were part of the \"holocaust list\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When talking about Communism being completely tied to internationalism, one has to be careful and remember that there are many strains of thought within the Communist tent. Stalinism is very nationalistic. Stalin rejected Trotsky's call for an international revolution and desired to build \"socialism in one country.\" Furthermore, Stalin promoted \"revolutionary patriotism\" and incorporated the Russian and Slavic historical identities into state propaganda, especially during World War II. Remember, the eastern front is remembered as the \"Great Patriotic War\" in Russia. \n\nThis blending of Communism and nationalism can be seen in modern times in North Korea. The Juche system (\"self-reliance\") is hardly internationalist, although it has its roots in Communism. Many political scientists have argued in the past that North Korea has reverted into a race-based, nationalistic neo-monarchism. This can be surmised by pointing out that references to Communism, socialism, Lenin, and Marx have largely been purged from state propaganda and documents like the constitution. \n\nI would even argue that there's some inklings of \"internationalism\" in Fascism and Nazism. In their quest to prove the existence of the Aryan master race, Nazi officials like Himmler \"explored\" the history of Aryanism by looking towards places like Persia and India. This, of course, was mystic mumbo jumbo, but certain peoples and races were elevated to Aryan status that were not German. Hitler called the Japanese honorary Aryans; Nazi racist scientists said that the British too were of an Aryan character because their status as an island nation suggested that the British were a sort of \"pure breed.\"\n\nMussolini began his political career as a socialist. Fascism and Nazism have a very hostile relationship with aristocracy and monarchism, favoring the more middle-class bourgeoisie and workers to any sort of ascendant upper class.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"The term left wing originated with the seating arrangement of the French National Assembly of 1791. The deputies representing the Third Estate, the ordinary people, were seated to the left of the president’s chair on an elevated section called the Mountain, while the nobility, the Second Estate, sat on the right side of the chamber. Between them sat a mass of deputies, known as the Plain, who did not belong to any particular faction.\n\nOriginally most members of the French National Assembly seated on the left were moderate reformers who called for a constitutional monarchy and a unicameral legislature for France. On the right sat the delegates who supported the more conservative royalist, aristocratic, and clerical interests. But the Left/Right labels took on new meanings during the course of the French Revolution, which began in 1789. The Left became increasingly radicalized as Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), Louis Saint-Just (1764–1794), Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793), and the powerful Jacobin clubs (the most famous political group of the French Revolution) gained influence\"\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBecause of this left became a byword for anti-Monarchism and later anti-Authoritarianism. Similarly, right went from monarchism to authoritarianism.\n\nIn the time of Marx a left-authoritarian would be a contradiction. Over time the terms \"left\" and \"right\" became more associated with political parties ideologies than with freedom vs. authoritarianism. That's why you can have someone call themselves a \"Right-wing small government Republican\" today and no one bats an eye. Marx would dismiss their concept of freedom as ridiculously narrow.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1299210", "title": "Left-wing fascism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 249, "text": "Left-wing fascism and left fascism are sociological and philosophical terms used to categorize tendencies in left-wing politics otherwise commonly attributed to the ideology of fascism. Fascism has historically been considered a far-right ideology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "229236", "title": "Frankfurt School", "section": "Section::::Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory.:Functions of the conspiracy.:Othering of political opponents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 498, "text": "In \"Hate Crimes\", Vol. 5 (2009), Heidi Beirich said that the right wing uses Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory to politically delegitimize left-wing opponents by misrepresenting the social Other (who is not the Self) as politically destructive members of the country's body politik who threaten the traditionalist conservative \"status quo\" of society—especially \"feminists, homosexuals, secular humanists, multi-culturalists, sex educators, environmentalists, immigrants, and black nationalists\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56522", "title": "Right-wing politics", "section": "Section::::Positions.:Anti-communism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 317, "text": "The original use of \"right-wing\" in reference to communism had the conservatives on the right, the liberals in the centre and the communists on the left. Both the conservatives and the liberals were strongly anti-communist. The history of the use of the term \"right-wing\" to mean anti-communist is a complicated one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56522", "title": "Right-wing politics", "section": "Section::::Positions.:Social stratification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1495, "text": "Right-wing politics involves in varying degrees the rejection of some egalitarian objectives of left-wing politics, claiming either that social or economic inequality is natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society. Right-wing ideologies and movements support social order. The original French right-wing was called \"the party of order\" and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order. British conservative scholar R. J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: \"Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service\". American conservative Russell Kirk also rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: \"Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity\". Kirk took as one of the \"canons\" of conservatism the principle that \"civilized society requires orders and classes\". Right libertarians reject collective or state-imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative and enterprise. In their view, it is unjust, limits personal freedom and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity. In the view of philosopher Jason Stanley, the \"politics of hierarchy\" is one of the hallmarks of fascism, which refers back to a \"glorious past\" in which members of the rightfully dominant group sat atop the hierarchy, and attempt to recreate this state of being.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41585571", "title": "Poale Zion", "section": "Section::::Split.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1207, "text": "The right wing was less Marxist and more nationalist, and favoured a more moderate socialist program and supported the International Working Union of Socialist Parties to continue the work of the Second International, essentially becoming a social democratic party. The left wing faction did not consider the Second International radical enough and some accused its members of betraying Borochov's revolutionary principles (although Borochov had begun to modify his ideology as early as 1914, and publicly identified as a social democrat the year before his death). Poale Zion Left, which supported the Bolshevik revolution, continued to be sympathetic to Marxism and Communism, and attended the second and third congresses of the Communist International in a consultative capacity. They lobbied for membership, but their attempts were unsuccessful, as the internationalist communist movement under Lenin and Trotsky was opposed to Zionist nationalism. The Comintern advised individual members of Left Poale Zion to join their national Communist parties as individuals; at their 1922 Danzig conference, these terms were rejected by the party and the Comintern declared it an enemy of the workers' movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18499", "title": "Left-wing politics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 436, "text": "Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy. It typically involves a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished. The term left-wing can also refer to \"the radical, reforming, or socialist section of a political party or system\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56522", "title": "Right-wing politics", "section": "Section::::Positions.:Anti-communism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 422, "text": "The 1920s and 1930s saw the fading of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising fascist movements on the one hand and by American-inspired liberal conservatives on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, their opponents were usually colonial authorities and the term right-wing came to be applied to colonialism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Many of them were killed, many of them were sold into slavery, and many of them undoubtedly lived out there lives scarred by the horror that they witnessed. The city of Carthage itself remained devoid of urban settlement, despite the fact that it is a really good spot for a city, until it was designated as a location for a Roman colony by Julius Caesar. No doubt this colonization itself (and the earlier colonizations of North Africa) caused great hardship to the local people. I'm saying this because I really don't want to sugarcoat the process of empire for Rome, which is quite easy to do given what the next paragraph will be. The description of the sack of Carthage in Appian's *Punica*, particularly section 26, is quite horrifying--one particular detail that sticks out is that one street was so slippery with blood that the Romans could not pursue fleeing enemies down it. That being said.\n\nRome never, or at least never unambiguously, pursued a their policy of conquest on the level of population (what one might call \"genocide\"). There was obviously mass slaughter, but it was always towards a particular end, and not the end itself. So there was never a real attempt to \"de-Punify\" North Africa, as once the area itself was conquered, there wasn't really a point. And so despite the wars the area itself remained overwhelmingly \"native\" in origin, which means that the participants in the enormous prosperity of the province in later times would also have been overwhelmingly native. During the imperial period, North Africa became one of the great lynchpins of the empire and its economy, Carthage became one of the largest cities (perhaps equal to Antioch and Alexandria) and some of the most spectacular remainders of the Roman period are found there. Carthage was also one of the great cultural centers of the empire, and in Late Antiquity was in many ways the heart of the Latin Christian world.\n\nThe wealth of the province has been known about for some time, but the original assumption, bolstered by apocalyptic visions such as Appian's, was that it was a thoroughly Roman sort of place, with the old culture stamped out or at least relegated to the rural and poor. More recently this image has been turned inside out, and many of the indications that were used to show thorough Romanization have been convincingly demonstrated to show the opposite. For example, the Capitolium is a particular temple form modeled off of the Capitoline temple in Rome and basically only appears in Italy and North Africa. It was long thought to be a sign of imperial imposition, but recent scholarship by archaeologists such as Andrew Wilson and Naomi Norman have argued pretty convincingly that, for one, in Africa they were built on local initiative, and for two, they are best interpreted within an *African* cultural context. After all, the Carthaginians had their *own* triad of Tanit, Bel and Eshmun, and there are tons of Tanit related imagery throughout the period.\n\nSo the broad answer to your question is that despite the brutality of conquest, the Carthaginian people were the determinant influence on Roman North Africa, which became one of the most prosperous areas of the empire.\n\nMy big influence here is David Mattingly, particularly his *Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire*. He is mostly interested in the enduring divisions and conflict in post-conquest provincial society, which I am mostly eliding over.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "57551", "title": "Third Punic War", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 499, "text": "Many Carthaginians died from starvation during the later part of the siege, while many others died in the final six days of fighting. When the war ended, the remaining 50,000 Carthaginians, a small part of the original pre-war population, were sold into slavery by the victors. Carthage was systematically burned for 17 days; the city's walls and buildings were utterly destroyed. The remaining Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7187944", "title": "Punics", "section": "Section::::History.:146 BCE–700 CE.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 566, "text": "The destruction of Carthage was not the end of the Carthaginians. After the wars, the city of Carthage was completely razed and the land around it was turned into farmland for Roman citizens. There were, however, other Punic cities in Northwest Africa, and Carthage itself was rebuilt and regained some importance, if a shadow of its ancient influence. Although the area was partially Romanized and some of the population adopted the Roman religion (while fusing it with aspects of their beliefs and customs), the language and the ethnicity persisted for some time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "314843", "title": "Campaign history of the Roman military", "section": "Section::::Republic.:Middle (274–148 BC).:Punic Wars (264–146 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 632, "text": "Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground. Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands. The Romans refused the surrender, demanding as their further terms of surrender the complete destruction of the city and, seeing little to lose, the Carthaginians prepared to fight. In the Battle of Carthage the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed, its culture \"almost totally extinguished\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24417", "title": "Punic Wars", "section": "Section::::Third Punic War (149–146 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1337, "text": "In 149 BC, in an attempt to draw Carthage into open conflict, Rome made a series of escalating demands, one being the surrender of three hundred children of the nobility as hostages, and finally ending with the near-impossible demand that the city be demolished and rebuilt away from the coast, deeper into Africa. When the Carthaginians refused this last demand, Rome declared the Third Punic War. Having previously relied on mercenaries to fight their wars for them, the Carthaginians were now forced into a more active role in the defense of their city. They made thousands of makeshift weapons in a short time, even using women's hair for catapult strings, and were able to hold off the initial Roman attack. A second offensive under the command of Scipio Aemilianus resulted in a three-year siege before he breached the walls, sacked the city, and systematically burned Carthage to the ground in 146 BC. When the war ended, the remaining 50,000 Carthaginians, a small part of the original pre-war population, were sold into slavery by the victors – the normal fate in antiquity of inhabitants of sacked cities. Carthage was systematically burned for 17 days; the city's walls and buildings were utterly destroyed. The remaining Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14113", "title": "History of Algeria", "section": "Section::::Carthage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 231, "text": "The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars, and in 146 BC, the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "317286", "title": "Scipio Aemilianus", "section": "Section::::Military career.:Third Punic War (149–146 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 544, "text": "Although the power of Carthage had been broken with her defeat in the Second Punic War, there was still lingering resentment in Rome. Cato the Elder ended every speech with, \"Carthage must be destroyed.\" In 150 BC an appeal was made to Scipio Aemilianus by the Carthaginians to act as a mediator between them and the Numidian prince Massinissa who, supported by the anti-Carthaginian faction in Rome, was incessantly encroaching on Carthaginian territory. In 149 BC Rome declared war, and a force sent to Africa (Tunisia), Carthage's homeland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61652", "title": "157 BC", "section": "Section::::Events.:By place.:Roman Republic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 409, "text": "BULLET::::- During his time in Carthage, Cato is so struck by the evidence of Carthaginian prosperity that he is convinced that the security of Rome now depends on the annihilation of Carthage. From this time on, Cato keeps repeating the cry \"Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam\" (\"Moreover, I advise that Carthage must be destroyed\") at the end of all his speeches, no matter what subject they concern.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well I think you could blame the Quinn thing on corrupt subreddits. Also the pictures are never related, we aren't on r/gonewild :-P", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the drama that fueled that situation was mostly in part due to maintaining journalistic integrity, while certain parts of it had feminism briefly injected. It dealt with a lot of touchy subjects, whereas for celebrity nudes we're all so immune to seeing them it's just like \"oh, so that's what they look like.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well the main point about the Quinn thing was the danger of doxxing/a witch hunt. There is/was a lot of anger directed at her, and users on reddit and other places on the internet have been know for finding out private information about people, sending them death threats via PMs via PM or their phone, sending SWAT teams to their homes, accusing people of doing made up crimes etc. \n\nOne of the [few reddit rules](/rules) forbids the sharing of private information, or even gathering that information by going through a users post history to prevent exactly that.\n\nSince none of those people are in direct danger and their PI isn't being shared, it seems like it's up to the moderators of a subreddit to remove that content. And some subreddits have been doing exactly that, either because it's not appropriate for the subreddit or out of respect for the women who's pictures are being shared. ([See the other ELI5 thread on this topic](_URL_1_)).\n\n/r/gaming was in the midst of that controversy, so it might interest you to read [their statement](_URL_0_) about that situation and why they did what they did.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because people think celebrities are fair game. If you're famous for being in movies then we're entitled to see every aspect of your life or something. If someone stole your nudes, it's your fault for taking them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Those celebrities didn't fuck el_chupacupcake or the rest of the mods.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because no reddit admins know celebrities; a few /r/gaming admins knew Quinn and other targeted gaming journalists. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sorry, late to the discussion.\n\nWho is Zoe Quinn?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "because each subreddit has its own rules. NSFW and all the rest could have said we don't want the leaked nudes and blanket banned them, just as /r/Games blanket banned anyone talking about the Zoe Quinn drama ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Who is/was Zoe Quinn and what's the story behind that drama?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Admins arent in cahoots with Mr.4chan.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9534194", "title": "Antonella Barba", "section": "Section::::Life and career.:1986-2007: Early life and \"American Idol\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 789, "text": "While participating on the show, Barba came under media scrutiny when an anonymous source leaked semi-nude photos of her online. Images included her posing in a wet t-shirt at the National World War II Memorial and topless on a beach. She believed the photos had been stolen from her personal computer. Barba explained that they were \"very personal and that is not how I intended to portray myself nor do I intend to portray myself that way in the future\". She had informed producers about the images before the leak; she said that they tried to protect her from the backlash. Media outlets speculated that Barba was also featured in pornographic images, though this was later proven false. One of Barba's friends said that she had taken the photos to create a calendar for her boyfriend.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43715069", "title": "ICloud leaks of celebrity photos", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 577, "text": "On August 31, 2014, a collection of almost 500 private pictures of various celebrities, mostly women, and with many containing nudity, were posted on the imageboard 4chan, and later disseminated by other users on websites and social networks such as Imgur and Reddit. The images were initially believed to have been obtained via a breach of Apple's cloud services suite iCloud, or a security issue in the iCloud API which allowed them to make unlimited attempts at guessing victims' passwords. However, access was later revealed to have been gained via spear phishing attacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39293123", "title": "Controversial Reddit communities", "section": "Section::::Banned subreddits.:TheFappening.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 834, "text": "In August 2014, Reddit users began sharing a large number of naked pictures of celebrities stolen, using phishing, from their private Apple iCloud accounts. A subreddit, r/TheFappening, was created as a hub to share and discuss these stolen photos; the situation was called CelebGate by the media. The subreddit contained most of the images. Victims of \"The Fappening\" included high-profile names such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Upton. Some of the images may have constituted child pornography, as the photos of Liz Lee and McKayla Maroney from the leak were claimed to have been taken when the women were underage, though this remains controversial. The subreddit was closed by Reddit administrators in September 2014. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's moderation, from \"The Verge\" and \"The Daily Dot\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5339378", "title": "Censorship by Google", "section": "Section::::Google Search.:Leaked celebrity content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 401, "text": "On August 31, 2014, almost 200 private pictures of various celebrities, containing nudity and explicit content, were made public on certain websites. Google was criticized for linking to such content after some of them became popular enough to reach the front page of some search results. Shortly after, Google removed most search results that linked users directly to such content from the incident.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29261968", "title": "Alex Day", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 587, "text": "Day unlisted a video about cosplaying entitled \"Big Girls in Costumes\" after criticism that he was belittling obese women who took part in the activity. He stated that it was \"satirical\" and that, \"I'm not going to take the video down because I don’t want to pretend this didn't happen – running away from mistakes isn't how you solve them – but I have made the video unlisted so you can only see it if you have the link. I think that's a good compromise between not risking more people being hurt by the content but also not trying to hide the mistake. I’ve also taken the ads off it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30295548", "title": "Kissie", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 495, "text": "On her blog she has released a picture of her naked which was censored but in early December 2010 the Swedish website Flashback the uncensored naked picture was released and it didn't take long until the media and the public found it. It was featured on many gossip blogs, but at first Kissie denied that she had published it and that it was photoshopped as well, but eventually she admitted that she published it for attention and to get more readers but still claims that the picture is fake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43748380", "title": "XVALA", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 802, "text": "XVALA gained international attention in major media outlets in 2014 due to his plan to use nude photos of Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Upton at his \"No Delete\" exhibit in St. Petersburg, Florida. The photos had originally been stolen from storage in the cloud and leaked online. Both XVALA and his publicist, Cory Allen, denied that the exhibit was intended to be exploitative and, on the contrary, was meant to open discussions about the nature of celebrity and art especially with relation to questions of privacy, freedom of speech, and content ownership. Nevertheless, the exhibit ignited backlash in the form of petitions and a boycott. Due to a combination of legal and ethical concerns, XVALA later decided not to use the photos of nude celebrities and substituted pictures of his own naked body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The M10 was a unique vehicle, and wasn't converted from anything that was already produced.\n\nThe original prototype of what would become the M10, the [T35](_URL_0_), was just an M4A2 Sherman with a different, open-topped cast turret mounting a 3-inch gun. The armor on the upper hull was later changed to sloped plates, creating the [T35E1](_URL_1_). These two prototypes were delivered at the same time, in April 1942. To reduce the weight of the vehicle, the armor on the upper hull was reduced from 1 1/2 inches to 3/4 inch thick. The T35E1, standardized as the M10, entered production in September 1942 with a different turret, constructed of welded armor plate. Both the head of the Tank Destroyer Force, Major General Andrew Bruce, and the head of the Armored Force, Major General Jacob L. Devers, were not particularly pleased with the M10. It was as heavy as a standard Sherman, no faster, and had only slightly better firepower. Bruce favored his pet project, the T49, which would later become the T70, standardized as the M18, or Hellcat. It was light (with the requisite thin armor), and extremely fast, two of the qualities his Force found paramount\n\nThe armor on the lower hull of the M10 was the same as on a normal Sherman; 2 inches on the front, 1 1/2 inches on the sides and rear, and 1/2 inch on the floor. The M10 lacked the additional 1/2 inch thick belly plate under the driver's and assistant driver's positions that provided them additional protection from antitank mines, presumably to reduce weight. The M36 tank destroyers, as they were converted from existing M10s, featured the same armor protection. Bruce did not favor this vehicle either, as it was heavier and slower than even the M10.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The American pre-war military doctrine predicted two types of units involved in anti-tank warfare. One was the static towed anti-tank gun, which would in theory work as a defensive tool in the event of an enemy armoured breakthrough. After the anti-tank gun units repelled the attack, Tank Destroyers were designed to mount a counter-attack against the enemy armoured units and rout them - in such a doctrine, sufficient armament and speed are the key elements, and armour protection is secondary. \n\nSource: FM-100-5 Field Service Regulations, G.C. Marshall for US Army, 1941", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12212435", "title": "Tank destroyer battalion (United States)", "section": "Section::::Vehicles.:Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 563, "text": "All the US tank destroyers were built without turret roofs. This was done to save weight but also allowed a wider field of view to spot enemy armor and quicker ammunition stowage. The drawbacks included vulnerability to small arms fire (especially from elevated positions), grenades, and splinters from air bursting artillery. Exposure to wind, rain, snow and freezing temperatures also made operations difficult, and many tank destroyer crews placed tarpaulins or other material over the turret to improve both their comfort and their operational effectiveness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2286", "title": "Tank destroyer", "section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 619, "text": "Of these tank destroyers, only the gun of the M36 proved effective against the frontal armor of Germans' larger armored vehicles at long range. The open top and light armor made these tank destroyers vulnerable to anything greater than small-arms fire. As the number of German tanks encountered by American forces steadily decreased throughout the war, most battalions were split up and assigned to infantry units as supporting arms, fighting as assault guns or being used essentially as tanks. In this sense they were an alternative to the Independent tank battalions that were attached to various Infantry Divisions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12212435", "title": "Tank destroyer battalion (United States)", "section": "Section::::Vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 533, "text": "US Tank Destroyer doctrine called for mobile units to quickly move to a given position, fire upon enemy armor once they were within range, and then to retreat quickly and take up another position when endangered by enemy fire. Design specifications were thus geared towards speed and mobility, turreted armament capable of defeating enemy armor, and only enough armor to resist small arms fire. This was in contrast to the slower Russian and German tank destroyers, which were heavy armed and armored and were built without turrets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "947388", "title": "M36 tank destroyer", "section": "Section::::Armor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 459, "text": "American tank destroyer doctrine emphasized speed and gun power over armor. As the M10 and M36 were not purpose-built tank destroyers (they were based on tank chassis) they were not as fast as the Tank Destroyer Force wanted. General Andrew Bruce criticized the M36 due to it being too slow. The armor configuration of the M36 was identical to that of the M10A1, save the turret. The thickness of the M36's armor ranged from 0.375 to 5.0 inches (9 to 127 mm)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65574", "title": "M4 Sherman", "section": "Section::::Mobility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 388, "text": "In its initial specifications for a replacement for the M3 Medium Tank, the U.S. Army restricted the Sherman's height, width, and weight so that it could be transported via typical bridges, roads, railroads and landing craft without special accommodation. This greatly aided the strategic, logistical, and tactical flexibility and mobility of all Allied armored forces using the Sherman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1759964", "title": "M10 tank destroyer", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 704, "text": "American tank destroyer doctrine emphasized speed and gun power over armor. As a result, the M10's armor was thin, which made it vulnerable to most German anti-tank weapons. The thickness of the M10's armor ranged from 0.375 to 2.25 inches (9.5 to 57.2 mm) The lower hull, being modified from that of a standard M4A2 or M4A3 Sherman tank, had 1 inch (25.4 mm) thick armor on the sides and rear, and an 0.5 inch (12.7 mm) thick floor. The rounded, cast transmission cover was 2 inches (50.8 mm) thick. In a departure from its M4 Sherman parent, the M10 lacked the extra 0.5 inch (12.7 mm) floor plate under the driver's and assistant driver's stations that provided them additional protection from mines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12212435", "title": "Tank destroyer battalion (United States)", "section": "Section::::Combat experience.:Northwest Europe.:Infantry Support.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 641, "text": "As a result, mobile tank destroyer forces generally operated in the same way as the separate tank battalion - being used to support infantry operations across a broad front. But while the tank battalions were effective in this role, the tank destroyers were severely hampered by their open turrets and lack of armor, making them more vulnerable to enemy fire. Moreover, the speed advantage that some tank destroyers had over tanks did not translate into a tactical advantage since such support operations moved at the speed of foot infantry. Infantry units did, however, appreciate the support of tank destroyers in lieu of available tanks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As far as I know, there are no significant differences in the measurement. We did transpiration measurements on olive leafs with the LiCor 6400-XT and we always took the leafs and brought them to the device. Although I was just the 'picker' during these measurements, I was wondering too. My advisor claimed to have made reference measurements and there were no differences regarding olive leafs. The whole process from cutting the leafs and transporting them to the device took 2 minutes maximum at 40 degrees Celsius and very high vapor pressure deficits. However, I could imagine other species like tomato that lose their turgor instantly and close their stomata immediately. Porometer measurements were always executed at the living plant in that specific experiment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4024861", "title": "Transpiration stream", "section": "Section::::Osmosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 378, "text": "The last stage in the transpiration stream is the water moving into the leaves, and then the actual transpiration. First, the water moves into the mesophyll cells from the top of the xylem vessels. Then the water evaporates out of the cells into the spaces between the cells in the leaf. After this, the water leaves the leaf (and the whole plant) by diffusion through stomata.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32086016", "title": "Stomatal conductance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 346, "text": "Stomatal conductance is integral to leaf level calculations of transpiration (E). Multiple studies have shown a direct correlation between the use of herbicides and changes in physiological and biochemical growth processes in plants, particularly non-target plants, resulting in a reduction in stomatal conductance and turgor pressure in leaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33531653", "title": "Cadang-cadang", "section": "Section::::Detection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 540, "text": "The first step is the purification to obtain the nucleic acids of the plant cells. The leaves of the plant located four or more below the spare leaf are cut. Afterwards, they are blended (homogenize) with sodium sulfite. Then the extract is filtered and clarified by centrifugation (10.000 g during 10 minutes). The next step is to add polyethylene glycol (PEG). Finally, after nearly two hours of incubation at 4 °C, and after another centrifugation (at low speed) the nucleic acids can be extracted by chloroform procedures, for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1158247", "title": "Digitalis purpurea", "section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 459, "text": "Extracted from the leaves, this same compound, whose clinical use was pioneered by William Withering, is used as a medication for heart failure. He recognized it \"reduced dropsy\", increased urine flow and had a powerful effect on the heart. Unlike the purified pharmacological forms, extracts of this plant did not frequently cause intoxication because they induced nausea and vomiting within minutes of ingestion, preventing the patient from consuming more.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952479", "title": "Xerophyte", "section": "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Leaf wilting and abscission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 262, "text": "The wilting of leaves is a reversible process, however, abscission is irreversible. Shedding leaves is not favourable to plants because when water is available again, they would have to spend resources to produces new leaves which are needed for photosynthesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13212512", "title": "Egeria densa", "section": "Section::::Control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 780, "text": "A variety of methods are needed to ensure that growth of \"E. densa\" is stopped due to its ability to regrow when fragmented through mechanical means. The best way is to remove the plant in entirety from the water column or use herbicides to kill the plant. One of the potential solutions to the problem are water drawdowns, as the plant is very sensitive to drying out and the plant can die in as short as an hour when removed from water. In addition cold weather has been found to be effective in controlling the plant, though this has practical limitations. When herbicides were applied to the plant, the levels of phosphorus and nitrogen increased but not greatly, suggesting that most of the nutrients remained in the plant biomass and did not reabsorb into the water column.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952860", "title": "Transpiration", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1266, "text": "Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining 97–99.5% is lost by transpiration and guttation. Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata, and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells (together known as stomatal complex) that open and close the pore. Transpiration occurs through the stomatal apertures, and can be thought of as a necessary \"cost\" associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration also cools plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots. Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots: the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient through the soil. Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves via the xylem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One reason is the strategic use of lesser enemies against greater enemies. \n\nAnother is that al-Qaeda is a gigantic organization with lots of franchises. Some groups start independently and then declare allegiance to al-Qaeda in an effort to secure prestige, expertise, funding, weapons, etc and while ideologically similar are methodologically different. At one point ISIS was an al-Qaeda franchise (hence why they were called al-Qaeda in Irag for a time) that did take advice from the head office until they broke off to do things their own way.\n\nBin Laden in particular was actually quite against the idea of Muslims murdering other Muslims (it's a big sin in Islam to do that anyway) even if they were of different sects. His strategy was to win the hearts and minds of other Muslims and loudly shouting \"Fuck you, apostate scum! Shi'ites are infidels that deserve to die!\" has a tendency to promote sectarian violence. Bin Laden thought getting the US out of the Middle East was more important than homogenizing Islam. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36739918", "title": "August 2012 Mansehra Shia massacre", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 439, "text": "The Sunni extremist groups allied to or inspired by al-Qaeda and the Taliban routinely attack government and civilian targets in north-west Pakistan. They also attack the religious minorities and other Muslim sects that they consider to be infidels. The Shias in Pakistan frequently complain that \" \"the Pakistani state does little to stop the attacks and has even released from custody notorious militants accused of carrying them out.\"\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35138956", "title": "2012 Kohistan Shia massacre", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 439, "text": "The Sunni extremist groups allied to or inspired by al-Qaeda and the Taliban routinely attack government and civilian targets in north-west Pakistan. They also attack the religious minorities and other Muslim sects that they consider to be infidels. The Shias in Pakistan frequently complain that \" \"the Pakistani state does little to stop the attacks and has even released from custody notorious militants accused of carrying them out.\"\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49264982", "title": "Persecution of Shias by ISIL", "section": "Section::::Destruction of Shia shrines and places of worship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 521, "text": "ISIL views Shia Muslims as polytheists and heretics. Therefore, it started a campaign to destroy all Shia shrines, mosques and places of worship in Nineveh and all ISIL-held areas. Reports stated that at least 10 Shia shrines and hussiniyas including historical ones in Mosul and Tal Afar were demolished or blown up by ISIL during this campaign. In July 2016, ISIL attacked a Shia shrine during the Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi Mausoleum attack, killing anywhere from 56 to at least 100 people, not including the attackers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9186359", "title": "Sectarian violence in Pakistan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 236, "text": "One significant aspect of the attacks on Shi'a in Pakistan is that militants often target Shi'a worshipping places (Imambargah) during prayers in order to maximize fatalities and to \"emphasize the religious dimensions of their attack\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35110527", "title": "Human rights violations in Balochistan", "section": "Section::::Religious persecution of minorities.:Shia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 451, "text": "Shias have also been targeted by Baloch Separatists militants. Shia pilgrim passing through rigid terrain of Balochistan are common target for Baloch separatists militants. Shias are targeted mainly because they are not ethnically Baloch. Moreover, it is reported that Balochistan Liberation Army had formed an alliance with Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan. Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan is another terrorist group known for their attacks against Shia Muslims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43630710", "title": "Musab bin Umair mosque massacre", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 574, "text": "On 22 August 2014, Shia militants killed at least 73 people in an attack on the Sunni Musab bin Omair mosque in the Imam Wais village (north-east of Baghdad and south of the city of Baquba) of Diyala Province, Iraq. The attack occurred during Jumu'ah (Friday prayers) and at the time of the attack, there were about 150 worshippers at the mosque. The attack took place during the Northern Iraq offensive by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) against the Iraqi government. The attack was blamed on Shiite militias fighting alongside the Iraqi army against ISIL.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1921", "title": "Al-Qaeda", "section": "Section::::History.:Iraq.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 154, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 154, "end_character": 534, "text": "Al-Qaeda has launched attacks against the Iraqi Shia majority in an attempt to incite sectarian violence. Al-Zarqawi purportedly declared an all-out war on Shiites while claiming responsibility for Shiite mosque bombings. The same month, a statement claiming to be from Al-Qaeda in Iraq was rejected as a \"fake\". In a December 2007 video, al-Zawahiri defended the Islamic State in Iraq, but distanced himself from the attacks against civilians, which he deemed to be perpetrated by \"hypocrites and traitors existing among the ranks\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your examples are things that ancient people did get scared by that we do not. Getting killed by wild beasts is a fluke nowadays, and while we are still afraid of twisted aristocrats, they take a different form in our imaginations than vampires and mummies. The monsters we're really afraid of are aliens, robots, serial killers, perverts, cults, conspiracies, and zombies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can find a story of a werewolf in the *Satyricon*, and it's very odd. Very odd. The werewolf story contains my favorite ever example of the flexibility of Latin w/r/t prefixes: \"circummixit.\" The werewolf pees on his clothes in a circle (mixit -- > he pees, circum-- > around) after stripping down, in order to turn them to stone, so that they won't be stolen while he's wolfing about. Much smarter than just ripping through them, if you ask me.\n\n\n*The Golden Ass* has a lot of supernatural stuff in it as well, including witches, harpies, people being turned into animals by salves...it's neat.\n\nThe *Aeneid* has some things which are meant to be terrifying, like demon-queens of Hell, ghostly versions of beasts vanquished by heroes like Hercules, things like that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How ancient are we talking about? The vampire myth has been around for a *long* time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most of the monsters that you talk about have their roots (in our culture at least) in victorian England. (They show up in other places, but their direct descendants for us are from that time).\n\n*The Mummy!* dates [from 1827](_URL_2_!)\n*Dracula* dates [from 1897](_URL_3_)\nWerewolves were also featured in Dracula.\nI'd add in *Frankenstein*, published in [1823](_URL_0_) as being in the same vein.\n\nGenerally, you can look at each of these allegorically, dramatizing the fears of the era. Vampires and Werewolves both seem to symbolize fear over the growing force of women in the era, with men feeling emasculated by foreigners and that their sisters, daughters and wives are at risk of being abducted or seduced by the things that a Victorian man was not (romantic or passionate).\n\nMummies and Frankenstein's Monster seem to represent a kind of fear over technology--things that should be left undiscovered. Mummies had ancient magic and Frankenstein's Monster was powered by electricity, suggested a discomfort with new technology.\n\nBoth discomfort over the increased sexual choice afforded to women and fear of new technology remain relevant topics in today's culture, which probably helps to explain the existing popularity of these characters. Aliens probably fit in with mummies or Frankenstein's Monster.\n\n > Did the other ancient cultures have their own monsters, if so what were they?\n\nWell, a few examples: \n[Minotaurs](_URL_4_)--which don't figure in today's literature almost at all, which Wikipedia claims represent a distancing of Greeks from a more religious past.\n[Centaurs](_URL_5_)--which appear in Medieval folk art. Probably represent fear of conquering outsiders.\n[Yūrei](_URL_1_)--Japanese. These are similar to Ghosts. Here, they represent fear of losing touch with tradition.\n\n\nGenerally, things were feared that were new or unexplained or terribly dangerous, like certain animals. In addition, some metaphysical stuff crept in, but was pretty uncommon compared to today. You spend a lot more time worried about wolves when you're a shepherd than you do about zombies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's a good example of a ghost story that appears in Plutarch's [Life of Cimon](_URL_0_):\n\n > There was left one orphan of this house, called Damon, surnamed Peripoltas, in beauty and greatness of spirit surpassing all of his age, but rude and undisciplined in temper. A Roman captain of a company that wintered in Chaeronea became passionately fond of this youth, who was now pretty nearly grown a man. And finding all his approaches, his gifts, his entreaties, alike repulsed, he showed violent inclinations to assault Damon. Our native Chaeronea was then in a distressed condition, too small and too poor to meet with anything but neglect. Damon, being sensible of this, and looking upon himself as injured already, resolved to inflict punishment. Accordingly, he and sixteen of his companions conspired against the captain; but that the design might be managed without any danger of being discovered, they all daubed their faces at night with soot. Thus disguised and inflamed with wine, they set upon him by break of day, as he was sacrificing in the market-place; and having killed him, and several others that were with him, they fled out of the city, which was extremely alarmed and troubled at the murder. The council assembled immediately, and pronounced sentence of death against Damon and his accomplices. This they did to justify the city to the Romans. But that evening, as the magistrates were at supper together, according to the custom, Damon and his confederates, breaking into the hall, killed them, and then fled again out of the town. About this time, Lucius Lucullus chanced to be passing that way with a body of troops, upon some expedition, and this disaster having but recently happened, he stayed to examine the matter. Upon inquiry, he found the city was in no wise faulty, but rather that they themselves had suffered; therefore he drew out the soldiers, and carried them away with him. Yet Damon continuing to ravage the country all about, the citizens, by messages and decrees, in appearance favourable, enticed him into the city, and upon his return, made him Gymnasiarch; but afterwards as he was anointing himself in the vapour baths, they set upon him and killed him. For a long while after apparitions continuing to be seen, and groans to be heard in that place, so our fathers have told us, they ordered the gates of the baths to be built up; and even to this day those who live in the neighbourhood believe that they sometimes see spectres and hear alarming sounds. The posterity of Damon, of whom some still remain, mostly in Phocis, near the town of Stiris, are called Asbolomeni, that is, in the Aeolian idiom, men daubed with soot: because Damon was thus besmeared when he committed this murder. \n\nIn ancient Greece the heroes of the bronze age seem to have performed a function quite similar to modern ghosts, as Martin Nilsson explains in his book [Greek Folk Religion](_URL_2_):\n\n > Ghost stories like those current even in our day were current in antiquity also. In literature they do not appear until the Roman age. Their apparent absence in the classical age is deceptive. Ghosts went by the name of heroes, and genuine ghost stories are related of the heroes. I have mentioned the hero of Temesa, to whom the inhabitants were compelled to sacrifice yearly the fairest virgin of their town until a well-known pugilist by the sheer force of his fists drove him into the sea; and Orestes, whom no Athenian liked to meet by night because he was likely to give him a thrashing and to rob him of his clothes.\n\nIf you're looking for more fun examples, I can recommend the book [Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook](_URL_1_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The myths surrounding werewolves, vampires, witches, etc, have been around for a very long time. There's multiple accounts of people in the Medieval Era being executed because they were suspected of being werewolves. Everyone knows about witch trials throughout history where suspected witches were burned at the stake. People fear what they do not understand. They didn't understand why their sheep kept getting killed or disappearing, so they feared werewolves were behind it. They didn't understand why people in a village were becoming ill, so they feared witches were the cause. These fears sometimes led to a lot of people getting executed. I am not an expert in this area, though, so maybe an actual expert in this field will pop in here and give you more details. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of cultures had Lords of the Underworld, like the Greek Hades or the Aztec Mictlantecuhtli, who could be scary to small children. In Mesopotamia, there were evil wind demons, like Pazuzu from the Third dynasty of Ur, (2112 to 2004 BC) who slowly evolved into a less frightening form. By the Late Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian period, Pazuzu amulets were often used to protect women in child birth from even more malevolant evil spirits. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2494", "title": "Aurochs", "section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 287, "text": "Calves were vulnerable to wolves and, to an extent, bears, while healthy adult aurochs probably did not have to fear these predators. In prehistoric Europe, North Africa, and Asia, big cats, such as lions and tigers, and hyenas were additional predators that probably preyed on aurochs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4452304", "title": "Roswell Conspiracies: Aliens, Myths and Legends", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 382, "text": "These known incidents could be found in legend, myth and folklore of beings so strange and alien that they became the fabric of what human beings thought of when they thought of being frightened; vampires, werewolves, banshees, manitou, evil spirits, etc. As human beings progressed into the Industrial Age the attacks seemed to lessen, but recently they'd begun to go on the rise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11526617", "title": "Wolf attack", "section": "Section::::Characteristic.:Habituation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 372, "text": "Wolf attacks are more likely to happen when preceded by a long period of habituation, during which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. This was apparent in cases involving habituated North American wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Vargas Island Provincial Park and Ice Bay, as well as 19th century cases involving escaped captive wolves in Sweden and Estonia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2319776", "title": "Lunar effect", "section": "Section::::Proposed explanations.:Evolutionary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 1333, "text": "For some 3–4 million years, bipedal hominins in the East African Rift valley were evolving in potential conflict and competition with fearsome carnivores including sabre-toothed cats equipped with excellent night-vision. Using the largest data set ever recorded – 1,000 lion attacks on humans across Tanzania between 1988 and 2009 – Craig Packer and his colleagues showed that there is a peak of attacks by lions upon humans during the evening dark hours following full Moon. According to Packer, this may help explain why so many myths and superstitions attribute fearsome dangers and nightmarish potencies to the Moon. While not all archaeologists accept that lunar periodicity was ever relevant to human evolution, those favouring the idea include Curtis Marean, who heads excavations at the important Middle Stone Age site of Pinnacle Point, South Africa. Marean argues that anatomically modern humans around 165,000 years ago – when inland regions of the continent were dry, arid and uninhabitable – became restricted to small populations clustered around coastal refugia, reliant on marine resources including shellfish whose safe harvesting at spring low tides presupposed careful tracking of lunar phase. Against this background, if Marean is right, humans who ignored or misread the Moon might frequently have been drowned.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33802", "title": "Werewolf", "section": "Section::::History.:Early modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 474, "text": "Some scholars have suggested that it was inevitable that wolves, being the most feared predators in Europe, were projected into the folklore of evil shapeshifters. This is said to be corroborated by the fact that areas devoid of wolves typically use different kinds of predator to fill the niche; \"werehyenas\" in Africa, \"weretigers\" in India, as well as \"werepumas\" (\"\"runa uturuncu\"\") and \"werejaguars\" (\"\"yaguaraté-abá\"\" or \"\"tigre-capiango\"\") in southern South America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7036252", "title": "Stereotypes of animals", "section": "Section::::Common Western animal stereotypes.:Mammals.:Bats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 417, "text": "BULLET::::- Since the dawn of humanity people have been scared of bats due to their appearance and the fact that they, due to being nocturnal animals, are mostly active at night. In many cultures bats were seen as bad omens and symbols of fear and death. Witches are often portrayed in the company of bats, demons have bat-like wings and vampires are traditionally shown to be able to transform themselves into bats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3588744", "title": "Italian wolf", "section": "Section::::In Latin and Italian culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 673, "text": "The Romans apparently did not consider wolves overly dangerous to people, with the only references to them attacking people being proverbial or mythological. Although Italy has no records of wolf attacks on humans after World War II and the eradication of rabies in the 1960s, historians examining church and administrative records from northern Italy's central Po Valley region (which includes a part of modern-day Switzerland) found 440 cases of wolves attacking people between the 15th and 19th centuries. The 19th-century records show that from 1801–1825, 112 attacks occurred, 77 of which resulted in death. Of these cases, only five were attributed to rabid animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because bonding isn't as simple as there being \"free\" bondable electrons.\n\nEach electron populates an \"orbital\", or energy state, that has a particular \"shape\" and definition. \nI don't know the exact orbital shell of Sulfur off the top of my head, but it's likely that the particular arrangement and geometry of its bonding electrons isn't able to support those structures in a stable way.\n\nAlso, it's most likely to do with how freaking electronegative Flourine is (the highest on the scale at 3.98, aka: The best element at attracting an electron density to itself)\n\nI expect the SF6 molecule to have a very complicated and convoluted bonding geometry.\n\nEDIT: \n[See the hexaflouride wiki page](_URL_0_), it's a complex formed with heavy elements with lots of electrons. Flourine is, most likely, just brute-forcing its way into a stable orbital pair in the looser outer orbitals of these larger atoms.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10911", "title": "Functional group", "section": "Section::::Table of common functional groups.:Groups containing sulfur.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 335, "text": "Compounds that contain sulfur exhibit unique chemistry due to their ability to form more bonds than oxygen, their lighter analogue on the periodic table. Substitutive nomenclature (marked as prefix in table) is preferred over functional class nomenclature (marked as suffix in table) for sulfides, disulfides, sulfoxides and sulfones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1959215", "title": "Organosulfur compounds", "section": "Section::::Classes.:Thioketones, thioaldehydes, and related compounds.:Triple bonds between carbon and sulfur.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 238, "text": "Triple bonds between sulfur and carbon in sulfaalkynes are rare and can be found in carbon monosulfide (CS) and have been suggested for the compounds FCCSF and FSCSF. The compound HCSOH is also represented as having a formal triple bond.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "102193", "title": "Nonmetal", "section": "Section::::Properties of nonmetals (and metalloids) by Group.:Cross-cutting relationships.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 614, "text": "Nitrogen and sulfur have a less-well known diagonal relationship, manifested in like charge densities and electronegativities (the latter are identical if only the \"p\" electrons are counted; see Hinze and Jaffe 1962) especially when sulfur is bonded to an electron-withdrawing group. They are able to form an extensive series of seemingly interchangeable sulfur nitrides, the most famous of which, polymeric sulfur nitride, is metallic, and a superconductor below 0.26 K. The aromatic nature of the SN ion, in particular, serves as an \"exemplar\" of the similarity of electronic energies between the two nonmetals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2582573", "title": "Tetrasulfur tetranitride", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 272, "text": "Nitrogen and sulfur have similar electronegativities. When the properties of atoms are so highly similar, they often form extensive families of covalently bonded structures and compounds. Indeed, a large number of S-N and S-NH compounds are known with SN as their parent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1959215", "title": "Organosulfur compounds", "section": "Section::::Classes.:Sulfimides, sulfoximides, sulfonediimines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 308, "text": "Sulfimides (also called a sulfilimines) are sulfur–nitrogen compounds of structure RS=NR′, the nitrogen analog of sulfoxides. They are of interest in part due to their pharmacological properties. When two different R groups are attached to sulfur, sulfimides are chiral. Sulfimides form stable α-carbanions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33927788", "title": "Sulfenamide", "section": "Section::::Reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 800, "text": "The S-N bond n sulfenamide are labile in a variety of ways. The sulfur atom tends to be the more electrophilic center of the S-N bond. Nucleophillic attack on sulfur can occur by amines, by thiols, and by alkyl-magnesium halides which leads to either new sulfenamide compounds or back to starting compounds such as sulfides and disulfides respectively. Both the nitrogen and sulfur atoms comprising the S-N bond in sulfenamides have lone pairs of electrons in their outer shells, one and two for nitrogen and sulfur respectively. These lone pairs allow for the possibility of forming either higher order bonds(double, triple) or adding new subsituent groups to the compound For instance the nitrogen in the S-N bond of 2-hydroxysulfenanilides can oxidized to an imine species with sodium dichromate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1959215", "title": "Organosulfur compounds", "section": "Section::::Classes.:Thioketones, thioaldehydes, and related compounds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 754, "text": "Compounds with double bonds between carbon and sulfur are relatively uncommon, but include the important compounds carbon disulfide, carbonyl sulfide, and thiophosgene. Thioketones (RC(=S)R′) are uncommon with alkyl substituents, but one example is thiobenzophenone. Thioaldehydes are rarer still, reflecting their lack of steric protection (\"thioformaldehyde\" exists as a cyclic trimer). Thioamides, with the formula RC(=S)N(R)R are more common. They are typically prepared by the reaction of amides with Lawesson's reagent. Isothiocyanates, with formula R−N=C=S, are found naturally. Vegetable foods with characteristic flavors due to isothiocyanates include wasabi, horseradish, mustard, radish, Brussels sprouts, watercress, nasturtiums, and capers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your pics look like straight lines. What spirals?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sorry, I don't see what you're describing", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "712625", "title": "Scree", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 706, "text": "Scree formation is commonly attributed to the formation of ice within mountain rock slopes. During the day, water can flow into joints and discontinuities in the rock wall. If the temperature drops enough, for example in the evening, this water may freeze. Since water expands by 9% when it freezes, it can generate large forces that either create new cracks or wedge blocks into an unstable position. Special boundary conditions (rapid freezing and water confinement) may be required for this to happen. Freeze-thaw scree production is thought to be most common during the spring and fall, when the daily temperatures fluctuate around the freezing point of water, and snow melt produces ample free water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21549793", "title": "Ismenius Lacus quadrangle", "section": "Section::::Pits and cracks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 355, "text": "Some places in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle display large numbers of cracks and pits. It is widely believed that these are the result of ground ice sublimating (changing directly from a solid to a gas). After the ice leaves, the ground collapses in the shape of pits and cracks. The pits may come first. When enough pits form, they unite to form cracks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21713216", "title": "Jumble ice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 653, "text": "Jumble ice is a phenomenon that occurs when ice atop a river or other flowing body of water fractures due to the different flow rates beneath the ice. On a lake, pond, or other stationary body of water, ice forms undisturbed and generally does not move as long as the entire surface of the body of water is frozen. When a river freezes, water flow typically continues beneath the ice, exerting pressure on it. If the ice fractures, pieces of ice torn free by the river's current will collide with stationary or slower-moving pieces. After becoming stuck in place, the loosened pieces of ice refreeze irregularly, causing a rough, or \"jumbled\", surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17952677", "title": "Lead (sea ice)", "section": "Section::::Ice formation in leads.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 969, "text": "Once a crack occurs within the ice cover and begins to expand to make up a lead, the open water inside the lead is exposed to the cold air temperatures and will freeze. Because wind fetch inside a lead is typically very short, wave action is considerably reduced. Ice growth therefore takes place in a low energy regime environment. Following a stage of frazil ice formation, which sometimes results from seeding by snow crystals, the resulting thin ice skim is followed by the growth of congelation ice. In windier regions, as in the Southern Ocean, frazil ice accumulation may occur along the downwind side of leads. If the ice on that side is thin, the frazil may be driven below that ice (resulting in a complex interlayering pattern). Leads affect global water circulation. As ice begins to form inside a lead, it incorporates some of the salt in the seawater but rejects most of it. This brine then sinks, inducing convective processes in the water column below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32449520", "title": "Blue iceberg", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 237, "text": "A blue iceberg is visible after the ice from above the water melts, causing the smooth portion of ice from below the water to overturn. The rare blue ice is formed from the compression of pure snow, which then develops into glacial ice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72585", "title": "Weathering", "section": "Section::::Physical weathering.:Frost weathering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 604, "text": "Freeze induced weathering action occurs mainly in environments where there is a lot of moisture, and temperatures frequently fluctuate above and below freezing point, especially in alpine and periglacial areas. An example of rocks susceptible to frost action is chalk, which has many pore spaces for the growth of ice crystals. This process can be seen in Dartmoor where it results in the formation of tors. When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed strains the walls of the joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen. When the ice thaws, water can flow further into the rock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36298144", "title": "Mars Geyser Hopper", "section": "Section::::Mission overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 595, "text": "The seasonal frosting and defrosting of CO ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on how your computer freezes. I've had plenty of freezes where the sound gets frozen too and puts out a rather nasty stream of sound.\n\nTypically though, unless it's the program MAKING the sound that's crashing, your computer is hung up on some other program, and all of its resources are frozen trying to resolve the problem.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't give a definitive answer, but I can give a couple of ideas.\n\n* Media applications often use large buffers containing several seconds worth of audio, so even if the application completely freezes it will be able to continue uninterrupted until the buffer runs out, at which point the audio will either stop or start repeating.\n* Applications can inform the operating system that they are processing time-sensitive media ([MMCSS](_URL_0_) for Windows; not sure about others), which will boost the priority of the thread, so it will be able to continue processing normally while everything else is bogged down.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Programs can break down different tasks into independent pieces called threads. In a game one thread could be responsible for playing the music, while another is responsible for game logic, and another is responsible for drawing (rendering) everything you see, etc. Threads are one of the things that lets a multiple core processor do more than one thing at once. Sometimes when the computer or a program freezes it is actually just one of the threads that has a problem, the rest are free to continue functioning.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19005417", "title": "Hang (computing)", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 357, "text": "A computer may seem to hang when in fact it is simply processing very slowly. This can be caused by too many programs running at once, not enough memory (RAM), or memory fragmentation, slow hardware access (especially to remote devices), slow system APIs, etc. It can also be caused by hidden programs which were installed surreptitiously, such as spyware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2449993", "title": "Magic SysRq key", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 253, "text": "When magic keys are used to kill a frozen graphical program, the program has no chance to restore text mode. This can make everything unreadable. The commands (part of SVGAlib) and the command can restore text mode and make the console readable again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1324867", "title": "Message passing", "section": "Section::::Synchronous versus asynchronous message passing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 361, "text": "Imagine a busy business office having 100 desktop computers that send emails to each other using synchronous message passing exclusively. Because the office system does not use asynchronous message passing, one worker turning off their computer can cause the other 99 computers to freeze until the worker turns their computer back on to process a single email.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19005417", "title": "Hang (computing)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 343, "text": "In computing, a hang or freeze occurs when either a computer program or system ceases to respond to inputs. A typical example is a graphical user interface that no longer responds to the user's keyboard or mouse, but the term covers a wide range of behaviors in both clients and servers, and is not limited to graphical user interface issues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19484779", "title": "Deep Freeze (software)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 461, "text": "Deep Freeze can also protect a computer from harmful malware, since it automatically deletes (or rather, no longer \"sees\") downloaded files when the computer is restarted. The advantage of using Deep Freeze is that it uses very few system resources, and thus does not slow down computer performance greatly. The disadvantage is that it does not provide real-time protection, therefore an infected computer would have to be restarted in order to remove malware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "254562", "title": "Presentation Manager", "section": "Section::::Technical details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 470, "text": "An important problem was that of the single input queue: a non-responsive application could block the processing of user-interface messages, thus freezing the graphical interface. This problem has been solved in Windows NT, where such an application would just become a dead rectangle on the screen; in later versions it became possible to move or hide it. In OS/2 it was solved in a FixPack, using a timer to determine when an application was not responding to events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219210", "title": "Copy protection", "section": "Section::::Notable payloads.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 207, "text": "BULLET::::- If a player pirated the Nintendo DS version of \"\", vuvuzela noises will play over the notes during a song, which then become invisible. The game will also freeze if the player tries to pause it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Although it is long out of print, Robert Smelser's biography *Robert Ley: Hitler's Labor Leader* is a good introduction to the *Deutsche Arbeitsfront*, the state body that governed labor affairs and replaced trade unions. The ability of the NSDAP to recruit among certain segments of labor in the Weimar Republic is covered in the anthology *The Rise of National Socialism and the Working Classes in Weimar Germany*. Conversely, the anthology *Business and Industry in Nazi Germany* examines the role of capital within the Third Reich. Richard Overy's *The Nazi Economic Recovery 1932-1938* is a good overview of the Third Reich's peacetime economy and the structural strains created by its particular form of recovery. Finally, although it sounds like fodder for the likes of American far right conservatives, *Soldiers of Labor: Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933-1945* by Kiran Klaus Patel is a comparative history of the *Reichsarbeitsdienst* (RAD) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) examining issues like masculinity, collective identity, and tacks a transnational approach to the issue of labor's relationship to the state. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9794690", "title": "The Arms of Krupp", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 955, "text": "The book examines to what extent German industry has part of the moral responsibility for the acts of the German state during the World War II. Krupp profited directly from requisitions of industrial capacities in occupied Europe. The Nazi war effort created a huge demand for workers in the armament industry; a mobilization of women into the labor force was ruled out due to ideological reasons. Instead the Nazis opted to meet the demand for workers by slave laborers. The Krupp AG owned private concentration camps and leased slaves from the SS at the cost of one Reichsmark per day; Slaves for the industry were transferred directly from extermination camps or from POWs, were drafted during the Nacht und Nebel program, or civilians recruited from occupied countries as ostarbeiters. The surviving former slaves were not compensated adequately after the war for their sufferings; after the war Alfried Krupp was convicted of crimes against humanity\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "541048", "title": "Unfree labour", "section": "Section::::Forms of Unfree Labour.:Penal labour.:Labour camps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 364, "text": "About 12 million forced labourers, most of whom were Poles and Soviet citizens \"(Ost-Arbeiter)\", were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany. More than 2000 German companies profited from slave labour during the Nazi era, including Daimler, Deutsche Bank, Siemens, Volkswagen, Hoechst, Dresdner Bank, Krupp, Allianz, BASF, Bayer, BMW, and Degussa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1767172", "title": "Reich Labour Service", "section": "Section::::References.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 302, "text": "BULLET::::- Kiran Klaus Patel:\" Soldaten der Arbeit. Arbeitsdienste in Deutschland und den USA, 1933-1945\", Verlag Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2003. .English edition: \"Soldiers of Labor. Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America\", 1933–1945, Cambridge University Press, New York 2005, .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3477616", "title": "Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Study by Gerhard Reichling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 630, "text": "A study of German forced labor and expulsions by the West German researcher Dr. Gerhard Reichling was published by the Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen(Foundation of the German Expellees) in 1986. Reichling was an employee of the Federal Statistical Office who was involved in the study of German expulsion statistics since 1953. Reichling's figures for German forced labor were based on his own calculations, his figures are estimates and are not based on an actual enumeration of the dead. Dr. Kurt Horstmann of the Federal Statistical Office of Germany wrote the forward to the study, endorsing the work of Reichling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34931144", "title": "Hoover Institution Library and Archives", "section": "Section::::Further reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 201, "text": "BULLET::::- James McJ. Robertson, \"The Hoover Institution Collection on the German Working Class Movement 1870/71-1933,\" \"International Labor and Working-Class History,\" no. 12 (Nov. 1977), pp. 10–18.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28092854", "title": "Arbeitertum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 580, "text": "Arbeitertum (meaning \"Labour\" in English) was a fortnightly German newspaper aimed at working class readers and edited by Reinhold Muchow. It was founded with anti-Marxist and anti-Capitalist intentions. In the early 1930s, it was sponsored by the Nazi Party and in 1933 it became the official publication of the German Labor Front. It was thus used to explain to the working class the Party's position on labour affairs, with contributions from many party leaders. \"Der Angriff\" and \"Der Erwerbslose\" were two other newspapers established by the Nazi Party for the same purpose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47378220", "title": "Where to Invade Next", "section": "Section::::Resume.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 206, "text": "BULLET::::- In Germany: labor rights and work–life balance, visiting pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell, and the value of honest, frank national history education, particularly as it relates to Nazi Germany\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They developed specific physiologies from their repeated lickings that prevent things like immediate gagging, but that doesn't exclude them.\n\nFor example, a cat will occasionally throw up a hairball. This is the exact hair that they licked off themselves. It's just stored in the digestive tract until a good time to hack it up all at once.\n\nPerhaps if human licked themselves more often, we'd develop similar physiologies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My roommate's Siamese cat asphyxiated from a hairball :| ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You have not seen my cat, have you?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "928652", "title": "Licking", "section": "Section::::In animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 298, "text": "Grooming: Animals commonly clean themselves through licking. In mammals, licking helps keep the fur clean and untangled. The tongues of many mammals have a rough upper surface that acts like a brush when the animal licks its fur. Certain reptiles, such as geckos, clean their eyes by licking them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "198290", "title": "Chinchilla", "section": "Section::::Roles with humans.:As pets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 251, "text": "The animals instinctively clean their fur by taking dust baths, in which they roll around in special dust made of fine pumice, a few times a week; they do not bathe in water. Their thick fur resists parasites, such as fleas, and reduces loose dander.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6678", "title": "Cat", "section": "Section::::Behavior.:Grooming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 630, "text": "Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them clean. The cat's tongue has backwards-facing spines about 500 μm long, which are called papillae. These contain keratin which makes them rigid so the papillae act like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about long. Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the gut, as well as regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18842002", "title": "Shampoo", "section": "Section::::Specialized shampoos.:Animal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 578, "text": "Shampoo intended for animals may contain insecticides or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas or mange. These must never be used on humans. While some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any human haircare products that contain active ingredients or drugs (such as zinc in anti-dandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2223903", "title": "Dermatophytosis", "section": "Section::::Other animals.:Treatment.:Pet animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 341, "text": "Because of the usually longer hair shafts in pets compared to those of humans, the area of infection and possibly all of the longer hair of the pet must be clipped to decrease the load of fungal spores clinging to the pet's hair shafts. However, close shaving is usually not done because nicking the skin facilitates further skin infection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "927832", "title": "Hairball", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1075, "text": "A hairball is a small collection of hair or fur formed in the stomach of animals, and uncommonly in humans, that is occasionally vomited up when it becomes too big. Hairballs are primarily a tight elongated cylinder of packed fur, but may include bits of other elements such as swallowed food. Animals with hairballs are sometimes mistaken as having other conditions of the stomach such as lymphosarcoma, tuberculosis, and tumor of the spleen. Cats are especially prone to hairball formation since they groom themselves by licking their fur, and thereby ingest it. Rabbits are also prone to hairballs because they groom themselves in the same fashion as cats, but hairballs are especially dangerous for rabbits because they cannot regurgitate them. Due to the digestive systems of rabbits being very fragile, hairballs in rabbits must be treated immediately or they may cause the animal to stop feeding and ultimately die due to dehydration. Cattle are also known to accumulate hairballs but, as they do not vomit, these are found usually after death and can be quite large.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "928652", "title": "Licking", "section": "Section::::Abnormal licking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 210, "text": "Animals in captivity sometimes develop a licking stereotypy during which surfaces (walls, bars, gates, etc.) are repeatedly licked for no apparent reason. This has been observed in captive giraffes and camels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They were not covered by flood insurance because they didn't *purchase* it. I assure you that it was available to them. If the insurance company felt it was impossible to happen, they would have happily sold it to them since there was such a low risk of a claim.\n\nWhat happened, I think, is when they purchased the home, the lender didn't *require* flood insurance since it was in a low-risk area.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "By the sound of it, if you had purchased the same flood insurance as the home owners, with the same terms, you would not have actually been covered. If the insurance company is saying, \"You would have been covered if you had flood insurance\", they are probably just taking your word for it that a flood occurred. They have no reason to look further and specify that your situation would not have been covered under their usual flood insurance terms, because (when they are talking to you) they really only have to get across the point that you aren't covered, because you definitely didn't have flood insurance. Only when they are talking to the home owners do they look further and then see, oh wait, it doesn't meet our criteria for a flood.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6701597", "title": "Insurance bad faith", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 738, "text": "If an insurance company violates that covenant, the insured person (or \"policyholder\") may sue the company on a tort claim in addition to a standard breach of contract claim. The contract-tort distinction is significant because as a matter of public policy, punitive or exemplary damages are unavailable for contract claims, but are available for tort claims. In addition, consequential damages for breach of contract are traditionally subject to certain constraints not applicable to tort actions (see \"Hadley v. Baxendale\"). The result is that a plaintiff in an insurance bad faith case may be able to recover an amount \"larger\" than the original face value of the policy, if the insurance company's conduct was particularly egregious.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30505255", "title": "Remedies in Singapore administrative law", "section": "Section::::Remedies that are unavailable.:Damages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 930, "text": "At common law, there is no general right to claim damages – that is, monetary compensation – if rules of public law have been breached by a public authority. In order to obtain damages, an aggrieved person must be able to establish a private law claim in contract or tort law. While such a person would previously have had to take out a legal action for damages separately from any judicial review proceedings, since May 2011 it has been possible for a person who has successfully obtained prerogative orders or a declaration to ask the High Court to also award him or her \"relevant relief\", that is, a liquidated sum, damages, equitable relief or restitution. The Court may give directions to the parties relating to the conduct of the proceedings or otherwise to determine whether the applicant is entitled to the relevant relief sought, and must allow any party opposing the granting of such relief an opportunity to be heard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1392096", "title": "Bad faith", "section": "Section::::In law.:Insurance bad faith.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 712, "text": "Courts can award punitive or exemplary damages, over and above actual damages against any insurance company which is found to have adjusted a claim in bad faith; the damages may be awarded with the aim of deterring such behavior among insurers in general, and may far exceed the amount of the damage due under the insurance policy. In Canada, one case of this type resulted in a record punitive award of CAD $1 million when an insurance company pressed a claim for arson even after its own experts and adjusters had come to the conclusion that the fire was accidental; the company was advised by legal counsel that the desperate insured parties would be willing to settle for much less than what they were owed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8134", "title": "Damages", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 388, "text": "At common law, damages are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury. To warrant the award, the claimant must show that a breach of duty has caused foreseeable loss. To be recognised at law, the loss must involve damage to property, or mental or physical injury; pure economic loss is rarely recognised for the award of damages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3860344", "title": "Direct-action lawsuit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 324, "text": "In a lawsuit that is not direct-action, a plaintiff brings the claim against the insured, who actually wronged the plaintiff. Once judgment has been rendered against the defendant, there are a number of ways that the insurance company (assuming the defendant is insured) might later be made to pay the victorious plaintiff.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "227269", "title": "Bailment", "section": "Section::::Damages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 259, "text": "Plaintiffs will be able to sue for damages based on the duty of care. Often this will be normal tort damages. Plaintiff may elect also to sue for conversion, either in the replevin or trover, although these are generally considered older, common law damages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21436", "title": "Negligence", "section": "Section::::Damages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 588, "text": "There are also two other general principles relating to damages. Firstly, the award of damages should take place in the form of a single lump sum payment. Therefore, a defendant should not be required to make periodic payments (however some statutes give exceptions for this). Secondly, the Court is not concerned with how the plaintiff uses the award of damages. For example, if a plaintiff is awarded $100,000 for physical harm, the plaintiff is not required to spend this money on medical bills to restore them to their original position - they can spend this money any way they want.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hypothetically between about 2 and 6 hours for either an ELISA or for a genetic test via PCR under ideal conditions. \n\nThere may be some freaky kits to let you do it a bit faster but that is unlikely for ebola. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "40817590", "title": "Ebola virus disease", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Onset.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 291, "text": "The length of time between exposure to the virus and the development of symptoms (incubation period) is between 2 and 21 days, and usually between 4 and 10 days. However, recent estimates based on mathematical models predict that around 5% of cases may take greater than 21 days to develop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50646737", "title": "Viral load monitoring for HIV", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Special populations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 432, "text": "The window period for a test is the amount of time from the initial infection event until the disease can be detected. Exposure to HIV, followed by replication of the virus, may take as long as six months to reach a level detectable in many testing methods. An HIV antibody test usually detects the HIV antibodies within two to eight weeks, but can have a valid negative result for a long as 2 to 6 months after initial infection. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51404545", "title": "Olivia Hallisey", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 602, "text": "Olivia Hallisey is an American Scientist at Stanford University. Previously, she attended Greenwich High School in Greenwich, Connecticut. While a junior in high school, she won first prize in the 2015 Google Science Fair for inventing a low-cost, rapid test for Ebola. The prize also came with $50,000. According to Hallisey, her test can be completed in as little as 30 minutes at a cost of $25, and, unlike existing ebola detection methods, does not require refrigeration. She became interested in fighting Ebola while watching the 2014 West Africa Ebola outbreak in which thousands of people died.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40817590", "title": "Ebola virus disease", "section": "Section::::Research.:Diagnostic tests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 154, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 154, "end_character": 303, "text": "On 29 November 2014, a new 15-minute Ebola test was reported that if successful, \"not only gives patients a better chance of survival, but it prevents transmission of the virus to other people.\" The new equipment, about the size of a laptop and solar-powered, allows testing to be done in remote areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26140315", "title": "Optometry Admission Test", "section": "Section::::Administration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 211, "text": "The test lasts, at most, for a total of 4 hours and 50 minutes. This time estimate includes 3 optional components: a 15-minute pre-test tutorial, a 30-minute mid-test break, and a 15-minute post-testing survey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43955674", "title": "Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone", "section": "Section::::2014 Outbreak started.:November 2014: Continuing struggle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 305, "text": "On 1 November, the United Kingdom announced plans to build three more Ebola laboratories in Sierra Leone. The labs helped to determine if a patient had been infected by the Ebola virus. At that time, it took as much as five days to test a sample because of the volume of samples that needed to be tested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44942023", "title": "Ebola virus disease treatment research", "section": "Section::::Potential diagnostic tests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 267, "text": "BULLET::::- Corgenix Medical Corp announced on 26 February that health regulators had approved its rapid Ebola test for emergency use. The ReEBOV Antigen Rapid Test involves putting a drop of blood on a paper strip and waiting for at least 15 minutes for a reaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "White is a combination of all the colors of the visible spectrum. In screens, all colors are mixed using red, green and blue subpixels. So to get white, you have to turn on all three at the same intensity. Thus you get three times as much light as you would for a solid blue color.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "455672", "title": "Color theory", "section": "Section::::Traditional color theory.:Achromatic colors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 215, "text": "Black and white have long been known to combine \"well\" with almost any other colors; black decreases the apparent \"saturation\" or \"brightness\" of colors paired with it, and white shows off all hues to equal effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2542507", "title": "Color scheme", "section": "Section::::Types.:Achromatic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 213, "text": "Black and white have long been known to combine well with almost any other colors; black decreases the apparent \"saturation\" or \"brightness\" of colors paired with it, and white shows off all hues to equal effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17599355", "title": "White", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 314, "text": "White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of fresh snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White on television and computer screens is created by a mixture of red, blue and green light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30087669", "title": "Shades of white", "section": "Section::::White.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 313, "text": "\"White\" is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. White is the lightest possible color.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32357031", "title": "Shades of gray", "section": "Section::::White and black.:White.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 311, "text": "White is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. White is the lightest possible color.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50777971", "title": "List of colors by shade", "section": "Section::::Colors with Shades and Tints of that Hue.:White.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 256, "text": "White is a balanced combination of all the colors of the visible light spectrum, or of a pair of complementary colors, or of three or more colors, such as additive primary colors. It is a neutral or achromatic (\"without color\") color, like black and gray.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20603258", "title": "Stick candy", "section": "Section::::Production and marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 228, "text": "In the 1800s, bright red (and sometimes also bright blue) swirled with white were the most common colors. Although unbent and thicker, it is similar to a candy cane (which retains the aforementioned red-and-white color scheme).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From, the perspective of an origin of life researcher, life must be considered as a continuum. Some things are clearly living or not, rocks versus cats, but may things fall in between. Viruses are most certainly alive, they can't reproduce by themselves, but then again neither can a human (you need 2). My preferred distinction is to consider most organisms as cellular life and viruses as capsidated life (though non capsid viruses do exist). \n\nWhere the line truely blurrs, is when you start looking into the chemistry of self replicating systems and the origin of life. Is an enzyme that can make more copies of itself alive? And well, all you can really say is that its more alive than a rock, but less alive than a cat. \n\nThe real challenge is determining suitable tests for whether life is present somewhere, such as mars. The last lander sent to mars that tested for life had a criteria such that an internal combustion engine would be considered alive.\n\nSo when we do decide to draw a line and say this is alive and this is not, it is going to be based on measurable quantities that can be determined through relatively simple experiments. Not on ambiguities involving wheter we should consider something to be alive if it can't reproduce on its own.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pretty much with viruses. There is some debate on the issue, but viruses lack the ability to self replicate (they need the cellular machinery of a truly living organism). So prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) are the simplest forms of life.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Define \"living\". \n\nA quartz crystal is not alive. A bluejay is alive. Fire is not alive. A bacterium is alive. Is a virus alive? Is a prion alive?\n\nWhat about end of life? I routinely dissect mice for my project. I give them an anesthetic. I wait for all reflexes to go away. At this point, if I left the mouse alone, it would most likely recover just fine. But I then open up their chest cavity. I take as much blood as I can get, about 1/3 to 1/2 of what is in a mouse. I then wash out their lungs with saline, remove the lungs for histology, and cut other bits out for study. The heart is still beating after this. The diaphragm will contract, trying to suck air into lungs that are sitting in a jar of fixative about 2-3 feet away. I then give it a hangman's fracture to finish it off....and the legs will kick. I know, gruesome, but there's a point....\n\nWhen did the mouse die?\n\nBiology is a continuum, and we try to impose hard and fast categories on it. What species is it? Is it alive? When did life start? When did life end? When did that species diverge? When is something diseased? Is a specific organism a pathogen or a symbiont?\n\nSometimes, the distinction is clear, like quartz crystal vs bluejay. Sometimes, it's not so clear, like \"are chihuahuas and mastiffs really the same species?\" Sometimes it's damn near impossible to answer, like \"Is a prion alive?\" And sometimes it's almost pointless to ask, like \"When does life begin?\"\n\nLook at [this](_URL_0_) bar. Where does it turn black? At what precise point? What about 0.5mm to the left? Is that black? Why are the two points different? If they are the same, were you wrong the first time? \n\nCertain biological questions are the same way. Biology is messy, and that's why we have error bars. Physicists hate that, in my experience.\n\nIs it possible the defining line will change in the future? That assumes we have a defining line right now.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is no line. \n\nLife is a category, a box, a label. It's important not to give a label more authority than simply as an organizational tool. Take Pluto... nothing changed when it was re-labeled. Calling a virus living or non-living doesn't change what it does. \n\nLabels are tools to simplify conversation, education, and explanation. If I say a virus is alive, and you say it's not... that doesn't matter. What matters is that if we're working on them, we understand how they work, not how they're classified.\n\nBlack and Whites like that are more a topic for legal and philosophical debate. Reality is far more intricate and interesting than the artificial labels we put on it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18393", "title": "Life", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 576, "text": "Life is a characteristic that distinguishes physical entities that have biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased (they have died), or because they never had such functions and are classified as inanimate. Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not define viruses, viroids, or potential synthetic life as \"living\". Biology is the science concerned with the study of life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11983318", "title": "Branches of science", "section": "Section::::Natural/Pure Science.:Science of living things.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 540, "text": "The science of living things comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of living organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings. However, the study of behavior of organisms, such as practiced in ethology and psychology, is only included in as much as it involves a clearly biological aspect. While biology remains the centerpiece of the science of living things, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and new, often interdisciplinary, fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34908824", "title": "Science of Life Studies 24/7", "section": "Section::::History.:Science of Life Studies 24/7 meaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 390, "text": "'Science of Life' comes from the concept that if every child could be scientifically shown the challenges and possibilities they would face in life and also shown their true self, they will be able to prepare and develop all the skills needed to live a great life. 'Life' constitutes all the time (24 hours a day, 7 days a week), and is represented now. Not the future, or after life only.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "611323", "title": "Wilhelm Dilthey", "section": "Section::::Work.:Distinction between natural sciences and human sciences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 374, "text": "Both the natural and human sciences originate in the context or \"nexus of life\" (\"Lebenszusammenhang\"), a concept which influenced the phenomenological account of the lifeworld (\"Lebenswelt\"), but are differentiated in how they relate to their life-context. Whereas the natural sciences abstract away from it, it becomes the primary object of inquiry in the human sciences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68140", "title": "List of life sciences", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 201, "text": "The life sciences or biological sciences comprise the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life and organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18393", "title": "Life", "section": "Section::::Definitions.:Biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 297, "text": "Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, most current definitions in biology are descriptive. Life is considered a characteristic of something that preserves, furthers or reinforces its existence in the given environment. This characteristic exhibits all or most of the following traits:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "558685", "title": "Natural environment", "section": "Section::::Life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 542, "text": "Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. In biology, the science of living organisms, \"life\" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, functional activity and the continual change preceding death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Maybe because back then you could actually make money on records. These days releasing a record serves the purpose of getting your music out there and getting fans excited to see you live. Performing live is where the moneys at and when artists are on the road, they don't have the time to work on new records.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the 50's and 60's bands didn't tour like they do now. Primary sources of income were record sales and bands would occasionally play a festival or live show. To maximize sales, bands released multiple albums a year, today the opposite is true. Bands release one album every few years and maximize the ticket sales and advertising for that album until sales begin to droop at which time the band releases another album.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3615788", "title": "Album (Public Image Ltd album)", "section": "Section::::Composition credits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1084, "text": "John Lydon: “Most of the songs on the 'Album', for instance, were written at home and put onto demonstration tapes. But I didn't think the [1984/85 touring] band were good enough or experienced enough really to, like, record the song properly. And that's why I use session people. [By using session musicians] the songs obviously changed — their shape, and not their direction.” “I had a live band before recording took place and a lot of material together before going into the studio. But the band was totally inexperienced, they would have put the budget up by an incredible amount. So we decided to use session people.” “I make records for myself. I want them to be completely precise. Accuracy is very important to me. Otherwise it's bad work and a waste of my time, and I really don't want to waste my time. There must be a conclusion to what you do, no vagueness. There must be a sense of completeness. Every song is an emotion and it has to succeed as that, otherwise you've failed. It's bad work. That annoys me. Bad work from anyone just annoys me. I just don't need it.”\"\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "209218", "title": "New wave of British heavy metal", "section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 1273, "text": "\"The N.W.O.B.H.M. Encyclopedia\" by Malc Macmillan lists more than 500 recording bands established in the decade between 1975 and 1985 and related to the movement. Probably as many bands launched in the same period, but never emerged from their local club scene, or recorded nothing more than demo tapes or limited pressings of self-produced singles. The disinterest of record labels, poor management of bands, internal struggles and musical choices that turned off much of their original fan base, resulted in most groups disbanding and disappearing by the end of the decade. A few of the best known groups, such as Praying Mantis in Japan and Saxon, Demon and Tokyo Blade in mainland Europe, survived in foreign markets. Some others, namely Raven, Girlschool and Grim Reaper, tried to break through in the US market signing with American labels, but their attempts were unsuccessful. Two of the more popular bands of the movement, however, went on to considerable, lasting success. Iron Maiden has since become one of the most commercially successful and influential heavy metal bands of all time, even after adopting a more progressive style. Def Leppard became even more successful, targeting the American mainstream rock market with their more refined hard rock sound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26430534", "title": "The Final Frontier World Tour", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 620, "text": "\"\"It's really important if you're going to remain a valid band that you play your new stuff. Otherwise you become a parody of what you started out doing. But it's impossible [to play more from the new album]. Back in the early 80s you could probably do it, but now with YouTube and downloading, the songs would all be out before the album was out. We did Somewhere Back in Time and that dealt with the 80s, and the time before that we did A Matter of Life and Death, just the one album. You can't go out and play the greatest hits every time – it's important to play the newer songs because we really believe in them.\"\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6601960", "title": "Reissue", "section": "Section::::Reasons for reissue.:Strong or weak sales.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 612, "text": "Recordings are reissued to meet continuing demand for an album that continues to be popular after its original release. In other cases, albums are reissued to create interest in and hopefully revive the sales of a release which has sold poorly. For example, the heavy metal label Roadrunner Records is notorious for reissuing their artist's works' only months after releasing the original album. According to US music magazine \"Billboard\", reissues target \"casual consumers who hadn't picked up the album when it was originally released, as well as obsessives who need to own every song in an artist's catalog.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60338718", "title": "The Push Kings", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 715, "text": "The band released four albums in five years, a pace of recording that was intentionally accelerated; the group noted that groups of the 1960s and 1970s released albums much more quickly, and believed it was unnecessary for groups to take two years or more to record and market an album, as was more common in the 1990s. \"Far Places\", their follow-up to \"Push Kings\", arrived in mid-1998. Switching to Rebbel Records, they released another self-titled album in 2000. Their fourth album, \"Feel No Fade\", arrived in late 2001, and received a scathing review by Pitchfork Media. By the end of 2001 the group had disbanded. Carrick Moore Gerety later went on to join Everybody Else, and Fishbeck later formed Holy Shit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2696770", "title": "Post-punk revival", "section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 327, "text": "By the end of the decade, many of the bands of the movement had broken up, were on hiatus, or had moved into other musical areas, and very few were making significant impact on the charts. Bands that returned to recording and touring in the 2010s included Arctic Monkeys, the Strokes , Interpol the National, and The Killers. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53818185", "title": "List of artists who left right before their bands became famous", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 272, "text": "While many notable bands go through several lineup changes throughout their careers, this list of artists who left right before their bands became famous only lists members who quit or were fired from a band shortly before the band achieved mainstream commercial success.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You're only looking at the first piece of this question (although you're quite right about it). \n \nThe law of gravitation tells us that the force due to gravitational acceleration is equal to the gravitational constant x mass of the first object x mass of the second object / the distance between the objects squared. **F = G x m1 x m2 / r^2**. \n \nIf we let the first object, **m1**, be the Earth, then it seems obvious that a more massive second object will experience a greater force towards the Earth versus a smaller second object. This is entirely correct. \n \nHowever, the *other* piece of the puzzle is to remember that force = mass x acceleration --- > **F = m x a**. Although the force would be larger for a more massive object, the acceleration would be proportionately smaller, so that it balances out. \n \nMathematically, you can show this by setting **m2 x a2 = G x m1 x m2 / r^2**, and also **m3 x a3 = G x m1 x m3 / r^2**. If you solve for the acceleration of each object, you'll see that it's only dependent on the mass of the Earth, m1. \n \n* and as TraumaMonkey pointed out below, the Earth will also accelerate a tiny bit towards the other objects.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While the amount of force a hammer experiences is greater than what a feather experiences, in a great cosmic coincidence (perhaps?), the increased force experienced by the hammer is offset exactly by the larger inertia of the hammer, so the two objects end up accelerating at exactly the same rate because each of their respective inertias ensures that is the case. They each experience different magnitudes of gravitational attraction, but having different masses and correspondingly different inertias, they each require different amounts of force to accelerate at the same rate. It turns out gravity and inertia are 1:1 proportional exactly, so 2 objects, regardless of their mass that are both in the same gravitational field (at the same distance from its center) accelerate at the same rate.\n\nDoes this help?\n\nEDIT: I didn't really read your question. Sorry. As other posters said, the Earth is very very very immeasurably perturbed/attracted to the hammer more than the feather. But the effect is so tiny you can disregard it as existing, practically. But your example of whale/petunias versus asteroid is a good one and in fact the whale will also accelerate the asteroid toward itself more than the petunias, and if you set it up right so as to get an effect that is large enough to be measured, then the whale will hit its asteroid first, all things being equal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short answer: \nA bigger mass gives proportionally more gravitational force, which goes into the equation F=m*a. \nAcceleration is therefore a=F/m. Since F and m are proportional, acceleration will be the same in a given gravitational field.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Imagine dropping three identical bowling balls. They hit the ground at the same time, right? Now tie two of them together with a tiny piece of string and do it again. The tiny piece of string won't make a difference, so they'll all hit the ground at the same time again even though two bowling balls tied together with a tiny piece of string weigh twice as much as one bowling ball.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The earth pulls harder on the hammer, but it's also harder to accelerate the hammer because it has more inertial mass: F=ma. If the force has grown in exactly the same proportion as the inertial mass, then the acceleration will be unchanged. \n\nBy the way, it wasn't intuitively obvious that inertial mass and gravitational mass had to be the same, and so this was the subject of considerable experimental test.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13802", "title": "Hammer", "section": "Section::::Physics of hammering.:Effect of gravity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 448, "text": "Gravity exerts a force on the hammer head. If hammering downwards, gravity increases the acceleration during the hammer stroke and increases the energy delivered with each blow. If hammering upwards, gravity reduces the acceleration during the hammer stroke and therefore reduces the energy delivered with each blow. Some hammering methods, such as traditional mechanical pile drivers, rely entirely on gravity for acceleration on the down stroke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "930887", "title": "Magic of Dungeons & Dragons", "section": "Section::::Sample spells.:Arcane spells.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 388, "text": "BULLET::::- Feather Fall: The affected creatures or objects fall slowly; at a feather rate. Feather fall instantly changes the rate at which the targets fall to a mere 60 feet per round (equivalent to the end of a fall from a few feet), and the subjects take no damage upon landing while the spell is in effect. However, when the spell duration expires, a normal rate of falling resumes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "268475", "title": "Two New Sciences", "section": "Section::::The two new sciences.:The motion of objects.:The law of falling bodies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 634, "text": "While Aristotle had observed that heavier objects fall more quickly than lighter ones, in \"Two New Sciences\" Galileo postulated that this was due \"not\" to inherently stronger forces acting on the heavier objects, but to the countervailing forces of air resistance and friction. To compensate, he conducted experiments using a shallowly inclined ramp, smoothed so as to eliminate as much friction as possible, on which he rolled down balls of different weights. In this manner, he was able to provide empirical evidence that matter accelerates vertically downward at a constant rate, regardless of mass, due to the effects of gravity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2099059", "title": "Apollo 15 operations on the Lunar surface", "section": "Section::::EVA-3.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 556, "text": "Well, in my left hand, I have a feather; in my right hand, a hammer. And I guess one of the reasons we got here today was because of a gentleman named Galileo, a long time ago, who made a rather significant discovery about falling objects in gravity fields. And we thought where would be a better place to confirm his findings than on the Moon? And so we thought we'd try it here for you. The feather happens to be, appropriately, a falcon feather for our Falcon. And I'll drop the two of them here and, hopefully, they'll hit the ground at the same time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80825", "title": "Free fall", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 508, "text": "Free fall was demonstrated on the moon by astronaut David Scott on August 2, 1971. He simultaneously released a hammer and a feather from the same height above the moon's surface. The hammer and the feather both fell at the same rate and hit the ground at the same time. This demonstrated Galileo's discovery that, in the absence of air resistance, all objects experience the same acceleration due to gravity. (On the Moon, the gravitational acceleration is much less than on Earth, approximately 1.63 m/s.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23251209", "title": "Gravity Storm", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 273, "text": "A strange sound causes the Marshalls, the Pakuni, and even the dinosaurs to seize up and collapse in the middle of their activities. Although they quickly recover, the sound strikes again, dragging everyone to the ground as though their weight has increased substantially.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19048", "title": "Mass", "section": "Section::::Definitions.:Inertial vs. gravitational mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1100, "text": "The universality of free-fall only applies to systems in which gravity is the only acting force. All other forces, especially friction and air resistance, must be absent or at least negligible. For example, if a hammer and a feather are dropped from the same height through the air on Earth, the feather will take much longer to reach the ground; the feather is not really in \"free\"-fall because the force of air resistance upwards against the feather is comparable to the downward force of gravity. On the other hand, if the experiment is performed in a vacuum, in which there is no air resistance, the hammer and the feather should hit the ground at exactly the same time (assuming the acceleration of both objects towards each other, and of the ground towards both objects, for its own part, is negligible). This can easily be done in a high school laboratory by dropping the objects in transparent tubes that have the air removed with a vacuum pump. It is even more dramatic when done in an environment that naturally has a vacuum, as David Scott did on the surface of the Moon during Apollo 15.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Are you talking about the OSI-Model as in the computer interconnection model?\n\nOh damn, it's been a while since school. As far as I remember, it is pretty much a (succesful) attempt to standardize how low-level stuff (your USB/Bluetooth/FireWire/DSL/T1 protocols, basically.) ends up interfacing with your applications, and the other way around.\n\nHow it does that gets increadibly complicated, but unless you're gonna use it in your work (in which case, you should have better resources than reddit) it won't matter that much.\n\nOne thing to note though, is that the OSI model is ABSTRACT! The whole thing is just to standardize how hardware and software worked together.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One way to think about the OSI model is like a factory line that's producing some widget. Each part of the factory line concerns itself with one aspect of the production, and hands it off down the line.\n\nNetwork communication works in phases like this factory line would.\n\nSo layer 1, the physical layer, is about how things are connected physically.\n\nLayer 2 deals with MAC addresses, which you can think of as unique names for each computer or network device. This is basically how each of these physical devices can find and identify each other.\n\nIf you're at least a little familiar with networking, you probably know about IP addresses. Your computer has one and so do other devices connected to a network. Layer 3 of OSI basically pairs up these devices MAC addresses – their unique names – with an IP address. You can think of IP addresses like any kind of mailing address a person would have.\nNow that each computer and network device has both their unique name and address, the devices are ready to start communicating (i.e. sending data to each other).\n\nLayer 4 deals with moving the actual data between these devices. These data are sent in \"packets\" which are basically what they sound like – bundles of data.\n\nAs far as I remember layers 5 and 6 don't really do much or aren't really used.\n\nLayer 7 is where stuff happens with the data that's been received.\n\nI'm a bit rusty but hopefully this was helpful!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39776", "title": "Denial-of-service attack", "section": "Section::::Types.:Application layer attacks.:Application layer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 697, "text": "The OSI model (ISO/IEC 7498-1) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the internal functions of a communication system by partitioning it into abstraction layers. The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The model groups similar communication functions into one of seven logical layers. A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the communications path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that traverse that path.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6761211", "title": "Layer 8", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 579, "text": "The OSI model is a 7-layer abstract model that describes an architecture of data communications for networked computers. The layers build upon each other, allowing for abstraction of specific functions in each one. The top (7th) layer is the Application Layer describing methods and protocols of software applications. It is then held that the user is the 8th layer. Network appliances vendor like Cyberoam claim that Layer 8 allows IT administrators to identify users, control Internet activity of users in the network, set user based policies and generate reports by username.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2379185", "title": "Hacking: The Art of Exploitation", "section": "Section::::Content 2nd edition.:0x400 Networking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 442, "text": "In communication among computers through networking the OSI Model is used. The OSI Model is a model that provides the standards that computers use to communicate. There are seven layers in the OSI Model and they are Physical layer, Data-Link layer, Network layer, Transport layer, Session layer, Presentation layer, and Application layer. Each packet that a computer sends out to another computer must go through each layer of the OSI Model.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22747", "title": "OSI model", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 360, "text": "OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols. The OSI reference model was a major advance in the teaching of network concepts. It promoted the idea of a consistent model of protocol layers, defining interoperability between network devices and software. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59563876", "title": "OSTO System Model", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 879, "text": "The OSTO System Model is based on the OSTO System Theory, which comprehends complex systems and organizations as living systems and maps these by means of the OSTO System Model. The model is cybernetic in nature and is deduced from the theory of closed loops. The basics of this theory have been formulated by David P. Hanna in the 1980’s and have been published initially in 1988. The model assumes that several central transformation processes take place on the inside of a complex organization. These are deeply influenced by mutual reactions between the inner life of the organization and the outside (environment). In terms of closed loop theory, the OSTO System Model depicts the essential elements of such a living system in its interconnectedness, dependencies, and reciprocal reactions. Thinking in network structures is, thus, a crucial part of the OSTO System Theory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2908867", "title": "Graphical Data Display Manager", "section": "Section::::GDDM and OS/2 Presentation Manager.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 312, "text": "IBM and Microsoft began collaborating on the design of OS/2 in 1986. The Graphics Presentation Interface (GPI), the graphics API in the OS/2 Presentation Manager, was based on IBM's GDDM and the Graphics Control Program (GCP). GCP was originally developed in Hursley for the 3270/PC-G and 3270/PC-GX terminals. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33189313", "title": "Packet processing", "section": "Section::::Communications models.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 399, "text": "The OSI Model is a 7 layer model describing how a network operating system works. A layered model has many benefits including the ability to change one layer without impacting the others and as a model for understanding how a network OS works. As long as the interconnection between layers is maintained, vendors can enhance the implementation of an individual layer without impact on other layers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You're confusing deep and dark. Deep us anything unindexable. Settings pages, email inboxes, databases.\n\nDark is where shady, illegal, or exceedingly discreet or private stuff happens.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why would they? People's searches are a great way to track them. Shutting it off would shut down access", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because shutting down the dark web is hard. Here's what they can do (assuming they have full political power)...\n\n* Find and block the IP addresses of the websites that are creating illegal activity. (Time consuming)\n* Have ISP's create a whitelist so you can only access websites they approve of.\n* Block all secure communications (HTTPS/SSL, SSH, etc.), and monitor your traffic.\n\nIn the USA, the federal government will never do any of those options. And you can't shutdown the whole darkweb because it's made up of too many networks and computers (just like the web).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most typical internet users do not even know how to access the Dark Web. And to try to restrict it would be akin to a censorship. Also, from what I understand, the US Military also uses the Dark Web to conduct certain operations, and uses the traffic of its users to hide amongst the crowd.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I heard about this on NPR's Fresh Air. The whole interview was pretty interesting ([transcript here](_URL_0_)).\n\nHere's the relevant part which I think is a good answer:\n\n > GROSS: So I want to get back to the fact that Tor, which stands for The Onion Network, which is a highly encrypted network - and this is where a lot of the black-market websites are, a lot of their child pornography and other pornography is. This was a network created by the U.S. government largely to help - I think to help people in authoritarian countries communicate and not be censored. So, you know, the same kind of encryption that's helping, you know, the good guys is also helping criminals in their criminal activity.\n\n > BARTLETT: That's absolutely right. And you can't have one without the other. This is the great dilemma. It's the very same systems of encryption, whether it's the Tor browser or any of the other systems of encryptions we use. The stuff that the child pornographers use to keep themselves away from the authorities is exactly the same software that's being used by whistleblowers, that's being used by Democratic activists, that's being used by civil liberties groups. And so the great difficulty is how - if you try too hard to undermine those systems of privacy and encryption that are being used by the bad guys because you're only worried about them, you are also going to adversely affect all the people that use it for social benefit. And that's one of the reasons why in the end, we are going to have to work out a way of living with some of this bad stuff. Because the benefits of Internet freedom and of Internet privacy are so enormous - not just in this country, not just in democracies but especially in brutal dictatorships all around the world. And so if we want those people to have protection and privacy, unfortunately it means that some bad people are going to use it for ill as well. But we shouldn't destroy the whole system simply as a result of the behavior of the bad guys.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11062628", "title": "Censorship in the United States", "section": "Section::::Medium.:Internet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 444, "text": "Private Internet connections in the United States are not overtly subject to censorship imposed by the government, but there is evidence of search related restrictions being imposed through certain predominant search engines, along other intentionally narrowed parameters related to censorship as \"blocked access\" that seems to indicate intentional governmental restrictions where search providers seem complicit with \"open internet searches.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3770757", "title": "The World (Internet service provider)", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 290, "text": "Many government and university installations blocked, threatened to block, or attempted to shut-down The World's Internet connection until Software Tool & Die was eventually granted permission by the National Science Foundation to provide public Internet access on \"an experimental basis.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27913563", "title": "Right to Internet access", "section": "Section::::History.:2011: UN Special Rapporteur report.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 505, "text": "BULLET::::- 78. While blocking and filtering measures deny users access to specific content on the Internet, States have also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur considers cutting off users from Internet access, regardless of the justification provided, including on the grounds of violating intellectual property rights law, to be disproportionate and thus a violation of article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60577763", "title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Africa", "section": "Section::::Selective censorship or surveillance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 461, "text": "The law does not provide for government restrictions on access to the Internet, but there are reports that the government blocks access to Web sites within the country that are critical of the government. In 2012 and 2013, some independent online news outlets and opposition blogs were intermittently inaccessible. Some opposition sites continue to be blocked on some ISPs in early 2013, including Umusingi and Inyenyeri News, which were first blocked in 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11056386", "title": "Internet censorship", "section": "Section::::Circumvention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 287, "text": "Another way to circumvent Internet censorship is to physically go to an area where the Internet is not censored. In 2017 a so-called \"Internet refugee camp\" was established by IT workers in the village of Bonako, just outside an area of Cameroon where the Internet is regularly blocked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25651", "title": "Telecommunications in Rwanda", "section": "Section::::Internet.:Internet censorship and surveillance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 205, "text": "The law does not provide for government restrictions on access to the Internet, but there are reports that the government blocks access to Web sites within the country that are critical of the government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27913563", "title": "Right to Internet access", "section": "Section::::Links to other rights.:Right to freedom of speech.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 351, "text": "The Internet's power is said to lie in its removal of a government’s control of information. Online on the Internet, any individuals can publish anything, which allows citizens to circumvent the government’s official information sources. This has threatened governing regimes and lead to many censoring or cutting Internet service in times of crisis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If I understand you right, you are asking why at a large distances from a flashlight, you can't see the an object being illuminated by the flashlight beam, but if you turn and look directly into the flashlight from the same distance, you can see that it's on. The difference here is that to see the object under the flashlight beam's illumination, the light from the flashlight has to reflect into your eye. Most objects are no where near 100% reflective. The object only reflects some of the light into your eye - not enough for you to register. The rest of the light gets absorbed by the object and converted to heat, gets scattered in a direction other than the direction of your eye, or gets transmitted through. For instance, a simple, flat, mirror is about 95% reflective, but only in the mirror direction. If you are looking at the mirror at some angle other than the mirror angle with respect to the light source, than you will only receive less than 1% of the light incident on the mirror. If you align yourself with the mirror angle, you will indeed see the light of the flashlight coming off the mirror if you can see it by looking directly at the flashlight.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11539633", "title": "Police duty belt", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Portable lighting.:Primary flashlights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 343, "text": "Long, cylindrical flashlights tend to be carried in a flashlight ring. Rings are simple and inexpensive, and are convenient for flashlights which are not regularly carried. However, the flashlight—which is often heavy—is permitted a great amount of vertical and horizontal freedom which can make the light insecure and uncomfortable to carry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "243718", "title": "Flashlight", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 356, "text": "In addition to the general-purpose hand-held flashlight, many forms have been adapted for special uses. Head or helmet-mounted flashlights designed for miners and campers leave the hands free. Some flashlights can be used underwater or in flammable atmospheres. Flashlights are used as a light source when in a place with no power or during power outages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25330713", "title": "Belgian railway signalling", "section": "Section::::Light signals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 404, "text": "The lights are designed and arranged to be visible from a distance (up to two kilometers on a clear day). For this they are equipped with lenses to focus light rays emitted by the bulb, which can be selected and reasonable power. That is why the lights do not seem very intense when viewed from the side while they light up sharply in normal line of vision i.e. in the direction of arrival of the train.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17725", "title": "Lighthouse", "section": "Section::::Lighthouse technology.:Lens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 444, "text": "Before modern strobe lights, lenses were used to concentrate the light from a continuous source. Vertical light rays of the lamp are redirected into a horizontal plane, and horizontally the light is focused into one or a few directions at a time, with the light beam swept around. As a result, in addition to seeing the side of the light beam, the light is directly visible from greater distances, and with an identifying light characteristic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2073846", "title": "Malmquist bias", "section": "Section::::Understanding the bias.:Magnitudes and brightness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 333, "text": "In everyday life it is easy to see that light dims as it gets farther away. This can be seen with car headlights, candles, flashlights, and many other lit objects. This dimming follows the inverse square law, which states that the brightness of an object decreases as , where \"r\" is the distance between the observer and the object.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1246459", "title": "Tactical light", "section": "Section::::Handheld lights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 670, "text": "Police often use large flashlights like the classic D cell Maglite, a sturdy metal unit which, when held correctly, can double as a billy club and as a tactical light. The flashlight is held in the weak hand, with the back of the flashlight extending past the thumb. This allows the light to quickly be reversed, swinging the back end of the light forward to strike the target or block a blow. The strong hand can then be used to draw a sidearm, and place the hands back to back to provide support and illumination in the firing position. Smaller tactical flashlights often have crown-like protrusions around the lens to enable its use as a weapon by hammerfist strike.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44140260", "title": "Fulton MX991/U Flashlight", "section": "Section::::Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 558, "text": "The nosecap of the flashlight has the ability to be unscrewed, and a custom lens can be fitted. The flashlight contains five lens in the tailcap, consisting of two red lens, blue lens, white lens, and diffuser lens (earlier three red and no blue-green). This enabled soldiers to send signals using different colors, or to cast the light in different methods. As the flashlight could not be focused/unfocused, the diffuser lens was used to spread the light in such a fashion that it would throw out a wide glow of light, as opposed to a narrow, focused beam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm 40 and I'm here having always wondered the same thing, so don't think age is an issue! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So, for the big skyscraper cranes or \"tower\" crane, the center pillar the crane rests on can be jacked up - it grows \"up\" with the building. They'll use a smaller but somewhat portable (or assembled on site) boom crane to assemble the tower crane. Then the tower crane gets jacked up as the building grows. \n\nThen, once the building is done, the tower crane will lift up a smaller boom crane to the roof. The boom crane disassembles and lowers the pieces of the tower crane. Remember, the ability of a crane to lift \"up\" from its own level is limited by the length of its own boom and how far it can elevate it. All the smaller crane has to do is reach just above the component of the tower crane, which if they're both on or just above the roof isn't far. \n\nBut to lower the tower crane components to street level, that's just lots and lots of cable. Sometimes due to practical considerations, there might be a second boom crane halfway down or something. Roof crane lowers tower crane components halfway, 2nd crane lowers to street.\n\n[Outside of really tall skyscrapers though, boom cranes at street level are usually tall enough to reach the tower crane.](_URL_0_) So why not just build with the boom crane on the street? It won't have the lifting capacity of the tower crane. Also it won't be able to hold as much weight out from its center of rotation. The counterweights for the street level boom crane are mounted on the back of the crane itself. The tower crane's counterweights are suspended quite far out. Also, you have to have a lot of bracing for the street crane. The tower crane's stability is anchored by the building itself. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That's basically it, only that smaller cranes build bigger cranes.\n\nYou usually build the big cranes because you want some very heavy stuff lifted that can't be lifted by mobile cranes. However, the stationary cranes consist of several smaller and lighter parts which can be lifted by a mobile crane and fixed together.\n\nSo big cranes is constructed on site from several parts. The parts are lifted up by smaller weaker and mobile cranes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58907327", "title": "Garden Island Naval Precinct", "section": "Section::::History.:Operating a naval depot, 1914–1990.:Hammerhead Crane associated with the Captain Cook Dock.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 310, "text": "The main use of the crane has been in the removal and refitting of gun turrets. The crane comprises an asymmetric horizontal steel boom, radius , swiveling on a square section steel tower. The maximum lift is , although a subsidiary crane on the boom is able to lift up to . The crane has been decommissioned.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1260400", "title": "Crane (rail)", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Maintenance cranes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 216, "text": "The most varied forms of crane are used for maintenance work. General purpose cranes may be used for installing signalling equipment or pointwork, for example, while more specialised types are used for track laying.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "318378", "title": "Crane (machine)", "section": "Section::::Types.:Fixed.:Tower.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 627, "text": "Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of structures), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height. Further, the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operator's cab.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58907327", "title": "Garden Island Naval Precinct", "section": "Section::::Description.:Individual buildings.:Hammerhead Crane.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 1403, "text": "The Hammerhead Crane consists of an asymmetric horizontal steel truss boom long, with a maximum radius of , swivelling on a square section steel truss tower square, a height of from wharf level to top of the cantilever. The main machinery house is situated on top of the boom, making the total height of the complete structure from wharf level. Foundations consist of four main concrete bases deep and below the low water level being in diameter, taken down to the rock bed. The maximum lift of the crane is when the two main purchase hooks are coupled. All crane motors and swivelling gear are electrically driven. The two main purchase hooks are each powered by motors (maximum 1,000 revolutions variation to 100 revolutions minimum) with automatically adjusting brush gear for speed control. Combined, the provide a lift of operated by one lever, a auxiliary hook powered by a motor is also part of the lifting capacity of the crane. A capacity hook for handling lifting gear and other items is also available and there is also a travelling crane in the main machine house used for maintenance purposes. When tested initially after completion, the maximum test load was lifted, lowered and controlled. Steel wire used in the mains sections totalled , apart from the of electrical gear used. The top of the tower is formed by four main girders. Approximately 250,000 rivets were used in construction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2334148", "title": "Formwork", "section": "Section::::Slab formwork (deck formwork).:Table or flying form systems.:Size.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 812, "text": "BULLET::::1. Crane handled: this approach consists of assembling or producing the tables with a large formwork area that can only be moved up a level by crane. Typical widths can be 15, 18 or 20 feet, or 5 to 7 metres, but their width can be limited, so that it is possible to transport them assembled, without having to pay for an oversize load. The length might vary and can be up to 100 feet (or more) depending on the crane capacity. After the concrete is cured, the decks are lowered and moved with rollers or trolleys to the edge of the building. From then on the protruding side of the table is lifted by crane while the rest of the table is rolled out of the building. After the centre of gravity is outside of the building the table is attached to another crane and flown to the next level or position.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "876705", "title": "Tilt up", "section": "Section::::Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 231, "text": "Cranes are used to tilt the concrete elements from the casting slab to a vertical position. The slabs are then most often set onto a foundation and secured with braces until the structural steel and the roof diaphragm is in place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "318378", "title": "Crane (machine)", "section": "Section::::Efficiency increase of cranes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 150, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 150, "end_character": 494, "text": "Lifetime of existing cranes made of welded metal structures can often be extended for many years by aftertreatment of weldings. During development of cranes, load level (lifting load) can be significantly increased by taking into account the IIW recommendations (the International Institute of Welding Technology IIW published the Guideline \"Recommendations for the HFMI Treatment\" in 2016) leads in most cases to an increase of the permissible lifting load and thus to an efficiency increase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Names that describe geographical location? Well in California I can think of many, there's Oceanside, Riverside, Long Beach, Seaside, Quartz Hill. And with the Spanish heritage, California is not limited to English names, there are some in Spanish too: Arroyo Grande (big spring), Morro Bay (bluff), Cerritos (little hills), La Mesa (plateau). In indigenous languages there's Mojave, which means [beside the water](_URL_0_).\n\nBut I guess they're not common in the Americas because towns in Europe didn't document their founding (I can recall Rome has a myth of being founded); and in the newly discovered territories they colonists tried to leave their personal mark on the towns being founded (family name, crown, religious, or even the new version of were they came).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also, keep in mind that there are many towns and cities in the Americas whose names are corruptions of Native American names for the locations and that those names frequently are descriptive of their locations. For instance, the name of Saco, Maine is derived from an Eastern Abenaki term meaning \"land where the river comes out.\"^1\n\n1. William Bright, *Native American Placenames of the United States* (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004) [Link to Google Book] (_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can only speak for France, but in the early modern era, the central government decided that for ease of administration, no two villages would be allowed to have the same name. Most French towns that are named (Village)-sur-Mer or (Village)-sur-(river) tacked on that suffix in that era to comply with this decree. In the ensuing centuries, towns have been renamed or abandoned, so many of these villages lost their \"twin\" town with the same name, but retain the suffix anyway.\n\nSource: \"The Discovery of France\" by Graham Robb", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13914145", "title": "Falkland Islands English", "section": "Section::::Vocabulary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 640, "text": "Unlike the older English, French and Spanish place names given by mariners, which refer mainly to islands, rocks, bays, coves, and capes (points), the post-1833 Spanish names usually identify inland geographical locations and features, reflecting the new practical necessity for orientation, land delimitation and management in the cattle and sheep farming. Among the typical such names or descriptive and generic parts of names are ‘Rincon Grande’, ‘Ceritos’, ‘Campito’, ‘Cantera’, ‘Terra Motas’, ‘Malo River’, ‘Brasse Mar’, ‘Dos Lomas’, ‘Torcida Point’, ‘Pioja Point’, ‘Estancia’, ‘Oroqueta’, ‘Piedra Sola’, ‘Laguna Seco’, ‘Manada’, etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13802703", "title": "Origins of Falkland Islanders", "section": "Section::::Early settlers.:South American influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 665, "text": "Unlike the older English, French and Spanish place names given by mariners, which refer mainly to islands, rocks, bays, coves, and capes (points) important for navigation, the post-1833 Spanish names usually identify inland geographical locations and features, reflecting the new practical necessity for orientation, land delimitation and management in the cattle and sheep farming. Among the typical such names or descriptive and generic parts of names are ‘Rincon Grande’, ‘Ceritos’, ‘Campito’, ‘Cantera’, ‘Terra Motas’, ‘Malo River’, ‘Brasse Mar’, ‘Dos Lomas’, ‘Torcida Point’, ‘Pioja Point’, ‘Estancia’, ‘Oroqueta’, ‘Piedra Sola’, ‘Laguna Seco’, ‘Manada’, etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "419808", "title": "Anglicisation", "section": "Section::::Modified place names.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 367, "text": "Some foreign place names are commonly anglicised in English. Examples include the Danish city København (Copenhagen), the Russian city Москва Moskva (Moscow), the Swedish city Göteborg (Gothenburg), the Dutch city Den Haag (The Hague), the Spanish city of Sevilla (Seville), the Egyptian city of القاهرة Al-Qāhira (Cairo), and the Italian city of Firenze (Florence).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54549405", "title": "Places named after the Channel Islands", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "A number of places in the world, like the places named after places in other parts of Britain, were named after the Channel Islands, or some place therein. Not all are named directly for one of the islands, but are often named indirectly, such as for another place on the list.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7892788", "title": "Sri Lankan place name etymology", "section": "Section::::Geolinguistic distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 217, "text": "As already stated above, European place names are found mainly in the big towns which used to be colonial centers. On the countryside, there is close to no European toponymy and the indigenous languages are dominant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20602614", "title": "List of New Netherland placename etymologies", "section": "Section::::H.:\"Hoboken\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 168, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 168, "end_character": 455, "text": "Some would believe the city to be named after European town of the same name. The Flemish Hoboken, annexed in 1983 to Antwerp, Belgium, is derived from Middle Dutch \"Hooghe Buechen\" or \"Hoge Beuken\", meaning \"High Beeches\" or \"Tall Beeches\". Established in 1135, the New Netherlanders were likely aware of its existence (and may have pronounced the Lenape to conform a more familiar sound), but it is doubtful that the city on the Hudson is named for it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19558072", "title": "List of Bergen, New Netherland placename etymologies", "section": "Section::::\"Hoboken\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 455, "text": "Some would believe the city to be named after European town of the same name. The Flemish Hoboken, annexed in 1983 to Antwerp, Belgium, is derived from Middle Dutch \"Hooghe Buechen\" or \"Hoge Beuken\", meaning \"High Beeches\" or \"Tall Beeches\". Established in 1135, the New Netherlanders were likely aware of its existence (and may have pronounced the Lenape to conform a more familiar sound), but it is doubtful that the city on the Hudson is named for it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you don't like sour candy... there's more for me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's just preference. I like the tingle sour candy or lemons give me. The flavor and tingly feelings are an experience.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "61230", "title": "Candy", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 359, "text": "Even in a culture that eats sweets frequently, candy is not a significant source of nutrition or food energy for most people. The average American eats about 1.1 kg (2.5 pounds) of sugar or similar sweeteners each week, but almost 95% of that sugar—all but about 70 grams (2.5 ounces)—comes from non-candy sources, especially soft drinks and processed foods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53523835", "title": "Pear-syrup candy", "section": "Section::::Medicinal value.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 635, "text": "The candy contains calcium, potassium, iron and other micronutrients that the human body needs. It also contains nutrients including carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, ascorbic acid, etc. Traditional pear-syrup candy is made from loquat or fresh pear, added with almond, platycodon grandiflorum, tuckahoe, banxia (pinellia ternata), donghua (flos farfarae), qianhu (common hogfennel root), juhong, beimu (fritillaria thun-bergli) and other medicines and sugar. In some recipes, it also contains pangdahai (scaphium scaphigerum) and honeysuckle, functioning to clear and nourish the throat, relieve coughing and reduce sputum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1673316", "title": "Sour Patch Kids", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 307, "text": "Sour Patch Kids (known as Very Bad Kids in France, and as Maynards Sour Patch Kids in the UK and Canada) are a soft candy with a coating of invert sugar and sour sugar (a combination of citric acid, tartaric acid and sugar). The slogan, \"Sour. Sweet. Gone.\", refers to the sour-to-sweet taste of the candy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61230", "title": "Candy", "section": "Section::::Health effects.:Cavities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 880, "text": "Candy generally contains sugar, which is a key environmental factor in the formation of dental caries (cavities). Several types of bacteria commonly found in the mouth consume sugar, particularly \"Streptococcus mutans\". When these bacteria metabolize the sugar found in most candies, juice, or other sugary foods, they produce acids in the mouth that demineralize the tooth enamel and can lead to dental caries. Heavy or frequent consumption of high-sugar foods, especially lollipops, sugary cough drops, and other sugar-based candies that stay in the mouth for a long time, increases the risk of tooth decay. Candies that also contain enamel-dissolving acids, such as acid drops, increase the risk. Cleaning the teeth and mouth shortly after eating any type of sugary food, and allowing several hours to pass between eating such foods, reduces the risk and improves oral health.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61230", "title": "Candy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 601, "text": "Physically, candy is characterized by the use of a significant amount of sugar or sugar substitutes. Unlike a cake or loaf of bread that would be shared among many people, candies are usually made in smaller pieces. However, the definition of candy also depends upon how people treat the food. Unlike sweet pastries served for a dessert course at the end of a meal, candies are normally eaten casually, often with the fingers, as a snack between meals. Each culture has its own ideas of what constitutes candy rather than dessert. The same food may be a candy in one culture and a dessert in another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1288963", "title": "List of candies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 262, "text": "Candy, known also as sweets and confectionery, has a long history as a familiar food treat that is available in many varieties. Candy varieties are influenced by the size of the sugar crystals, aeration, sugar concentrations, colour and the types of sugar used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1666561", "title": "Sugar candy", "section": "Section::::Types.:Medicinal uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 354, "text": "Historically, candy was used not only as food but also as pharmaceutical preparations, to disguise the unpleasant taste of the drug ingredients. Cough drops and some other drugs show this heritage in the form of sugar tablets containing drugs, active drug ingredients being added to hard candies, and panned sugar coatings surrounding unpalatable pills.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In most cases it is water in the oil boiling away. The oil itself would boil at a much higher temperature.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6494011", "title": "Blown oil", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 283, "text": "Oils are \"blown\" through partial oxidation of the oil at elevated temperatures. A typical blowing process involves heating the oil to and passing air through the liquid. The modification causes the formation of C-O-C and C-C cross links, and hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52982", "title": "Deep frying", "section": "Section::::Hazards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 731, "text": "Cooking oil is flammable, and fires may be caused by it igniting at too high a temperature. Further, attempts to extinguish an oil fire with water cause an extremely dangerous condition, a boilover, as they cause the water to flash into steam due to the high heat of the oil, in turn sending the burning oil in all directions and thus aggravating the fire. This is the leading cause of house fires in the United Kingdom. Instead, oil fires must be extinguished with a non-water fire extinguisher or by smothering. Other means of extinguishing an oil fire include application of dry powder (e.g., baking soda, salt) or fire fighting foam. Most commercial deep fryers are equipped with automatic fire suppression systems using foam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17152053", "title": "Oil pump (internal combustion engine)", "section": "Section::::Gauge pressure.:Low Oil Pressure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 580, "text": "Low oil pressure may be simply because there is not enough oil in the sump, due to burning oil (normally caused by piston ring wear or worn valve seals) or leakage. The piston rings serve to seal the combustion chamber, as well as remove oil from the internal walls of the cylinder. However, when they wear, their effectiveness drops, which leaves oil on the cylinder walls during combustion. In some engines, burning a small amount of oil is normal and shouldn't necessarily cause any alarm, whereas burning lots of oil is a sign that the engine might be in need of an overhaul.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1060546", "title": "Early thermal weapons", "section": "Section::::Types of weapons.:Hot oil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 329, "text": "Oil of various kinds could be heated to high temperatures and poured over an enemy, although, since it was extremely expensive, its use was limited, both in frequency and quantity. Moreover, it could be dangerous and volatile. Since the smoke point of oil is lower than its boiling point, the oil was only heated and not boiled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47862666", "title": "Cooking oil", "section": "Section::::Types and characteristics.:Smoke point.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 242, "text": "The smoke point is marked by \"a continuous wisp of smoke.\" It is the temperature at which an oil starts to burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation of nutrients and phytochemicals characteristic of the oil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2910801", "title": "Petroleum reservoir", "section": "Section::::Drive mechanisms.:Solution-gas drive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 647, "text": "This occurs when the natural gas is in a cap below the oil. When the well is drilled the lowered pressure above means that the oil expands. As the pressure is reduced it reaches bubble point and subsequently the gas bubbles drive the oil to the surface. The bubbles then reach critical saturation and flow together as a single gas phase. Beyond this point and below this pressure the gas phase flows out more rapidly than the oil because of its lowered viscosity. More free gas is produced and eventually the energy source is depleted. In some cases depending on the geology the gas may migrate to the top of the oil and form a secondary gas cap.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21485435", "title": "Milk watcher", "section": "Section::::How it works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 741, "text": "Normally, boiling water does not boil over. When fats, starches, and some other substances are present in boiling water, for example by adding milk or pasta, boiling over can occur. A film forms on the surface of the boiling liquid; for example, cream can boil over as milk fat separates from the milk. The increased viscosity of the liquid causes the steam bubbles to form foam trapped under the film, pushing the film up and over the lip of the pot, boiling over. A milk watcher disrupts this process by collecting small bubbles of steam into one large bubble and releasing it in a manner which may puncture the surface film. The device also rattles when boiling occurs, alerting the cook who may then lower the heat setting of the stove.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, GPS jamming is possible - as with any radio communications, you just need to fill the relevant frequencies with enough \"junk\" to drown out the actual signal.\n\nIt's also possible to spoof GPS signals, by creating a much more powerful signal that overrides the normal one. This can be used to convince a receiver that it is somewhere else than it actually is - examples of possible uses include misdirecting planes/ships to another destination, by carefully changing the signals you send it over time.\n\nIn both cases, yes, the area you cover would be limited by your transmission power.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dannei gave a good answer. I'm an engineer and I used to work on anti-jamming devices for the military. We built devices that would prevent enemy jamming equipment from effecting our military's GPS devices. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You didn't ask, but it's important from a historical point of view if you're interested in GPS. When GPS was first deployed, there was a function known as Selective Availability, which means that the US Government could intentionally block the GPS signal to all users except those who had authorised receivers. The basic idea was that it would cause all \"civilian\" receivers to be inaccurate, so it'd be useless for tracking. This functionality was turned off permanently during the Clinton administration and new Satellites are incapable of using it.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27616141", "title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System", "section": "Section::::Artificial sources of interference.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 553, "text": "Man-made EMI (electromagnetic interference) can also disrupt or jam GPS signals. In one well-documented case it was impossible to receive GPS signals in the entire harbor of Moss Landing, California due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers. Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS receivers when they are within radio range or line of sight. In 2002 a detailed description of how to build a short-range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the online magazine Phrack.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "862061", "title": "Wide Area Augmentation System", "section": "Section::::History and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 531, "text": "This inaccuracy in GPS is mostly due to large \"billows\" in the ionosphere, which slow the radio signal from the satellites by a random amount. Since GPS relies on timing the signals to measure distances, this slowing of the signal makes the satellite appear farther away. The billows move slowly, and can be characterized using a variety of methods from the ground, or by examining the GPS signals themselves. By broadcasting this information to GPS receivers every minute or so, this source of error can be significantly reduced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27616141", "title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System", "section": "Section::::Multipath effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 289, "text": "GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals cause measurement errors that are different for each type of GPS signal due to its dependency on the wavelength.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "503209", "title": "Spoofing attack", "section": "Section::::GPS spoofing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1532, "text": "A GPS spoofing attack attempts to deceive a GPS receiver by broadcasting incorrect GPS signals, structured to resemble a set of normal GPS signals, or by rebroadcasting genuine signals captured elsewhere or at a different time. These spoofed signals may be modified in such a way as to cause the receiver to estimate its position to be somewhere other than where it actually is, or to be located where it is but at a different time, as determined by the attacker. One common form of a GPS spoofing attack, commonly termed a carry-off attack, begins by broadcasting signals synchronized with the genuine signals observed by the target receiver. The power of the counterfeit signals is then gradually increased and drawn away from the genuine signals. It has been suggested that the capture of a Lockheed RQ-170 drone aircraft in northeastern Iran in December, 2011 was the result of such an attack. GPS spoofing attacks had been predicted and discussed in the GPS community previously, but no known example of a malicious spoofing attack has yet been confirmed. A \"proof-of-concept\" attack was successfully performed in June, 2013, when the luxury yacht \"White Rose of Drachs\" was misdirected with spoofed GPS signals by a group of aerospace engineering students from the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas in Austin. The students were aboard the yacht, allowing their spoofing equipment to gradually overpower the signal strengths of the actual GPS constellation satellites, altering the course of the yacht.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27616141", "title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System", "section": "Section::::Natural sources of interference.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 233, "text": "Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or scattering of the GPS signals can desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking the satellite signals difficult or impossible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27683", "title": "Satellite", "section": "Section::::Attacks on satellites.:Jamming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 172, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 172, "end_character": 333, "text": "Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to jamming by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming, but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33062822", "title": "Holdover in synchronization applications", "section": "Section::::How GPS-derived timing can fail.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 343, "text": "GPS is sensitive to jamming and interference because the signal levels are so low and can easily be swamped by other sources, that can be accidental or deliberate. Also since GPS depends on line of sight signals it can be disrupted by Urban canyon effects, making GPS only available to some locations at certain times of the day, for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Mostly from migratory Birds. A duck that goes from Lake to Lake will often carry eggs on its feet. All it takes is a few and with them traveling so much it's about the only way that you can have a species of fish that spans multiple areas. Otherwise every Lake would end up with a unique species due to a lack of genetic mixing. Some are also intentionally introduced by fisherman or government projects.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The general answer is that either humans transported the fish there (intentionally or accidentally) or that the fish arrived as eggs clinging to the legs of waterfowl. \n\nThat said, although experts generally accept that dispersal by waterfowl is the most likely reason, it hasn't been formally proven - in other words, though it's probably right, no one has shown that it's true, as opposed to being plausible and probable.\n\n > Dispersal of fish eggs by water birds was overall the most frequent explanation online and in the questionnaire. In the scientific literature, however, we found hardly any empirical research on passive fish egg dispersal. \n\n--[Colonizing Islands of water on dry land—on the passive dispersal of fish eggs by birds](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35173713", "title": "List of fish of Ethiopia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 178, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 178, "end_character": 219, "text": "There have been attempts to introduce species of fish in crater lakes that are isolated from the rivers of Ethiopia, successful at Babogaya just outside Debre Zeyit (Bishoftu) and unsuccessful at Burree Waqa near Meti.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2625126", "title": "Lake Assal (Djibouti)", "section": "Section::::Wildlife.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 533, "text": "The lake water is rich in minerals but the only signs of life are a rich abundance of common bacteria. The region has witnessed terrestrial fauna species of antelopes (small buck near the stream beds), camels, birds, lizards and insects. The lake area does not support any kind of aqua fauna. However, near the hot spring source to the Lake Assal, some shoals of minnow fish species are reported, which are said to be similar to \"Cyprinodon variegatus\" which is a common species found in the Caribbean and South American salt works.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "106285", "title": "Crater Lake", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 565, "text": "Since the collapse of Mount Mazama due to a volcanic eruption formed Crater Lake, no fish inhabited the lake until William G. Steel decided to stock it in 1888 to allow for fishing. Regular stocking continued until 1941, when it was evident that the fish could maintain a stable population without outside interference. Six species of fish were originally stocked, but only two species have survived: Kokanee Salmon and Rainbow Trout with Kokanee being the most plentiful. Fishing in Crater Lake is promoted because the fish species are not indigenous to the lake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23726917", "title": "Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1059, "text": "The fish are left over from ancient Lake Bonneville which receded about 14,000 years ago. Several natural springs feed the wetlands. These are along a linear path at the range front (that is, fault controlled), and include North Springs, Deadman Springs, House Springs, Middle Springs, Thomas Springs, South Springs, and Percy Springs. Fish Springs is thought to be the end of a long flowpath of groundwater, starting in the Schell Creek Range and Snake Range area and flowing along permeable bedrock (for example, limestones) or faults toward Fish Springs. This comes from the fact the annual discharge of the springs is /year, and the annual recharge for the drainage area (the range front and Fish Springs Flat) is about /year, meaning over 6 times more water flows out of the springs than falls in the valley annually by precipitation. The springs and several wells in the area are monitored by Fish and Wildlife personnel and/or the Utah Geological Survey. The water of Fish Springs is not suited for human consumption, being warm (~) and highly saline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28544769", "title": "Rock-pool blenny", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 271, "text": "The fish is found in tidal hollows, rock pools, hence its English name. They are found in areas open to sunlight, between stones and thickets of seaweed. They mostly eat algae. It is found in the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores and along the coast of West Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2674944", "title": "Lake sturgeon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 802, "text": "The lake sturgeon (\"Acipenser fulvescens\"), also known as the rock sturgeon, is a North American temperate freshwater fish, one of about 25 species of sturgeon. Like other sturgeons, this species is an evolutionarily ancient bottom feeder with a partly cartilaginous skeleton, an overall streamlined shape and skin bearing rows of bony plates on its sides and back, resembling an armored torpedo. The fish uses its elongated, spade-like snout to stir up the substrate and sediments on the beds of rivers and lakes while feeding. The lake sturgeon has four purely sensory organs that dangle near its mouth. These organs, called barbels, help the sturgeon to locate bottom-dwelling prey. Lake sturgeons can grow to a relatively large size, topping 7.25 ft (2.2 m) long and weighing over 240 lb (108 kg).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8892628", "title": "Hydrophis semperi", "section": "Section::::Habitat and Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 743, "text": "This snake is known to be found only in the waters of Lake Taal (formerly known as Lake Bombon) in the province of Batangas in the Philippines. The only freshwater sea snake in the country, it lives the entirety of its life within the confines of the lake, feeding and breeding in its slightly acidic waters. The lake itself is a volcanic crater lake, which was formerly saltwater but gradually lost its salinity after the lake was closed off from the sea by an eruption in the 16th century. It is this unique aspect of the lake's formation and history that led to the evolution of several once-saltwater species, including \"H. semperi\". Thus, this species is relatively young, having been accustomed to freshwater for less than a millennium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"Real\" orange Fanta has sugar and orange juice in it. US orange Fanta has neither of those substances, to save money, and it's really orange, rather than yellower. Interestingly, in Mexico they use the same formula as in the EU, so it's really not a geographic thing. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "218627", "title": "Spritzer", "section": "Section::::Alcoholic spritzers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 370, "text": "In north-eastern regions of Italy, especially Venice and surroundings, a \"spritz\" is a popular light cocktail, a mix of sparkling white wine (e.g., Prosecco), sparkling water, and Aperol, Bitter Campari, or other colored alcohols. Actually, Austrian spritzer likely gave origin to Venetian spritz: spritzer is still popular, but called \" spritz bianco\" (\"white spritz).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25003876", "title": "Pungency", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 427, "text": "For instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not \"pungent\". (A food critic may nevertheless use the word \"piquant\" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature or spices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3373861", "title": "Pique macho", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 291, "text": "Smaller portions are simply called \"pique\"; \"pique macho\" is a huge portion, and traditionally spicy hot because of the pimenton. Urban legend suggests that this is because you are macho if you can finish one by yourself, though most diners opt to share the dish amongst a pair or a group. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320057", "title": "Chartreuse (liqueur)", "section": "Section::::Flavour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 633, "text": "Chartreuse has a very strong characteristic taste. It is very sweet, but becomes both spicy and pungent. It is comparable to other herbal liqueurs such as Galliano, Liquore Strega or Kräuterlikör, though it is distinctively more vegetal, or herbaceous. Like other liqueurs, its flavour is sensitive to serving temperature. If straight, it can be served very cold, but is often served at room temperature. It is also featured in some cocktails. Some mixed drink recipes call for only a few drops of Chartreuse due to its strong flavour. It is popular in French ski resorts where it is mixed with hot chocolate and called Green Chaud.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1269972", "title": "Champurrado", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 379, "text": "Many Latin Americans, especially Mexicans, love to enjoy a nice cup of champurrado around the holidays when the weather tends to get colder around the time of year. According to most who drink champurrado, it is a delicious beverage and highly differs from hot chocolate according to its taste and texture. The taste of the beverage also differentiates based on how it was made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "439544", "title": "Pirozhki", "section": "Section::::Regional varieties.:The Balkans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 227, "text": "The Greek variety \"piroski\" () is popular in parts of Greece influenced by eastern cuisine and in most big cities, where they are sold as a type of fast food. The Greek \"piroskia\" come deep-fried with many different stuffings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53754", "title": "Champagne", "section": "Section::::Grape varieties and styles.:Types of Champagne.:Rosé Champagne.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 212, "text": "\"Pink Champagne\" was a cheap, sweet version of sparkling wine made in the 1950s and early 1960s because the average American consumer at the time thought brut champagne was too dry, but it has been discontinued.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A typical prayer lasts about 3-5 minutes; you could easily orient yourself towards Mecca for such a short time.\n\nAs for Ramadan, you just pick a time period to practice as a day, just like they do now, and use that for your fasting times.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Their religion has come up with special rules to adapt over time. Children, old people and the sick dont have to fast. People in special occupations or life threatening conditions are allowed to eat. And mecca is on earth. So just pray facing earth and youre good. If you can time your bows when you pass the middle east I think you get bonus points.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not sure but as far as I know no Muslim has gone to space. For Ramadan they could just work on Mecca time irrespective of if they can see the sun from where they are.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not many people have been in space, so I very much doubt this issue has come up. \n\nIt is an interesting question. I would think the facing Mecca would be as simple as facing toward roughly where it is on the earth below you, or toward Earth if you are on another planet/moon. \nThat could take calculations if you aren't on our moon.\n\nAs for Ramadan, It would make sense to base your fasting on a digital clock that is based on the time zone you live in, or possible whenever the sun isn't visible to you, wherever you are. \n\nIn any case, it would be impractical, possibly dangerous, and definitely a pain in the ass. \n\nAs for whether the Qu'ran talking about this, there is no way in hell that it does. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3760131", "title": "Tawaf", "section": "Section::::Ritual details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 219, "text": "At the end of the circling, Muslims go to the Station of Ibrahim to pray two rak'ahs of \"nafl\" prayer , and then drink water from the sacred Well of Zamzam, before proceeding to the next ritual of the Hajj, the Sa'yee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21935937", "title": "Holiest sites in Shia Islam", "section": "Section::::Holy sites accepted by all Muslims.:al-Ḥaram al-Šarīf.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 361, "text": "Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported by the Buraq from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa during the Night Journey. The mosque is also believed by many to be the area from where Muhammad is said to have ascended to heaven. According to some narrations, a single prayer performed at this mosque is the same as having performed 500 prayers elsewhere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74664", "title": "Cave of the Patriarchs", "section": "Section::::Religions beliefs and traditions.:Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 407, "text": "Muslims believe that Muhammed visited Hebron on his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem to stop by the tomb and pay his respects. For this reason the tomb quickly became a popular Islamic pilgrimage site. It was said that the prophet himself encouraged the activity, saying \"He who cannot visit me, let him visit the Tomb of Abraham\" and \"He who visits the Tomb of Abraham, Allah abolishes his sins.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1206524", "title": "Prayer rug", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 260, "text": "When praying, a niche, representing the mihrab of a mosque, at the top of the mat must be pointed to the Islamic center for prayer, Mecca. All Muslims are required to know the qibla or direction towards Mecca from their home or where they are while traveling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21496179", "title": "Kaaba", "section": "Section::::History.:Muhammad's era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 852, "text": "Muslims initially considered Jerusalem as their \"qibla\", or prayer direction, and faced toward it while offering prayers; however, pilgrimage to the \"Kaaba\" was considered a religious duty though its rites were not yet finalized. During the first half of Muhammad's time as a prophet while he was at Mecca, he and his followers were severely persecuted which eventually led to their migration to Medina in 622 CE. In 624 CE, the direction of the qiblah was changed from Jerusalem to the \"Kaaba\" in Mecca. In 628 CE, Muhammad led a group of Muslims towards Mecca with the intention of performing the minor pilgrimage (\"Umrah\") at the \"Kaaba\", although he wasn't allowed by the people of Mecca. He secured a peace treaty with them, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, which allowed the Muslims to freely perform pilgrimage at the \"Kaaba\" from the following year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4602528", "title": "Meeqath", "section": "Section::::Entering by air.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 474, "text": "When flying to Mecca it is necessary to wear one's Ihram before one's plane enters the mīqāt zone in the air. Jeddah is within the mīqāt zone as a line from the southernmost mīqāt at Yalamlam to the northwestern mīqāt at Juhfah includes Jeddah in the zone. Pilgrims either wear the garments of ihram from their airport of departure, or they don them on the plane. Pilots announce entering the mīqāt about 30 minutes prior so that pilgrims can go to the restroom and change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "930567", "title": "Treaty of Hudaybiyyah", "section": "Section::::Attempted pilgrimage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 800, "text": "Muhammad had a premonition that he entered Mecca and did tawaf around the Ka'bah. His companions in Madinah were delighted when he told them about it. They all revered Mecca and the Ka'bah and they yearned to do tawaf there. In 628, Muhammad and a group of 1,400 Muslims marched peacefully without arms towards Mecca, in an attempt to perform the Umrah (pilgrimage). They were dressed as pilgrims, and brought sacrificial animals, hoping that the Quraish would honour the Arabian custom of allowing pilgrims to enter the city. The Muslims had left Medina in a state of \"ihram\", a premeditated spiritual and physical state which restricted their freedom of action and prohibited fighting. This, along with the paucity of arms carried, indicated that the pilgrimage was always intended to be peaceful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "it may be a sign of wealth to have some expensive whiskey around and to be able to enjoy an expensive lifestyle. I can't tell you if there are really people how have alcohol in their offices, but it is a move hollywood makes to show that a person is rich and successful.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "779370", "title": "Edmond O'Brien", "section": "Section::::Film actor.:Freelance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 372, "text": "\"The funny thing about Hollywood is that they are interested in having you do one thing and do it well and do it ever after,\" said O'Brien. \"That's the sad thing about being a leading man – while the rewards may be great in fame and finances, it becomes monotonous for an actor. I think that's why some of the people who are continually playing themselves are not happy.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1041934", "title": "Publicist", "section": "Section::::Publicists in the Hollywood industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 644, "text": "Hollywood publicists create and manage relationships between film stars and the array of other media channels through which the identities of stars are circulated. Stars have a dual relationship with publicity, for they publicize films but also, and importantly in the freelance market, have an interest in self publicity. It is for the latter reason that while many stars continue to regard managers as an optional luxury, today the majority of stars in Hollywood hire publicists to manage their media visibility. In other words, celebrities hire publicists who will be able to get their name out to the public preferably in a positive light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1041934", "title": "Publicist", "section": "Section::::Publicists in the Hollywood industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 637, "text": "The role of a publicist in Hollywood has changed and has become more challenging in recent years. With the enormous increase of entertainment news outlets such as Perez Hilton, TMZ, and Page Six, it has become much more difficult for publicists to control negative stories. Publicists must also work much harder to keep some of their star clients relevant in the media with the entertainment options in Hollywood continuously growing. Even booking a star for an interview or on a television talk show has become a challenging task, because if something goes awry, the publicist and the star could both be highly criticized by the media.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "229504", "title": "Douglas Fairbanks Jr.", "section": "Section::::Film career.:Britain and Criterion Films.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 394, "text": "\"Hollywood was getting to be a grind\", he said at the time. \"They had me doing five and six pictures a year. Some of them looked all right on paper but they had the habit of slipping down into programmer class. Only once in three years would I get a part that I cared about. I kept going up and down the ladder and not getting any place. There was nothing stable about my career in Hollywood.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1313696", "title": "Dinner theater", "section": "Section::::Popularity and decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 933, "text": "Particularly popular were the dinner theaters that used former movie actors to star in the productions. Van Johnson, Lana Turner, Don Ameche, Eve Arden, Mickey Rooney, June Allyson, Shelley Winters, Dorothy Lamour, Tab Hunter, Betty Grable, Sandra Dee, Mamie Van Doren, Joan Blondell, Debbie Reynolds, Cyd Charisse, Kathryn Grayson, Betty Hutton, Jane Withers, Martha Raye, Elke Sommer, Donald O'Connor, Roddy McDowall, Jane Russell, Cesar Romero, and Ann Miller are just a few Hollywood stars who were featured in dinner theatre. Actors from well remembered television series, such as Betty White, Ann B. Davis, Vivian Vance, Bob Denver, JoAnne Worley, Bernie Kopell, Dawn Wells, Ken Berry, Gavin MacLeod, Nancy Kulp, and Frank Sutton were also used as headliners. Burt Reynolds owned a dinner theater in Jupiter, Florida from 1979 to 1997, as did actor Earl Holliman, who owned the \"Fiesta Dinner Playhouse\" in San Antonio, Texas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74892", "title": "The Life and Death of 9413: a Hollywood Extra", "section": "Section::::Themes and interpretations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 975, "text": "The film serves as a satire of the social conditions, dominant practices, and ideologies of Hollywood, as well as the film industry's perceived mistreatment of actors. Filmmaking was becoming more expensive and requiring larger technical resources, particularly with the rise of sound production, making it increasingly difficult for amateur filmmakers to enter the profession. This deepened a divide between amateurs and Hollywood professionals, and as a result, a growing number of amateurs started lampooning Hollywood in their films, including \"A Hollywood Extra\". The subject of the film is an extra who starts his Hollywood career with hopes and dreams, but ultimately finds himself used and discarded by the industry, and his artistic ambitions destroyed. At the start of the film, the protagonist has a name (Mr. Jones) and a letter of recommendation outlining his talents, but his abilities are ignored and he is reduced to a number, symbolizing his dehumanization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52648169", "title": "Joyce Holden", "section": "Section::::Film.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 410, "text": "In a 1952 newspaper column distributed by Newspaper Enterprise Association, Holden attributed the difficulties in her film career to the fact that she started in comedy films. \"It's murder when a young actress is stamped as a comedienne in Hollywood,\" she said. \"My big mistake was in showing I had a comedy flair. There's no chance in Hollywood for an actress who starts out in comedy. You graduate into it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's pretty hard to give an ELI5 explanation, as you will see with the fairly elucidating Wikipedia explanation of the etymology. \n\nThe word sine derives from Latin sinus (\"bend\", \"bay\", \"the hanging fold of the upper part of a toga\", \"the bosom of a garment\"). The use of sinus originates in twelfth-century European translations of the Arabic word jaib (\"pocket\" or \"fold\").[29] This was in turn based on a misreading of the Arabic written form j-y-b, which itself originated as a transliteration from Sanskrit, of either jyā (the standard Sanskrit term for the sine) or the synonymous jīvā (both literally meaning \"bowstring\").[30]\nThe word tangent comes from Latin tangens meaning \"touching\", since the line touches the circle of unit radius, whereas secant stems from Latin secans — \"cutting\" — since the line cuts the circle.[31]\nThe prefix \"co-\" (in \"cosine\", \"cotangent\", \"cosecant\") is found in Edmund Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620), which defines the cosinus as an abbreviation for the sinus complementi (sine of the complementary angle) and proceeds to define the cotangens similarly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11572324", "title": "List of Indian inventions and discoveries", "section": "Section::::Discoveries.:Mathematics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 512, "text": "BULLET::::- Trigonometric functions : The trigonometric functions \"sine\" and \"versine\" originated in Indian astronomy, adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail by Aryabhata in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in the Siddhantas, astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century. Later, the 6th-century astronomer Varahamihira discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26397073", "title": "Jyā, koti-jyā and utkrama-jyā", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 500, "text": "Jyā, koti-jyā and utkrama-jyā are three trigonometric functions introduced by Indian mathematicians and astronomers. The earliest known Indian treatise containing references to these functions is Surya Siddhanta. These are functions of arcs of circles and not functions of angles. Jyā and kotijyā are closely related to the modern trigonometric functions of sine and cosine. In fact, the origins of the modern terms of \"sine\" and \"cosine\" have been traced back to the Sanskrit words jyā and kotijyā.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30367", "title": "Trigonometric functions", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 509, "text": "In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions, angle functions or goniometric functions) are real functions which relate an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of two side lengths. They are widely used in all sciences that are related to geometry, such as navigation, solid mechanics, celestial mechanics, geodesy, and many others. They are among the simplest periodic functions, and as such are also widely used for studying periodic phenomena, through Fourier analysis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25804104", "title": "List of trigonometric identities", "section": "Section::::Notation.:Trigonometric functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 339, "text": "The functions sine, cosine and tangent of an angle are sometimes referred to as the \"primary\" or \"basic\" trigonometric functions. Their usual abbreviations are , and , respectively, where denotes the angle. The parentheses around the argument of the functions are often omitted, e.g., and , if an interpretation is unambiguously possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30367", "title": "Trigonometric functions", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 127, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 127, "end_character": 214, "text": "All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic mathematics by the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving triangles. Al-Khwārizmī produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18717261", "title": "Trigonometry", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 526, "text": "Trigonometry (from Greek \"trigōnon\", \"triangle\" and \"metron\", \"measure\") is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships between side lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies. In particular, 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the ratio of the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle depends only on one acute angle of the triangle. These dependencies are now called trigonometric functions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30367", "title": "Trigonometric functions", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 651, "text": "The oldest definitions of trigonometric functions, related to right-angle triangles, define them only for acute angles. For extending these definitions to functions whose domain is the whole projectively extended real line, one can use geometrical definitions using the standard unit circle (a circle with radius 1 unit). Modern definitions express trigonometric functions as infinite series or as solutions of differential equations. This allows extending the domain of the sine and the cosine functions to the whole complex plane, and the domain of the other trigonometric functions to the complex plane from which some isolated points are removed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This grease is designed to stay in place and keep your bicycle's gears well lubricated for a long time between reapplication.\n\nThis stickiness is a good thing and is a desirable product of modern chemistry.\n\nFun Fact: in the \"old days\" gears would have to be re-lubricated on a frequent basis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. Grease is actually a very interesting substance. Is usually consists of a lubricant and thickening agent. In terms of bike chain grease, you use a lubricant on the chain and then dust becomes the thickener. The grease will stick to your hands, but not like you think.Basically one end of the grease molecule is polarizes while the other is not and the non-polarized end is chemically attracted to the non-polarized oils on your skin. It also has to do with the pores and ridges in your skin and the viscosity of the grease. The grease gets into these area and its own viscosity keeps it from flowing _URL_0_ get it off your skin, don't use hand soap, use dish or even laundry detergent. The chemical structures of these soaps are a little different than hand soaps. They actually bond to the grease and pull it away from the skin.\n2. The grease sticks to the bike chain in a similar manner as skin. The cool thing about grease though is the effects of shear. As the bike chain travels and curls around the chain wheels, the pieces rub together and there is a shear force of the grease. Once enough shear force is applied, the grease's viscosity drops down close to the base lubricant's. This means the grease will stick to the parts when it is not needed and will lubricate when it is needed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you pour oil or grease into water it will clump together so that the smallest amount of oil is in contact with the water. This is because things like oil and grease are \"Hydrophobic\" which means that they really don't like water and won't dissolve in it and try to get away from it. \n\nHydrophobic grease and oil make great lubricants because they won't dissolve in hydrophilic liquids (liquids that love water.) When you get grease stuck on your hands its tough to get off because it doesn't want to stick to the water that you're trying to wash it off with!\n\nIf you want to get rid of grease you can use things called surfactants (for example, detergents) which are made up of tiny little compounds that look like tadpoles. The \"head\" of the tadpole is hydrophilic while the \"tail\" is hydrophobic, the head wants to be with the water while the tail wants to be with the grease, they attach themselves to both the grease and the water and when you wash the surfactants away they take the grease with them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It likes to stick to the oil already on your hands (and the metal on your chain), but doesn't like to stick to itself. So it's great for lubing up stuff. \n\nI use [Facial Scrub](_URL_0_) to get chain grease off, it works better than WD40, dishwashing detergent, varsol, or gasoline. 30 seconds under the tap under warm water scrubbing and boom, its off. And it even doubles as facial cleanser! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You're using the wrong solvent. Water and oil/grease aren't miscible, which means water is a lousy way to try and wash oil/grease off something else.\n\nTry some rubbing alcohol.\n\nOr, if you only do it once every couple of years, Acetone.\n\nAcetone is in some nail polish removers, or you can just buy it at the hardware store. But be aware that it's highly flammable if the fumes build up, and it's not real good for your skin (you'll be able to tell). But it's amazing stuff for cutting grease.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not hard at all if you use the correct liquid to get it off. Try Simple Green or GoJo, you will be amazed how easy that stuff just comes right the heck off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2439173", "title": "Grease (lubricant)", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Additives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 292, "text": "EP grease contains solid lubricants, usually graphite and/or molybdenum disulfide, to provide protection under heavy loadings. The solid lubricants bond to the surface of the metal, and prevent metal-to-metal contact and the resulting friction and wear when the lubricant film gets too thin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2432924", "title": "Charlie Cunningham", "section": "Section::::Life as an inventor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 463, "text": "BULLET::::- invented the Grease Guard Bearing System that allows bicyclists to completely replace with clean grease in seconds the dirty grease that always gets into bicycle bearings...thus extending component life and saving significant time and money spent overhauling and/or replacing parts. Grease Guard's effect on component longevity conflicted with the bike industry's needs. The industry requires that bike parts wear out, thus necessitating replacement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5931", "title": "Cycling", "section": "Section::::Health effects.:Exercise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 392, "text": "Bicycles are often used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health. In this regard, cycling is especially helpful for those with arthritis of the lower limbs who are unable to pursue sports that cause impact to the knees and other joints. Since cycling can be used for the practical purpose of transportation, there can be less need for self-discipline to exercise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1683711", "title": "Hermetic seal", "section": "Section::::Glassware sealing.:Grease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1181, "text": "A thin layer of grease made for this application can be applied to the ground glass surfaces to be connected, and the inner joint is inserted into the outer joint such that the ground glass surfaces of each are next to each other to make the connection. In addition to making a leak-tight connection, the grease lets two joints be later separated more easily. A potential drawback of such grease is that if used on laboratory glassware for a long time in high-temperature applications (such as for continuous distillation), the grease may eventually contaminate the chemicals. Also, reagents may react with the grease, especially under vacuum. For these reasons, it is advisable to apply a light ring of grease at the fat end of the taper and not its tip, to keep it from inside the glassware. If the grease smears over the entire taper surface on mating, too much was used. Using greases specifically designed for this purpose is also a good idea, as these are often better at sealing under vacuum, thicker and so less likely to flow out of the taper, become fluidic at higher temperatures than Vaseline (a common substitute) and are more chemically inert than other substitutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2439173", "title": "Grease (lubricant)", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Additives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 467, "text": "Gear greases consist of rosin oil, condensed with lime and stirred with mineral oil, with some percentage of water. Special-purpose greases contain glycerol and sorbitan esters. They are used, for example, in low-temperature conditions. Some greases are labeled \"EP\", which indicates \"extreme pressure\". Under high pressure or shock loading, normal grease can be compressed to the extent that the greased parts come into physical contact, causing friction and wear. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2283538", "title": "Silicone grease", "section": "Section::::Use in industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 321, "text": "Silicone grease is commonly used for lubricating and preserving rubber parts, such as O-rings. Additionally, silicone grease does not swell or soften the rubber, which can be a problem with hydrocarbon based greases. It functions well as a corrosion-inhibitor and lubricant for purposes that require a thicker lubricant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2439173", "title": "Grease (lubricant)", "section": "Section::::Properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 737, "text": "A \"true\" grease consists of an oil and/or other fluid lubricant that is mixed with a thickener, typically a \"soap\", to form a solid or semisolid. Greases are a type of \"shear-thinning\" or pseudo-plastic fluid, which means that the viscosity of the fluid is reduced under shear. After sufficient force to shear the grease has been applied, the viscosity drops and approaches that of the base lubricant, such as the mineral oil. This sudden drop in shear force means that grease is considered a plastic fluid, and the reduction of shear force with time makes it thixotropic. It is often applied using a grease gun, which applies the grease to the part being lubricated under pressure, forcing the solid grease into the spaces in the part.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In the example you cited, bacteria. There is a non-animal source for every vitamin we need.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32509", "title": "Vitamin C", "section": "Section::::Diet.:Supplements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 548, "text": "Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and juice drinks. Tablet and capsule content ranges from 25 mg to 1500 mg per serving. The most commonly used supplement compounds are ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate. Vitamin C molecules can also be bound to the fatty acid palmitate, creating ascorbyl palmitate, or else incorporated into liposomes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "104444", "title": "Dietary supplement", "section": "Section::::Types.:Vitamins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1305, "text": "A vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. The term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for anthropoid primates, humans, guinea pigs and bats, but not for other mammals. Vitamin D is not an essential nutrient for people who get sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an artificial source, as then they synthesize vitamin D in skin. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules, \"vitamers\", (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and tocotrienols, vitamin K includes vitamin K and K). The list: vitamins A, C, D, E, K, Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Pantothenic Acid (B5), Vitamin B6, Biotin (B7), Folate (B9) and Vitamin B12. Vitamin intake below recommended amounts can result in signs and symptoms associated with vitamin deficiency. There is little evidence of benefit when consumed as a dietary supplement by those who are healthy and consuming a nutritionally adequate diet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1177951", "title": "Kraut juice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 204, "text": "It may be taken as a dietary supplement, as it is a source of vitamin C, B vitamins, Vitamin E, Vitamin K, potassium (475 mg), calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, copper, zinc, magnesium and lactic acid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8224308", "title": "List of antioxidants in food", "section": "Section::::Vitamins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 312, "text": "BULLET::::- Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble compound that fulfills several roles in living systems. Sources include citrus fruits (such as oranges, sweet lime, etc.), green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, black currants, strawberries, blueberries, seabuckthorn, raw cabbage and tomatoes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "93827", "title": "Human nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Vitamins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 946, "text": "As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not \"essential\" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5355", "title": "Cooking", "section": "Section::::Ingredients.:Vitamins and minerals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1030, "text": "Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure. Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24998247", "title": "Vitamin D", "section": "Section::::Dietary intake.:Sources.:Food fortification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 256, "text": "Manufactured foods fortified with vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, meal replacement energy bars, soy protein-based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, infant formulas, many breakfast cereals, and milk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because it *is* liquidy. The screen uses something called a \"liquid crystal\", which is a layer of a special liquid sandwiched between two pieces of glass or plastic (or one piece of glass and one piece of plastic). \n\nThis liquid is what forms the image, by changing how it interacts with polarized light depending on the electric field applied.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Tiny little needles that pivot when voltage is applied, blocks and unblocks the backlight. Red, green and blue colors are subpixel filters that can change the overall pixel, generally 2^32 different colors to your eyes (color depth). When you push on the screen, you are moving or pivoting the tiny little needles a little bit to change it's subpixel colors, which changes the overall color. It looks liquidy because that's what a screen is, an array of liquid crystals. Some monitors have a thin plastic film to allow pressure to disrupt the colors, while others use glass to prohibit a small area from being pressurized and damaging the array.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If your screen is an LCD, then that would be why: LCD = Liquid Crystal Display. Applying pressure to a point on your screen, whether front or back, causes the liquid crystals to disperse away from that point.\n\nPlease stop pressing your fingers against your monitor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I learned they can sort of heal themselves too.\n\nAt work a few years ago someone was carrying a monitor and their belt buckle dug into it causing a ~1\" x 6\" black spot in the middle of the monitor. Since it was worthless for testing I took it and used it as a 2nd monitor. Over time the damaged spot started to work again as the liquid from the top filled it back up.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe liquid in your monitor blocks light because of the way its molecules are arranged. Applying pressure to the monitor disturbs the arrangement of the molecules (as does the electric current in your monitor), causing them to block light.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "667206", "title": "Touchscreen", "section": "Section::::Technologies.:Capacitive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 584, "text": "A capacitive touchscreen panel consists of an insulator, such as glass, coated with a transparent conductor, such as indium tin oxide (ITO). As the human body is also an electrical conductor, touching the surface of the screen results in a distortion of the screen's electrostatic field, measurable as a change in capacitance. Different technologies may be used to determine the location of the touch. The location is then sent to the controller for processing. Touchscreens that use silver instead of ITO exist, as ITO causes several environmental problems due to the use of Indium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16830", "title": "Keyboard technology", "section": "Section::::Types.:Membrane keyboard.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 445, "text": "Generally, flat-panel membrane keyboards do not produce a noticeable physical feedback. Therefore, devices using these issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where water- or leak-proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of the personal computer (on the Sinclair ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch keyboards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8859863", "title": "Multi-touch", "section": "Section::::10/GUI.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 457, "text": "It splits the touch surface away from the screen, so that user fatigue is reduced and the users' hands don't obstruct the display. Instead of placing windows all over the screen, the windowing manager, Con10uum, uses a linear paradigm, with multi-touch used to navigate between and arrange the windows. An area at the right side of the touch screen brings up a global context menu, and a similar strip at the left side brings up application-specific menus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3183055", "title": "Image persistence", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 324, "text": "The cause of this tendency is unclear. It might be due to accumulation of ionic impurities inside the LCD, electric charge building up near the electrodes, parasitic capacitance, or \"a DC voltage component that occurs unavoidably in some display pixels owing to anisotropy in the dielectric constant of the liquid crystal\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47198412", "title": "Force Touch", "section": "Section::::Hardware.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1267, "text": "On iPhones, the capacitive sensors are directly integrated into the display. When a press is detected, these capacitive sensors measure microscopic changes in the distance between the back light and the cover glass. On the Apple Watch, a series of electrodes line the curvature of the screen. When a press is detected, these electrodes determine the pressure applied. The trackpads deploy a similar mechanism, although sensory information is determined by a series of four sensors that align with the corners of the trackpad. The detected pressure is then relayed to the Taptic Engine, which is Apple's haptic feedback engine. The electromagnetic linear actuator within the Taptic engine is capable of reaching its peak output in just one cycle and producing vibrations that last 10 milliseconds. Unlike typical motors, the linear actuator does not rotate but oscillates back and forth. The Taptic Engine produces immediate haptic feedback, without the need to offset the balance of mass. The haptic feedback produced may be accompanied by an audible tone. This helps in gaining the user’s attention in order to convey an important information such as a success, warning or a failure. Each haptic type is defined for a specific purpose, to convey a specific meaning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7677", "title": "Computer monitor", "section": "Section::::Additional features.:Tablet screens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 288, "text": "A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch without the use of one or more special tools' pressure. Newer models however are now able to detect touch from any pressure and often have the ability to detect tilt and rotation as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3023216", "title": "Glossy display", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 423, "text": "Because of the reflective nature of the display, in most lighting conditions that include direct light sources facing the screen, glossy displays create reflections, which can be distracting to the user of the computer. This can be especially distracting to users working in an environment where the position of lights and windows is fixed, such as in an office, as these create unavoidable reflections on glossy displays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are several.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Their called River Sharks and they exist.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nBut basically the problem is that it is difficult for a species to live in both freshwater and salt water it requires really specific adaptation. This is called Euryhaline _URL_0_ and is relatively rare in nature. For large carnivorous it's especially difficult to hunt in fresh water because of the size of the prey. In the ocean your not restricted by the depth of of the water, but in river the walk can be much shallower which doesn't support as large animals and make shark body less adaptable to the environment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not the body shape, but the way they regulate fluids.\n\nThere are 2 types of \"fish\" loosely. Freshwater (FW) and Saltwater (SW). Some can live in both for either short or long periods.\n\nWe also need to understand that blood, has a certain amount of \"salt\" in it -- ions, that help with everything from transporting wastes (pee) to oxygen.\n\nIn SW, the salt in the water is higher than salt in the fish's body. So, the body loses water and must drink constantly to keep the salt and water balanced. \n\nIn FW the animal (fish/shark) has a higher concentration of salt in its body than in the water around it. So, the body is constantly absorbing water, and the fish needs to pee constantly.\n\nIn sharks, as primitive animals, they don't regulate these fluids well (or, let's say, they can't do it actively) unlike the bony fishes who've adapted to do this and thus have adapted to FW or SW.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1028691", "title": "Commercial fishing", "section": "Section::::Environmental risk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 297, "text": "Sharks are one of the ocean's most threatened species because they are mistakenly caught by vessels searching for fish, and end up getting tossed back into the ocean dead or dying This disappearance of sharks has enabled prey animals like rays to multiply, which alters the ecological food chain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6613165", "title": "Crocodile shark", "section": "Section::::Human interactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1079, "text": "With its small size, non-cutting teeth, and oceanic habitat, the crocodile shark is not considered dangerous to humans. However, it has a powerful bite that invites caution. This species is a common bycatch of various pelagic longline fisheries meant for tuna and swordfish. The largest numbers are caught by the Japanese yellowfin tuna fishery and the Australian swordfish fishery, both operating in the Indian Ocean. This species is also sometimes caught on squid jigs and in tuna gillnets. It is usually discarded due to its small size and low-quality meat. However, its oily liver is potentially valuable. No data is available on the population status of the crocodile shark, though it is probably declining from bycatch mortality. Coupled with its low reproductive rate, this has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to assessed it as Near Threatened. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the crocodile shark as \"Data Deficient\" with the qualifier \"Secure Overseas\" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9068161", "title": "Lake Salvador", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 410, "text": "Young bull sharks have been known to prefer low-salinity or brackish water, and in 2015 one was found in the lake. A Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Marine Fisheries Biologist stated that bull sharks are one of the more aggressive shark species worldwide. Biologist manager Shane Granier stated, \"It’s not necessarily a common occurrence, but it’s not unheard of [to find sharks in the lake.]\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43619", "title": "Great white shark", "section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 366, "text": "These observations argue against traditional theories that white sharks are coastal territorial predators, and open up the possibility of interaction between shark populations that were previously thought to have been discrete. The reasons for their migration and what they do at their destination is still unknown. Possibilities include seasonal feeding or mating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8121641", "title": "Scalloped hammerhead", "section": "Section::::Behavior.:Schooling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 451, "text": "These sharks are often seen during the night,day, and morning in big schools, sometimes numbering hundreds, most likely because large groups can obtain food easier than singles or small groups, especially larger and trickier prey, as commonly seen. The younger the sharks, the closer to the surface they tend to be, while the adults are found much deeper in the ocean. They are not considered dangerous and are normally not aggressive towards humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6110739", "title": "Shark finning", "section": "Section::::Impacts.:On individual sharks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 554, "text": "When sharks have been finned, they are likely to die from lack of oxygen because they are not able to move to filter the water through their gills, or are eaten by other fish that have found them defenseless at the bottom of the ocean. Though studies suggest that 73 million sharks are finned each year, scientists have noted that the numbers may actually be closer to the 100 million mark. The majority of shark species exhibit slow growth rates and low reproductive rates, and the rate of reproduction cannot keep pace with the current mortality rate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17169979", "title": "Wild fisheries", "section": "Section::::Threatened species.:Marine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 395, "text": "BULLET::::- Sharks, rays, and chimaeras: are deep water pelagic species, which makes them difficult to study in the wild. Not a lot is known about their ecology and population status. Much of what is currently known is from their capture in nets from both targeted and accidental catch. Many of these slow growing species are not recovering from overfishing by shark fisheries around the world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Probably to make it seem at least a tiny bit legitimate. Like \"see, we didn't even get 100% of the votes, we're totally a democracy.\" ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you vote for someone that isn't part of the regime, and the regime ends up with 100% of all the votes, that is clearly incorrect, and most probably rigged. This would increase the chance of people standing up to the regime to question the legitimacy of the vote, and the government/dictator.\n\nHowever, if there is a small percentage of votes that go against the regime, then it seems as though everyone around you has voted for, and not against. This makes you part of a minority, so you'll keep quiet about voting for others to make sure that you don't get imprisoned/killed for not voting for the regime.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Typically, there is actually a choice on the ballot paper; it's just not a real choice. [Here is a particularly blatant example from the German elections of 1936](_URL_0_): the choices are to either vote for Hitler, or to spoil your ballot paper. The official result was 98.8% for the Nazis, and 1.2% were spoiled. Unmarked papers were counted as votes for the Nazis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So that all those who *did* vote for the supreme leader can wonder what happened to the 1% of people that didnt.\n\n\"Oh man, I wonder how bad those *other* people got it?\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because if one where to vote against him and the score would be a 100% it would be obvious to that person that its a lie. So the do 99% to make it legit. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was born in a communist country so I can shed some light on it:\n\nIt's because the voting in the elections in overt dictatorships is paradoxically not what you rig. It is the rules governing **which candidates you can vote for** which are rigged. What you might not realize is that in authoritarian and totalitarian countries very often the pretense of \"legitimacy\" is maintained to an absurd level as means of population control - so even though it is a de-facto dictatorship people will still be expected to show up during election day, cast votes, be corrected if they cast it incorrectly, then the votes will be counted, verified ... everything as if it was all proper free democratic election. It's actually quite hilarious when you look back at it.\n\nWhen that happens and you have only one list of candidates from the main party the only way to express dissent is to not got to an election or cast an invalid vote. The problem is that very often the regulations state that since there's only one list then even an empty vote can be counted as a vote for the approved candidates! Essentially since you show up at the voting booth, put your signature down on the list you the only way you could avoid voting is to not put the ballot into the urn.\n\nSince you have to sign in before voting there typically is plenty of repression against people who don't come to vote - they lose jobs, get arrested on fake charges etc. Once you sign in you get a ballot and often will go into a private stall (!) to \"choose your candidate\" but then you come out and the urn is in the middle of the room so that it can be observed. If you don't put your ballot in people who supervise the elections know somethings up.\n\nAnd then - like I said - even if you scribble all over the ballot it might still count depending on the rules but in most places it didn't matter since people were so terrorized that once they were forced to go and vote they just put their mark by whatever name was \"proper\" and came back home.\n\nSo the only way for people to actually not be able to cast a vote which counts would be to do something really stupid like honestly mark too many names or for the people in the commission to lose some ballots - legitimately.\n\n------\n\nThe elections which **were rigged like you wouldn't believe** are typically the elections which lead up to establishing of an authoritarian or totalitarian regime. In my home country - communist Poland- it would be the 1947 referendums and elections.\n\nIn Germany it theoretically would be the March 1933 election since the next one in November 1933 was after the Enabling Acts and had just NSDAP on the list but there was not so much widespread fraud as much as generally the SA and NSDAP trying to terrorize the opposition since Nazis were put in charge of essentially the only federal state in Germany that counted - Prussia - in 1932 following what can only be described as a putsch/coup by the ruling conservatives in Berlin against socialist government of Prussia. The election in November 1933 was on the other hand a very orderly election with some people simply not showing up in protest so even though the attendance was say 50% the votes were 99.5% for NSDAP - minus some lost ballots.\n\nAll fair :]\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9457", "title": "Election", "section": "Section::::Show election.:Coercion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 238, "text": "In some cases, show elections can backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes they are popular enough to win without coercion or fraud. The most famous example of this was the [[1990 Myanmar general election]].\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12119521", "title": "Proxy voting", "section": "Section::::Elections.:Vietnam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 632, "text": "In Vietnam, proxy voting was used to increase turnout. Presently, proxy voting is illegal, but it has nonetheless been occurring since before 1989. It is estimated to contribute about 20% to voter turnout, and has been described as \"a convenient way to fulfil one's duty, avoid possible risks, and avoid having to participate directly in the act of voting\". It is essentially a compromise between the party-state, which wants to have high turnouts as proof of public support, and voters who do not want to go to the polling stations. In the Soviet Union, proxy voting was also illegal but done in order to increase turnout figures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "382165", "title": "Electoral fraud", "section": "Section::::Vote fraud in legislature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 796, "text": "Vote fraud can also take place in legislatures. Some of the forms used in national elections can also be used in parliaments, particularly intimidation and vote-buying. Because of the much smaller number of voters, however, election fraud in legislatures is qualitatively different in many ways. Fewer people are needed to 'swing' the election, and therefore specific people can be targeted in ways impractical on a larger scale. For example, Adolf Hitler achieved his dictatorial powers due to the Enabling Act of 1933. He attempted to achieve the necessary two-thirds majority to pass the Act by arresting members of the opposition, though this turned out to be unnecessary to attain the needed majority. Later, the Reichstag was packed with Nazi party members who voted for the Act's renewal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1032530", "title": "Unanimity", "section": "Section::::Voting.:Dictatorships.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 446, "text": "One-party states can restrict nominees to one per seat in elections and use compulsory voting or electoral fraud to create an impression of popular unanimity. The 1962 North Korean parliamentary elections reported a 100% turnout and a 100% vote for the Workers' Party of Korea. 100% votes have also been claimed by Ahmed Sékou Touré in Guinea in 1975 and 1982, Félix Houphouët-Boigny in Côte d'Ivoire in 1985, and Saddam Hussein in Iraq in 2002.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1442385", "title": "Elections in North Korea", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 511, "text": "A voter may cross off the candidate's name to vote against him or her, but in most polling stations the voter must do so with a red pen next to the ballot box in sight of electoral officials. In recent elections, there have been separate boxes for \"no\" votes. Many North Korean defectors claim such an act of defiance is too risky to attempt. Indeed, voting against the official candidate is considered an act of treason, and those who do face the loss of their jobs and housing, along with extra surveillance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14510575", "title": "2009 North Korean parliamentary election", "section": "Section::::Electoral system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 604, "text": "The voting method is a departure from prior elections. In previous elections, the system consisted of two ballot boxes at each polling station. The boxes, one black and one white, were to indicate support for or against a candidate. There is no system in place to handle absentee ballots for North Koreans living abroad and there does not appear to be a system of advanced voting in place. Proxy votes were ordered cast by family members of North Korean defectors who were detained in prisons within China. All voting and the validation of official returns is overseen by the Central Election Committee.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "382165", "title": "Electoral fraud", "section": "Section::::Specific methods.:Misuse of proxy votes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 564, "text": "Proxy voting is particularly vulnerable to election fraud, due to the amount of trust placed in the person who casts the vote. In several countries, there have been allegations of retirement home residents being asked to fill out 'absentee voter' forms. When the forms are signed and gathered, they are secretly rewritten as applications for proxy votes, naming party activists or their friends and relatives as the proxies. These people, unknown to the voter, cast the vote for the party of their choice. In the United Kingdom, this is known as 'granny farming.'\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your local DOT to better understand traffic in that area. They then use that information to adjust traffic lights or make decisions to better the safety of the community. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're very simple and cheap methods to gather traffic data for road and traffic planning. They're generally put down by local government and/or highways agencies, or companies working under contract to them. Potential questions they could be asking:\n\n* There are planned road works on this road. How much traffic will we need to account for to divert on to other roads?\n* There are high rates of accidents near this point. How fast are people generally travelling?*\n* The signals down the road are often getting jammed up. How many cars regularly pass this area?\n* Are large numbers of people using this side street as a cut-through to avoid a main road?\n* Are the traffic signals further down the road creating enough natural gaps for pedestrians to cross, or do we need a specific pedestrian crossing here?\n\nIn short, those tubes are an extremely cheap and effective way of measuring lots of things about traffic for planning purposes. There's also no potentially identifying information collected, so nobody tends to care about being monitored by them. \n\n[Edit]\n\n*To answer a very common followup question, these lines are usually put down in pairs a few yards apart so that speed can be measured. Measuring speed with a single line is indeed very unreliable because of varying wheelbase lengths, but with two lines you're literally measuring the time to travel between two points which is exactly what speed is. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Anyone have a picture of them? I'm not sure what the things are you're talking about.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mazca got pretty much all of it correct. However in our town our local PD puts it out to see how fast cars are going, at what times of day do cars go the fastest, and what types of cars are travelling through. This helps plan out where cops should patrol and enforce speed at.\n\nSource: work with the local PD and just set ours up yesterday.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What would happen if I repeatedly drive back and forth on them for 10 minutes?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also, major corporate retailers do intense amounts of research and metrics before deciding to occupy a new location. One of the things they will often have done is a traffic count in front of prospective locations. How many cars per hour, how many each hour, and how many each way. You could have forty thousand cars per hour in front of your property, but if they are all on the other side of a divided street with no easy access to your site in the morning, your coffee joint might not do so well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Side notes for fans: Bill gates started his business life by creating a program to count cars with such a system (look for \"Traf-O-Data\", his company)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are also sensors/counters in the road and those white boxes on poles near the road are also counters/sensors. The ones in the road use the magnetic field of your car, which varies from model to model, to determine traffic volume and speed by recognizing and calculating from sensor A to sensor B a bit down the road. I'm not sure the method of the boxes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If one hose is across the road they are counting traffic. If two hoses are across the road they are taking speed measurements. Yes. It's true.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Omg I have always wanted to ask that question when I see them, but always forget to ask or find it out. \n\nThanks for this ELI5", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "can someone link to an image of what OP is talking about", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What the fuck are those? I've never seen them before.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I work in real estate. We primarily deal with commercial transactions and traffic counts are very important number. It basically gives you an estimate of how many people are going to see your sign/store. The higher the traffic count, the more potential customers you have.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I dont know what OP is referring to, can someone post a picture or something?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Always wanted to know this. Thanks, OP/MVP", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Traffic analyst for the Georgia DOT here. It's part of my job to determine where to lay these tubes throughout the state. In Georgia, at least, most of those tubes are put down by the state DOTs or contractors working for the state. Every state in the country is required to annually submit a report to the USDOT through HPMS (Highway Performance Monitoring System). The HPMS report can determine the allocation funding to each state from the federal government for highway improvement and maintenance. Traffic counts are about half of this report. The tubes can also be put at specific locations that are being studied for possible improvements. The tubes and system that runs them can actually differentiate 19 different types of vehicles including: motorcycles, cars, light trucks, and all the different varieties of single-unit trucks (dump trucks, box trucks, wreckers, etc), and combo-unit trucks (tankers, logging trucks, and all varieties 18-wheelers). The way you can tell if they are counting solely volume or volume and vehicle type is if there are one or two tubes laid across the road. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I always thought the road people put them there, and counted how many cars went over them, and if there was enough, they would pave that road. So i convinced my older sister (i was 10) to drive back and forth over it several hundred times. The road didnt get paved.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can actually answer this one, since I'm a highway engineer. They are generally placed there by the state's DOT, a private contractor, or some other agency. They count cars continuously and with more accuracy than a human could do (as an intern I used to get sent out to manually do smaller traffic counts in 4 to 8 hour increments-it sucked). We use the data to assess current traffic conditions, improve light timing, predict future conditions, and try to see if there is anything significant to note about traffic patterns (peak hours when lights might need to change cycle length, etc). The data is generally available through the DOT. For example Indiana has their data on a nice little map :)\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The first version of this was called the Traf-o-Data. It was invented by Bill Gates before he started Microsoft. The new versions are probably just updated versions of his original. So everytime you run over a hose, Bill is probably getting paid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It looks like most of this has been answered but I used to work for the my states dept of transportation. \n\nAs stated in the top comment these are used to collect data for a multitude of possible reasons. \n\nIf you see two of these spaced only a few feet apart they are actually taking speed data as well. \n\n\nIn my experience they are primarily used for two reasons. 1. They are expecting to start construction and need data on how many vehicles pass through. 2. They are considering changing the speed limit. \n\nA few fun facts just because I have all of this useless knowledge about roads:\n- The lines between lanes and the ones that designate passing zones are 10 feet long and are spaced 30 feet apart. \n- The paint gets its reflectivity from glass beads that are sprayed onto the wet paint right after it is sprayed. \n- Painting lines is way harder than you'd think. \n- Buzz strips are made from multiple layers of thermoplastic. Depending on your states department this can either be put down in liquid form. Or the funner way they come in strips and you get to use cool propane torches to heat the road and the thermoplastic. \n- Reflectors are placed 40 feet apart. \n- If you look down an edit ramp from the wrong direction they'll show red. From the correct direction they are white. \n- If you see a blue reflector in the road that means that a fire hydrant is on the side of the road at that location. Firefighters use these especially at night. \n\nI've probably got more but these are what I can think of now. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "i use the data in my day to day work to calculate delays due to road construction and for things like planning for future projects (e.g. determining the number of lanes needed at a new signal/roundabout). we also go out and physically sit at intersections and count vehicles for turn movements, take video and do the same in our cubicles or as a coworker built, using a radar detector to count cars as well.\n\n(i work in traffic for a state DOT)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In my city, they're used to count through traffic on a route to determine if a red light camera will actually make money. They need a certain volume of traffic in order for a camera to actually be profitable. I mean, they could just look at the statistics for where the most accidents are, but their goal is not to reduce accidents. It's to make money.\n\nIf you have photo-enforcement in your city, that's probably why they're counting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As well as counting, they can calculate the speed of the vehicles. If they find people speeding, speed bumps and other garbage can be installed on the road.\n\nTLDR: drive slow over these to avoid shitty roads.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I work with reports for these, we call them ATCs (Automatic Traffic Counters). The tubes are pressurised and count vehicles when they drive over one tube and find the direction when they drive over the other tube, then figure out what vehicle type it is when the back end drives over it using various axle lengths. They can sometimes be fairly accurate at finding vehicles, but sometimes they can't if the road surface is bad or there's queueing/busy traffic. They can also identify speeds, so clients can find out how many break the speed limit when approaching something such as a level crossing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I actually design and make these things. here is the short explanation:\n \nRoad tubes are used to detect vehicle axles by sensing air pluses that are created by each axle (tire) strike of the tube in the roadway. This air pulse is sensed by the unit and is recorded or processed to create volume, speed, or axle classification data. While one road tube is used to collect volume, two road tubes can be used to collect speed and class data.\n\nI can go into great detail about the specifics if anyone wants to know more. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "the city puts them there to gather statistical information about traffic in order to find ways of improvements", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They count and classify vehicles. There's tons of uses for this data, one of which is pavement design. Basically the life of a pavement is expressed in number of ESAs (Equivalent Standard Axles) that can drive over it before it fails. 1 ESA is basically equivalent to a double tyred axle on a truck. Because pavements fail with cumulative loading not overloading (though overloading has a big impact because the damage follows a 4th power of the load) the number of trucks is important. \n\nIn damage terms, cars do sweet F.A. to the strength of the road, but the polish the surface while trucks root the pavement structure (triaxles do both when they turn though, they're nasty). Overloaded trucks really fuck over the pavement which is why most places heavily police this.\nIf the road structure gets wrecked it has to be rebuilt (takes ages, really expensive), if it gets polished smooth you just have to resurface it (takes less time, cost a lot, but nowhere near as much)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the reason, I believe it is not explained yet as far as i can see, is the utilization of roads. Road traffic is a dynamic matter. Such counting helps to adjust the traffic light duration, the interacting with other traffic lights and avoid traffic jam.\nAnother way to do that, is counting by persons. I think, it would give more flexibility of what to count - as example, how many cars straight, how many cars make a left or right turn and how many ugly cars - but that depends on the counter and becomes an area of fuzzy logic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Data entry here--I count cars using a camera and custom keypad. Those cords count how many cars go through one direction of traffic. This is what's known as a \"volume count\" because it doesn't specify class or weight of the vehicle. Usually if it's volume they're after, it's to accompany the road to any changes that may or already have occurred. Sometimes it's just to keep the road paved regularly, and sometimes it's used to know how many people go into a businesses's parking lot. It's incredibly cheap compared to what I do, which accounts for direction, class, weight. Compliance to red lights, pedestrians, ect.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Placed there by either the state highway dept, or the city roads dept. Whomever has responsibility for managing that road. \n\nThe data is used to plan future road improvements. To beg hopelessly for funds to maintain the existing roads, and to do other road and traffic management", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I always assumed they were a cheap way to gather data on traffic speed. Going by the use of two lines I figured they would measure the time between contacts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are used to count traffic. There are two types that use two tubes. When both tubes go completly across the road, they are trying to count vehicles regardless of the number of axles, comparing the frequency of bumps between the tubes lets the system determine if one vehicle with four axles passed over or two vehicles with two axles.\n\nThe other type, where one tube goes halfway, is used to count traffic in both directions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're devices that collect data about the roadways that are completely ignored in the Midwest. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The count the amount, speed and direction of traffic.\n\nThey are placed by an engineering firm on behalf of the city/local government to determine if the area needs speed bumps or other traffic calming upgrades. (stop lights, etc)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're used to measure traffic volume before a construction project which will require detours. They take the measurements and then use them to determine the proper routes for the detours. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1376618", "title": "Bollard", "section": "Section::::Types.:Traffic bollards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 715, "text": "Tall (1.15 meter/4 foot) slim (10 cm/4 inch) fluorescent red or orange plastic bollards with reflective tape and removable heavy rubber bases are frequently used in road traffic control where traffic cones would be inappropriate due to their width and ease of movement. Also referred to as \"delineators\", the bases are usually made from recycled rubber, and can be easily glued to the road surface to resist movement following minor impacts from passing traffic. The term \"T-top bollards\" refers to the T-bar moulded into the top for tying tape. Bollards are regarded as an economical and safe delineation system for motorways and busy arterial roads; and, in conjunction with plastic tape, for pedestrian control.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1633154", "title": "Road surface marking", "section": "Section::::Mechanical markers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 668, "text": "BULLET::::- Botts' dots (low rounded white or yellow dots), named for the California Caltrans engineer Elbert Botts, who invented the epoxy that keeps them glued down, are one type of a mechanical non-reflective raised marker. Generally they are used to mark the edges of traffic lanes, frequently in conjunction with raised reflective markers. Botts' dots are also used across a travel lane to draw the drivers attention to the road. They are frequently used in this way to alert drivers to toll booths, school zones or other significant reduction of speed limit. They are normally only used in warm climates since snow plows usually remove them along with the snow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38659469", "title": "Road signs in Mauritius", "section": "Section::::Signing system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 577, "text": "The traffic sign are divided into three classes; circles gives orders, triangles warns of possible dangers and rectangles gives information. Different colours are use within these shapes; blue circles are mandatory signs, it gives positive instructions, while red circles are prohibitory signs, it give negative instructions. Blue rectangles give general information while green rectangles are use for direction sign on main roads. However, there are two exception for these shapes and colour rules; that is the octagonal Stop sign and the inverted red triangle Give way sign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21311308", "title": "Turning movement counters", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1093, "text": "These TMC's are square shaped boxes that have buttons for each direction of traffic flow. For example, east bound traffic entering an intersection has a button for those vehicles that turn, left, right or continue straight. Furthermore, an additional button is used for each direction to add the number of pedestrian and bicyclist movement. Typically automated traffic counters assess traffic flows, however, due to the differing angles of vehicles entering an intersection the present technology available is not able to quantify the traffic without major error. Traditional automated traffic counters have rubber tubes which are laid out across the road generally in a straight portion in order to have the wheels on the same axle hit at about the same time. When turning in an intersection the tires hit individually and the amount of error in the counter is increased. This means that TMC's are the only present option for quantifying traffic flows. They are used manually by an individual pressing the correlating button for every vehicle that enters and moves through the intersection. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261002", "title": "Traffic sign", "section": "Section::::Northern America and Oceania.:New Zealand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 236, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 236, "end_character": 364, "text": "Before 1987, most road signs had black backgrounds – diamonds indicated warnings, and rectangles indicated regulatory actions (with the exception of the Give Way sign (an inverted trapezium), and Stop sign and speed limit signs (which were the same as today)). Information signs were yellow, and direction signage was green on motorways and black everywhere else.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2548737", "title": "Botts' dots", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 597, "text": "The initial dots were made of glass and were attached to the road by nails or tacks, as suggested by Botts. The nails were soon abandoned: his team discovered that when the dots popped loose under stress, the nails punctured tires. Contrary to a common myth, the published record does not make clear whether Botts invented the famous epoxy that solved the problem; some sources indicate that one of his protégés was responsible for the epoxy. In September 1966, the California State Legislature mandated that Botts' dots be used for lane markings for all state highways in all non-snowfall areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1162985", "title": "Traf-O-Data", "section": "Section::::Traffic counting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 595, "text": "State and local governments frequently perform traffic surveys with a pneumatic road tube traffic counter. Rubber hoses are stretched across a road and wheels of passing vehicles create air pulses that are recorded by a roadside counter. In the 1970s the counts were mechanically recorded on a roll of paper tape. The time and number of axles were punched as a 16-bit pattern into the paper tape. (The common Teletype paper tape uses only 8 bits.) Cities would hire private companies to translate the data into reports that traffic engineers could use to adjust traffic lights or improve roads.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "**Yes, it's the face structure.**\n\nHumans are quite good at recognising small details in faces. Our brains are \"programmed\" that way.\n\nMen and women typically have different facial characteristics. To an alien or another animal we all look the same, but we can usually tell the difference.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As @Locust377 explained, facial structure plays a role. However it is notable that Drag Queens [structure their makeup differently](_URL_0_) than a natural woman to accentuate more effeminate features to vast extremes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a gay guy who's dabbled - yes, the facial structure is problematic. You can, and most Drag artists do, structure your makeup to brighten and darken specific lines (corners of the forehead, cheeks, jawline) in order to make yourself look more Female, but it's very much an art form.\n\nMost high-profile drag artists do not attempt to blend in, they go for big hair and loud colours. Other redditors have given great examples you can check out. What I go for is called \"Fishy\" drag - it focuses on blending in with female appearance to either fully appear female or, at the least, make others uncertain - \"There's something fishy about that girl.\"\n\nThere's a lot more to it than facial structure and makeup for the whole look - glasses can make your face seem more round, hair frames it differently for different styles, different dresses can hide a flat chest and accentuate hips, etc. But you'll notice you have a harder time identifying men in drag from different cultures (the Stereotypical Thailand as an example) as you're not used to their subtle differences in structure.\n\nEdit: Grammar", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58164", "title": "Drag queen", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 541, "text": "Drag queens are performance artists, almost always male, who dress in women's clothing and often act with exaggerated femininity and in feminine gender roles with a primarily entertaining purpose. They often exaggerate make-up such as eyelashes for dramatic, comedic or satirical effect. Drag queens are closely associated with gay men and gay culture, but can be of any sexual orientation or gender identity. They vary widely by class, culture, and dedication, from professionals who star in films to people who try drag very occasionally.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58164", "title": "Drag queen", "section": "Section::::Art of drag.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 354, "text": "The process of getting into drag or into character can take hours. A drag queen may aim for a certain style, celebrity impression, or message with their look. Hair, make-up, and costumes are the most important essentials for drag queens. Drag queens tend to go for a more exaggerated look with a lot more makeup than a typical feminine woman would wear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58164", "title": "Drag queen", "section": "Section::::Terminology, scope and etymology.:Uncommon terms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 622, "text": "In the drag queen world today, there is an ongoing debate about whether transgender drag queens are actually considered \"Drag Queens\". This subject is argued because Drag Queens are defined as a man portraying a woman. Since transgender queens are women, many people do not consider them drag queens because they are not men dressing as women. Drag Kings are biological females who assume a masculine aesthetic. However this is not always the case, because there are also biokings, bio-queens, and faux queens, which are people who perform their own biological sex through a heightened or exaggerated gender presentation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18310148", "title": "Queen (slang)", "section": "Section::::Related terms.:Drag queen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 370, "text": "Generally, drag queens dress in a female gender role, often exaggerating certain characteristics for comic, dramatic or satirical effect. Other drag performers include drag kings, who are women who perform in male roles, faux queens, who are women who dress in an exaggerated style to emulate drag queens and faux kings, who are men who dress to impersonate drag kings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18310148", "title": "Queen (slang)", "section": "Section::::Related terms.:Drag queen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 525, "text": "A drag queen is a person, usually a man, who dresses, and usually acts, like a woman often for the purpose of entertaining or performing. There are many kinds of drag artists and they vary greatly from professionals who have starred in movies to people who just try it a few times. Drag queens also vary by class and culture and can vary even within the same city. Although many drag queens are presumed to be gay men or transgender people, there are drag artists of all genders and sexualities who do drag for many reasons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "591699", "title": "Drag (clothing)", "section": "Section::::Drag kings and queens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 458, "text": "A drag queen (first use in print, 1941) is a man that dresses in drag, either as part of a performance or for personal fulfillment. Though many of these men are in fact cisgender, the term \"drag queen\" distinguishes such men from transvestites, transsexuals or transgender people. Those who \"perform drag\" as comedy do so while wearing dramatically heavy and often elaborate makeup, wigs, and prosthetic devices (breasts) as part of the performance costume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19904525", "title": "Transgender", "section": "Section::::Other categories.:Drag kings and queens.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 995, "text": "\"Drag\" is a term applied to clothing and makeup worn on special occasions for performing or entertaining, unlike those who are transgender or who cross-dress for other reasons. Drag performance includes overall presentation and behavior in addition to clothing and makeup. Drag can be theatrical, comedic, or grotesque. Drag queens have been considered caricatures of women by second-wave feminism. Drag artists have a long tradition in LGBT culture. Generally the term \"drag queen\" covers men doing female drag, \"drag king\" covers women doing male drag, and \"faux queen\" covers women doing female drag. Nevertheless, there are drag artists of all genders and sexualities who perform for various reasons. Some drag performers, transvestites, and people in the gay community have embraced the pornographically-derived term \"tranny\" to describe drag queens or people who engage in transvestism or cross-dressing; however, this term is widely considered offensive if applied to transgender people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So: Let's get the fundamental idea out of the way. In a database, you'd like to store data in one place, and one place only. You don't want to have it so that a single piece of information appears in multiple places in the database, nor do you want your database to be unable to process requests that \"don't fit\" in to the database: like being unable to store the information about four children, because you assumed that each parent only has three at most. The aim of the game is that each data appears once, and that the data you're storing is connected in a somewhat logical fashion. \n\n\nSo, What are the normal forms?\n\n***1NF***\n\nThis is essentially just a sanity check: does your database make any sort of sense fundamentally?\n\nA database in 1NF will follow the following 4 rules:\n\n1. Each column only stores 1 value. You f.i won't have a column storing a phone number *and* address: you'd have two columns - one storing phone numbers, and one storing addresses. \n\n2. Each column only deals with a single domain of data. If your column is named \"Phone numbers\" you would expect every single row in that column to be a phone number. If your \"phone numbers\" column has a row that has \"123, Street Avenue Rd\" then you have a problem. This is a pretty common sense rule: Columns store what they say they are storing. \n\n3. Columns in a table have unique names. This is also pretty common sense, if two columns in a table are named \"phone numbers\" how will the database system know which one you're asking for?\n\n4. The order of the data entered does not matter. It doesn't matter if entry \"12\" appears before entry \"9\", or if \"John Smith\" is before or after \"Samantha White\". Your database either does not care, or has a column specifically specifying what the order should be (like Date of birth or Alphabetical). You can sort afterwards as you need the data. \n\n\nSo, that's all fairly understandable.\n\n***2NF***\n\nThe second normal form essentially makes sure that data in a table is identified with the *entire* primary key. \n\nA database in 2NF if:\n\n1. it is in 1NF\n\n2. It does not contain any partial dependencies. \n\nPartial dependencies are when some columns are identified by *part* of a composite primary key, but not *all* of it.\n\nLet's for instance take a simple example I nicked from the internet. \n\nYou're storing some information about student grades. \n\n|Student Id|Subject ID|Student Name|Grade|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|40|John|70|\n|1|45|John|80|\n|2|40|AAron|60|\n|3|29|Lisa|80|\n\n\nYou have a composite primary key from (student id, subject id). In order to uniquely identify a grade you must specify a student, and a subject - since students can be in many subjects and subjects can be attended by many students. \n\nHowever, notice \"name\" here, which identifies the name of the student. That doesn't depend on the subject, only the student ID. This is partial dependency: a column (student name) is uniquely identified by part of the primary key (The student ID). This column will be the same no matter what subject this student is learning.\n\nThe solution here is simply dropping the \"name\" column and adding it to the \"Students\" table, where it presumably only depends on the student ID: as so.\n\nTable Grades \n\n|Student Id|Subject ID|Grade|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|40|70|\n|1|45|80|\n|2|40|60|\n|3|29|80|\n\nTable Students\n\n|Student Id|Name|DOB|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|John|12-5-1997|\n|2|AAron|30-1-1998|\n|3|Lisa|20-10-1997|\n\n\n***3NF***\n\nA table is in 3NF if\n\n1. It is in 2NF\n\n2. It doesn't have transitive dependency. \n\nTransitive dependency is when a column is dependent on a different column that *isn't* a primary key. If a column is dependent on some information in the database, it *must* be dependent on a primary key. \n\n\n***BCNF***\n\nThis is a bit tricky, but is essentially a stronger version of 3.\n\na BCNF database follows:\n\n1. It is in 3NF\n\n2. for any dependency A → B, A should be a super key.\n\nWhat it essentially says is that if B depends on A, then A is a super-key. A super-key is any value or set of values that can be used to uniquely identify a row. It's fairly rare that a 3NF table is not of BCNF, but I suggest you try to look further in to it on your own.\n\n\n***4NF***\n\nA database is in 4NF if\n\n* it is in BCNF\n\n* There are no multi value dependencies.\n\nA multi value dependency is essentially where two independent columns both depend on the same primary key.\n\nImagine a table that includes kids and pets of someone. \n\n|Id|Name|Kid|Pet|\n:--|:--|:--|:--|\n|1|John|Jennifer|Sparkles|\n|1|John|Billy|Sparkles|\n|2|AAron|null|Minny|\n|2|AAron|null|Blubbers|\n|2|AAron|null|Doggo|\n|3|Lisa|Sarah|Cuddles|\n|3|Lisa|Sarah|Junebug|\n|3|Lisa|Joey|Cuddles|\n|3|Lisa|Joey|Junebug|\n\n\nNotice how we're just splurging unwanted rows, because we are trying to include each kid/pet combination for each employee. Lisa has two kids and two pets, but gets four rows because we must list each kid and each pet. \n\nA better solution would be having a \"kids\" table and \"Pets\" table, so that kids and pets can independently depend on the person in question instead of having to try and share a single dependency.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10973690", "title": "Database model", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 288, "text": "A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized and manipulated. The most popular example of a database model is the relational model, which uses a table-based format.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8377", "title": "Database", "section": "Section::::Design and modeling.:Models.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 168, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 168, "end_character": 330, "text": "A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized, and manipulated. The most popular example of a database model is the relational model (or the SQL approximation of relational), which uses a table-based format.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44971098", "title": "Multi-model database", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 308, "text": "A Multi-model database is a database that can store, index and query data in more than one model. For some time, databases have primarily supported only one model, such as: relational database, document-oriented database, graph database or triplestore. A database that combines many of these is multi-model.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "366847", "title": "Sequence database", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 533, "text": "In the field of bioinformatics, a sequence database is a type of biological database that is composed of a large collection of computerized (\"digital\") nucleic acid sequences, protein sequences, or other polymer sequences stored on a computer. The UniProt database is an example of a protein sequence database. As of 2013 it contained over 40 million sequences and is growing at an exponential rate. Historically, sequences were published in paper form, but as the number of sequences grew, this storage method became unsustainable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44971098", "title": "Multi-model database", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 387, "text": "Most database management systems are organized around a single data model that determines how data can be organized, stored, and manipulated. In contrast, a multi-model database is designed to support multiple data models against a single, integrated backend. Document, graph, relational, and key-value models are examples of data models that may be supported by a multi-model database.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35557836", "title": "Object-PL/SQL", "section": "Section::::A confusing of \"objects\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 385, "text": "\"Database objects\" are concepts that refer to relational or sequential databases and persist being valid in new models. \"Tables\", \"triggers\", \"columns\", \"indexes\" are examples of database objects, which are present in O-PL/SQL, but with the same meaning of the notion of Java objects, specifically an element of a set that has its existence beginning from an instantiation of a class.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8237163", "title": "Cardinality (data modeling)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 483, "text": "A complex data model can involve hundreds of related tables. A renowned computer scientist, Edgar F. Codd, created a systematic method to decompose and organize relational databases. Codd's steps for organizing database tables and their keys is called database normalization, which avoids certain hidden database design errors (delete anomalies or update anomalies). In real life the process of database normalization ends up breaking tables into a larger number of smaller tables. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Short selling.\n\nAt the beginning of the trading day, the Dukes have a fake, unreleased forecast report saying that there will be a shortage of oranges, and therefore the price of frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) will go up.\n\nThe Dukes' goal is to buy as much FCOJ as they can before the report is released and take advantage of the price increase.\n\nLewis instead waits for the price to go way high and then starts *selling* FCOJ he doesn't even own. Basically, he's borrowing shares and promising to buy them back later.\n\nThe real crop report comes out, saying there is no shortage of oranges. The price of FCOJ tanks, and Lewis finishes his short sale by buying back the shares he has to own to cover his earlier sale.\n\nLewis sold high and bought low, in that order. The Dukes bought high, much more than they could actually afford, and what they own now is worthless, so they can't pay back the exchange (the \"margin call\"). This bankrupts them.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39317498", "title": "Mortimer and Arabel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 429, "text": "Series 2, Mortimer's Mine, also twelve episodes, tells the story of an immense hole which appears under Rumbury Town, right in front of the Jones' house, which Mortimer decides to fill up with everything he can get his claws on...meanwhile an American millionaire is in town also trying to get his hands on everything he can, and the two are soon in competition. Everything comes to a dramatic finish at the Town Music Festival.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19410890", "title": "Mart Duggan", "section": "Section::::Later career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 471, "text": "The salesman immediately went to Leadville, where Duggan was not popular. He filed charges of robbery and assault against Duggan, who appeared in court to face the charges along with a string of dance hall girls as witnesses. The judge acquitted Duggan on the charge of robbery, but fined him $10 for assault. Duggan flew into a rage, demanding that if anyone should pay, it should be the salesman. Seeing Duggan's temper, the salesman dropped the charges and fled town.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49172394", "title": "The Balloonman", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 390, "text": "Cobblepot (Robin Lord Taylor) returns to Gotham City. A breaking news report on a nearby TV reports that a businessman Ronald Danzer (Jack Koenig), is out on bail awaiting trial for a Ponzi scheme bilked a half a billion dollars. He tries to escape when he is intercepted outside the building by a man with a pig mask. The man ties Danzer to a weather balloon and Danzer floats in the sky.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "973437", "title": "Robert Berdella", "section": "Section::::Bob's Bazaar Bizarre.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 626, "text": "In 1982, Berdella began renting his own booth at the Westport Flea Market. This store was named Bob's Bazaar Bizarre, and primarily sold and traded primitive art, jewelry, and antiques. Although occasionally making a generous monthly profit, the income he typically generated via this business was often not sufficient to maintain his daily expenses and to make ends meet. Resultingly, Berdella would occasionally have to either sell goods to fellow merchants at a profit loss, or steal or scavenge for items to sell at his booth. Additionally, he would often take lodgers at his home as a means of gaining additional income.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2182348", "title": "Thomas Foster (Canadian politician)", "section": "Section::::Early life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 241, "text": "He started his working life as a butcher's boy in Toronto, until he saved enough money to purchase his own butcher shop for $50. The earning from that business allowed him to purchase property which became the source of his eventual wealth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "324853", "title": "Bernard Tapie", "section": "Section::::Life and career.:Acquisitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 320, "text": "He subsequently had a number of legal difficulties associated with this company. The Tapie group also tried to dabble in the online poker world when they tried to acquire Full Tilt Poker. However, they were not able to negotiate a successful deal with the United States Department of Justice, and the deal fell through.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20887120", "title": "William Douglas Cook", "section": "Section::::Not an ordinary farmer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 236, "text": "Mortimer states that there “is a fair amount of information about what he bought (…), but not much about where he put them or what their fate was. He was essentially a collector (and a muddler), buying one of everything he hadn't got”.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You're right that entanglement doesn't seem weird if you just assume that the outcome was determined at the point when the particles were entangled. This was once a major interpretation of quantum mechanics, which I'll call \"local hidden variables.\" Unfortunately, it turns out that this interpretation leads to different experimental consequences than quantum mechanics, and experiments seem to show that quantum mechanics is correct. This is in contrast to \"Copenhagen\"-like interpretations, which claim that it doesn't make sense to assign one or the other coin to \"heads\" or \"tails\" until they are measured. This is the usual picture of what you call \"quantum weirdness,\" though as you point out entanglement can't be used to communicate. \n\nLet me go over why local hidden variables do not work using a thought experiment (I'm using an edited version of a previous post of mine here). the TL;DR is that using very basic assumptions of probabilities, you can't assign the same kinds of probabilities to a local hidden variable theory that you can assign with a quantum mechanical theory, and experiments have shown that quantum mechanics is correct in these cases.\n\nThe thought experiment involves a pair of electrons with entangled spins. After being created at the same point, the electrons go in opposite directions towards two detectors, A and B. Unless there is some way for them to communicate \"at a distance,\" they cannot send any information to each other after they are separated. When A and B measure the spin of their individual electrons along any axis, they always get either \"up\" or \"down\" with 50% probability each. However, if they measure their spins along the same direction, they always get opposite values from each other.\n\nLet's try to explain this using a probability theory, like flipping a coin. If we could solve the classical dynamics of a flipped coin exactly, we could always predict whether it is heads or tails. However, we don't have this info, so we assign some probability P and 1-P of it being heads and tails respectively (probability of heads + probability of tails = 1 of course, you must get some answer). After flipping the same coin many times, you'll be able to reconstruct the probability P. For a fair coin, P = .5, but you could have a rigged coin where P is anything between 0 and 1.\n\nCorrespondingly, we assume that the two spins have some definite function telling them what their \"actual\" spin is at any angle, which was determined when they were created, but we can't figure it out. However, we can replace the exact values with some probabilities which successive experiments will converge to. Let's assume that A and B both only measure their particles along the angles 0°, 120°, and 240° with respect to the z-axis. We assume that A has some unknown probabilities for measuring spin up for her particle at these angles:\n\nP(A=up,0°) = X\n\nP(A=up,120°) = Y\n\nP(A=up,240°) = Z\n\nwhere X, Y, and Z are between 0 and 1, and of course, P(A=down,0°) = 1 - P(A=up,0°) = 1 - X, etc., since each probability must add to one (with certainty, either up or down will be measured). Finally, since the distribution for particle B needs to be opposite that for A (the two electron spins are perfectly anticorrelated in any given direction), we have\n\nP(B=down,0°) = X\n\nP(B=down,120°) = Y\n\nP(B=down,240°) = Z.\n\nOk, so we've set up a theory, and we can now try to fit experiments to this. Notice, importantly, that we have to specify all three angles for both particles, because the angles can be changed en route between when the particles are created and detected - unless the particles \"know\" what is going on somewhere else, they need to have all of the above information specified at the start.\n\nLet's ask a simple question. What is the total probability that the A and B spins have opposite spins across any two distinct angles? That is, P = P(A at 0° opposite of B at 120°) + P(A at 0° opposite of B at 240°) + P(A at 120° opposite of B at 240°). This is:\n\nP = XY + (1-X)(1-Y) + XZ + (1-X)(1-Z) + YZ + (1-Y)(1-Z).\n\nI hope it's clear how I computed this probability from the above definitions. After some simple algebra:\n\nP = 1 + 2XYZ + 2(1-X)(1-Y)(1-Z) ≥ 1.\n\nHere, the final inequality follows because X, Y, and Z are between 0 and 1 since they are probabilities, so both terms are just positive numbers. This is called a Bell inequality, and **it is totally independent of what X, Y, and Z are**. It applies for any hidden variable theory given the assumptions I've made throughout (mostly locality).\n\nOf course, the punchline is the quantum calculation, which agrees with experiment:\n\nP_quantum = 3/4 < 1.\n\nQED. No matter what probability distribution you give me, whatever values of X, Y, and Z, it will fail to describe quantum mechanics and experiments.\n\nHow do we reconcile this? One easy way is to allow FTL communication. Maybe the particles know what the detector will measure infinitesimally before they reach it, and they change their distribution then. Maybe the particles communicate with each other faster than light to make their probabilities change. \n\nThe other way is not to assign probabilities to events which aren't measured, so you do not have any sort of probability distribution like I wrote above. Essentially, each \"classical\" probability P(A at 0° opposite of B at 120°) assumes that there is some probabilities assigned to the 240° angles, but in local quantum mechanics, you simply don't assign values to the unmeasured angle. But this is precisely the \"weirdness\" that local hidden variables is trying to get rid of.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25280", "title": "Quantum teleportation", "section": "Section::::Non-technical summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 907, "text": "An important aspect of quantum information theory is entanglement, which imposes statistical correlations between otherwise distinct physical systems. These correlations hold even when measurements are chosen and performed independently, out of causal contact from one another, as verified in Bell test experiments. Thus, an observation resulting from a measurement choice made at one point in spacetime seems to instantaneously affect outcomes in another region, even though light hasn't yet had time to travel the distance; a conclusion seemingly at odds with special relativity (EPR paradox). However such correlations can never be used to transmit any information faster than the speed of light, a statement encapsulated in the no-communication theorem. Thus, teleportation, as a whole, can never be superluminal, as a qubit cannot be reconstructed until the accompanying classical information arrives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25336", "title": "Quantum entanglement", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 484, "text": "According to \"some\" interpretations of quantum mechanics, the effect of one measurement occurs instantly. Other interpretations which don't recognize wavefunction collapse dispute that there is any \"effect\" at all. However, all interpretations agree that entanglement produces \"correlation\" between the measurements and that the mutual information between the entangled particles can be exploited, but that any \"transmission\" of information at faster-than-light speeds is impossible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31591", "title": "Time travel", "section": "Section::::Time travel in physics.:Quantum physics.:No-communication theorem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 502, "text": "Quantum-mechanical phenomena such as quantum teleportation, the EPR paradox, or quantum entanglement might appear to create a mechanism that allows for faster-than-light (FTL) communication or time travel, and in fact some interpretations of quantum mechanics such as the Bohm interpretation presume that some information is being exchanged between particles instantaneously in order to maintain correlations between particles. This effect was referred to as \"spooky action at a distance\" by Einstein.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11439", "title": "Faster-than-light", "section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Quantum mechanics.:EPR paradox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 976, "text": "An experiment performed in 1997 by Nicolas Gisin has demonstrated non-local quantum correlations between particles separated by over 10 kilometers. But as noted earlier, the non-local correlations seen in entanglement cannot actually be used to transmit classical information faster than light, so that relativistic causality is preserved. The situation is akin to sharing a synchronized coin flip, where the second person to flip their coin will always see the opposite of what the first person sees, but neither has any way of knowing whether they were the first or second flipper, without communicating classically. See No-communication theorem for further information. A 2008 quantum physics experiment also performed by Nicolas Gisin and his colleagues has determined that in any hypothetical non-local hidden-variable theory, the speed of the quantum non-local connection (what Einstein called \"spooky action at a distance\") is at least 10,000 times the speed of light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41129282", "title": "Quantum illumination", "section": "Section::::History.:Experiment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 807, "text": "In 2013, Lopaeva \"et al.\" exploited photon number correlations, instead of entanglement, in a sub-optimal target detection experiment. To illustrate the benefit of quantum entanglement, in 2013 Zhang \"et al.\" reported a secure communication experiment based on quantum illumination and demonstrated for the first time that entanglement can enable a substantial performance advantage in the presence of quantum decoherence. In 2015, Zhang \"et al.\" applied quantum illumination in sensing and showed that employing entanglement can yield a higher signal-to-noise ratio than the optimal classical scheme can provide, even though the highly lossy and noisy environment completely destroys the initial entanglement. This sensing experiment thus proved the original theoretical proposals of quantum illumination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8057418", "title": "Quantum potential", "section": "Section::::Relativistic and field-theoretic extensions.:Quantum potential and relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 312, "text": "Bohm and Hiley demonstrated that the non-locality of quantum theory can be understood as limit case of a purely local theory, provided the transmission of \"active information\" is allowed to be greater than the speed of light, and that this limit case yields approximations to both quantum theory and relativity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58278312", "title": "Aspect's experiment", "section": "Section::::Conclusion.:Does Aspect's experiment challenge relativistic causality?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 1589, "text": "No physicist believes the results of the EPR experiment in general and of Aspect's experiment in particular—in perfect agreement with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics—challenge, in any way whatsoever, the relativity principle according to which no form of energy (matter or force), and therefore no usable information, can travel faster than the speed of light nor does it, as a consequence, challenge the derived relativist causality principle. It can easily be proven that quantum entanglement cannot be used to instantaneously transmit information from one space-time point to the other. The results measured on the first particle are random; the state alterations on the other particle induced by these measurements—as instantaneous as they may be according to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics and Aspect's experiment's results—lead to measurement results relative to the second particle which are seemingly just as random: no usable information can be separately obtained upon measuring, and the correlations remain undetectable as long as the two series' results are not compared. This kind of experiment demonstrate the unavoidable need for a \"classical\" signal in the relativistic sense in order to transmit the information necessary to the detection of these correlations. Without this signal, nothing can be transmitted. It determines the speed of the transmission of information which reaffirms the fundamental principle of relativity. As a result, the relativist causality principle is perfectly compatible with the EPR experiments results.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So this one is actually pretty well documented with Google Searches:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n**Foods that aid skin care:** These foods increase overall skin health\n\nVitamin A,E, & C rich foods\n\nZinc & Selenium\n\nProper Hydration\n\n\n**Foods that may worsen acne**\n\nMilk which comes from cows that have hormone supplements, there is still on going research into how these hormones given to cows affect humans, especially adolescent women. \n\nExcessive simple sugars which can raise insulin levels will degrade overall skin health. Increased androgens stimulate sebum production and clog pores.\n\n\nDisclaimer: Generally speaking the foods I've listed here deal with overall skin health, and are not acne specific. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a few studies that point to the relationship between a hyperglycaemic (high sugar) diet and milk consumption with certain hormonal responses that stimulate the sebaceous glands in your face. For example: _URL_0_\nThis is an interesting study that suggests a link between milk consumption and a pile of insulin-related problems, including acne:\n_URL_1_\n\nEssentially, spiking your insulin can aggravate your acne, and doing this over a long period of time is linked to worsening symptoms", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "74555", "title": "Acne", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Diet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1317, "text": "The relationship between diet and acne is unclear, as there is no high-quality evidence that establishes any definitive link between them. High-glycemic-load diets have been found to have different degrees of effect on acne severity. Multiple randomized controlled trials and nonrandomized studies have found a lower-glycemic-load diet to be effective in reducing acne. There is weak observational evidence suggesting that dairy milk consumption is positively associated with a higher frequency and severity of acne. Milk contains whey protein and hormones such as bovine IGF-1 and precursors of dihydrotestosterone. These components are hypothesized to promote the effects of insulin and IGF-1 and thereby increase the production of androgen hormones, sebum, and promote the formation of comedones. Available evidence does not support a link between eating chocolate or salt and acne severity. Chocolate does contain varying amounts of sugar, which can lead to a high glycemic load, and it can be made with or without milk. Few studies have examined the relationship between obesity and acne. Vitamin B may trigger skin outbreaks similar to acne (acneiform eruptions), or worsen existing acne, when taken in doses exceeding the recommended daily intake. Eating greasy foods does not increase acne nor make it worse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74555", "title": "Acne", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 445, "text": "Genetics is thought to be the primary cause of acne in 80% of cases. The role of diet and cigarette smoking is unclear, and neither cleanliness nor exposure to sunlight appear to play a part. In both sexes, hormones called androgens appear to be part of the underlying mechanism, by causing increased production of sebum. Another frequent factor is excessive growth of the bacterium \"Cutibacterium acnes\", which is normally present on the skin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "464075", "title": "Sebaceous gland", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Acne.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 354, "text": "There are many treatments available for acne from reducing sugars in the diet, to medications that include antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids and hormonal treatments. Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. Should the usual treatments fail, the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "464075", "title": "Sebaceous gland", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Acne.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 828, "text": "Acne is a very common problem, particularly during puberty in teenagers, and is thought to relate to an increased production of sebum due to hormonal factors. The increased production of sebum can lead to a blockage of the sebaceous gland duct. This can cause a comedo, (commonly called a \"blackhead\" or a \"whitehead\"), which can lead to infection, particularly by the bacteria \"Cutibacterium acnes\". This can inflame the comedones, which then change into the characteristic acne lesions. \"Comedones\" generally occur on the areas with more sebaceous glands, particularly the face, shoulders, upper chest and back. Comedones may be 'black' or 'white' depending on whether the entire pilosebaceous unit, or just the sebaceous duct, is blocked. Sebaceous filaments—innocuous build-ups of sebum—are often mistaken for \"whiteheads\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24516446", "title": "6-O-Methylguanine", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 329, "text": "NOC are found in some foods (bacon, sausages, cheese) and tobacco smoke, and are formed in the gastrointestinal tract, especially after consumption of red meat. In addition, endogenous nitric oxide levels were found to be enhanced under chronic inflammatory conditions, and this could favor NOC formation in the large intestine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74555", "title": "Acne", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 774, "text": "Scientists initially hypothesized that acne represented a disease of the skin's hair follicle, and occurred due to blockage of the pore by sebum. During the 1880s, bacteria were observed by microscopy in skin samples affected by acne and were regarded as the causal agents of comedones, sebum production, and ultimately acne. During the mid-twentieth century, dermatologists realized that no single hypothesized factor (sebum, bacteria, or excess keratin) could completely explain the disease. This led to the current understanding that acne could be explained by a sequence of related events, beginning with blockage of the skin follicle by excessive dead skin cells, followed by bacterial invasion of the hair follicle pore, changes in sebum production, and inflammation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "604685", "title": "Cutibacterium acnes", "section": "Section::::Role in disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 528, "text": "\"C. acnes\" bacteria secrete many proteins, including several digestive enzymes. These enzymes are involved in the digestion of sebum and the acquisition of other nutrients. They can also destabilize the layers of cells that form the walls of the follicle. The cellular damage, metabolic byproducts and bacterial debris produced by the rapid growth of \"C. acnes\" in follicles can trigger inflammation. This inflammation can lead to the symptoms associated with some common skin disorders, such as folliculitis and acne vulgaris.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As a note, we don't generally measure against *absolute* brain size, but we note that most animals fall along a fit of brain size to body mass ratio. Some animals lying above or below this line (humans being reasonably well above it, if I recall correctly) seem to indicate more or less intelligence. Sorry on a mobile device so can't link, but check out wiki for brain to body ratio", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27368808", "title": "Dinosaur intelligence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 817, "text": "Dinosaur intelligence has been a point of contention for paleontologists. Non-avian dinosaurs were once regarded as being unintelligent animals but have largely been appraised more generously since the dinosaur renaissance. This new found optimism for dinosaur intelligence has led to highly exaggerated portrayals in pop-cultural works like \"Jurassic Park\". Paleontologists now regard dinosaurs as being very intelligent for reptiles, but generally not as smart as their avian descendants. Some have speculated that if the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had not occurred, the more intelligent forms of small theropods might have eventually evolved human-like levels of intelligence. Popular misconceptions of dinosaur neurology include the concept of a second brain in the pelvis of stegosaurs and sauropods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25409", "title": "Reptile", "section": "Section::::Morphology and physiology.:Nerves.:Intelligence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 764, "text": "Reptiles are generally considered less intelligent than mammals and birds. The size of their brain relative to their body is much less than that of mammals, the encephalization quotient being about one tenth of that of mammals, though larger reptiles can show more complex brain development. Larger lizards, like the monitors, are known to exhibit complex behavior, including cooperation. Crocodiles have relatively larger brains and show a fairly complex social structure. The Komodo dragon is even known to engage in play, as are turtles, which are also considered to be social creatures, and sometimes switch between monogamy and promiscuity in their sexual behavior. One study found that wood turtles were better than white rats at learning to navigate mazes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1812326", "title": "Dino Crisis (video game)", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 852, "text": "Since it is unknown how dinosaurs moved in real life, the team had to use their imagination and animals such as crocodiles and dogs as reference. The animators first scanned in drawings, then used animation tools to see what was possible to animate. The dinosaur artificial intelligence was based on lions, tigers, and other carnivores that are not afraid of humans. Mikami's vision for the dinosaurs was not completely fulfilled. He wanted to include more complex dinosaur artificial intelligence, with the dinosaurs each having individual personalities that could understand the player's condition and ambush them. The dinosaur animations and cries also did not turn out as he originally envisioned them. The number of dinosaurs in the North American version was increased from the Japanese version, although the number of species remained the same.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1879923", "title": "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Episode guide.:Episode 3.:Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 292, "text": "A guide narrative intervenes, explaining that while humanity had always assumed that it was the most intelligent species on Earth, in fact the dolphins were more intelligent, and had left the planet some time before. However, both the dolphins and humans were less intelligent than the mice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "380406", "title": "Comparative psychology", "section": "Section::::Species studied.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1078, "text": "Interest in primate studies has increased with the rise in studies of animal cognition. Other animals thought to be intelligent have also been increasingly studied. Examples include various species of corvid, parrots — especially the grey parrot — and dolphins. Alex (Avian Learning EXperiment) is a well known case study (1976–2007) which was developed by Pepperberg, who found that the African gray parrot Alex did not only mimic vocalisations but understood the concepts of same and different between objects. The study of non-human mammals has also included the study of dogs. Due to their domestic nature and personalities, dogs have lived closely with humans, and parallels in communication and cognitive behaviours have therefore been recognised and further researched. Joly-Mascheroni and colleagues (2008) demonstrated that dogs may be able to catch human yawns and suggested a level of empathy in dogs, a point that is strongly debated. Pilley and Reid found that a Border Collie named Chaser was able to successfully identify and retrieve 1022 distinct objects/toys.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27368808", "title": "Dinosaur intelligence", "section": "Section::::Speculations of anthropomorphic sapient dinosaurs.:Jerison (1978).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 350, "text": "American psychologist Harry Jerison suggested the possibility of sapient dinosaurs. In 1978, he gave a presentation titled \"Smart dinosaurs and comparative psychology\", at a meeting of the American Psychological Association. According to his speech, \"Dromiceiomimus\" supposedly could have evolved into a highly intelligent species like human beings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9061", "title": "Dolphin", "section": "Section::::Behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 585, "text": "Dolphins are often regarded as one of Earth's most intelligent animals, though it is hard to say just how intelligent. Comparing species' relative intelligence is complicated by differences in sensory apparatus, response modes, and nature of cognition. Furthermore, the difficulty and expense of experimental work with large aquatic animals has so far prevented some tests and limited sample size and rigor in others. Compared to many other species, however, dolphin behavior has been studied extensively, both in captivity and in the wild. See cetacean intelligence for more details.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In America, employers are required to provide health insurance for employees since we can't get our shit together with a single payer system like the rest of the First World. Hobby Lobby is a company owned by conservative Christians that believe birth control is a sin. Our Supreme Court just decided that Hobby Lobby--and other companies owned by people who have a religious problem with birth control--do not need to provide health insurance that covers birth control for their employees.\n\nSo now what? Do Jehova's Witness employers need to provide insurance that covers blood transfusions? Do Scientologist employers need to provide insurance that covers mental health issues? Do Christian Science employers need to provide any health insurance at all? At this time, nobody knows the legal answers to these questions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The new Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) requires some private corporations to offer specific healthcare options to their employees. The required coverage includes prophylactics and birth control pills, some of which can be used to induce abortion (i.e. the \"morning after\" pill). \n\nHobby Lobby is a Christian-owned privately-held business that objected to this part of the law on religious grounds. Generally in the US, there are no religious exceptions granted for generally applicable laws: even if your religion expressly condones slavery, you are not allowed to buy, sell or own slaves in the US (at least since 1865). \n\nA law passed in 1993, tendentiously named \"The Religious Freedom Restoration Act,\" requires the government to refrain from infringing on people's (or businesses') religious freedom unless a) doing so serves a compelling government interest and b) there is no \"less restrictive\" method available to achieve the same end. \n\nYesterday's Supreme Court decision simply applied the RFRA law, and didn't reach the deeper constitutional questions implicated by the case. \n\n**TL;DR - It is the RFRA law that opens the door for religious exceptions to US public laws, not the SCOTUS decision.** ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hobby Lobby is a corporation that claims it that the Affordable Care Act violates it's right to freedom of religion. Hobby Lobby doesn't want to provide certain types of birth control within their healthcare plan, and the ACA says they have to. This is related to the Citizens United Case, wherein the Supreme Cort ruled that limiting corporate campaign contributions infringed on a corporation's freedom of speech.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42306993", "title": "Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.", "section": "Section::::Background.:Hobby Lobby Stores and Conestoga Wood Specialties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 438, "text": "Hobby Lobby is an arts and crafts company founded by self-made billionaire David Green and owned by the Evangelical Christian Green family with about 21,000 employees. It provided health insurance covering the contraceptives Plan-B and Ella until it dropped its coverage in 2012, the year it filed its lawsuit. The Hobby Lobby case also involved Mardel Christian and Educational Supply, which is owned by Mart Green, one of David's sons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1424449", "title": "Hobby Lobby", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 242, "text": "Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., formerly called Hobby Lobby Creative Centers, is a private for-profit corporation which owns a chain of American arts and crafts stores that are managed by corporate employees. The company is based in Oklahoma City.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10394898", "title": "United States Hispanic Chamber of Commerce", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 461, "text": "The chamber promotes the economic growth and development of entrepreneurs and represents the interests of nearly 4.37 million Hispanic owned businesses in the US that contribute in excess of $700 billion to the American economy. It serves as the umbrella organization for more than 200 local chambers and business associations in the United States and Puerto Rico. Additionally, it advocates for the 259 major American companies who are its supporting members.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2520307", "title": "Squire Patton Boggs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 280, "text": "Squire Patton Boggs is currently the third-largest lobbying firm in the U.S. after Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld and Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck. The lobbying arm, long managed by Thomas Hale Boggs Jr., is managed by former United States Senators John Breaux and Trent Lott.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48934", "title": "Lobbying", "section": "Section::::Lobbying by country.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 620, "text": "Lobbying in the United States describes paid activity in which special interests hire professional advocates to argue for specific legislation in decision-making bodies such as the United States Congress. Lobbying in the United States could be seen to originate from Amendment I of the Constitution of the United States, which states: Congress shall make no law…abridging the right of the people peaceably…to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Some lobbyists are now using social media to reduce the cost of traditional campaigns, and to more precisely target public officials with political messages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3615150", "title": "K Street Project", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 359, "text": "The project is named for K Street in Washington, D.C., where the largest lobbying firms once had their headquarters. Lobbyists are, in some circles, referred to as the \"fourth branch of government,\" as some have great influence in U.S. national politics due to their monetary resources and the \"revolving-door\" practice of hiring former government officials.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15029435", "title": "Revolving door (politics)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 393, "text": "The lobbying industry is especially affected by the revolving door concept, as the main asset for a lobbyist is contacts with and influence on government officials. This industrial climate is attractive for ex-government officials. It can also mean substantial monetary rewards for the lobbying firms and government projects and contracts in the hundreds of millions for those they represent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, it is possible to replace a heart with a continual flow pump. However, little research has been done and the only example I know is an impoverished South American man who missed a follow-up appointment because he “felt fine” despite his heart having completely died by the time he could be contacted. Therefore it is difficult to know all the pros and cons.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Continuous flow pumps are used routinely in any surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass - congenital heart defect repairs in children, valve replacement surgeries in adults, and so on. These pumps are quite large and are operated by a specialist with (in the United States) a specialized college degree. The longer-term extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) pump can replace heart and lung function for a considerable period of time - up to a few months if required. Both of these pumps provide continuous flow but also come with some significant challenges and incur substantial risk.\n\nThere are a number of implantable pumps that can take over some portion of heart function. The Berlin Heart Excor device provides pulsatile flow, but requires an external drive unit about the size of a rolling suitcase. The HeartMate is an implantable impeller device that provides continuous flow. Its support equipment is considerably smaller. There are newer devices hitting the market all the time, many of which are considerably smaller and more portable than devices only a few years older. Collectively, these are called ventricular assist devices.\n\nThere is considerable debate regarding the need for pulsatile flow. It is claimed that continuous flow interferes with the kidney’s ability to regulate blood pressure. There does appear to be some evidence for long term kidney injury without pulsatile flow, but there are many individuals who have been supported by continuous flow devices for protracted periods without major loss of renal function. \n\nThe advantages to continuous flow are mainly in that it is mechanically much simpler to provide continuous flow rather than pulsatile flow. The power requirements generally are less, and the devices themselves can be made much smaller.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54889583", "title": "Rhythm interpretation", "section": "Section::::Ventricular arrhythmias.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 232, "text": "The final rhythm is Ventricular Standstill this rhythm will appear as a flat line, but may have a few non conducted p waves, the heart rate of this will be 0 and be supplying no blood through the body like ventricular fibrillation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232495", "title": "Motivation", "section": "Section::::Psychological theories.:Flow theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 297, "text": "The idea of flow theory as first conceptualized by Csikszentmihalyi. Flow in the context of motivation can be seen as an activity that is not too hard, frustrating or madding, or too easy boring and done too fast. If one has achieved perfect flow, then the activity has reached maximum potential.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "275216", "title": "Hemodynamics", "section": "Section::::Blood flow.:Cardiac output.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 398, "text": "In a normal circulatory system, the volume of blood returning to the heart each minute is approximately equal to the volume that is pumped out each minute (the cardiac output). Because of this, the velocity of blood flow across each level of the circulatory system is primarily determined by the total cross-sectional area of that level. This is mathematically expressed by the following equation:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3552463", "title": "Anthroposophic medicine", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Beliefs about human biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 393, "text": "Steiner described the heart not as a pump, but as a regulator of flow, such that the heartbeat itself can be distinguished from the circulation of blood. Anthroposophic medicine claims the flow in the blood of the circulatory system is, as Marinelli put it, \"\"propelled with its own biological momentum, as can be seen in the embryo, and boosts itself with \"induced\" momenta from the heart\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19908550", "title": "Diffusion", "section": "Section::::Diffusion vs. bulk flow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 387, "text": "Thirdly there is another \"bulk flow\" process. The pumping action of the heart then transports the blood around the body. As the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the volume decreases, which increases the pressure in the ventricle. This creates a pressure gradient between the heart and the capillaries, and blood moves through blood vessels by bulk flow down the pressure gradient.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38498516", "title": "Ultrasonography of chronic venous insufficiency of the legs", "section": "Section::::Procedure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 819, "text": "Also, unlike the arterial ultrasound examination, blood velocity in veins has no diagnostic meaning. Veins are a draining system similar to a low pressure hydraulic system, with a laminar flow and a low velocity. This low velocity is responsible for the fact that it can only be detected spontaneously with the Doppler effect on the proximal and larger femoral and iliac veins. Here the flow is either modulated by the respiratory rhythm or is continuous in cases where the flow is high. The thinner veins do not have a spontaneous flow. However, in some circumstances the blood flow is so slow that it can be seen as some echogenic material moving within the vein, in \"spontaneous contrast\". This material can easily be mistaken for a thrombus, but can also easily be discounted by testing the vein's compressibility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23868856", "title": "Reynolds number", "section": "Section::::In physiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 252, "text": "Poiseuille's law on blood circulation in the body is dependent on laminar flow. In turbulent flow the flow rate is proportional to the square root of the pressure gradient, as opposed to its direct proportionality to pressure gradient in laminar flow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I experience similar things when I've been exposed to sunshine (or other strong light) from one side only. Might have something to do with the photopsins being bleached and not yet replenished. But you have this all the time?\n\n[See here for example.](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This was asked last week … *twice.* [Here's the one that survived](_URL_0_), I think.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Howdy. I have this exact same issue. I see red, yellow or blue hues at different times between my eyes.\n\nI am extremely near sighted (prescription is -11.00), and asked my optometrist about it. He said its caused by the fluid in your eye (it has a more proper name) shifting and applying pressure to the cones or rods in your eye. So the color varies depending on what is is pushing on.\n\nIf you see light flashing (i describe it as looking at a helicopter below with a light shining below it and the rotors causing the flashes), thats the fluid causing pressure on the eye stem(insert more proper name) itself.\n\nMy optometrist said it wasn't a normal occurrence, but that it was not a problem that would require corrective action. Being so near sighted I am at risk for retina detachment which gives the effect of a window shade being pulled down on your eye and will require corrective action.\n\nI normally only notice it now when I look at scenes containing a lot of white.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "302812", "title": "Color vision", "section": "Section::::Wavelength and hue detection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 623, "text": "The characteristic colors are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to high frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "444758", "title": "Color photography", "section": "Section::::History.:Three-color processes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 824, "text": "It is based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled cone cells of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the spectrum we call \"red\", another is more sensitive to the middle or \"green\" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by \"blue\". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19097368", "title": "On Vision and Colours", "section": "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 5.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 694, "text": "The range of all colors contains a continuous series of innumerable shades that blend into each other. Why are red, green, orange, blue, yellow, and violet given names and considered to be the most important? Because they represent the retina's activity in the simplest fractions or ratios. The same is true of the seven keynotes in the musical diatonic scale: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti. Color is the qualitatively divided activity of the retina. The retina has a natural tendency to display its activity entirely. After the retina has been partly stimulated, its remaining complement is active as the physiological spectrum or afterimage. In this way, the retina is fully and wholly active.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "508278", "title": "Benham's top", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 325, "text": "The phenomenon is not entirely understood. One possible reason people see colors may be that the color receptors in the human eye respond at different rates to red, green, and blue. More specifically, the latencies of the center and the surrounding mechanisms differ for the different types of color-specific ganglion cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25921922", "title": "Impossible color", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 571, "text": "BULLET::::2. Colors that cannot be seen directly from any combination of retina signal output from one place in one eye, but can be generated in the brain's visual cortex by mixing color signals from the two eyes, or from more than one part of the same eye. Examples of these colors are yellowish-blue and reddish-green. Those colors that appear to be similar to, for example, both red and green, or to both yellow and blue. (This does not mean the result of mixing paints of those two colors in painting, or the result of mixing lights of those two colors on a screen.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24455494", "title": "Jay Neitz", "section": "Section::::Cone cells and the numbers of colors an organism can see.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 367, "text": "According to Jay Neitz, each of the three standard color-detecting cone cells in the retina – blue, green and red—can pick up about 100 different gradations of color. But, he says, the brain can combine those variations exponentially, multiplying each new variety of cone by 100, so that the average human trichromat can distinguish about one million different hues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3871014", "title": "Rainbow", "section": "Section::::Number of colours in spectrum or rainbow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 524, "text": "A spectrum obtained using a glass prism and a point source is a continuum of wavelengths without bands. The number of colours that the human eye is able to distinguish in a spectrum is in the order of 100. Accordingly, the Munsell colour system (a 20th-century system for numerically describing colours, based on equal steps for human visual perception) distinguishes 100 hues. The apparent discreteness of main colours is an artefact of human perception and the exact number of main colours is a somewhat arbitrary choice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm not entirely sure of your question. All sensory nerve endings do eventually end up in the CNS (even though each sense may go through different tracts/paths to get to where they end up), where sensory information is processed. \n\nIn the case of the hand in particular, you have the Ulnar nerve that innervates your hand and receives sensory input. It originates from the mess of afferent/efferent signals carried by your spinal cord. All sensory nerves of the upper/lower limbs originate from a [spinal nerve](_URL_0_) which then send information toward the brain (afferent). So if you get some sort of sensory information from your hands, the signal gets carried from your hand, back to your spinal cord, up toward your brain where it gets processed. There are multiple synapses from nerve ending at the tip of your fingers to the sensory processing in the cortex.\n\nNot sure if that answers your question well enough with respect to the optic nerve (I don't understand what your question is with regards to that)\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short Answer: Like in the optic nerve, there is some abstraction of information from touch receptors before it enters the BRAIN as stated in the title of this question. However, the information entering the cells in the spine is \"pure\" and correspond to individual touch receptors.\n\nI am assuming by \"like in the optic nerve\" you are referring to the fact that each photoceptor is not represented by a neuron in the CNS in that retinal ganglion cells (the output cells of the retina) receive input via many photoreceptors via bipolar and amacrine cells that facilitate a degree of visual data abstraction.\n\nIn response to your question (as you talk about the hand, I am assuming you refer to discriminative somatosensation - \"fine touch\" that e.g. allows object identification).\n\nCells that detect this type of touch are called dorsal root ganglion cells, that have long axons that have specialised endings, such as Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel disks, Ruffini's and Meissner's corpuscles - these allow the transduction of e.g. the edge of a coin pressing your finger.\n\nThese axons travel from the finger to the CNS - more specifically to the dorsal root of the grey matter of the spinal cord, where their cell bodies lie. Here they are represented accurately in that each cell body corresponds to one touch receptor . These DRG cells are pseudo-unipolar and have efferent axons that stretch up the white matter (the posterior column) to terminate in a part of the medulla called the cuneate nucleus (in the case of the arm). Here, there are interneurones etc. that allow \"cross talk\" between neurones, and the data becomes more \"abstract\" through e.g. lateral inhibition, a process by which a strong stimulus in one area overrides nearby areas due to it's strength, allowing pinpointing of this area. This repeats in higher areas as second order neurones travel from the cuneate nucleus to the Ventral Posterior Lateral area of the thalamus, and then finally to the somatosensory cortex via third order neurones. \n\nThe somatosensory cortex is divided into four main areas - area 3a is probably the most important for touch; here, while data has been abstracted by processing at the three levels described, action potentials are reserved in specific areas that correspond to specific regions of the body. The other areas are far more complex, and projections to the secondary somatosensory cortex are even more poorly understood; for example neurones in areas 1 and 2 of S1 respond to e.g. edges, moving pinpoints etc.\n\nTL;DR - \"CNS\" i.e. spinal cord receives faithful, topographic information from touch sensors, which is transferred to the brain - the cortex receives relatively topographic information, but single neurones DO NOT correspond to single touch receptors as there is some degree of information spread and convergence before it reaches the brain.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46425008", "title": "Outline of the human brain", "section": "Section::::Structure of the human brain.:Visible anatomy.:Cranial nerves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 684, "text": "BULLET::::- Many neurons connect to the brain on one end, with the other end connected to another neuron, with the outside (the brain) junction located within the spinal column. Other neurons bundles which are labeled cranial nerves, connect to the brain on one end, and to locations outside the brain on the other, without having a junction inside the spinal column. Cranial nerves are actually huge collections of vast numbers of individual neurons that have found common routes though the body. They branch several times into smaller bundles which eventually reach many endpoints. With one exception, the optic nerve, they are all considered part of the peripheral nervous system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3042697", "title": "Posterior communicating artery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 472, "text": "In human anatomy, the left and right posterior communicating arteries are arteries at the base of the brain that form part of the circle of Willis. Each posterior communicating artery connects the three cerebral arteries of the same side. Anteriorly, it connects to the internal carotid artery (ICA) prior to the terminal bifurcation of the ICA into the anterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery. Posteriorly, it communicates with the posterior cerebral artery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "231462", "title": "Median nerve", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 210, "text": "The median nerve arises from the branches from lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, courses through the anterior part of arm, forearm, and hand, and terminates by supplying the muscles of the hand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6695120", "title": "Posterior spinal artery", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 220, "text": "Branches from the posterior spinal arteries form a free anastomosis around the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, and communicate, by means of very tortuous transverse branches, with the vessels of the opposite side.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "890314", "title": "Brittle star", "section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Nervous system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 264, "text": "The nervous system consists of a main nerve ring which runs around the central disk. At the base of each arm, the ring attaches to a radial nerve which runs to the end of the limb. The nerves in each limb run through a canal at the base of the vertebral ossicles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "675172", "title": "Charles Bell", "section": "Section::::Works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 884, "text": "Despite this lukewarm response, Charles Bell continued to study the anatomy of the human brain and laid his focus upon the nerves connected to it. In 1821, Bell published the \"“On the Nerves: Giving an Account of some Experiments on Their Structure and Functions, Which Lead to a New Arrangement of the System”\" in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. This paper held Bell's most famous discovery, that the facial nerve or seventh cranial nerve is a nerve of muscular action. This was quite an important discovery because surgeons would often cut this nerve as an attempted cure for facial neuralgia, but this would often render the patient with a unilateral paralysis of the facial muscles, now known as Bell's Palsy. Due to this publication, Charles Bell is regarded as one of the first physicians to combine the scientific study of neuroanatomy with clinical practice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29406488", "title": "Median nerve palsy", "section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 429, "text": "The nerve continues through the carpal tunnel into the hand, lying in the carpal tunnel anterior and lateral to the tendons of the flexor digitorum superficialis. Once in the hand, the nerve splits into a muscular branch and palmar digital branches. The muscular branch supplies the thenar eminence while the palmar digital branch supplies sensation to the palmar aspect of the lateral 3 ½ digits and the lateral two lumbricals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most baking is about the gelatinization of starch (from flour). This is what forms the crumb in bread and firms up the foam structure of cakes (the foam coming from the action of leavening agents like baking soda/powder). Each little piece of flour is basically a tiny starch granule. When it is heated sufficiently it will gelatinize and become soft and pliable.\n\nStarch gelatinization occurs over a range of temperatures, finishing at around 95 deg. C. During the process the starch will usually absorb water. Also, the presence and quantity of other substances such as fats, sugars, proteins, etc. will affect the temperatature and degree of gelatinization.\n\nNote that when a baked good goes \"stale\" that's usually the gelatinized starch reverting to its granulated form.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While starch gelatinization is one factor, it alone does not account for the formation of a solid baked good. Starch gelatinization also occurs in liquid gravies. Other important factors include the removal of moisture from the batter by heating, as well as the denaturing of proteins from ingredients such as eggs.\n\nTo understand how moisture removal effects this, think of the analogy of a patch of mud. When the sun dries it, it goes from a runny state to a hard, dry state.\n\nProtein denaturation, in the case of baking caused by heat, is the same phenomenon that happens when cooking an egg and seeing the egg white go from liquid to solid.\n\nTemperature requirements for protein denaturation vary with the type of protein, and dehydration effects tend to increase with an increase in temperature, but also depend on other factors such as pan shape and size as well as the other ingredients in the batter.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "246992", "title": "Angel food cake", "section": "Section::::Molecular and structural composition.:Flour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 517, "text": "The flour plays an important role in the texture, structure, and elasticity of an angel food cake. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture. However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32839492", "title": "Donauwelle", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 578, "text": "The batter is a pound cake, a cake made of equal amounts by weight of butter, flour, eggs and sugar, which is then divided into two parts, one of which is colored with cocoa. The two batters are spread in layers onto the baking sheet, the chocolate batter above the plain batter, before the top is strewn with sour cherries. During baking, the cherries sink to the bottom of the cake, causing the wavy pattern. After the cake has cooled it is decorated with a thick layer of buttercream and iced with a chocolate glaze which may then be ornamented in a wavy manner with a fork.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246992", "title": "Angel food cake", "section": "Section::::Molecular and structural composition.:Flour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 833, "text": "The baking process causes the batter to expand and go from a liquid to a solid foam. The proteins will not start to denature until the temperature reaches around 158 °F. During this rise in temperature the air bubbles will either expand, coalesce, or break. An egg white foam will continue to expand uniformly until the internal temperature reaches 176 – 185 °F. Based on the ideal gas law, as the temperature increases, the volume of the air bubbles will expand. The temperature will continue to rise, causing the cake to expand at different rates and egg white proteins will gradually denature. Some of the egg white proteins will start to denature and coagulate at around 135 °F. This establishes the setting of the foam structure. By the time the temperature reaches 180 °F, all of the egg white proteins will have set in place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246992", "title": "Angel food cake", "section": "Section::::Molecular and structural composition.:Flour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 544, "text": "The foam structure will decrease slightly or collapse in order to form a solid foam of less volume. This occurs while the cake is still baking, not when it is cooling. The combination of protein denaturation and starch gelatinization determines whether the cake will set or collapse. When proteins denature, they are not in a stable state. In order to stabilize, the denatured proteins will aggregate around air bubbles and within the continuous phase of the batter. The aggregation and overlapping of the proteins forms a very stable network.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34507065", "title": "Cake pop", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 540, "text": "Once the cake has been baked, or when leftovers from an existing cake have been collected, it is crumbled into pieces. These crumbs are mixed into a bowl of frosting and the resulting mixture is shaped into balls, cubes or other shapes. Each ball is attached to a lollipop stick dipped in melted chocolate, and put in the fridge to chill. Once the mixture solidifies, it is dipped in melted chocolate to form a hard shell, and decorated with sprinkles or decorative sugars. The cake balls can be frozen to speed the solidification process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246992", "title": "Angel food cake", "section": "Section::::Molecular and structural composition.:Sugar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 257, "text": "Since there is no shortening, butter, fat, or oil, sugar is the only tenderizer. The more sugar added, the more tender the cake will be. However, if too much is added, the cake may collapse because the foam structure is not strong enough to support itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "198059", "title": "Leavening agent", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 273, "text": "When a dough or batter is mixed, the starch in the flour and the water in the dough form a matrix (often supported further by proteins like gluten or polysaccharides, such as pentosans or xanthan gum). Then the starch gelatinizes and sets, leaving gas bubbles that remain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Cost of things are proportional to the cost of their base materials. Things like electronics become cheaper because they are used in technology that allows you to make NEW technology (like whats used in electronics) faster, smaller and cheaper. \n\nSo, the reason why a washing machine or car raises price with inflation is because the raw materials like steel, aluminum, and plastic are also rising in price with inflation and supply and demand. But, you cant develop new technology to \"make\" more steel or plastic faster, cheaper or smaller, you have to acquire it the old fashioned way. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I question whether your premise is even correct. ELI5, is it true that appliances and cars have not shared in better manufacturing processes leading to lowered prices and more features?\n\n[This site]( _URL_1_) lists prices of standard electrical goods that were largely out of my family's economic reach in the 1960's. These days, pretty much anybody (in the first world), can afford any of these as needed/wanted. Growing up, color TVs, residential dishwashers, side-by-side refrigerators, deep freezers, and new cars were all pretty much reserved for the more wealthy families in a neighborhood.\n\nIf you look at an [inflation calculator]( _URL_0_), $100 in 1965 is the rough equivalent of $739.51 today. That $500 refrigerator of 1968 would cost $3346.91 today, . . . except it doesn't. $1200-$1600 will get a decent one and $500-$750 will get a standard freezer on top model with features like an ice maker that really weren't even available to any but the very wealthiest in the sixties.\n\nSimilarly, cars now have airbags, ABS breaks, GPS systems and last 3x as long as there 1960's counterparts, yet cost a similar amount of percentage of annual salary, (or less). Again, using the inflation calculator, we see that a $2500 car in 1968 is roughly annalogous to a $17K car today, yet today's car will likely last 250k miles, rather than being junk at 120k, will protect occupants in a crash far better than anything from the '60s or '70s, and has tires that might easily last 60-80k, rather than 10-20k.\n\n \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "176571", "title": "Small appliance", "section": "Section::::Prices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 415, "text": "Small appliances can be very inexpensive, such as an electric can opener, hot pot, toaster, or coffee maker which may cost only a few U.S. dollars, or very expensive, such as an elaborate espresso maker, which may cost several thousand U.S. dollars. Most homes in developed economies contain several cheaper home appliances, with perhaps a few more expensive appliances, such as a high-end microwave oven or mixer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172111", "title": "Washing machine", "section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 174, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 174, "end_character": 336, "text": "Due to the increasing cost of repairs relative to the price of a washing machine, there has been a major increase in the number of defective washing machines being discarded, to the detriment of the environment. The cost of repair and the expected life of the machine may make the purchase of a new machine seem like the better option.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13987523", "title": "Distinction bias", "section": "Section::::Examples and applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 513, "text": "For example, when televisions are displayed next to each other on the sales floor, the difference in quality between two very similar, high-quality televisions may appear great. A consumer may pay a much higher price for the higher-quality television, even though the difference in quality is imperceptible when the televisions are viewed in isolation. Because the consumer will likely be watching only one television at a time, the lower-cost television would have provided a similar experience at a lower cost.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3744966", "title": "Clean price", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 355, "text": "Clean prices are more stable over time than dirty prices – when clean prices change, it is for an economic reason, for instance a change in interest rates or in the bond issuer's credit quality. Dirty prices, on the other hand, change day to day depending on where the current date is in relation to the coupon dates, in addition to any economic reasons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11803513", "title": "Self-service laundry", "section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 419, "text": "Rapidly rising utility charges, premises rent and a lower purchase cost of domestic machines have been noted as principal reasons for the recent decline. High initial launch costs, specifically for commercial washing machines and dryers, have also been commented on as reasons for fewer new entrants into the market. Furthermore, machine updates can be prohibitively expensive, which has held back premises investment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35961086", "title": "Stil i Moda", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 247, "text": "Most television viewers in this country were unable to buy goods at low prices because of the remoteness from major cities and regional centers. The range of local shops is rarely updated, and beautiful and affordable clothing needs for everyone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5055767", "title": "Automated pool cleaner", "section": "Section::::Types.:Electric robotic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 301, "text": "The major benefits of these machines are efficiency in time, energy, and cleaning ability as well as low maintenance requirements and costs. The major disadvantage is purchase cost which can range from $500 for floor-cleaning-only machines to over $2,000 for the most sophisticated residential units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The US government refused to support CSK after WW2? What? The US sent a whopping $4 billion to him within two years after the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The US gave him military hardware and trained his troops. The US airlifted Nationalists forces to liberated areas, including Manchuria, and also stationed US troops in strategic areas. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35029157", "title": "Loss of China", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 675, "text": "During World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt had assumed that China, under Chiang Kai-shek’s leadership, would become a great power after the war, along with the U.S., the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. John Paton Davies Jr., was among the \"China Hands\" who were blamed for the loss of China. However, while they predicted a Communist victory they did not advocate one. They reported to Washington that material support to Chiang Kai-shek during the war against Japan in the 1930s and 1940s would not transform the inefficient and corrupt Nationalist government. However, Roosevelt's poor choice of personal emissaries to China contributed to the failure of his policy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "325329", "title": "Cold War", "section": "Section::::Containment and the Truman Doctrine (1947–1953).:Chinese Civil War, SEATO, and NSC-68.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 817, "text": "In 1949, Mao Zedong's People's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai-shek's United States-backed Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist Government in China, and the Soviet Union promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People's Republic of China. According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad, the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Moreover, his party was weakened during the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism. Chiang and his KMT government retreated to the island of Taiwan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2596399", "title": "Cross-Strait relations", "section": "Section::::History.:Military stalemate to diplomatic war (1949–1979).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 549, "text": "Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall in response to a Communist invasion of Taiwan, and the United States initially showed no interest in supporting Chiang's government in its final stand. Things changed radically with the onset of the Korean War in June 1950. At this point, allowing a total Communist victory over Chiang became politically impossible in the United States, and President Harry S. Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan straits to prevent the ROC and PRC from attacking each other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "498804", "title": "History of Taiwan since 1945", "section": "Section::::Cross-straits relations and international position.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 549, "text": "Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall in response to a Communist invasion of Taiwan, and the United States initially showed no interest in supporting Chiang's government in its final stand. Things changed radically with the onset of the Korean War in June 1950. At this point, allowing a total Communist victory over Chiang became politically impossible in the United States, and President Harry S. Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan straits to prevent the ROC and PRC from attacking each other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "268997", "title": "History of the Republic of China", "section": "Section::::Republic of China only controls Taiwan (after 1949).:Cross-straits relations and international position in 1949–1970.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 548, "text": "Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall in response to a Communist invasion of Taiwan, and the United States initially showed no interest in supporting Chiang's government in its final stand. Things changed radically with the onset of the Korean War in June 1950. At this point, allowing a total Communist victory over Chiang became politically impossible in the United States, and President Harry S. Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent the ROC and PRC from attacking each other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9955745", "title": "Xinghua Campaign", "section": "Section::::Outcome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 863, "text": "Like other similar clashes immediately after the end of World War II between the communists and the nationalists in China, this conflict showed that Chiang Kai-shek's attempt to simultaneously solve China's long-standing warlord problem and to exterminate communism proved to be a critical mistake. Although the result of the campaign turned out exactly like Chiang Kai-shek and his subordinates had predicted, reducing the power of the warlords in the region, the positive impact of any secondary objectives were negated by the loss of primary ones. The people of the region had already blamed the nationalists for the previous loss to the Japanese invaders, and the reassignment of the former nationalist forces to fight the communists only further alienated the local populace and strengthened popular resentment of Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist regime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25234819", "title": "Gene Sherman (reporter)", "section": "Section::::Roving reporter.:Chiang Kai-shek.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 406, "text": "Over the ensuing years, the hope that U.S. support of the Chinese Republic would lead to the return of Chiang Kai-shek to the China Mainland never gained sufficient American backing to prevent the unrelenting growth of the Chinese Communists. Despite periodic revivals of plans to return to the Mainland, Chiang Kai-shek maintained his Presidency of the Chinese Republic on Taiwan until his death in 1975.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A \"normal\" blood panel sodium level is ~140 mmol/L, sea water has a salt concentration of ~600 mol/L, so it has about 4.3 times as sodium as blood.\n\nAs I understand it, as your salt intake increases, the concentrations in your urine will rise without you needing to increase your water intake, until it hits the maximum concetration level you kindeys are capable of filtering at.\n\nHowever, different sources had different levels: one said [~280 mmol/L](_URL_0_), another said [~500 mmol/L](_URL_1_) while noting that one human subject managed to hit 610 mmol/L in his urine.\n\nWhile it's expected that there be generic variants that result in more or less efficient kidneys, this seems like an overly wide variation to me", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1605200", "title": "Salt", "section": "Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 512, "text": "While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day is recommended by developed countries, one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at least 1,200 mg (contained in 3g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake the greater the fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethinicities. Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300 mg per day is either beneficial or harmful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22615598", "title": "Sodium in biology", "section": "Section::::Sodium distribution in species.:Humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 717, "text": "The minimum physiological requirement for sodium is between 115 and 500 milligrams per day depending on sweating due to physical activity, and whether the person is adapted to the climate. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Adequate Intake for sodium is 1.2 to 1.5 grams per day, but on average people in the United States consume 3.4 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension. (Note that salt contains about 39.3% sodium by massthe rest being chlorine and other trace chemicals; thus the UL of 2.3g sodium would be about 5.9g of saltabout 1 teaspoon)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1312814", "title": "Water softening", "section": "Section::::Health effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 376, "text": "The CDC recommends limiting daily total sodium intake to 2,300 mg per day, though the average American consumes 3,500 mg per day. Because the amount of sodium present in drinking water—even after softening—does not represent a significant percentage of a person's daily sodium intake, the EPA considers sodium in drinking water to be unlikely to cause adverse health effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34900600", "title": "Health effects of salt", "section": "Section::::Dietary recommendations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 747, "text": "As of 2009 the average sodium consumption in 33 countries was in the range of 2,700 to 4,900 mg/day. This ranged across many cultures, and together with animal studies, this suggests that sodium intake is tightly controlled by feedback loops in the body. This makes recommendations to reduce sodium consumption below 2,700 mg/day potentially futile. Upon review, an expert committee that was commissioned by the Institute of Medicine and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that there was no health outcome-based rationale for reducing daily sodium intake levels below 2,300 milligrams, as had been recommended by previous dietary guidelines; the report did not have a recommendation for an upper limit of daily sodium intake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7654110", "title": "DASH diet", "section": "Section::::DASH-Sodium study.:Results and conclusions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 788, "text": "As stated by Sacks, F. et al., reductions in sodium intake by this amount per day correlated with greater decreases in blood pressure when the starting sodium intake level was already at the U.S. recommended dietary allowance, than when the starting level was higher (higher levels are the actual average in the U.S.). These results led researchers to postulate that the adoption of a national lower daily allowance for sodium than the currently held 2,400 mg could be based on the sound scientific results provided by this study. The U.S. Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend eating a diet of 2300 mg of sodium a day or lower, with a recommendation of 1500 mg/day in adults who have elevated blood pressure; the 1500 mg/day is the low sodium level tested in the DASH-Sodium study.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1558567", "title": "Oral rehydration therapy", "section": "Section::::Physiological basis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 357, "text": "Sodium absorption occurs in two stages. The first is via intestinal epithelial cells (enterocytes). Sodium passes into these cells by co-transport with glucose, via the SGLT1 protein. From the intestinal epithelial cells, sodium is pumped by active transport via the sodium-potassium pump through the basolateral cell membrane into the extracellular space.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "666", "title": "Alkali metal", "section": "Section::::Biological role and precautions.:Ions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 168, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 168, "end_character": 753, "text": "Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It would cost more to produce a smoke alarm which emitted two different signals. The goal is an alarm which works for a low cost. So it is cheaper to produce one with one alarm sound. If it goes off, look around for a fire. If no fire, change the battery.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Where i live the annoying thing is that it beeps once every 30 ? minutes or so when the battery is empty. \n\nIf there really is smoke, it will beep continuously. So i think i could recognize the difference :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "so you change the battery before it is completely out and unable to make any noise in a fire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "OP you need to verify that you're talking about your smoke alarm, not a carbon monoxide detector. Carbon Monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that can be deadly. \n\nI've never seen an alarm that gives off the same noise when it is low on battery and when it detects smoke or CO, or one that could go off from an insect walking over it. When low on battery they'll give off one beep every few minutes, when detecting something they give off a continuous alarm. \n\nIf you're hearing the latter, and it's coming from a carbon monoxide detector you should leave your house and call the non emergency line to get the fire department to check for carbon monoxide and verify that you actually have a bad alarm and aren't putting yourself at risk. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1294759", "title": "Security alarm", "section": "Section::::Sensor types.:Smoke, heat, and carbon monoxide detectors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 895, "text": "Traditional smoke detectors are technically ionisation smoke detectors which create an electric current between two metal plates, which sound an alarm when disrupted by smoke entering the chamber. Ionisation smoke alarms can quickly detect the small amounts of smoke produced by fast-flaming fires, such as cooking fires or those fueled by paper or flammable liquids. A newer, and perhaps safer, type is a photoelectric smoke detector. It contains a light source in a light-sensitive electric sensor, which is positioned at a 90-degree angles to the sensor. Normally, light from the light source shoots straight across and misses the sensor. When smoke enters the chamber, it scatters the light, which then hits the sensor and triggers the alarm. Photoelectric smoke detectors typically respond faster to a fire in its early, smoldering stage – before the source of the fire bursts into flames.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "341287", "title": "Smoke detector", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 323, "text": "A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial security devices issue a signal to a fire alarm control panel as part of a fire alarm system, while household smoke detectors, also known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible or visual alarm from the detector itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1860895", "title": "False alarm", "section": "Section::::Types.:Smoke detectors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 525, "text": "False alarms are also common with smoke detectors and building fire alarm systems. They occur when smoke detectors are triggered by smoke that is not a result of a dangerous fire. Smoking cigarettes, cooking at high temperatures, burning baked goods, blowing out large numbers of birthday candles, fireplaces and woodburners when used around a smoke detector can all be causes of these false alarms. Additionally, steam can trigger an ionisation smoke detector that is too sensitive, another potential cause of false alarms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "341287", "title": "Smoke detector", "section": "Section::::Design.:Ionization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 262, "text": "Ionization smoke detectors are usually cheaper to manufacture than optical detectors. They may be more prone to false alarms triggered by non-hazardous events than photoelectric detectors, and have been found to be much slower to respond to typical house fires.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "341287", "title": "Smoke detector", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 792, "text": "Smoke detectors are housed in plastic enclosures, typically shaped like a disk about in diameter and thick, but shape and size vary. Smoke can be detected either optically (photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization); detectors may use either, or both, methods. Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and thus deter, smoking in areas where it is banned. Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and residential buildings are usually powered by a central fire alarm system, which is powered by the building power with a battery backup. Domestic smoke detectors range from individual battery-powered units, to several interlinked mains-powered units with battery backup; with these interlinked units, if any unit detects smoke, all trigger even if household power has gone out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36412493", "title": "Optical beam smoke detector", "section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 456, "text": "Optical beam smoke detectors work on the principle of light obscuration, where the presence of smoke blocks some of the light from the beam, typically through either absorbance or light scattering. Once a certain percentage of the transmitted light has been blocked by the smoke, a fire is signalled. Optical beam smoke detectors are typically used to detect fires in large commercial and industrial buildings, as components in a larger fire alarm system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27001", "title": "Smoke", "section": "Section::::Chemical composition.:Visible and invisible particles of combustion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 461, "text": "An ionization chamber type smoke detector is technically a product of combustion detector, not a smoke detector. Ionization chamber type smoke detectors detect particles of combustion that are invisible to the naked eye. This explains why they may frequently false alarm from the fumes emitted from the red-hot heating elements of a toaster, before the presence of visible smoke, yet they may fail to activate in the early, low-heat smoldering stage of a fire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Up the butt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I imagine there are crooked guards that sell to the prisoners. I can't imagine any other way. Just my speculation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "TV tells me the guards do it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Corrupt guards, family members during visits, in with supply shipments... Even simply thrown over the fence, if its not being watched closely. \n\nSource: I used to be a corrections officer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a book called \"Games Convicts Play\" that explains this in a lot more detail, and if you are really interested, I would suggest that you read it. It is a short and easy read. \n\nIt comes down to this. I am a bored long term inmate. You are a newly hired guard. You come into the prison and one day forget to pick up your keys off the desk when you go to use the bathroom. I have been watching you and waiting for my chance. I grab the keys and put them in my pocket. The second you come out of the bathroom, I walk up to you and slide the keys into your hand. I whisper to you, \"Man, that could have cost your job, but I got your back. You are one of the cool ones here.\"\n\nThings go by for a couple of weeks. You start to think you have an inmate that has been around for awhile and will make sure you don't screw up too badly. You can talk to me because I know the personality of the guards that have been around for awhile and will keep you on their good side. \n\nI come up to you one Friday, all upset. You know me and trust me, so you ask me what is going on. I tell you that it is my daughter's birthday on Tuesday and that I missed the mail window by five minutes and that bitch in the mail room is such a hard ass she wouldn't take my daughter's birthday card. I tell you that the next mail room is Monday and then her card would be late. We both agree that the woman in the mail room is a bitch, and you would like to help, but you are getting off in ten minutes. I tell you that I bet you could make it to a mailbox on your way home that has a late pickup. \n\nYou agree because I have helped you out once or twice. I even saved your job once. You figure no harm done and no one will ever figure it out. Unknown to you, there was a sealed envelope inside the envelope containing the birthday card. In that envelope was a letter to be sent to a former inmate. This letter described your losing account of your keys and your mailing the letter. \n\nA week later, I come up to you and tell you that I have to come clean. I sent a letter to a former inmate, something that I am not allowed to do. The only way I can keep doing this is if I have the letters sent to your address and then you bring the letters to me. If you comply, I have you in my pocket and can pretty much get you to do anything. I may go for months or even years before I have that first letter sent to your home. \n\nIf you refuse, I tell you that I have no choice but to have that letter sent to the warden. I tell you that I may go to max custody if I am not there already (in which case I have nothing to lose), but you will lose your job and may even face jail time. Again, I have you in my pocket, but in this case, I need to use you fast. I tell you that the only way you have out of this is to get marijuana sent to your house and have you bring it to me. If I don't get the marijuana in less than a week, I will have the letter sent to the warden. Then no marijuana shows up at your house. I accuse you of stealing my drugs and tell you that I am going to tell the warden that too. Now you may feel as though you have to buy me drugs and sneak them in. \n\nThere are some holes in this story so I don't go to prison, but that is about how the play works. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52356256", "title": "Cannabis in Turkey", "section": "Section::::Enforcement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 383, "text": "Consuming any drug (personal use or not) is illegal and requires juridical process. Possessing, purchasing or receiving any illegal drug, including Cannabis, is punishable by 1–2 years in prison; there is also the option of treatment and/or probation for up to three years. If users refuse treatment or do not comply with probation requirements, the courts can decide on sentencing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1743174", "title": "Drug court", "section": "Section::::Effectiveness in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1094, "text": "Drug Courts are a relatively new form of 'punishment' in the justice system with roots that date back to earlier centuries. Drug Courts are meant to keep offenders in the real world, instead of in jail or prison. By keeping minor offenders on the street, they can continue being effective members of society, hold down jobs, pay taxes, and often receive better drug treatment than they would in prison or jail. Drug Court is assigned by a judge who sees an offender who has the opportunity to become a successful functioning citizen in society. Drug Court is sentenced by an offender agreeing to a guilty plea to the offense they committed. As long as the offender successfully completes drug court, the offense is often removed from their record. Drug Court is completed along with probation, with mandatory drug and alcohol urine analysis, treatment programs, counseling, mandatory work, and often educational training. Drug Courts are incredibly successful so far with reducing recidivism amongst offenders by solving the issue causing the criminal activity: the drug and alcohol addiction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3680367", "title": "Residential care", "section": "Section::::Mental illness.:Rehabilitation unit care.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 539, "text": "People who are addicted to drugs or alcohol may be voluntarily or involuntarily admitted to a residential facility for treatment. Prescribed drugs are sometimes used to get people off illegal or addictive drugs, and to prevent the withdrawal symptoms of such drugs. The length of stay may be determined by the patient's needs or by external factors. In many cases the patient's insurance will cover such treatment in private facilities for only a limited period of time, and public rehabilitation facilities often have long waiting lists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33762314", "title": "Government of Brevard County, Florida", "section": "Section::::Justice system.:Courts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 422, "text": "specialists, supervision officers, law enforcement agencies, corrections officials, and others. In exchange for successfully completing this intensive program, the Court may dismiss the charge, reduce the sentence, or offer a combination of other incentives. The police have estimated that 85% of drug dealers and prostitutes are themselves under the influence of drugs or are users trying to get money to purchase drugs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3748742", "title": "Central Narcotics Bureau", "section": "Section::::Functions.:Preventive drug education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 425, "text": "Drug trafficking is commonly known in the republic as a criminal offence punishable by hanging, which is enforced under Schedule 2 of the Misuse of Drugs Act, any person importing, exporting, or found in possession of more than the threshold quantities of illegal drugs can a mandatory death sentence. Examples of high-profile cases such as the capital punishment of drug traffickers Van Tuong Nguyen and Shanmugam Murugesu.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26735345", "title": "Narcotics in Bolivia", "section": "Section::::Bilateral and legislative anti-narcotics measures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 495, "text": "Under the 1988 Antinarcotics Law, drug traffickers could be sentenced to prison for anywhere between five and twenty-five years; manufacturers of controlled substances, five to fifteen years; sowers and harvesters of illicit coca fields, two to four years; transporters, eight to twelve years; and pisadores (coca stompers), one to two years. Minors under the age of sixteen who were found guilty of drug-related crimes would be sent to special centers until they were completely rehabilitated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24061093", "title": "Drug policy of Portugal", "section": "Section::::Laws and regulations.:Regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 601, "text": "If the person is addicted to drugs, they may be admitted to a drug rehabilitation facility or be given community service, if the dissuasion committee finds that this better serves the purpose of keeping the offender out of trouble. The committee cannot mandate compulsory treatment, although its orientation is to induce addicts to enter and remain in treatment. The committee has the explicit power to suspend sanctions conditional upon voluntary entry into treatment. If the offender is not addicted to drugs, or unwilling to submit to treatment or community service, he or she may be given a fine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You might start [at the American Memory collection](_URL_1_). The way to think about this is that Abolition=immediate end of slavery because slavery is bad (usually on moral grounds, ie Fredrick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison) while Anti-Slavery=ending slavery for the US. An antislavery person might think Africans are inferior and so ending slavery might stop their population growth in the US. They might see it as a policy problem, and be willing to be gradual. There are better examples when you look at the stances of politicians. Even Jefferson can seem like an antislavery person at times (later in life). See Ron Takaki's [A Different Mirror](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "40318770", "title": "Abolitionism in the United States", "section": "Section::::Progress of abolition in the United States.:Immediate abolition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 769, "text": "Abolitionists included those who joined the American Anti-Slavery Society or its auxiliary groups in the 1830s and 1840s as the movement fragmented. The fragmented anti-slavery movement included groups such as the Liberty Party; the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society; the American Missionary Association; and the Church Anti-Slavery Society. Historians traditionally distinguish between moderate antislavery reformers or gradualists, who concentrated on stopping the spread of slavery, and radical abolitionists or immediatists, whose demands for unconditional emancipation often merged with a concern for black civil rights. However, James Stewart advocates a more nuanced understanding of the relationship of abolition and antislavery prior to the Civil War:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40318770", "title": "Abolitionism in the United States", "section": "Section::::Progress of abolition in the United States.:Immediate abolition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 521, "text": "While instructive, the distinction [between antislavery and abolition] can also be misleading, especially in assessing abolitionism's political impact. For one thing, slaveholders never bothered with such fine points. Many immediate abolitionists showed no less concern than did other white Northerners about the fate of the nation's \"precious legacies of freedom\". Immediatism became most difficult to distinguish from broader anti-Southern opinions once ordinary citizens began articulating these intertwining beliefs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "408840", "title": "Origins of the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Abolitionism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 1311, "text": "\"Abolitionist\" had several meanings at the time. The followers of William Lloyd Garrison, including Wendell Phillips and Frederick Douglass, demanded the \"immediate abolition of slavery\", hence the name. A more pragmatic group of abolitionists, like Theodore Weld and Arthur Tappan, wanted immediate action, but that action might well be a program of gradual emancipation, with a long intermediate stage. \"Antislavery men\", like John Quincy Adams, did what they could to limit slavery and end it where possible, but were not part of any abolitionist group. For example, in 1841 Adams represented the Amistad African slaves in the Supreme Court of the United States and argued that they should be set free. In the last years before the war, \"antislavery\" could mean the Northern majority, like Abraham Lincoln, who opposed \"expansion\" of slavery or its influence, as by the Kansas–Nebraska Act, or the Fugitive Slave Act. Many Southerners called all these abolitionists, without distinguishing them from the Garrisonians. James M. McPherson explains the abolitionists' deep beliefs: \"All people were equal in God's sight; the souls of black folks were as valuable as those of whites; for one of God's children to enslave another was a violation of the Higher Law, even if it was sanctioned by the Constitution.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1430415", "title": "Christian views on slavery", "section": "Section::::Christianity's view.:Christian abolitionism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 430, "text": "Although some abolitionists opposed slavery for purely philosophical reasons, anti-slavery movements attracted strong religious elements. Throughout Europe and the United States, Christians, usually from 'un-institutional' Christian faith movements, not directly connected with traditional state churches, or \"non-conformist\" believers within established churches, were to be found at the forefront of the abolitionist movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28419612", "title": "19th century", "section": "Section::::Wars.:Abolition and the American Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 409, "text": "Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Among others Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman, were two of many American Abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer; while Tubman's efforts was by using a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "408840", "title": "Origins of the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Abolitionism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 490, "text": "Abolitionists also attacked slavery as a threat to the freedom of white Americans. Defining freedom as more than a simple lack of restraint, antebellum reformers held that the truly free man was one who imposed restraints upon himself. Thus, for the anti-slavery reformers of the 1830s and 1840s, the promise of free labor and upward social mobility (opportunities for advancement, rights to own property, and to control one's own labor), was central to the ideal of reforming individuals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "71989", "title": "Uncle Tom's Cabin", "section": "Section::::Reactions to the novel.:Literary significance and criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 769, "text": "The book has also been seen as an attempt to redefine masculinity as a necessary step toward the abolition of slavery. In this view, abolitionists had begun to resist the vision of aggressive and dominant men that the conquest and colonization of the early 19th century had fostered. In order to change the notion of manhood so that men could oppose slavery without jeopardizing their self-image or their standing in society, some abolitionists drew on principles of women's suffrage and Christianity as well as passivism, and praised men for cooperation, compassion, and civic spirit. Others within the abolitionist movement argued for conventional, aggressive masculine action. All the men in Stowe's novel are representations of either one kind of man or the other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Whether a longitudinal wave is a \"sound\" or a \"vibration\" is a matter of scale. We can't hear sound on the order of 10Hz (wavelength of about 30 meters) but we can feel it. Similarly, a 1cm insect couldn't \"hear\" sounds where the wavelength is much larger than their body, but could feel them. From the perspective of subjective experience the difference may be irrelevant, and can never really be known to us anyway.\n\nA few insects have organs similar to human ears, i.e., tympani / eardrums, such as crickets. Most others detect vibrations with external cilli, somewhat similar to the \"hairs\" in a human's inner ear. Each of these organs can detect vibrations on the same order of magnitude as their size. \n\nThere's a chart of frequency ranges for various animals on this Wikipedia page:\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nNo insects are listed, but physiologicaly insects would be most similar to the bat, shifted upward as their size decreases.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3246329", "title": "Hearing range", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 276, "text": "Several animal species are able to hear frequencies well beyond the human hearing range. Some dolphins and bats, for example, can hear frequencies up to 100,000 Hz. Elephants can hear sounds at 14–16 Hz, while some whales can hear infrasonic sounds as low as 7 Hz (in water).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31780", "title": "Ultrasound", "section": "Section::::Perception.:Animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 462, "text": "Toothed whales, including dolphins, can hear ultrasound and use such sounds in their navigational system (biosonar) to orient and to capture prey. Porpoises have the highest known upper hearing limit at around 160 kHz. Several types of fish can detect ultrasound. In the order Clupeiformes, members of the subfamily Alosinae (shad) have been shown to be able to detect sounds up to 180 kHz, while the other subfamilies (e.g. herrings) can hear only up to 4 kHz.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21282020", "title": "Hearing", "section": "Section::::In vertebrates.:Frequency range.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 742, "text": "Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or sonic. The range is typically considered to be between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. Some bats use ultrasound for echolocation while in flight. Dogs are able to hear ultrasound, which is the principle of 'silent' dog whistles. Snakes sense infrasound through their jaws, and baleen whales, giraffes, dolphins and elephants use it for communication. Some fish have the ability to hear more sensitively due to a well-developed, bony connection between the ear and their swim bladder. The \"aid to the deaf\" of fishes appears in some species such as carp and herring.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3246329", "title": "Hearing range", "section": "Section::::In animals.:Other primates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 344, "text": "Several primates, especially small ones, can hear frequencies far into the ultrasonic range. Measured with a signal, the hearing range for the Senegal bushbaby is 92 Hz–65 kHz, and 67 Hz–58 kHz for the ring-tailed lemur. Of 19 primates tested, the Japanese macaque had the widest range, 28 Hz–34.5 kHz, compared with 31 Hz–17.6 kHz for humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46348501", "title": "Evolution of the cochlea", "section": "Section::::Comparative anatomy.:Fish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 333, "text": "Fish have no dedicated auditory epithelium, but use various vestibular sensory organs that respond to sound. In most teleost fishes it is the saccular macula that responds to sound. In some, such as goldfishes, there is also a special bony connection to the gas bladder that increases sensitivity allowing hearing up to about 4 kHz.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55971", "title": "Inner ear", "section": "Section::::Other animals.:The cochlear system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 560, "text": "Although many fish are capable of hearing, the lagena is, at best, a short diverticulum of the saccule, and appears to have no role in sensation of sound. Various clusters of hair cells within the inner ear may instead be responsible; for example, bony fish contain a sensory cluster called the macula neglecta in the utricle that may have this function. Although fish have neither an outer nor a middle ear, sound may still be transmitted to the inner ear through the bones of the skull, or by the swim bladder, parts of which often lie close by in the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21282020", "title": "Hearing", "section": "Section::::In vertebrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 420, "text": "Not all sounds are normally audible to all animals. Each species has a range of normal hearing for both amplitude and frequency. Many animals use sound to communicate with each other, and hearing in these species is particularly important for survival and reproduction. In species that use sound as a primary means of communication, hearing is typically most acute for the range of pitches produced in calls and speech.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The markets have been doing some funny things as of late (Canada), I'm assuming in anticipation of this vote. What type of economic impact will this have on an international scale? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone explain what \"LEAVING THE EUROPEAN UNION\" means apart from the fact that the UK will have its own currency? Will their treaty arrangements also change?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Speaking for all of /r/soccer, will Australia be accepted into the next euros in case of a brexit ? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why is this vote happening and why should I care/not care as someone who doesn't live in UK?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What protections are there against voter fraud? \n \nThis is inspired by a conversation with my German boss, this is his first UK vote and he's appalled by the lack of security on it. \n \nHis questions are: \n - They never checked who lived at my address, I just sent them an email and they believe it. Except that they still sent me a poll card for my landlord as well (who doesn't live there), so now I have an extra vote. \n - They don't do ID checks when voting, so I could just walk back to the polling station this evening and use my landlords card to vote twice. \n - What's to stop someone registering a bunch of fake votes and using them to swing the vote for remain/exit as they prefer? \n \nI couldn't answer his questions at all.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If all (or most) economists are saying that leaving would weaken Britain and negatively impact the rest of the wold, then why would someone possibly vote to leave the EU? What good would come from it?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm curious how the Scottish Nat'l Party can advocate for staying in the EU while at the same time it supports independence from the UK. As someone not in the UK, this seems a bit contradictory to me so would love to get some insight from someone who better understands the nuances. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "why is this happening?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can citizens of other commonwealth countries vote on this issue as well? Or is it \"You can vote if you have a commonwealth passport but live in the UK\"?\n\nOr am I understanding wrong?\n\nAlso, slightly different question, but on the wikipedia page for the commonwealth, how come Australia and NZ have the right to vote, but Canada doesn't? What's different about these countries?\n\nEdit: Sorry, the commonwealth citizens page _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why is the pound dropping in value as the leave votes increase?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Could someone explain it super-basic to me?\n\nWhat happens if they leave?\nWhat happens if they stay?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Watching the live threat as results come in by districts (or whatever they're called) and a lot of smaller districts are voting to leave. Is the final vote going to be raw popular vote or will there some sort of wacky electoral college sort of thing going on?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why are people saying Cameron is toast if Britain exits? Why blame him for the results of a democratic election? Does it mean that the party he's part of will disown him for failing to guide the country to a position where the public wants to stay? Perhaps people believe that the country will suffer greatly in the event of an exit, and he won't be able to manage it?\n\nWhat's the deal?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Could someone explain what the current % drop in the £'s value means for the local/global economy please?\n\n(This was asked in /r/europe and someone answered \"as bad as 1929\" essentially, is that true?)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why is a complex foreign policy issue such as leaving the EU put up to a popular vote? Why is it not up to parliament?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All the commentators and the Remain campaign make it a huge selling point that there is no going back if Britain leaves the EU.\n\nIs that true? If public opinion changes, why can't they just have another referendum?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Why is the north all for remain, while the south is mostly leave but spotted with remain](_URL_0_)?\n\n\nI'm into GIS and statistical mapping, so this is cool to me. \n\nMy guesses: (1) Income, (2) Rural vs City, (3) ethnic/sentiments and historical relationships.\n\n\nIf it is (3) then, probably, this was bound to happen, and I'm glad it is by a peaceful vote rather than some nasty fighting or even worse sodden negativity hidden behind passive aggressiveness.\n\nEDIT: < 3 mods, thanks for being wise, and I got the colors backwards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How come London is so much more in favor of remaining than the rest of the country?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone explain. Why is the pound dropping value quickly from just initial results ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What are the advantages of the UK leaving the EU?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What does this mean for us in the USA and should i care?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can, at any point in this, the Queen step in and stop this? Can she unilaterally decide to stay in the European Union, regardless of the vote result? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why *exactly* has the stock market and the value of the pound dropped?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How will this affect the United States?\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How will the EU win/lose with the UK leaving?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is there a \"do-over\" option here? Like, let's say the British economy just *completely* tanks and the British people get tired of hearing \"TOLD YA SOOOOOOO\" from the vast majority of the world's economists.\n\nCould they just hold an emergency 2nd referendum to like, hit the reset button and pretend it all never happened? Does the basic structure of international governance allow for something like that?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am a college student in the US who will graduate next May. Should I be concerned about a recession in the US or anything else that will affect job prospects after I graduate?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Don't have time to read everything...\n1. Does this referendum guarantee government action or will they just ignore it and say \"cool but we're staying anyway\"?\n2. Is > 50% all that is needed to exit?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "...can somebody explain like I'm *four?*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of people are saying David Cameron will resign.\n\nWhy would he need to resign? Did he say \"If this measure passes I will resign?\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone explain what this means? What is the EU? What does it mean that the UK left? What changes about the UK now?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I've been seeing all these tweets on the #Brexit tag saying \"racism will win\" and such if this goes through. How does the UK leaving the EU mean anything of the sort?\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How the fuck has leave succeeded? Is it just because I'm a naïve young londoner. It feels as though I have talked to potentially 1 or maybe 2 serious brexiters in the last month, out of the ~500 I've interacted with. I see nothing but remain posters and support on social media. It appeared an almost predictable result of stay. I was banking on it, and now I am heartbroken, not only a the decision of my country but at the fact I wasn't able to vote. My age group (16-17) I feel are one the most significant demographics. I am angry that the votes cast yesterday and resultant decision to leave alienates me and is so grossly unrepresentative of me and my peers. The result has such a huge effect on us and our futures, yet we had little to no say. \n\nApologies for the rant, but the real question I have is, am I just so grossly disillusioned that I failed to grasp that this is what my country wants? Is it just old northerners (mass generalisation) who want to leave and regain some semblance of imperial superiority? How has this happened mainly, I am so so angry and a little confused. The remain campaign had such clear direction and support from my albeit limited perspective. \n\nTL;DR wtf happened?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why is Japanese Yen rising rapidly as the polling result coming out?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4917774", "title": "Withdrawal from the European Union", "section": "Section::::Withdrawals.:United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 604, "text": "The British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; a majority voted to leave the European Union. On 29 March 2017, Theresa May's administration invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK was due to cease being a member at 00:00, 30 March 2019 Brussels time (UTC+1), which would have been 23:00 on 29 March British time. Following the UK parliament's failure to ratify the leaving deal negotiated with the European Council by the UK government, an extension of the deadline was agreed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54315587", "title": "Brexit in popular culture", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 623, "text": "The British government led by David Cameron held a referendum on the issue in 2016; a majority voted to leave the European Union. On 29 March 2017, Theresa May's administration invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union in a letter to the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk. The UK was set to leave on March 29, 2019, unless the Brexit Withdrawal agreement was adopted by the House of Commons, in which case the UK would have left in May 2019.. With the failure to ratify the withdrawal agreement by the British Parliament, the Prime Minister negotiated a further extension until 31st October 2019 \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9580", "title": "European Free Trade Association", "section": "Section::::Membership.:Other negotiations.:United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 631, "text": "The United Kingdom was a co-founder of EFTA in 1960, but ceased to be a member upon joining the European Economic Community. The country held a referendum in 2016 on withdrawing from the EU (popularly referred to as \"Brexit\"), resulting in a 51.9% vote in favour of withdrawing. A 2013 research paper presented to the Parliament of the United Kingdom proposed a number of alternatives to EU membership which would continue to allow it access to the EU's internal market, including continuing EEA membership as an EFTA member state, or the Swiss model of a number of bilateral treaties covering the provisions of the single market.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47756463", "title": "European Union Referendum Act 2015", "section": "Section::::Outcome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 548, "text": "Following the referendum result and the verdict of the R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union case in January 2017 the UK Government led by Prime Minister Theresa May passed the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017 which legally allowed the UK to formally begin the process and formally notified the European Union of the United Kingdom's intention to leave both the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community by triggering Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union on Wednesday 29 March 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50539063", "title": "2015–16 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 873, "text": "The United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership was a package of changes to the United Kingdom's terms of European Union (EU) membership and changes to EU rules which was first proposed by Prime Minister David Cameron in January 2013, with negotiations beginning in the summer of 2015 following the outcome of the UK General Election. The package was agreed by the President of the European Council Donald Tusk, and approved by EU leaders of all 27 other countries at the European Council session in Brussels on 18–19 February 2016 between the United Kingdom and the rest of the European Union. The changes were intended to take effect following a vote for \"Remain\" in the UK's in-out referendum, at which point suitable legislation would be presented by the European Commission. Due to the Leave result of the referendum, the changes were never implemented.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51176831", "title": "European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013–14", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1127, "text": "The issue of the United Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union had been ongoing for many years before the 2010 general election, arguably since the 1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum. In 2013 David Cameron pledged to renegotiate the United Kingdom's terms of membership with the European Union. In May 2013, the Conservative Party published a draft EU referendum bill and outlined their plans for renegotiation and then an in-out vote if returned to office in 2015. The draft bill stated that the referendum must be held no later than 31 December 2017. The draft was taken forward as a private member's bill in the House of Commons by the Conservative member James Wharton who had come top of a ballot of backbench MPs, entitling him to introduce a bill during the 2013–14 parliamentary session. His bill attempted to enshrine the Conservative Party Position into law before the 2015 general election. A spokesman for prime minister and Leader of the Conservative Party, David Cameron, said he was \"very pleased\" and would ensure the bill was given \"the full support of the Conservative Party\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60293293", "title": "Revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU petition", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 844, "text": "On Thursday 23 June 2016, the United Kingdom held a referendum in which the electorate voted, by 17,410,742 to 16,141,241 to leave the European Union, with a turnout of 72.2%. As a result, on 29 March 2017 the UK Government invoked Article 50 to inform the European Council that they intended to leave the union on 29 March 2019. The European Council subsequently agreed that this deadline could be extended, and UK law changes are planned to do that. Following a ruling in December 2018 by the European Court of Justice that the United Kingdom may legally revoke Article 50, the petition to do so was started on 20 February 2019 by a former college lecturer. At first slow to accrue signatures, it grew in popularity after British Prime Minister Theresa May claimed that she would not be asking the EU for a prolonged extension to Article 50.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Am I correct in assuming that by written Egyptian you are referring to Egyptian hieroglyphics in particular? And not to later Egyptian adaptations of other scripts/languages?\n\n[New Kingdom Egypt](_URL_1_) (c.1500-1000 BCE) was a garrison power in the Levant alongside their military rivals, the Hittites. Both Egyptian records and archaeological sites in the Levant (including Modern Israel and the Palestinian Territories) corroborate this, and multiple extant archaeological sites therein contain examples of hieroglyphics.\n\nHowever, most modern [scholarly attempts to date the composition of the Hebrew Scriptures](_URL_0_) - which mostly diverge markedly from the supposed dates of composition the text itself alleges - suggest that written composition (as opposed to the likely earlier oral composition) occurred after this period of Egyptian hegemony from the 8th through 1st Centuries BCE, when Egypt was either weakened, divided, dominated by outside powers, or a combination of the three.\n\nAlthough many of the people living in the Levant at the time certainly had dealings with the Egyptians and probably knew their language at least in terms of speaking ability, writing/reading ability is another matter and if it occurred would certainly have been more limited. Additionally, hieroglyphics were a less efficient script than others present in the Middle East at this time so adopting them may not have made much sense. It is also important to note that much of the Hebrew Scripture was not written in the Levant at all, but in Babylon.\n\nThe Christian Scriptures emerged long after the end of Egyptian prominence, so it is unnecessary to address them here.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20836075", "title": "History of Palestine", "section": "Section::::Ancient period.:Independent Canaanite, Israelite and Philistine period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 294, "text": "The first use of grapheme-based writing originated in the area, probably among Canaanite peoples resident in Egypt. All modern alphabets are descended from this writing. Written evidence of the use of Classical Hebrew exists from about 1000 BCE. It was written using the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1673699", "title": "History of science in early cultures", "section": "Section::::Ancient Near East.:Egypt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 425, "text": "Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system, have served as the basis for the Egyptian Phoenician alphabet from which the later Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Cyrillic alphabets were derived. The city of Alexandria retained preeminence with its library, which was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule, being completely destroyed before 642. With it a huge amount of antique literature and knowledge was lost.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5729302", "title": "Linguistic criticism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 777, "text": "There are numerous Egyptian loanwords in the Torah. For instance, in the account of Moses being placed in the river in an ark (basket) behind the bullrushes (Sh'mot/Exodus 2:3), the words for ark, river, and bullrushes are all transliterated into Hebrew from Egyptian. Yahuda counts at least eighteen Egyptian loanwords in the full account of Moses’ infancy. Large sections of Daniel and Ezra, as well as portions of Jeremiah and Nehemiah are written directly in Aramaic, as well as a few phrases found in the Synoptic Gospels and the Pauline epistles. Other languages that are very important for linguistic criticism include Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Latin. Moreover, Arabic, Hittite, Eblamite, Canaanite, and Phoenician may be helpful depending on the interests of the critic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1818955", "title": "Proto-Sinaitic script", "section": "Section::::Proto-Canaanite.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 730, "text": "While no extant inscription in the Phoenician alphabet is older than c. 1050 BC, \"Proto-Canaanite\" is a term used for the early alphabets as used during the 13th and 12th centuries BC in Phoenicia. However, the Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before the 11th century BC. A possible example of \"Proto-Canaanite\" was found in 2012, the Ophel inscription, when during the excavations of the south wall of the Temple Mount by the Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar in Jerusalem on a storage jar made of pottery. Inscribed on the pot are some big letters about an inch high of which only five are complete and traces of perhaps three additional letters written in Proto-Canaanite script.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34076091", "title": "Phoenicia", "section": "Section::::History.:Phoenician alphabet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 564, "text": "The Phoenicians were among the first state-level societies to make extensive use of alphabets: the family of Canaanite languages, spoken by Israelites, Phoenicians, Amorites, Ammonites, Moabites and Edomites, was the first historically attested group of languages to use an alphabet, derived from the Proto-Canaanite script, to record their writings. The Proto-Canaanite script uses around 30 symbols but was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. The Proto-Canaanite script is derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24003669", "title": "Hieroglyphs Without Mystery", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 329, "text": "The Egyptian hieroglyphic text Hieroglyphs Without Mystery: An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Writing, is one of the modern primers on the Egyptian language hieroglyphs, from the late 20th to early 21st century. The text is a German text authored by Karl-Theodor Zauzich, c. 1992, and translated into English by Ann Macy Roth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52949", "title": "Israelites", "section": "Section::::Historical Israelites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 340, "text": "The language of the Canaanites may perhaps be best described as an \"archaic form of Hebrew, standing in much the same relationship to the Hebrew of the Old Testament as does the language of Chaucer to modern English.\" The Canaanites were also the first people, as far as is known, to have used an alphabet, as early as the 12th century BCE\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "After reading your question and explanation, I can only come up with one plausible explanation. \n\nThe Civil War was a war fought (essentially) over the equality and humanity of African-Americans. The North argued that blacks shared certain common rights with whites, where the South disagreed (this is a *major* oversimplification, mind you). But then if we examine the final settlement of the Civil War/Reconstruction conflict, we see that blacks have actually gained little. They enjoyed temporary political equality, but things like Grandfather Clauses and Poll Taxes destroyed many black's political representation. Then, Jim Crow reestablished blacks as secondary citizens. Finally, the sharecropping system (and southern culture in general) placed blacks back into virtual slavery and servitude. So what did the North really gain from the War? They ended chattel slavery, and little else (I would argue thats all they really wanted). \n\nBut look, if your friends have these beliefs, just ask them why exactly they say the crazy shit they say. Then youll know, why they say the crazy shit they say. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "55040", "title": "Reconstruction era", "section": "Section::::Politics.:Grant: the Radical President.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 451, "text": "During the Civil War, many in the North believed that fighting for the Union was a noble cause – for the preservation of the Union and the end of slavery. After the war ended, with the North victorious, the fear among Radicals was that President Johnson too quickly assumed that slavery and Confederate nationalism were dead and that the southern states could return. The Radicals sought out a candidate for President who represented their viewpoint.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21073732", "title": "Mexican–American War", "section": "Section::::Reaction in the United States.:Opposition to the war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 682, "text": "In the United States, increasingly divided by sectional rivalry, the war was a partisan issue and an essential element in the origins of the American Civil War. Most Whigs in the North and South opposed it; most Democrats supported it. Southern Democrats, animated by a popular belief in Manifest Destiny, supported it in hope of adding slave-owning territory to the South and avoiding being outnumbered by the faster-growing North. John L. O'Sullivan, editor of the \"Democratic Review\", coined this phrase in its context, stating that it must be \"our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42956654", "title": "Carol Reardon", "section": "Section::::Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1345, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Civil War Military Campaigns: The Union\" is a chapter in the book \"A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction\" edited by Lack K. Ford. Reardon's chapter analyzes the shifting views of why the North won the Civil War. Immediately, after the Civil War few explored the reasons that the North had won one reason is because many did not find the reasons relevant. The first inquiries as to why the North won came from military leaders in the late 19th Century and the early 20th century and those authors believed that President Abraham Lincoln was a greater reason for winning the war than General Ulysses S. Grant. In the 1950s, Authors Bruce Catton, Allan Nevins, and T. Harry Williams demonstrated that there were greater reasons for winning the war than just the fact that the North had more resources than the South possessed. The Civil War centennial promoted more academic discussion of the Northern victory. Most agreed that it was possible for the South to win. Furthermore, many argued that the North had a better management system with soldiers and civilians. Finally, between 1900-2000 there was a rise in the study of Civil War battle studies and authors found that the North adopted quicker to the rifle and had access to better military technology than the South, which was a large reason for the Northern victory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "863", "title": "American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Union victory and aftermath.:Results.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 202, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 202, "end_character": 528, "text": "Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: \"I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30434939", "title": "Historiography of the United States", "section": "Section::::Civil War.:Lost Cause of the Confederacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 267, "text": "The Lost Cause belief has several historically inaccurate elements. These include claiming that the reason the Confederacy started the Civil War was to defend state's rights rather than to preserve slavery, or claiming that slavery was benevolent, rather than cruel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "408840", "title": "Origins of the American Civil War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 496, "text": "Historians debating the origins of the American Civil War focus on the reasons why seven Southern states declared their secession from the United States (the Union), why they united to form the Confederate States of America (simply known as the \"Confederacy\"), and why the North refused to let them go. While most historians agree that conflicts over slavery caused the war, they disagree sharply regarding which kinds of conflict—ideological, economic, political, or social—were most important.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5371638", "title": "Opposition to the American Civil War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 528, "text": "Popular opposition to the American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865, was widespread. Although there had been many attempts at compromise prior to the outbreak of war, there were those who felt it could still be ended peacefully or did not believe it should have occurred in the first place. Opposition took the form of both those in the North who believed the South had the right to be independent and those in the South who wanted neither war nor a Union advance into the newly declared Confederate States of America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because there are lawsuits doesn't mean that there will be victorious lawsuits. \n\nTheir argument is that Google is forming a monopoly on internet services, and needs to be stopped under anti-trust laws (funny how nobody's filing similar suits against ISPs, though, huh?)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When a company becomes big and powerful enough to exert control of all the elements of an industry, it will monopolize that industry unless stopped by the political system in which it operates. Monopolies destroy one of the essential facets of capitalism; competition. Competition is the best way yet discovered to cause businesses to innovate, work hard and grow thereby increasing the wealth of a nation and raising the standard of living for the general population.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51664929", "title": "European Union vs. Google", "section": "Section::::Google Shopping charges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 536, "text": "On 10 November 2010, the European Commission opened a formal investigation into Google's search algorithm, following a number of complaints issued by smaller web companies that Google was downgrading their placement in results returned in Google's search results, and that Google was preferentially favoring their own products over competitors. The EC's investigation also considered if there were issues with Google's terms of use for Google AdSense that prevented those using AdSense to not use advertising from Google's competitors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1408956", "title": "Computer ethics", "section": "Section::::Internet privacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 338, "text": "Another example of privacy issues, with concern to Google, is tracking searches. There is a feature within searching that allows Google to keep track of searches so that advertisements will match your search criteria, which in turn means using people as products. Google was sued in 2018 due to tracking user location without permission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9874319", "title": "Criticism of Google", "section": "Section::::Other.:Search within search.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 785, "text": "For some search results, Google provides a secondary search box that can be used to search within a website identified from the first search. It sparked controversy among some online publishers and retailers. When performing a second search within a specific website, advertisements from competing and rival companies often showed up together with the results from the website being searched. This has the potential to draw users away from the website they were originally searching. \"While the service could help increase traffic, some users could be siphoned away as Google uses the prominence of the brands to sell ads, typically to competing companies.\" In order to combat this controversy, Google has offered to turn off this feature for companies who request to have it removed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26502730", "title": "Goddard v. Google, Inc.", "section": "Section::::Facts and procedural history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 810, "text": "While on Google's search results page, Plaintiff clicked on advertisements that led her to allegedly fraudulent websites. She then entered her cell phone number on the allegedly fraudulent sites to download ringtones, an action for which she was unknowingly charged. Plaintiff filed a lawsuit against Google on April 13, 2008, claiming that she was an intended third-party beneficiary of Google's AdWords Content Policy that Google failed to adequately enforce by aiding and abetting the fraud sites. Google asserted that each of Plaintiff's claims was barred by the CDA, which prevents a website from being treated as the \"publisher or speaker\" of third-party content. The court rejected Plaintiff's \"artful\" pleading and dismissed her complaint with leave to amend in a decision issued on December 17, 2008.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "612781", "title": "Jew Watch", "section": "Section::::Controversy.:Google Search results.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 259, "text": "In response to complaints, including one from the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), Google added an explanation to searches for the site. They said their results are automatically ranked by computer algorithms, and that they do not approve of any of the results.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49552505", "title": "Judgement of the German Federal Court of Justice on Google's autocomplete function", "section": "Section::::Facts of the case.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 423, "text": "A stock corporation, which sold food supplements and cosmetics online, and its chairman filed an action for an injunction and financial compensation against Google based on a violation of their right of personality. Google runs a web search engine under the domain “www.google.de” (among others), which allows Internet users to search for information online and access third party content through a list of search results.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48632278", "title": "Josh Hawley", "section": "Section::::Attorney General of Missouri (2017–2019).:Investigations into tech companies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 323, "text": "In November 2017, Hawley opened an investigation into whether Google's business practices violated state consumer protection and anti-trust laws. The investigation was focused on what data Google collects from users of its services, how it uses content providers' content, and whether its search engine results are biased.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Very difficult.\n I am a programmer and once tried to make my own text to speech program. Its difficult because for a text to speech software you need to either record a database of every word in the dictionary in every possible tone (which is really not efficient because it s very expensive and time consuming since you need one voice actor to say words perfectly all day long) or you need to build a perfect phonetic alphabet and create rules to stitch these phonetics together in forming words. The main problem arising not from the words themselves but when you try to stitch them together. We humans don't always follow our own grammar rules when speak because we want to maintain a natural tone. This makes it hard for the computer to mimic because then we would need to create rules for the computer to follow for every exception in our grammar which unfortunately, isn't all written in books. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5366050", "title": "Speech perception", "section": "Section::::Research topics.:Noise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 708, "text": "One of the fundamental problems in the study of speech is how to deal with noise. This is shown by the difficulty in recognizing human speech that computer recognition systems have. While they can do well at recognizing speech if trained on a specific speaker's voice and under quiet conditions, these systems often do poorly in more realistic listening situations where humans would understand speech without relative difficulty. To emulate processing patterns that would be held in the brain under normal conditions, prior knowledge is a key neural factor, since a robust learning history may to an extent override the extreme masking effects involved in the complete absence of continuous speech signals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "462557", "title": "Communication access real-time translation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 482, "text": "While real-time speech-to-text serves many with hearing loss and deafness, it is also useful for people whose first language is different from the language being used, to understand speakers with different voices and accents in many group situations (at work, in education, community events), to have a \"transcript', and for learning languages. CART professionals have qualifications for added expertise (speed and accuracy) as compared to court reporters and other stenographers. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12689044", "title": "Speech-to-text reporter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 821, "text": "Voice writers enjoy very high accuracy rates, based upon pure physiology. The route taken by a person's words goes from the mouth to the reporter's ear, brain, and \"inner\" voice. This form of repetition is naturally effortless; it is what we all do in our daily conversation, as we listen to a person speak, or when we read a book. So the most natural extension of this process is to psychologically switch the repetition mechanism from \"inner voice\" to the physiological \"spoken voice.\" Therefore, we minimize the introduction of cognitive overhead in our task of routing the spoken word to its permanent destination as printed words. This streamlined process allows voice writers to achieve excellent performance for many continuous hours and greater than 98 percent accuracy at speeds as high as 350 words per minute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49102508", "title": "Voice writing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 821, "text": "Voice writers enjoy very high accuracy rates, based upon pure physiology. The route taken by a person's words goes from the mouth to the reporter's ear, brain, and \"inner\" voice. This form of repetition is naturally effortless; it is what we all do in our daily conversation, as we listen to a person speak, or when we read a book. So the most natural extension of this process is to psychologically switch the repetition mechanism from \"inner voice\" to the physiological \"spoken voice.\" Therefore, we minimize the introduction of cognitive overhead in our task of routing the spoken word to its permanent destination as printed words. This streamlined process allows voice writers to achieve excellent performance for many continuous hours and greater than 98 percent accuracy at speeds as high as 350 words per minute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13111724", "title": "Speech-generating device", "section": "Section::::Output.:Digitized speech.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 245, "text": "A major disadvantage of using only recorded speech is that users are unable to produce novel messages; they are limited to the messages pre-recorded into the device. Depending on the device, there may be a limit to the length of the recordings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7536073", "title": "Informational listening", "section": "Section::::Effective listening.:Identification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 397, "text": "Identify the main point that the speaker is trying to bring across. When the main point has been deduced, one can begin to sort out the rest of the information and decide where it belongs in the mental outline. Before getting the big picture of a message, it can be difficult to focus on what the speaker is saying, because it is impossible to know where any particular piece of information fits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37259787", "title": "Forensic speechreading", "section": "Section::::The law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 602, "text": "While lipread speech can carry useful speech information, it is inherently less accurate than (clearly) heard speech because many distinctive features of speech are produced by actions of the tongue within the oral cavity and are not visible. This is a limitation imposed by speech itself, not the expertise of the speechreader. It is the main reason why the accuracy of a speechreader working on a purely visual record cannot be considered wholly reliable, however skilled they may be and irrespective of hearing status. The type of evidence and the utility of such evidence varies from case to case.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Technically yes, but the difference would almost certainly be negligible. \n\nSnow [according to here](_URL_1_) is about 5-20% of the density of water. So if you have 6 feet of snow, you will end up with 3.6-14.4 inches of water. Meanwhile, the [Great lakes have a tidal variation of less than 5cm or ~2 inches](_URL_0_) which is apparently masked by wind and barometric pressure causing lake level variations. So losing 3.6 inches, or even 14.4 inches would probably be unnoticeable. \n\nAlso, as best as I can tell, the Great lakes have a greater surface area compared to the area blanketed by the snow, so the loss would be even less (if they were twice the size, the depth decrease would be cut in half and so on)\n\nSo yes, if you have precise enough instruments (based on the second link, they have that level of precision), they would measurably lose that volume of water. But in reality, having precise enough instruments and reducing the data isn't very useful so we almost certainly don't have them monitoring the Great Lakes water level. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27930306", "title": "Global storm activity of 2007", "section": "Section::::The events of 2007.:November.:November 5–7.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 149, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 149, "end_character": 628, "text": "The first lake-effect snow event around the Great Lakes occurred as cold air swept through the region. The Upper Peninsula of Michigan saw up to a foot of snow, while up to of snow fell in northern Pennsylvania. Significant snow also fell in western New York in the typical snowbelt regions. Areas on the southern shores of Lake Superior and Georgian Bay in Ontario also received significant amount of snows in excess of 6 inches (15 cm). The low pressure disturbance continued eastward to produce significant snowfalls across the mountains of central Quebec in excess of 12 inches (30 cm), disrupting traffic in several areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4446652", "title": "Snowmelt", "section": "Section::::Historical cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 751, "text": "Increased water runoff due to snowmelt was a cause of many famous floods. One well-known example is the Red River Flood of 1997, when the Red River of the North in the Red River Valley of the United States and Canada flooded. Flooding in the Red River Valley is augmented by the fact that the river flows north through Winnipeg, Manitoba and into Lake Winnipeg. As snow in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota begins to melt and flow into the Red River, the presence of downstream ice can act as a dam and force upstream water to rise. Colder temperatures downstream can also potentially lead to freezing of water as it flows north, thus augmenting the ice dam problem. Some areas in British Columbia are also prone to snowmelt flooding as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2426926", "title": "Snowsquall", "section": "Section::::Types.:Lake-effect snow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 637, "text": "The areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts and deposition rate of many inches (centimetres) of snow per hour are common in these situations. In order for lake-effect snow to form, the temperature difference between the water and 850 mbar should be at least 23 °F (13 °C), surface temperature be around the freezing mark, the lake unfrozen, the path over the lake at least 100 km, and the directional wind shear with height should be less than 30° from the surface to 850 millibars. Extremely cold air over still warm water in early winter can even produce thundersnow, snow showers accompanied by lightning and thunder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7835505", "title": "Snowsquall warning", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 293, "text": "Lake effect snow squalls are generated by cold arctic air moving over unfrozen water of lake or sea. These will reduce visibility to less than 1 km and produce large accumulations of snow on the ground along narrow corridors in lee of the waters. Duration of these events can extend for days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27930306", "title": "Global storm activity of 2007", "section": "Section::::The events of 2007.:February.:February 1–12.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 315, "text": "A major lake effect snow event, titled Lake Storm \"Locust\", occurred across the Great Lakes regions for several days. Areas most affected by the localized heavy burst of snows were just east of Georgian Bay area near Parry Sound, east of Lake Huron near Wiarton, in western Michigan, and in north central New York.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17946", "title": "Lake Erie", "section": "Section::::Lake environment.:Climate.:Lake Erie in winter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 761, "text": "Heavy lake-effect snowfalls can occur when cold air travels or longer over a large unfrozen lake. Lake-effect snow makes Buffalo and Erie the eleventh and thirteenth snowiest places in the entire United States respectively, according to data collected from the National Climatic Data Center. Since winds blow primarily west–to–east along the main axis of the lake, lake effect snow effects are more pronounced on the eastern parts of the lake such as cities such as Buffalo and Erie. Buffalo typically gets of snow each winter, and sometimes of snow; the snowiest city is Syracuse, New York, which can receive heavy snowfall from both the lake effect process and large coastal cyclones. A storm around Christmas in 2001 pounded Buffalo with seven feet of snow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7511146", "title": "Lake Storm \"Aphid\"", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 490, "text": "On October 6, 2006, the first concerns of a possible lake effect snow (LES) event were raised, as medium and long range numerical weather models began to indicate conditions would be potentially favorable for lake effect precipitation, resulting in mixed snow-rain conditions. The long term forecast from the Buffalo office of the National Weather Service (NWS), as well as the Environment Canada discussion, both indicated possible LESs, but predicted that accumulations would be minimal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sorry, we don't allow \"throughout history\" questions. It's not that your question was bad; it's that these kinds of questions tend to produce threads that are collections of disjointed, partial, inadequate responses. If you have a question about a specific historical event, period, or person, feel free to rewrite your question and submit it again. If you don't want to rewrite it, you might try submitting it to /r/history, /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact.\n\nGood luck!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "126588", "title": "Gift economy", "section": "Section::::Charity and alms giving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 736, "text": "Anthropologist David Graeber has argued that the great world religious traditions on charity and gift giving emerged almost simultaneously during the \"Axial age\" (the period between 800 and 200 BCE), which was the same period in which coinage was invented and market economies established on a continental basis. These religious traditions on charity emerge, he argues, as a reaction against the nexus formed by coinage, slavery, military violence and the market (a \"military-coinage\" complex). The new world religions, including Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, and Islam all sought to preserve \"human economies\" where money served to cement social relationships rather than purchase things (including people).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43405", "title": "Actuary", "section": "Section::::History.:Early attempts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1305, "text": "In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick, suffering, disabled, aged, or the poor—these were often not part of the cultural consciousness of societies . Early methods of protection, aside from the normal support of the extended family, involved charity; religious organizations or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy. By the middle of the 3rd century, 1,500 suffering people were being supported by charitable operations in Rome . Charitable protection remains an active form of support in the modern era , but receiving charity is uncertain and is often accompanied by social stigma. Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity . Early in the Roman empire, associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial, cremation, and monuments—precursors to burial insurance and friendly societies. A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis, and upon the death of a member, the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial. These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of columbāria, or burial vaults, owned by the fund . Other early examples of mutual surety and assurance pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forebears, and to Celtic society .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9728362", "title": "Charity (practice)", "section": "Section::::Charity in Christianity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 670, "text": "In medieval Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, Latin Christendom underwent a charitable revolution. Rich patrons founded many leprosaria and hospitals for the sick and poor. New confraternities and religious orders emerged with the primary mission of engaging in intensive charitable work. Historians debate the causes. Some argue that this movement was spurred by economic and material forces, as well as a burgeoning urban culture. Other scholars argue that developments in spirituality and devotional culture were central. For still other scholars, medieval charity was primarily a way to elevate one's social status and affirm existing hierarchies of power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20378873", "title": "Family and Children's Services of Central Maryland", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 595, "text": "Charity organizations began developing at a time when a major demographic shift was occurring in American society. As industrialization began to replace an agrarian economy, many citizens left their rural communities only to find themselves unprepared to deal with urban life. Later events in the nation's history, including wars and the Depression, also caused similar de-stabilization in the society. Effects of society in transition are most affecting to those without adequate economic resources. Poverty, illness, addictions, and desertions left families bereft of shelter, food, and fuel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1176679", "title": "Charitable organization", "section": "Section::::History.:Growth during 19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 601, "text": "Charities at the time, including the Charity Organization Society (established in 1869) tended to discriminate between the \"deserving poor\" who would be provided with suitable relief and the \"underserving\" or \"improvident poor\" who were regarded as the cause of their own woes through their idleness. Charities tended to oppose the provision of welfare by the state, due to the perceived demoralizing effect. Although minimal state involvement was the dominant philosophy of the period, there was still significant government involvement in the shape of statutory regulation and even limited funding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15587087", "title": "Role of Christianity in civilization", "section": "Section::::Social justice, care-giving, and the hospital system.:Fourth century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 153, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 153, "end_character": 271, "text": "Historians record that, prior to Christianity, the ancient world left little trace of any organized charitable effort. Christian charity and the practice of feeding and clothing the poor, visiting prisoners, supporting widows and orphan children has had sweeping impact.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31855197", "title": "Philanthropy in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 336, "text": "Philanthropy has played a major role in American history, from the Puritans of early Massachusetts who founded Harvard College, down to the present day. Since the late 19th century philanthropy has been a major source of income for religion, medicine and health care, fine arts and performing arts, as well as educational institutions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Regarding the power banks it have become very popular with lithium ion batteries which can put out a lot of power. The disadvantage to this is that they may overheat and cause a fire. It may be that the battery is damaged and a heating it during normal operation might bring two internal wires too close together. The lower pressure in the cabin is not helping either as it can make the internals of the battery to change a bit more then usual. When these batteries catch fire you can not stop it but have to let it burn out. All the heat, fuel and oxidizer is stored inside so a fire extinguisher will not help. And a small fire on an airplane can quickly become a death trap as it may take tens of minutes for the airplane to land so you can evacuate. So be careful when using batteries on airplanes and try to do all your charging at the airport. You do not want to be the first one to cause an aircraft disaster because you were charging your phone, people who smoke in the bathroom have already done it.\n\nAs for using your electronic devices this is usually fine withing some constraints. Most airliners are instructing their flight attendants to even ignore airplane mode as it does not matter and some are even installing wifi on the airplanes. Putting your phone in airplane mode does however save battery life as the phone usually turns the radio to maximum in order to get some signal but still fails. The only time you are not allowed to use your phone is when the airplane is taking off or landing or if you are annoying other passenger or the flight attendants. Most airplane crashes happen close to the ground. So to make evacuations easier passengers are asked to pay attention during these periods of the flight. In theory reading books or sleeping is just as bad as playing on your phone but there are cultural and historical reasons why the rules are as they are. If you were told to turn off your phone in the middle of a flight it is likely that you were annoying people around you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2704993", "title": "Electronic speed control", "section": "Section::::Remote control applications.:Airplanes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 391, "text": "ESCs designed for radio-control airplanes usually contain a few safety features. If the power coming from the battery is insufficient to continue running the electric motor the ESC will reduce or cut off power to the motor while allowing continued use of ailerons, rudder and elevator function. This allows the pilot to retain control of the airplane to glide or fly on low power to safety.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17401970", "title": "Airplane mode", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 497, "text": "When the \"Aeroplane mode\" is activated, it disables all voice, text, telephone, and other signal-transmitting technologies such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth can be enabled separately even while the device is in airplane mode; this is acceptable on some aircraft. Receiving radio-frequency signals, as by radio receivers and satellite navigation services, is not inhibited. However, even receiving telephone calls and messages without responding would require the phone to transmit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1466438", "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft", "section": "Section::::Plane characteristics.:Turning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 905, "text": "Many radio-controlled aircraft, especially the toy class models, are designed to be flown with no movable control surfaces at all. Some model planes are designed this way because it is often cheaper and lighter to control the speed of a motor than it is to provide a moving control surface. Instead, \"rudder\" control (control over sideslip angle) is provided by differing thrust on two motors, one on each wing. Total power is controlled by increasing or decreasing the power on each motor equally. Usually, the planes only have only these two control channels (total throttle and differential throttle) with no elevator control. Turning a model with differential thrust is \"equivalent\" to and just as effective as turning a model with rudder. Lack of elevator control is sometimes problematic if the phugoid oscillation isn't well-damped leading to unmanageable \"porpoising\". See \"Toy class RC\" section.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11522", "title": "Fly-by-wire", "section": "Section::::Digital systems.:Legislation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 687, "text": "Nevertheless, the top concern for computerized, digital, fly-by-wire systems is reliability, even more so than for analog electronic control systems. This is because the digital computers that are running software are often the only control path between the pilot and aircraft's flight control surfaces. If the computer software crashes for any reason, the pilot may be unable to control an aircraft. Hence virtually all fly-by-wire flight control systems are either triply or quadruply redundant in their computers and electronics. These have three or four flight-control computers operating in parallel, and three or four separate data buses connecting them with each control surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14773582", "title": "Power transfer unit", "section": "Section::::Design Philosophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 473, "text": "On airliners or business jets with powered flight controls, it is typical to have at least two hydraulic power control units (actuators) for each critical flight control surface - these are the elevators, rudder and ailerons. Only two sources might be used if some form of mechanical reversion is present. (i.e. the pilot can still fly the aeroplane manually with no hydraulic power, but with some difficulty, via mechanical linkages and cables if hydraulic power is lost)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "426865", "title": "United Airlines Flight 232", "section": "Section::::Influence on the industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 699, "text": "Because this type of aircraft control (with loss of control surfaces) is difficult for humans to achieve, some researchers have attempted to integrate this control ability into the computers of fly-by-wire aircraft. Early attempts to add the ability to real airplanes were not very successful; the software was based on experiments conducted in flight simulators where jet engines are usually modeled as \"perfect\" devices with exactly the same thrust on each engine, a linear relationship between throttle setting and thrust, and instantaneous response to input. Later, computer models were updated to account for these factors, and planes have been successfully flown with this software installed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1145887", "title": "Mobile telephony", "section": "Section::::Impact on society.:Human behaviour.:Use on aircraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 928, "text": "As of 2007, several airlines are experimenting with base station and antenna systems installed on the airplane, allowing low power, short-range connection of any phones aboard to remain connected to the aircraft's base station. Thus, they would not attempt connection to the ground base stations as during take off and landing. Simultaneously, airlines may offer phone services to their travelling passengers either as full voice and data services, or initially only as SMS text messaging and similar services. The Australian airline Qantas is the first airline to run a test aeroplane in this configuration in the autumn of 2007. Emirates has announced plans to allow limited mobile phone usage on some flights. However, in the past, commercial airlines have prevented the use of cell phones and laptops, due to the assertion that the frequencies emitted from these devices may disturb the radio waves contact of the airplane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Right I was writing this on my phone, cobbling it together from a bibliography for late medieval kingship and nobility, last night so I've rewritten and reposted it. \n\nBefore continuing it should be said that any comprehensive study of warfare and 'life' in early fifteenth-century France requires an examination of England and Burgundy as well. France was in the process of a civil war between two powerful factions (the Burgundians and the Armagnacs) which had led to two high-profile political assassinations (Louis II, duke of Orleans, in 1407 and John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, in 1419), the French king, Charles VI was mentally frail and prone to bouts of madness which had allowed first Louis then John to impose themselves as powerful regents.\n\nIn 1415 Henry V had launched his famous *chevauchée* which would culminate in the Battle of Agincourt and the capture of numerous members of the French high nobility (including Charles, duke of Orleans) and the death of many others (including John I, duke of Alençon). Henry's campaigns greatly weakened the French control over Normandy but the impasse was not likely to be broken until, in 1419, the future Charles VII, currently known as the Dauphin Charles, was implicated in the murder of John the Fearless. John's son, Philip the Good, concluded an alliance with Henry V which would culminate in the Treaty of Troyes (1420) where Henry V married the daughter of Charles VI and it was agreed that Henry would become Charles's heir and the Dauphin Charles was disinherited (nominally for his involvement in the death of John the Fearless). For the first time the crowns of England and France would be ruled by one man: Henry V. However, on 31 August 1422 Henry V died and three weeks later Charles VI followed him to the grave. Suddenly the situation was complicated. Henry VI of England was only nine months old and the Dauphin Charles had gathered his supporters and established a base in the south. Following a crushing defeat at Verneuil (1424) Charles was driven back and Orleans was besieged by the English commanders.\n\nIn 1429, the French fortunes turned. Joan of Arc appeared at Chinon, was investigated at Poitiers, and dispatched with the French army under Raoul de Gaucourt to relieve the siege of Orleans. Here Joan's mission was apparently vindicated by God and suddenly there were a spate of French victories (Orleans, Jargeau, Beaugency, and Patay). On the political front Charles was crowned king of France at Reims on 17 July 1429, a ceremony in which Joan of Arc was instrumental, and secured the support of Arthur de Richemont who became the Constable of the French army. The English incursions against the duchy of Brittany had persuaded the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, to begin making reconcilatory motions towards Charles VII.\n\n[Joan was captured in 1430 and tried and executed as a heretic and schismatic in 1431](_URL_3_). In 1435 at the Congress of Arras, Charles VII and Philip the Good and the entire balance of the war changed. The conciliatory nature of Henry VI of England did not assist matters, and Charles's innovative military reforms (the *compagnies d’ordonnance*) gave him a martial edge over the English. A combined strategy of siege warfare and bribery led to the rapid fall of English strongholds in Gascony and Normandy and after Battle of Castillon (1453) the French were the victors of the Hundred Years War. Now the matter of internal cohesion arose. In 1440, the dukes of Bourbon and Alençon, joined by members of the lower nobility and mercenary companies, had rebelled against Charles (a rebellion known as the Praguerie) and endangered the successes won after 1429. The Praguerie had been brutally put down by Arthur de Richemont, but the tensions were simmering throughout the French nobility. With Gascony and, even worse, Normandy now back under Charles's control. Many of Charles's key supporters had fled Normandy with the English triumph and abandoned immense wealth in lands and goods, while those who had remained were perceived as *collaborateurs*. Matters were exacerbated by the need to deal with Joan of Arc's condemnation and execution as a heretic and schismatic. Joan had been instrumental in Charles's crowning and put the legitimacy of his reign in question, yet Joan had been tried by the Masters of the University of Paris and burned in Rouen, the heart of English power in Normandy. Moreover, Joan was loathed by the Burgundians, the French had actually written her out of their narratives during the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Arras (1435). To reopen the trial of Joan would stir up tensions at a key point in Charles's reign, thus the trial was one of Nullification and not Rehabilitation (the trial record itself and the dead were condemned). However, we have now reached the end of my knowledge and interest in French politics and history and should anyone wish to add more then feel free.\n\nThere are some fascinating case studies but if your knowledge of medieval France is only cursory then I would highly recommend heading first and foremost to the *New Cambridge Medieval History* series. I'm not sure what you mean by 'life', if you're interested in warfare I assume high politics but you'll need to tell me if you're interested in anything else.\n\n**General Surveys:**\n\n[New Cambridge Medieval History](_URL_4_), 7 Vol., Cambridge, 1995-2005, vols iv-vii.\n\n\nCowell, A., *The Medieval Warrior Aristocracy: Gifts, Violence, Performance, and the Sacred*, Cambridge, 2007.\n\nDuby, G., *The Chivalrous Society*, Berkley, 1977. | *France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc*, trans. J. Vale, Oxford, 1991.\n\n(ed.) Duggan, A.J., *Nobles and Nobility in Medieval Europe: Concepts, Origins, Transformations*, Woodbridge, 2001.\n\nKaeuper, R., *Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe*, Oxford, 1999. | *Holy Warriors: The Religious Ideology of Chivalry*, Philadelphia, 2009.\n\nKeen, M.H., *Chivalry*, London, 1984.\n\n**Pre-Fourteenth-Century Context and Historiography**\n\nBouchard, C.B., *\"Strong of Body, Brave and Noble\": Chivalry and Society in Medieval France*, New York, 1998. | *Those of my Blood: Constructing Noble Families in Medieval Francia*, Philadelphia, 2001.\n\nCaron, M.-T., *Noblesse et pouvoir royal en France (XIIIe–XVIe siècle)*, Paris, 1994.\n\nCrouch, D., *The Birth of Nobility: Constructing Aristocracy in England and France, 900-1300*, Harlow, 2005.\n\nFlori, J., *L’Idéologie de glaive*, Genève, 1983. | *L’Essor de la chevalerie*, Genève, 1986.\n\n**Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-Century:**\n\nAllmand, C.T., *War, literature and politics in the late middle ages*, Liverpool, 1976. | (ed.) *War, Government and Power in Late Medieval France*, Liverpool, 2000.\n\n(eds) Bates, D. and Curry, A., *England and Normandy in the Middle Ages*, London, 1994.\n\nBlockmans W. and Prevenier, W., *The Promised Lands. The Low Countries under Burgundian rule, 1369–1530*, Philadelphia, 1999.\n\nBoulton, d'A., *The Knights of the Crown*, Woodbridge, 1987. | 'The Order of the Golden Fleece and the Creation of Burgundian National Identity', in *The Ideology of Burgundy*.\n\nBrown, A., *The Valois dukes of Burgundy*, Oxford, 2001.\n\nCurry, A. *The Hundred Years War*, London, 1993. | (eds) with Hughes, M., *Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the Hundred Years War*, Oxford, 1994. | 'Two Kingdoms One King: The Treaty of Troyes (1420) and the Creation of a Double Monarchy of England and France', in *'The Contending Kingdoms': France and England 1420-1700*, ed. G. Richardson, London, 2008, pp.23-41.\n\nDevries, K., *Joan of Arc: A Military Leader*, Stroud, 1999.\n\nGriffiths, R.A., *The Reign of Henry VI: The Exercise of Royal Authority, 1422-1461*, London, 1981.\n\nHuizinga, J., *The Autumn of the Middle Ages*, Chicago, 1996.\n\n This is another 'old' text written in the 1920s.\n It should be read with the 'New Huizinga' article, below.\n\nKeen, M.H., 'The End of the Hundred Years War: Lancastrian France and Lancastrian England', in *England and Her Neighbours 1066-1453*, eds M. Jones and M.G.A. Vale, London, 2003, pp.297-311.\n\nMargolis, N., *An Introduction to Christine de Pizan*, Florida, 2011.\n\nPaviot, J. 'Burgundy and the Crusade', in *Crusading in the Fifteenth-Century: Message and Impact*, ed. N. Housley, Basingstoke, 2004, pp.70-80.\n\nPeters, E. and Simons, W.P., ‘The new Huizinga and the old Middle Ages’, *Speculum* 74 (1999), pp.587–620.\n\nSolon, P.D., 'Popular Response to Standing Military Forces in Fifteenth-Century France', *Studies in the Renaissance*, Vol. 19 (1972), pp.78-111.\n\nTaylor, C.D., *Chivalry and the Ideals of Knighthood in France during the Hundred Years War*, Cambridge, 2013. [Preface available here](_URL_1_) and [introduction available here](_URL_0_).\n\nVale, M.G.A., *Charles VII*, London, 1974. | *War and Chivalry: Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in England, France and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages*, London, 1981.\n\nVaughn, R., *Charles the Bold*, 2^nd ed., intro. W. Paravicini, Woodbridge, 2002. | *Philip the Good*, 2^nd ed., intro. G. Small, Woodbridge, 2002. | *John the Fearless*, 2 Vol., Woodbridge, 2005.\n\n(eds) Villalon, L.J.A. and Kagay, D.J., *The Hundred Years War: A Wider Focus*, Leiden, 2004. | *The Hundred Years War (Part II). Different Vistas*, Leiden, 2008.\n\nWalsh, R.J., 'Charles the Bold and the crusade: politics and propaganda', *Journal of Medieval History* 3 (1977), pp.53-87. | *Charles the Bold and Italy 1467–1477: politics and personnel*, Liverpool, 2005.\n\nWood, C.T., *Joan of Arc and Richard III: Sex, Saints and Government in the Middle Ages*, Oxford, 1988. \n\n**Primary Sources** (in translation)\n\nBrown, A. and Small, G., *Court and Civic Society in the Burgundian Low Countries c.1420-1530*, Manchester, 2008.\n\nTaylor, C.D., *Joan of Arc: La Pucelle*, Manchester, 2006. [Introduction available here](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "35326879", "title": "Michel Pintoin", "section": "Section::::Sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 239, "text": "BULLET::::- Le Bruesque, Georges. (2004). \"Chronicling the Hundred Years War in Burgundy and France in the Fifteenth Century\". in \"Writing War: Medieval Literary Responses to Warfare\". ed. Corinne Saunders, \"et al.\" Cambridge: D.S Brewer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2438818", "title": "Jean de La Taille", "section": "Section::::Sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 259, "text": "BULLET::::- Corinne Noirot-Maguire. \"Conjurer le mal: Jean de La Taille et le paradoxe de la tragédie humaniste.\" \"EMF: Studies in Early Modern France\" 13, \"Spectacle in Late Medieval and Early Modern France,\" eds. J. Persels and R. Ganim. Feb. 2010. 121-43.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "105118", "title": "Georges Duby", "section": "Section::::Impact of the Mâconnais book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 609, "text": "Duby's intensive and rigorous examination of a local society based on archival sources and a broad understanding of the social, environmental and economic bases of daily life became a standard model for medieval historical research in France for decades after the appearance of \"La société\". Throughout the 1970s and 80's, French doctoral students investigated their own corners of medieval France, Italy and Spain in a similar way, hoping to compare and contrast their own results with those of Duby's Mâconnais and its thesis about the transformation of European society at the end of the first millennium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38575826", "title": "1356 (novel)", "section": "Section::::Reviews.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1339, "text": "Cornwell, a master of action-packed historical fiction, returns with the fourth book in his Grail Quest series (after Heretic), a vivid, exciting portrayal of medieval warfare as the English and French butcher each other at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 during the Hundred Years War. Nobody writes battle scenes like Cornwell, accurately conveying the utter savagery of close combat with sword, ax, and mace, and the gruesome aftermath. English archer Sir Thomas of Hookton, called the Bastard by his enemies, leads a band of ruthless mercenaries in France. When the French hear of the existence of the sword of Saint Peter, “another Excalibur,” they must possess it for its legendary mystical powers, but the English have other ideas. Thomas is ordered by his lord, earl of Northampton, to find the sword first and begins, with his men, a perilous journey of raiding and plundering across southern France, fighting brutal warlords, cunning churchmen, with betrayal everywhere, and French and Scottish knights who vow to kill Thomas for reasons that have nothing to do with the sword. With surprising results, Thomas and his men reach the decisive Battle of Poitiers, a vicious melee that killed thousands, unseated a king, and forced a devastating and short peace on a land ravaged by warfare. Agent: Toby Eady Associates, U.K.. (Jan.) \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1108651", "title": "Raon-l'Étape", "section": "Section::::History.:Old Wars.:The Thirty Years' War 1618-1648.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1650, "text": "The closing decades of the sixteenth century and the first half of the seventeenth century were a particularly grim period for Lorraine and for much of Europe. The weather seems to have contributed an above average quota of poor or failed harvests, while the Thirty Years' War unleashed a catalogue of horrors, especially on the territories such as Lorraine that found themselves buffered between two great continental powers of that time, France and The Empire. Massacres, looting and executions were inflicted both by the locally recruited armies and by the hordes of the dispossessed that often followed in their wake. The Swedish armies, allied with the French, have a reputation for particular savagery in Lorraine during the time of Duke Charles IV. Two battles unfolded before the walls of Raon during the period. The first of them in 1635 found the troops of the recently defeated Duke of Lorraine confronting the French cavalry: on this occasion Lorraine prevailed. But in 1636 there was another battle in which the armies of Lorraine and their imperial allies were defeated. That same year Richelieu, the French king's first minister, keen to minimise opportunities for Austrian resistance, arranged for the flattening of all the castles in Lorraine, including Beauregard Castle which for centuries has overlooked Raon. All the passing armies and successive battles left behind them only ruin and desolation. The local economy collapsed: famine and plague ensued. Lorraine was slow to recover. The statistical records show large numbers of people simply disappeared. Even in 1710, a census undertaken for Raon counted only 194 inhabitants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53452169", "title": "Annie Abram", "section": "Section::::Books.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 302, "text": "In 1919 she published her third and final book, \"English Life and Manners in the Later Middle Ages\" summarising medieval society based on her own research of primary sources. The book covers the time from the Black Death which started in 1348 and goes on to include the whole of the fifteenth century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3362090", "title": "Geoffrey I of Villehardouin", "section": "Section::::Further reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 324, "text": "BULLET::::- Bratu, Cristian. “Clerc, Chevalier, Aucteur: The Authorial Personae of French Medieval Historians from the 12th to the 15th centuries.” In Authority and Gender in Medieval and Renaissance Chronicles. Juliana Dresvina and Nicholas Sparks, eds. (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012): 231-259.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because there's a lot of programs that were written by people that got Cs in CompSci 100.\n\nRobust error handling takes a lot of work. Beyond that, if you can't avoid the bug in the first place, that means you didn't recognize the error was going to occur - figuring out what is an \"error-free state\" requires you to know what the errors might be. If you can determine you're in a state with an error, you should fix the error *there* rather than wait for a crash.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some kinds of errors are relatively benign, kind of like you getting a papercut. You either grimace and continue what you're doing, or you take a few moments to put on a bandaid. Either way, it doesn't much impact your life.\n\nOther kinds of errors are critical, sort of like a heart attack, or getting shot in the guts. When these kinds of injuries happen, you have to get medical treatment, ASAP. Nothing else is more important. You could be in the middle of some billion dollar business negotiation, but it doesn't matter, you have to get to a hospital, NOW.\n\nSimilarly, computer errors can be relatively benign, such as \"can't find that file\", or \"couldn't connect to _URL_0_\". These are recoverable, and application developers have planned for their occurrence.\n\nBut the critical errors are things that application developers didn't plan for. They never foresaw an error of that sort. And so when one of them happens, there's no code to handle the error. The application goes into heart attack mode, and the operating system, or OS, kills the application (the OS is a lot less willing to deliver life support than an emergency room is).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Applications that *know* they're in an error state can and almost always do just handle it gracefully and return to an error free state. The problem comes in when an error the programmers didn't plan for happens, so the application can't be aware of it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many applications can, and do so all the time without you noticing.\n\nIt is only when the errors are so bad they can't be fixed that you have any idea an error has even occurred.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1157143", "title": "Page fault", "section": "Section::::Invalid conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 776, "text": "If the program receiving the error does not handle it, the operating system performs a default action, typically involving the termination of the running process that caused the error condition, and notifying the user that the program has malfunctioned. Recent versions of Windows often report such problems by simply stating something like \"this program must close\" (an experienced user or programmer with access to a debugger can still retrieve detailed information). Recent Windows versions also write a minidump (similar in principle to a core dump) describing the state of the crashed process. UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems report these conditions to the user with error messages such as \"segmentation violation\", or \"bus error\", and may also produce a core dump.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51513636", "title": "Offensive programming", "section": "Section::::Bug detection strategies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 466, "text": "BULLET::::- No unnecessary checks: Trusting that other software components behave as specified, so to not paper over any unknown problem, is the basic principle. In particular, some errors may already be guaranteed to crash the program (depending on programming language or running environment), for example dereferencing a null pointer. As such, null pointer checks are unnecessary for the purpose of stopping the program (but can be used to print error messages).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36315866", "title": "Blinking twelve problem", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 568, "text": "In software, 'the blinking twelve problem' thus refers to any situation in which features or functions of a program go unused for reasons that the designers never anticipated, largely because developers were unable to anticipate the level of understanding the users would have of the technology. The term may also refer to the challenge faced by developers of addressing the real causes of users' difficulties, as well as the challenge of providing helpful documentation or technical support without knowing beforehand how well the user understands their own problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "233954", "title": "Object lifetime", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Status during creation and destruction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 522, "text": "If creation or destruction fail, error reporting (often by raising an exception) can be complicated: the object or related objects may be in an inconsistent state, and in the case of destruction – which generally happens implicitly, and thus in an unspecified environment – it may be difficult to handle errors. The opposite issue – incoming exceptions, not outgoing exceptions – is whether creation or destruction should behave differently if they occur during exception handling, when different behavior may be desired.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5272519", "title": "Error hiding", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Preventing crashes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 525, "text": "In situations where software must not crash for any reason, error swallowing is a practice that a programmer can easily fall into. For example, a plugin that is running inside another application is expected to handle all errors and exceptions in such a way as to not crash the application in which it is embedded. Blanket catching of errors and exceptions is a pattern that is easy to fall into when attempting to prevent crashes at all costs, and when you combine that with poor logging tools, error swallowing can happen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5272519", "title": "Error hiding", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Hiding complexity from users.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 510, "text": "When showing errors to users, it's important to turn cryptic technical errors into messages that explain what happened and what actions the user can take, if any, to fix the problem. While performing this translation of technical errors into meaningful user messages, specific errors are often grouped into more generic errors, and this process can lead to user messages becoming so useless that the user doesn't know what went wrong or how to fix it. As far as the user is concerned, the error got swallowed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "504357", "title": "User-centered design", "section": "Section::::Analysis tools.:Use case.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 800, "text": "The first solution is less risky because if something goes wrong with the code, it is easier to look for the problem in the smaller bits, since the segment with the problem will be the one that does not work, while in the latter solution, the programmer may have to look through the entire code to search for a single error, which proves time consuming. The same reasoning goes for writing use cases in UCD. Lastly, use cases convey useful and important tasks where the designer can see which one are of higher importance than others. Some drawbacks of writing use cases include the fact that each action, by the actor or the world, consist of little detail, and is simply a small action. This may possibly lead to further imagination and different interpretation of action from different designers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The borders in question were sites of cross border raids and shellings in both directions for years, until an uneasy peace settled in as a result of larger conflicts. Today the borders are constantly patrolled. The border between Jordan and Israel was mostly quiet after 1967, and no major flare-ups until the peace treaty in 1993. Syria withdrew forces several km after 1973 and its border was mostly patrolled by the UN on the Syrian side, and the Israelis on theirs. When Israel finally withdrew from South Lebanon, the UN took on a role as an observation force (mostly ineffective) while Israel constantly patrols the border. The consensus between the two sides is that they have little to gain from bombing eachother, and are mostly in favor of an uneasy peace as opposed to another conflict.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19788373", "title": "List of border conflicts", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 212, "text": "The following is a list of border conflicts between two or more countries. The list includes only those fought because of border disputes. See List of territorial disputes for those that do not involve fighting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "142331", "title": "Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts", "section": "Section::::Other armed engagements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 310, "text": "Apart from the aforementioned wars, there have been skirmishes between the two nations from time to time. Some have bordered on all-out war, while others were limited in scope. The countries were expected to fight each other in 1955 after warlike posturing on both sides, but full-scale war did not break out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56086", "title": "Territorial dispute", "section": "Section::::Context and definitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 820, "text": "BULLET::::- The term border dispute (or border conflict) applies to cases where a limited territory is disputed by two or more states, each contending state would publish its own maps to include the same region which would invariably lie along or adjacent to the recognised borders of the competing states, such as the Abyei region which is contested between Sudan and South Sudan. With border conflicts, the existence of the rival state is not being challenged (such as the relationship between the Republic of China and People's Republic of China, or the relationship between South Korea and North Korea), but each state will merely recognise the shape of the rival state as not containing the claimed territory - this in spite of who actually governs the land and how it is recognised in the international community.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19988122", "title": "Vladimír Šlechta", "section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 537, "text": "\"The Bloody Borderland\" is a cycle of fantasy stories which take place in the place called Borderland. In \"The Bloody Borderland \"the borders lead along territories of people, elves and hobgoblins. The borders are bloody because there are never-ceasing struggles for these borders (for its shifts, crossing the border, keeping). People fight with people, people fight with hobgoblins, people with elves, hobgoblins with hobgoblins and elves with hobgoblins. During which time individual fractions conclude temporary truce and alliances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1762526", "title": "Two-front war", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 448, "text": "In military terminology, a two-front war is a war in which fighting takes place on two geographically separate fronts. It is usually executed by two or more separate forces simultaneously or nearly simultaneously, in the hope that their opponent will be forced to split their fighting force to deal with both threats, therefore reducing their odds of success. Where one of the contending forces is surrounded, the fronts are called interior lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1263031", "title": "Conflict: Middle East Political Simulator", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Diplomacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 373, "text": "During a war, the player may attempt to offer a ceasefire with the enemy state, or vice versa. Once a ceasefire is signed between the warring states, diplomatic relations will be restored to Satisfactory, but often with the opposing country's diplomats acting aggressively toward Israel. This will once again plunge both countries into war within the next couple of turns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3790508", "title": "Medieval II: Total War", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 799, "text": "Factions primarily interact with each other through diplomacy. Diplomatic actions include the creation of alliances, the securing of trade rights, and the giving or receiving of tribute. Factions may go to war with one another to secure more settlements or other concessions. Factions that are at war can use their armies to fight each other, which incorporates the battle mechanic of the game into the campaign. Several factions in the campaign are either not present or \"dormant\" when the game begins. The Mongols will invade at some point after the campaign has begun, often posing a serious threat to factions in their path. Later on, the Timurids will also invade, bringing war elephants with them. Late in the game, factions may also sail to the Americas, where they can encounter the Aztecs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I've never experienced this. Are you a drummer?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2084734", "title": "Nenano", "section": "Section::::The use of phthora nenano in the psaltic art.:The phthora nenano as kyrios echos and echos kratema.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 523, "text": "Because when we sing a nenano melody, we don’t end on the tone, from which we started, but if you look at it closer, you will find that we come down to a somewhat lower pitch. The reason for this is the nenano interval; for it seems to be in some way halved, even if we are not aware of it; in other words, we perform the nenano intervals weakly in upward direction, in order to give the characteristic colour of nenano, but in downward direction [we perform them] correctly, and this causes the melody to get out of tune.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38443366", "title": "Melodic fission", "section": "Section::::Contributing factors.:Register.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 641, "text": "Listeners tend to perceive fast melodic sequences which contain tones from two different registers as two melodic lines. The greater the distance between groups of tones in a melody, the more likely they will be heard as two different and interrupted streams instead of one continuous stream. Studies involving the interleaving of two melodies have found that the closer the melodies are in register, the more difficult it is for listeners to perceptually separate the melodies. Tempo is important, as the threshold for registral distance between melodic phrases still perceived as one stream increases as the tempo of the melody decreases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38712302", "title": "Frequency Unknown", "section": "Section::::Title and artwork.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1097, "text": "In later interviews, Tate did explain the title. In May 2013, he said: \"When you are making music and you are putting a song together you have all these different parts that are supposed to work together. Sometimes when you are listening back to it something’s doesn’t click. There is a theory in the engineering world if you dial in these unknown frequencies nobodies knows what it is you find the weak spot of the song. It kind of gels together and all of a sudden it is now great. Like there it is it all comes together because I dialed in this frequency. But no one can tell you what this frequency is. It is an unknown thing. That became a little studio phrase that got thrown around while we were working on the project and that became the title of the record.\" Later, he called it... \"...this certain frequency of equalization that brings all the notes and the whole mix together; it becomes incredibly focused at that point. It’s this unknown frequency that you’re always looking for, and nobody knows what it is. You just start fiddling with the dials until it sounds good to everybody.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8953380", "title": "Auditory scene analysis", "section": "Section::::Grouping and streams.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 874, "text": "One example of this is the phenomenon of streaming, also called \"stream segregation.\" If two sounds, A and B, are rapidly alternated in time, after a few seconds the perception may seem to \"split\" so that the listener hears two rather than one stream of sound, each stream corresponding to the repetitions of one of the two sounds, for example, A-A-A-A-, etc. accompanied by B-B-B-B-, etc. The tendency towards segregation into separate streams is favored by differences in the acoustical properties of sounds A and B. Among the differences classically shown to promote segregation are those of frequency (for pure tones), fundamental frequency (for complex tones), frequency composition, source location. But it has been suggested that about any systematic perceptual difference between two sequences can elicit streaming, provided the speed of the sequence is sufficient.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12456005", "title": "Giant antpitta", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 295, "text": "The song consists of low-pitched fast trills, about 14-21 notes per second. These are maintained several seconds, during which they rise in pitch and become louder. Trills are repeated after a pause of a few to about a dozen seconds, which varies irregularly throughout the length of the song. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9736652", "title": "Auditory masking", "section": "Section::::Simultaneous masking.:Critical bandwidth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1004, "text": "If two sounds of two different frequencies are played at the same time, two separate sounds can often be heard rather than a combination tone. The ability to hear frequencies separately is known as \"frequency resolution\" or \"frequency selectivity\". When signals are perceived as a combination tone, they are said to reside in the same \"critical bandwidth\". This effect is thought to occur due to filtering within the cochlea, the hearing organ in the inner ear. A complex sound is split into different frequency components and these components cause a peak in the pattern of vibration at a specific place on the cilia inside the basilar membrane within the cochlea. These components are then coded independently on the auditory nerve which transmits sound information to the brain. This individual coding only occurs if the frequency components are different enough in frequency, otherwise they are in the same critical band and are coded at the same place and are perceived as one sound instead of two.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2101485", "title": "Beat (acoustics)", "section": "Section::::Mathematics and physics of beat tones.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 642, "text": "This phenomenon is best known in acoustics or music, though it can be found in any linear system: \"According to the law of superposition, two tones sounding simultaneously are superimposed in a very simple way: one adds their amplitudes\". If a graph is drawn to show the function corresponding to the total sound of two strings, it can be seen that maxima and minima are no longer constant as when a pure note is played, but change over time: when the two waves are nearly 180 degrees out of phase the maxima of one wave cancel the minima of the other, whereas when they are nearly in phase their maxima sum up, raising the perceived volume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]