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[ { "answer": "I'll try. Libet instructed his subjects to make a small wrist movement whenever they felt like it. He also instructed them to note the time on a clock regarding the moment they first became aware of deciding when to move. Of course they were all wired up to have their brains activity recorded. \n\nTurns out that Libet consistently found an electrical spike called the readiness potential (RP) 200ms before the subjects reported becoming aware of their decision to move. This strongly suggests that at least some of what we assume to be free and conscious decisions are actually pre-decided unconsciously.\n\nLibet himself didn't interpret the results as a refutation of free will, and has argued against those who have. He believes that we have free will in the form of veto power over unconsciously directed decisions. Critics say that even this \"free won't\" is nevertheless a product of unconscious activity and effectively the equivalent of free will.\n\nOthers have followed up on Libet's work and have found even greater lag times between the RP spikes and subjects' conscious awareness of having made a decision.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15807", "title": "John Horton Conway", "section": "Section::::Major areas of research.:Theoretical physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 531, "text": "In 2004, Conway and Simon B. Kochen, another Princeton mathematician, proved the free will theorem, a startling version of the 'no hidden variables' principle of quantum mechanics. It states that given certain conditions, if an experimenter can freely decide what quantities to measure in a particular experiment, then elementary particles must be free to choose their spins to make the measurements consistent with physical law. In Conway's provocative wording: \"if experimenters have free will, then so do elementary particles.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3374430", "title": "Lauren Slater", "section": "Section::::\"Opening Skinner's Box\".:Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 424, "text": "David Corfield, a philosopher of mathematics writing in \"The Guardian\", questions the veracity of the book's reported speech. He relates how, during Slater's discussion with Harvard University psychologist Jerome Kagan, she recalled how Kagan had suddenly dived under his desk to illustrate a point about free will. However, Kagan told Corfield that he had not done this but only suggested that he could do so if he wanted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1677156", "title": "Peter van Inwagen", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 823, "text": "Van Inwagen concludes that \"Free Will Remains a Mystery.\" In an article written in the third person called \"Van Inwagen on Free Will,\" he describes the problem with his incompatibilist free will if random \"chance directly causes our actions\". He imagines that God causes the universe to revert a thousand times to \"exactly the same circumstances\" that it was in at some earlier time and we could observe all the \"replays.\" If the agent's actions are random, she sometimes \"would have agent-caused the crucial brain event and sometimes (in seventy percent of the replays, let us say) she would not have... I conclude that even if an episode of agent causation is among the causal antecedents of every voluntary human action, these episodes do nothing to undermine the prima facie impossibility of an undetermined free act.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "432000", "title": "Arthur Compton", "section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 565, "text": "Compton was one of a handful of scientists and philosophers to propose a two-stage model of free will. Others include William James, Henri Poincaré, Karl Popper, Henry Margenau, and Daniel Dennett. In 1931, Compton championed the idea of human freedom based on quantum indeterminacy, and invented the notion of amplification of microscopic quantum events to bring chance into the macroscopic world. In his somewhat bizarre mechanism, he imagined sticks of dynamite attached to his amplifier, anticipating the Schrödinger's cat paradox, which was published in 1935.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1895211", "title": "Robert Kane (philosopher)", "section": "Section::::Work.:Radical libertarianism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 387, "text": "In his 1985 book \"Free Will and Values\", aware of earlier proposals by neurobiologist John Eccles, Popper, and Dennett, but working independently, Kane proposed an ambitious amplifier model for a quantum randomizer in the brain - a spinning wheel of fortune with probability bubbles corresponding to alternative possibilities, in the massive switch amplifier (MSA) tradition of Compton.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1895211", "title": "Robert Kane (philosopher)", "section": "Section::::Work.:Radical libertarianism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 726, "text": "Kane is one of several philosophers and scientists to propose a two-stage model of free will. The American philosopher William James was the first (in 1884). Others include the French mathematician and scientist Henri Poincaré (about 1906), the physicist Arthur Holly Compton (1931, 1955), the philosopher Karl Popper (1965, 1977), the physicist and philosopher Henry Margenau (1968, 1982), the philosopher Daniel Dennett (1978), the classicists A. A. Long and David Sedley (1987), the philosopher Alfred Mele (1995), and most recently, the neurogeneticist and biologist Martin Heisenberg (2009), son of the physicist Werner Heisenberg, whose quantum indeterminacy principle lies at the foundation of indeterministic physics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310890", "title": "Incompatibilism", "section": "Section::::Libertarianism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 724, "text": "Robert Kane (editor of the \"Oxford Handbook of Free Will\") is a leading incompatibilist philosopher in favour of free will. Kane seeks to hold persons morally responsible for decisions that involved indeterminism in their process. Critics maintain that Kane fails to overcome the greatest challenge to such an endeavor: \"the argument from luck\". Namely, if a critical moral choice is a matter of luck (indeterminate quantum fluctuations), then on what grounds can we hold a person responsible for their final action? Moreover, even if we imagine that a person can make an act of will ahead of time, to make the \"moral\" action more probable in the upcoming critical moment, this act of 'willing' was itself a matter of luck.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As I understand it, getting something into orbit is more about going sideways really fast than going up really high. You have to go a bit up to get above the atmosphere but then go mad fast in the same direction as the Earth is spinning.. That spin gives a nice like speed boost.\n\nPut those 2 needs together and you get a curved flight path.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Going to orbit (ie: where satellites and stations are) require going up a few hundred kilometers but also going \"sideways\" **extremely** fast (7.6 km/s for the ISS). \n\nThis sideways acceleration is what makes going into orbit so hard and is why rockets curve after take off. (They begin by going straight up to get out of the dense part of the atmosphere first)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The flight path you see is called a gravity turn. Basically the bottom part of the atmosphere is *much* more difficult to punch through than the top part.\n\n\nFor the first part you go pretty much straight up to get through the thick part atmosphere (it's so hard to get through that there comes a point where going faster will just waste fuel due to the stacking effect of friction) \n\n\nOnce you've punched through that barrier (If you watch NASA launches, I think they call it passing the point of maximum dynamic pressure or something like that) you can begin to tilt the rocket and accelerate, with the end goal usually being to have the rocket end up travelling parallel to the ground outside of the atmosphere. You just don't want to tilt it too fast, or air resistance will fold your rocket in half and you will not go to space today. That's why the turn appears to be very gradual.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3648370", "title": "Gimbaled thrust", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 746, "text": "The diagram illustrates three cases. The middle rocket shows the straight-line flight configuration in which the direction of thrust is along the center line of the rocket and through the center of gravity of the rocket. On the rocket at the left, the nozzle has been deflected to the left and the thrust line is now inclined to the rocket center line at an angle called the gimbal angle. Since the thrust no longer passes through the center of gravity, a torque is generated about the center of gravity and the nose of the rocket turns to the left. If the nozzle is gimballed back along the center line, the rocket will move to the left. On the rocket at the right, the nozzle has been deflected to the right and the nose is moved to the right.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "947292", "title": "Sulaco (fictional spacecraft)", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1070, "text": "While some claim that the basic shape was based on a submarine, the design has most often been described as a \"gun in space\" due to the elongated form resembling the pulse rifles used in the movie—with Syd Mead agreeing that (in addition to Cameron's preferences) this was one of the reasons for the switch from the spherical form. Other film analysts have remarked on how the opening shot of the ship as something sinister and weaponlike presages Ripley's transformation during the movie into a warrior figure, akin to the hardened Marines the \"Sulaco\" already carries. The opening shot of the ship travelling through space has also been called \"fetishistic\" and \"shark-like\", \"an image of brutal strength and ingenious efficiency\"—while the rigid, mechanic, militarized interior of the \"Sulaco\" (designed by Ron Cobb) is contrasted to the somewhat more organic and friendly interior of the \"Nostromo\" in the first movie (also designed by Ron Cobb). Other sources have also noted the homage the initial scenes pay to the opening tour through the \"Nostromo\" in \"Alien\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12718563", "title": "Gravity turn", "section": "Section::::Launch procedure.:Vertical climb.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1125, "text": "The pitchover maneuver consists of the rocket gimbaling its engine slightly to direct some of its thrust to one side. This force creates a net torque on the ship, turning it so that it no longer points vertically. The pitchover angle varies with the launch vehicle and is included in the rocket's inertial guidance system. For some vehicles it is only a few degrees, while other vehicles use relatively large angles (a few tens of degrees). After the pitchover is complete, the engines are reset to point straight down the axis of the rocket again. This small steering maneuver is the only time during an ideal gravity turn ascent that thrust must be used for purposes of steering. The pitchover maneuver serves two purposes. First, it turns the rocket slightly so that its flight path is no longer vertical, and second, it places the rocket on the correct heading for its ascent to orbit. After the pitchover, the rocket's angle of attack is adjusted to zero for the remainder of its climb to orbit. This zeroing of the angle of attack reduces lateral aerodynamic loads and produces negligible lift force during the ascent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15257599", "title": "Fliegerfaust", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 318, "text": "Stabilisation of the rocket in flight was not by means of fins, but by four small angled holes drilled around the exhaust. A small proportion of the rocket's thrust was thus converted into rotational thrust, spinning the missile along its axis. This imparted stability through spin, just like rifling in a gun barrel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "524786", "title": "CRV7", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 645, "text": "Unguided rockets are normally spin stabilized, like a rifle bullet. The spin is imparted by small fins at the rear of the rocket body that flip out into the airstream once the rocket leaves its launch tube. The fins take a short time to open, and more time to start the rocket spinning. During this period the rockets can drift significantly from their original aim point. The CRV7 solved this problem by adding small vanes projecting into the rocket exhaust to start the rocket spinning even before it left the launch tube, greatly increasing accuracy. A salvo of CRV7's will impact the target area in one-third the footprint of older designs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17346586", "title": "Cannonball (missile)", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 314, "text": "The main rocket was angled downward at 45 degrees in order to give the missile the necessary lift and to propel the missile forward. While the six “tangential rocket nozzles” stabilized the missile by controlling the pitch, roll, and yaw. While in flight the missile is guided by means of joystick and binoculars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3648370", "title": "Gimbaled thrust", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 209, "text": "In a gimbaled thrust system, the exhaust nozzle of the rocket can be swiveled from side to side. As the nozzle is moved, the direction of the thrust is changed relative to the center of gravity of the rocket.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm a librarian and an archivist. First off: contact your library. If librarians only advised on issues we were personally subject experts on we'd have to shut down right now. You think I answer questions about eunuchs all day? Of course not. Librarians are familiar with how to find anything, that's what we're trained on, not subject expertise. I can just as easily answer your question as help someone find car repair manuals for a 1988 Honda Accord, having no expertise in either, it is the same essential task to us. Also you're almost certainly going to need ILL with this, since it sounds like your school doesn't support a strong East Asian program? And you'll probably need help working with ILL because we don't typically teach it to freshman library instructional classes, usually just grad students. \n\nSecond: this is way too much for a freshman, slow your roll! No one expects a freshman to be churning out original archival research in a language they don't fluently read! There would be way less college graduates if so. I do archives instructionals with freshman and they typically are me presenting a single document (in English) carefully selected to relate to their classroom topics, and a worksheet with questions like \"Who wrote this document? Who did the writers intend to read or use this document?\" etc. [Talking this level](_URL_1_) is what I expect from a freshman, as an archivist working with freshmen. \n\nWhat you can reasonably use at your level (though this is somewhat advanced for a freshman, but not crazy advanced) is translated published primary source collections. [Here is a good guide to what these are and how to find them.](_URL_0_) The main words to use when searching are \"sources\" and \"documents.\" [This example search turns up what you should be looking for.](_URL_2_) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32495465", "title": "D-Scribe Digital Publishing", "section": "Section::::Electronic archives and repositories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 243, "text": "These online archives serve many needs, such as storing the scholarly works of university authors; preserving information from specific research disciplines; and disseminating new scholarly work quickly, without a lengthy publication process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "569595", "title": "The National Archives (United Kingdom)", "section": "Section::::Other services.:\"Your Archives\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 609, "text": "Your Archives is a wiki for the National Archives on-line community which was launched in May 2007; it was closed for editing on 30 September 2012 in preparation of archiving on the Government web archive. The contributions are made by users to give additional information to that which is available on the other services provided by the National Archives, including the catalogue, research guides, documentonline and National Register of Archive. Your Archives encourages users to create articles not only about historical records held by the National Archives, but those held in other archive repositories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25351850", "title": "Archival research", "section": "Section::::Conducting research at an archive.:Locating archival collections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 403, "text": "If an archives cannot be found through online search or a publicly listed collection a researcher may have to track down its existence through other means, such as following other researcher's citations and references. This is particularly true for materials held by corporations or other organizations that may not employ an archivist and thus be unaware of the extent or contents of their materials. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31037176", "title": "Active Archive Alliance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 330, "text": "Active archives provide online access, searchability and retrieval of long-term data and enable virtually unlimited scalability to accommodate future growth. In addition, active archives enhance the business value of the data by enabling users to directly access the data online, search it and use it for their business purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "316723", "title": "Archive", "section": "Section::::Users and institutions.:Academic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1324, "text": "Archives in colleges, universities, and other educational facilities are typically housed within a library, and duties may be carried out by an archivist. Academic archives exist to preserve institutional history and serve the academic community. An academic archive may contain materials such as the institution's administrative records, personal and professional papers of former professors and presidents, memorabilia related to school organizations and activities, and items the academic library wishes to remain in a closed-stack setting, such as rare books or thesis copies. Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries. Users of academic archives can be undergraduates, graduate students, faculty and staff, scholarly researchers, and the general public. Many academic archives work closely with alumni relations departments or other campus institutions to help raise funds for their library or school. Qualifications for employment may vary. Entry-level positions usually require an undergraduate diploma, but typically archivists hold graduate degrees in history or library science (preferably certified by a body such as the American Library Association). Subject-area specialization becomes more common in higher ranking positions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25351850", "title": "Archival research", "section": "Section::::Conducting research at an archive.:Consulting archival materials.:On-site.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 560, "text": "Archival materials are usually held in closed stacks and non-circulating. Users request to see specific materials from the archives and may only consult them on-site. After locating the relevant record location using a finding aid or other discovery tool a user may then have to submit the request to the archives, such as using a request form. If an archives has part of its holdings located in a separate building or facility, it make take days or weeks to retrieve materials, requiring a user to submit their requests in advance of an on-site consultation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19176836", "title": "National Archives of Japan", "section": "Section::::On-line access.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 665, "text": "The National Archives website provides information about the archives and catalog data which allow the holdings to be searched online. The site offers English and Japanese versions, the holdings themselves are, of course, mainly in Japanese. The website facilitates access to brief descriptions and some images of documents, books, and cultural properties. The Digital Gallery may be searched using keywords or various categories, opening access to digitised images of scrolls; maps; photographs; drawings; posters; and documents. English summaries of publications from the National Archives (journal and annual report) are available for downloading from the site.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "salt is good for not dying in car crashes and car crashes are worse for cars then salt.\n\nSome places use other things, but salt is really cheap compared to most alternatives, although sand is pretty good.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No other options that are as effective and not extremely expensive.\n\nWhile sand/gravel can improve traction, it's not really effective in eliminating the ice like salt is. Part of our problem is that we overuse salt because we think more salt = more melting, and that isn't the case. Our overuse has basically ruined our natural waters, and we're only now exploring other options (cheese!) because we have to before we kill off all natural water fish/vegetation. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In Minnesota and North Dakota, they tend to use sand, not salt. In these states, though, it is cold enough that the salt cannot actually melt the snow, and so it refreezes and you end up with black ice on the roads, which is counterproductive. In other states whether there is snow but not so cold, wet asphalt is better than gritty snow for traction and so salt is favored for safety. Most people who live in states where salt is used, and by the way also in coastal cities, know that washing the car a couple times a week is critical.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not everyone uses salt; where I am, we use sand and dirt - not because of the refreezing issue, but because it's a semi-desert environment and I think the salt is ecologically problematic. \n\nHaving lived in New England where they do use salt, I can say that it is REALLY much better at dealing with ice than sand is. It's a little bit of a pain to have to wash your car's undercarriage, sure, but it's better than sliding all over the road, wrecking and/or dying. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If it's above 10 °F, salt is very effective at melting snow and ice. It's also very cheap. There are other chemicals that make good de-icers, propylene glycol comes to mind. They use propylene glycol to de-ice aircraft, but it's not practical as a road treatment because it's more expensive and the runoff is more harmful to the environment than brine. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Used to work in the salt industry (yes, it's a thing).\n\nSalt is one of the cheapest substances on earth. As in, you'd be getting ripped off if you paid more than $150 per metric ton. (In fact, the largest component of salt's price is actually shipping. Yes, it costs more to transport salt than it does to produce it.)\n\nSalt does its job (lowering the freezing point of water) incredibly effectively and is ludicrously abundant in nature.\n\nIts crystalline structure can also be manipulated in order to have sharper edges that reduce bounce. So that allows it to stick evenly to critical surfaces such as roads.\n\nYes, there are alternatives. Usually salt/gravel mix or sugar beet based solutions. Those have less of an environmental impact when the spring melt washes it into the drain. This is more used in places where balance of water salinity for the safety of aquatic life is important. Propylene glycol, a water displacer, is even used in some places where it's so cold that salt won't work effectively.\n\nBut salt is by far the cheapest, most effective solution for preventing the icing of roads. And your government wants above all cheap and effective solutions that reduce winter accidents and keep people safe. They don't care as much about the finish on your 1994 Honda Prelude.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "yeah, salt is bad for the metal components of cars.\n\nDo you know what else is bad for cars? skidding on ice and crashing.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30515922", "title": "Pollution in Canada", "section": "Section::::Soil pollution.:Road salt pollution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1019, "text": "As a result of Canada's icy winters, salt is needed in order to deice slippery roads. The primary ingredient of road salt is sodium chloride. Road salt, while helping cars and people to gain traction in the winter, can have serious consequences for soil. As National Geographic found, \"Road salt can pollute soil at every stage in the deicing process.\" This pollution is a result of numerous factors such as runoff, application and spray from vehicles. In Canada, there has been research that shows that \"salt run-off from roads can increase local chloride levels to between 100 and 4,000 times normal levels.\" Salt can have adverse effects on soil and soil composition. Significant levels of chloride (one of the main components in salt) can \"alter the soil ‘s pH chemistry and elevate levels of heavy metal pollutants, while at the same time causing a loss of soil structure and killing off micro-organisms\". These effects can have dire consequences for plants rendering them unable to grow or stunting their growth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26423808", "title": "Salt Belt", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 376, "text": "Road salt is a common cause for corrosion of automobile parts, and cars in the salt belt often experience more rapid rusting compared to other regions of the country rendering them unsafe as brake lines, electrical wiring, and structural components are adversely affected. Manufacturer recalls for corrosion issues often target only vehicles operated within salt belt states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1428177", "title": "De-icing", "section": "Section::::Approaches.:Roadways.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 927, "text": "De-icing of roads has traditionally been done with salt, spread by snowplows or dump trucks designed to spread it, often mixed with sand and gravel, on slick roads. Sodium chloride (rock salt) is normally used, as it is inexpensive and readily available in large quantities. However, since salt water still freezes at , it is of no help when the temperature falls below this point. It also has a strong tendency to cause corrosion, rusting the steel used in most vehicles and the rebar in concrete bridges. Depending on the concentration, it can be toxic to some plants and animals, and some urban areas have moved away from it as a result. More recent snowmelters use other salts, such as calcium chloride and magnesium chloride, which not only depress the freezing point of water to a much lower temperature, but also produce an exothermic reaction. They are somewhat safer for sidewalks, but excess should still be removed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80207", "title": "Sodium chloride", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 570, "text": "The second major application of salt is for de-icing and anti-icing of roads, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles. In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally \"anti-iced\" with brine (concentrated solution of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snow-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates the heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as calcium chloride and/or magnesium chloride. The use of salt or brine becomes ineffective below .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6074980", "title": "Winter service vehicle", "section": "Section::::Materials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 345, "text": "Sea salt may not be used, as it is too fine and dissolves too quickly, so all salt used in gritting comes from salt mines, a non-renewable source. As a result, some road maintenance agencies have networks of ice prediction stations, to prevent unnecessary gritting which not only wastes salt, but can damage the environment and disrupt traffic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2001122", "title": "Waterloo Moraine", "section": "Section::::Threats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 298, "text": "If an increase in traffic follows the development in the vicinity of the aquifer, there will be an increased risk of contamination by road salt which is, according to Environment Canada, a known toxic substance. Road salt is a form of chloride that kills fish and pollutes area creeks and streams.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80207", "title": "Sodium chloride", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.:Environmental effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 812, "text": "Road salt ends up in fresh-water bodies and could harm aquatic plants and animals by disrupting their osmoregulation ability. The omnipresence of salt poses a problem in any coastal coating application, as trapped salts cause great problems in adhesion. Naval authorities and ship builders monitor the salt concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximal salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of 50 mg/m soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of a Bresle test. Salinization (increasing salinity, aka \"freshwater salinization syndrome\") and subsequent increased metal leaching is an ongoing problem throughout North America and European fresh waterways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Keep in mind \"America\" can mean everything from northern Canada/Alaska to Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America and these lands (in the north) did have humans on them far before the Vikings landed. Remember that there was a land bridge during the last glacial period (more than 10,000 ago) and it is generally thought that peoples who lived on what is now called Asia simply walked across to what is now Alaska. They probably then migrated slowly south. \n\nThe Wikipedia article is fairly straightforward: _URL_0_\n\nTL;DR: People have been in the Americas for many thousands of years, most likely having come from Asia by land.\n\nSource: I'm a human geographer. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "2 things:\n\nTo this day, the colonisation of the pacific islands stands as one of the most brillant feats of navigation. The time scale you describe speaks far more to the excellence and motivation of the Pacific islanders as navigators than it does to any ability of the Europeans. Cook established through his first contacts with Pacific islanders that they could navigate extraordinarily accurately using simply the stars and swells on the ocean as guides. The use of wave patterns in particular is not unlike the way waterstriders use triangulation to locate floating objects. It seems Pacific islanders used similar methods to locate new islands.\n\n2 - There were other Europeans between the Vikings and Columbus, such as the Basque.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50143773", "title": "Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions", "section": "Section::::Aim.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 299, "text": "The aim of the expeditions was to prove that the Pacific Islands could have been populated by migrations from South America in the centuries before the Spanish Conquistadors arrived. Alsar maintained that ancient mariners knew the Pacific currents and winds as well as modern humans know road maps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "329743", "title": "Mariana Islands", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 643, "text": "Spaniards, who in the early 16th century were the first Europeans to arrive, eventually annexed and colonized the archipelago. These were the first islands Magellan found after crossing the Pacific and the fruits found here saved the crew. The indigenous inhabitants are the Chamorro people. Archaeologists in 2013 reported findings which indicated that the people who first settled the Marianas arrived there after making what was at the time the longest uninterrupted ocean voyage in human history. They further reported findings which suggested that Tinian is likely to have been the first island in Oceania to have been settled by humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45281", "title": "Indigenous peoples", "section": "Section::::Indigenous peoples by region.:Oceania.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 662, "text": "Many of the present-day Pacific Island nations in the Oceania region were originally populated by Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples over the course of thousands of years. European colonial expansion in the Pacific brought many of these under non-indigenous administration. During the 20th century several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states were formed under local control. However, various peoples have put forward claims for Indigenous recognition where their islands are still under external administration; examples include the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Marianas, and the Marshallese of the Marshall Islands.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19147", "title": "Marshall Islands", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 385, "text": "Evidence suggests that around 3,000 years ago successive waves of human migrants from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific Ocean, populating its many small islands. The Marshall Islands were settled by Micronesians in the 2nd millennium BC. Little is known of the islands' early history. Early settlers traveled between the islands by canoe using traditional stick charts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2665009", "title": "Indigenous peoples of Oceania", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 736, "text": "Both Australia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean were colonized in waves of migrations from Southeast Asia spanning many centuries. European and Japanese colonial expansion brought most of the region under foreign administration, in some cases as settler colonies which displaced or marginalized the original populations. During the 20th century several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states were formed under local control. However, various peoples have put forward claims for indigenous recognition where their islands are still under external administration; examples include the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Marianas, and the Marshallese of the Marshall Islands and the Native Hawaiians of Hawaii.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34583", "title": "1940s", "section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 274, "text": "BULLET::::- In 1947, Thor Heyerdahl's raft Kon-Tiki crossed the Pacific Ocean from Peru to Tahiti proving the practical possibility that people from South America could have settled Polynesia in pre-Columbian times, rather than South-East Asia as it was previously believed\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13414", "title": "Howland Island", "section": "Section::::History.:Itascatown (1935–42).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 633, "text": "In 1935, colonists from the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project arrived on the island to establish a permanent U.S. presence in the Central Pacific. It began with a rotating group of four alumni and students from the Kamehameha School for Boys, a private school in Honolulu. Although the recruits had signed on as part of a scientific expedition and expected to spend their three-month assignment collecting botanical and biological samples, once out to sea they were told, \"Your names will go down in history\" and that the islands would become \"famous air bases in a route that will connect Australia with California\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Modern websites, especially popular ones are not a standalone computer running a webserver. They're usually part of a full network of servers. \n\nFront end web servers that receive a request from users. Web caches that store commonly requested pages and data. Databases and file servers for a lot of the back end data.\n\nSo front end webserver can be programmed to follow this sequence:\n\n1. check if page is available in the web cache, use that if possible. \n2. if web cache is unavailable or slow to respond query database and file server, use that if possible \n3. Fall back to an error page of \"overloaded\" or \"down for maintenance\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "234029", "title": "Negative cache", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 639, "text": "Consider a web browser which attempts to load a page while the network is unavailable. The browser will receive an error code indicating the problem, and may display this error message to the user in place of the requested page. However, it is incorrect for the browser to place the error message in the page cache, as this would lead it to display the error again when the user tries to load the same page - even after the network is back up. The error message must not be cached under the page's URL; until the browser is able to successfully load the page, whenever the user tries to load the page, the browser must make a new attempt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "245955", "title": "Algorithms for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics", "section": "Section::::Recovery.:Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 325, "text": "During the same run we also fill the dirty page table by adding a new entry whenever we encounter a page that is modified and not yet in the DPT. This however only computes a superset of all dirty pages at the time of the crash, since we don't check the actual database file whether the page was written back to the storage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18925845", "title": "Single-page application", "section": "Section::::Challenges with the SPA model.:Analytics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 366, "text": "After the first page load, all subsequent page and content changes are handled internally by the application, which should simply call a function to update the analytics package. Failing to call said function, the browser never triggers a new page load, nothing gets added to the browser history, and the analytics package has no idea who is doing what on the site.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13749806", "title": "Search box", "section": "Section::::Common features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 337, "text": "In some cases, while users input search strings, the results of that string would also present on the content area too. However, if the page choose this way to show results to users, the loading time is pretty slow and sometimes it may cause freezing state or browser crash. Hence, it is not recommend for small and medium size webpage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9845", "title": "JavaScript", "section": "Section::::Use in Web pages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 166, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 166, "end_character": 208, "text": "BULLET::::- Loading new page content or submitting data to the server via Ajax without reloading the page (for example, a social network might allow the user to post status updates without leaving the page).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2384177", "title": "Pageview", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 308, "text": "A pageview or page view, abbreviated in business to PV and occasionally called page impression, is a request to load a single HTML file (web page) of an Internet site. On the World Wide Web, a page request would result from a web surfer clicking on a link on another \"page\" pointing to the page in question.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2384177", "title": "Pageview", "section": "Section::::Criticism and concerns.:Manipulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 335, "text": "Page view can be manipulated or boosted for specific purposes. For example, a recent incident, called 'page view fraud', compromised the accuracy of measurement of page view by boosting the page view. Perpetrators used a tool called 'a bot' to buy fake page-views for attention, recognition, and feedback, increasing the site's value.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is commonly done and is sometimes called *rolling over* a loan. The problem is that the amount due will keep increasing due to interest charge, and eventually it will be so large that no one will be willing to loan you that much.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you are doing this responsibly (*refinancing*, *consolidating*, or *rolling over* loans: explained later), there is nothing problematic, and is perfectly acceptable. On the other hand, if you are just doing this to keep ahead of the loan collectors, this will hurt your credit rating, and eventually result in nobody wanting to loan you money.\n\n\nRegarding those three cases:\n\nRefinancing a loan is when you take out a new loan that is more favorable to you than the old loan: often because interest rates have come down (if your old loan was at 3%, and you can get a new one at 2.75%, that's good for you), but there are other reasons as well.\n\nConsolidating loans is where you take out one big loan to cover several other loans. For example, if you have a car loan, a mortgage, and a student loan, you might take out a new mortgage to pay off all three other loans, so now you only have one (larger) loan to pay off.\n\nRolling over a loan is when you switch who you are borrowing money from. Maybe the bank you had your loan with has been treating you badly, or maybe you want all your business to be with the same bank, or maybe you've moved and don't want to be paying your car loan to a company in another state, or whatever. So you borrow money from one bank, and use it to pay off the other bank.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Getting a loan lowers your credit score. When your credit score gets too low, nobody's going to loan you more money.\n\nIf you try to borrow from loan sharks, you'll quickly realize that the amount of money they expect in repayment is *far* greater than what a bank charges. You'll quickly run out of sharks willing to lend you the money you need.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17662295", "title": "Forbearance", "section": "Section::::Forbearance internationally.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 511, "text": "Borrowers can either opt for a short-term relief by having their mortgage payment suspended for a short period of time (known as forbearance in the U.S.), or they can apply for reduced payments over the life of the loan’s term (known as loan modification in the U.S.). Lenders are required to give a particular reason as to why an application for hardship variation was being turned down by them. Borrowers are encouraged to talk to their internal complaints section of their respective bank or file a dispute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13258031", "title": "Mortgage acceleration", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 343, "text": "The claim made is that by using a particular type of loan in a particular way (often following a “program”), the borrower can cut many years off the mortgage without making additional repayments – or similarly, that although additional payments are made, the savings increase significantly due to the use of a particular loan and/or strategy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146738", "title": "Interest", "section": "Section::::Market interest rates.:Default interest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 269, "text": "From the borrower's perspective, this means failure to make their regular payment for one or two payment periods or failure to pay taxes or insurance premiums for the loan collateral will lead to substantially higher interest for the entire remaining term of the loan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1550867", "title": "Term loan", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 483, "text": "Some loaning institutions offer a variety of repayment plans for your term loan. Commonly, you may choose to pay off your debt in even amounts, or the amount you pay will gradually increase over the loan period. If you expect that you will be more financially able to repay in the future, causing an incremental increase may help you and save you interest. If you are unsure of your future monetary position, even payments may help prevent defaulting on the loan if things go badly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "575530", "title": "Commonwealth Bank", "section": "Section::::Controversies.:BankWest commercial loan book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 382, "text": "Borrowers complained that they had complied with the monetary conditions of the loans: they had kept up interest payments and repayments, and disputed whether it was reasonable to apply penalty interest and require early repayment for non-monetary issues (for example, not having invested the funds for the purpose borrowed, or no longer having adequate security to back the loan).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "609322", "title": "Reverse mortgage", "section": "Section::::By country.:Australia.:When the loan comes due.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 407, "text": "Prepayment of the loan—when the borrower pays the loan back before it reaches term—may incur penalties, depending on the loan. An additional fee could also be imposed in the event of a redraw. Under the National Credit Code, penalties for early repayment are illegal on new loans since September 2012; however, a bank may charge a reasonable administration fee for preparation of the discharge of mortgage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13493328", "title": "Cancellation of Debt (COD) Income", "section": "Section::::Policy reasons behind COD income.:Symmetry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 551, "text": "A loan by itself is neither gross income to the borrower, nor a tax deduction to the lender. This is because there is \"symmetry\" of assets and liabilities on both side: the borrower's increased wealth when the loan is taken out is offset by an obligation to repay that same amount. Likewise, the lender's loss of wealth by lending out that money is offset by the borrower's promise to pay back the entire amount. Ignoring interest, both sides will be in exactly the same position when the loan is repaid as they were in before the loan was even made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In short, divers have two main ways to ‘jump in’ from a scuba dive boat:\n\nThe Giant Stride Entry (requires a stable platform from where to step off; common in larger boats)\n\nThe Backward Roll Entry (preferred technique when the boat is smaller, less steady, and lacks a secure platform or ladder)\n\nPlus, think about this: walking around in fins is difficult and you're carrying the weight of a scuba tank (not light)- it's easier to roll backwards off the boat than to walk to the edge and stride off. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One method is to take a step off the boat into the water - this works well when your boat has a platform that you can step straight off of into the water. If you're trying to enter the water over a gunwale going forwards, your flippers will get in the way, making it difficult to smoothly enter the water. Instead, divers sit on the gunwale, which allows them to smoothly lean back into the water, rather than making an awkward forward step over the gunwale.\n\nSitting on the gunwhale also helps ensure you won't hit your tank or head against anything as you enter the water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If they don't go back first, they go feet first. Both for several reasons.\n\n1. Out of the water, the tank is **heavy**. Imagine doing a belly flop while wearing a backpack full of cinder blocks. You hit the water, then the pack hits you. Ouch.\n\n2. Hitting the water face first means you get the mask smacked into your face. Ouch again.\n\n3. Some kinds of SCUBA gear will have bits extending behind your head. Going face first means you have a good chance of smacking the back of your head on them. Not fun.\n\n4. When you hit the water, you are less concerned about landing on the guy that is already in the water than you are about the next guy in line landing on *you*. Going back first means you can see what's going on above you and move if needed.\n\n5. Lastly, sometimes shit happens and you need to quickly ditch your gear. If you are face down, you have to get out from under the stuff after you undo the buckles, risking getting something getting caught in a stray loop. Face up means everything is below you, thus much less risk of getting snagged.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When walking from shore, it's easier to walk backwards with fins on. \n\nWhen sitting in a small boat you usually face inward while underway, and it's easier to just fall backwards over the side than to turn yourself around.\n\nPerhaps another reason is that hitting the water face first could dislodge your mask or regulator.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I understand what you meant, in fact most people did but divers can be dicks... So we have two different kinds of entries when diving. \n\nThe first is called a 'giant stride entry' which is what is says on the tin. You take a big stride into the water. This is typically off of the back of a big hard boat or from a shore entry with a drop below. Don't hop in because you're likely to hit your cylinder on the entry point and knock yourself clean out (I've dragged a couple of people out who have done this.)\n\nThe second, which is the one you're on about, [is typically out of a rigid hulled inflatable boat (RHIB.)](_URL_0_) The reason we roll off backwards is because the boat will rock like crazy if you try to stand up in heavy dive gear. It's pretty low in the water and you're also less like to knock any gear off as you enter. Everyone needs to go at the same time or you risk clocking someone in the face with your cylinder.\n\nThe super fun entries are negative entries using RHIBs off of big boats in strong currents - you roll into the water as a group with no air in your jacket and head straight down. Feels like being a navy seal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the PNW we very rarely use the seated back roll entry technique unless entering the water from a boat like a zodiac or similar. Usually we use a giant stride entry when entering from boats or docks. But the reason for the seated back roll is because when you're diving you have a lot of heavy and loose gear, and you want to be in control of it all and yourself the whole time. The seated back roll (SBR from now on) is really good for wrangling your hoses and accessories in front of you where it can all be held onto while at the same time holding the clasp of your weight belt. It also allows you to lead with the hardest heaviest and least fragile part of your body and gear: the tank. If say, a log floated up next to the boat while you were managing all your gear and getting ready to take a dip, and you didn't see it, when you roll backwards, your tank shields you from the blow of hitting the log from a small height with sometimes nearly 100 lbs of gear on top of you. It also serves to propeller you away from the boat quickly and with little effort. This way, you clear the boat, which may be bobbing up and down on rough seas, as well as allow someone else to enter behind you. It also serves to, usually, orient you facing the boat when you surface so you can signal the boat that you're OK and do not need assistance. Also, if the seas are you specially rough, your tank breaks the water for you so you don't get smacked in the face with an upswell right as the boat breaks the crest of the previous wave and you fall face first into it (no fun). \n\nTl;Dr - it's easier and safer than the alternatives sometimes. \nSource - am PADI Divemaster, out of teaching status Master SCUBA Diver Trainer. Yes, I know, we have the best \"ranks/titles\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most are correct. One additional reason is because it's nearly impossible to walk forwards with flippers on your feet. Source: am PADI diver and can't walk forwards with flippers on my feet. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually most SCUBA divers dont usually enter the water backwards, and ill get to that in a second.\n\nBut first the answer to your question. I assume that the entry technique you are referring to is when the diver rolls backwards of the side of a smaller boat.\n\nIn that case it is because when geared up you are crazy top heavy, and most people are not super graceful on land when in full gear. Couple that with a small and rolling boat, and you must be able to put your gear on and drop in to the water without standing up. It also minimizes the risk of people dropping in on top of each other, as divers will each drop from a different spot on the boat, and once they hit the water they can see the boat and get out of the way of the next diver. As a side note doing \"negative\" (non floaty) entries from small boats in rough waters makes you feel really cool.\n\nHowever there are many other entry techniques which are also very common. In a lot of places people dont dive of boats in the first place, and when shore diving you would just walk out into the water, or do a \"giant stride\" if there is a dock or something. A giant stride is common from bigger boats and is just a fancy word for stepping of the boat forwards.\n\nOf course there are tons of ways to get in to the water, and a part of being a good diver is to choose an appropriate one for the situation. When diving of my familys sail boat for example I usually make my gear buoyant and throw it down first before going in after it, since the entry is quite high and there is not much room up on the back. A favourite entry of mine as an alternative to a giant step, is to do three quarters of a flip forwards and land on the tank (on my back). But that is only with people I know, it looks kind of uncontrolled and is not a favourite with DMs and boat crew, its good fun tough.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple explanation for a five year old: \n\nBecause it's easier to sit on the side of the boat and fall backward into the water than it is to lift your feet with fins, stand on the narrow side wall of the boat, balance yourself for a second without falling back into the boat, and then jump forward into the water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We only do that on boats where it's not practical to jump into water feet first, like on inflatable boats. Space in these boats is scarce and the two big tubes on the sides are hard to step over (especially with fins, in a thick suit, and with 25kg of gear on our backs). Standing on the tubes is dangerous as they are slippery, unstable and not flat , so it's easier (safer) to sit on them and fall backwards. Generally speaking, in an inflatable you avoid standing up when you have your gear on anyway.\n\nWith any boat that has a big platform in the back, it's much easier to jump feet first.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Everyone here is giving you fantastic information without actually answering your question. \n\nThe reason scuba divers don't go in face first is the risk of blowing out the glass in your mask. Secondary to that would be the risk of your regulator (breathing apparatus) being knocked out of your mouth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not sure where everyone gets the idea that face first entry would hurt your face or rip your mask off.\n\nI am a disabled diver, certified through HSA and when doing boat dives I do a modified sit roll sometimes face forward, others side roll and my mask and regulator stay on. I hold it both hands but as a low level quad my fingers don't work so I'm just pressing my hands to my face.\n\nThe only thing is we must make sure to tuck chin to chest to avoid getting hit in the back of the head by the tank .", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I do the seated back roll from small boats out of convenience because of the heavy gear. I do mostly shore dives however which typically involve just walking on in.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2799733", "title": "Finning techniques", "section": "Section::::Propulsion.:Frog kick.:Application.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 535, "text": "Because of the direction of thrust is mostly in line with the diver, or slightly upwards, it is suitable for situations where disturbing the silt on the bottom can cause dramatic loss in visibility, such as inside wrecks and caves, and at any other time when the diver needs to swim close to a silty substrate. Some divers will use it as their standard kick even in more forgiving environments, as the resting position is identical for other kicks that increase underwater mobility, such as the backwards kick and the helicopter turn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8402", "title": "Diving (sport)", "section": "Section::::Mechanics of diving.:Entry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 140, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 140, "end_character": 548, "text": "Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position. Apart from aesthetic considerations, it is important from a safety point of view that divers reinforce the habit of rolling in the direction of rotation, especially for forward and inward entries. Back injuries hyperextention are caused by attempting to re-surface in the opposite direction. Diving from the higher levels increases the danger and likelihood of such injuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5088939", "title": "Canoe and kayak diving", "section": "Section::::Technique.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 786, "text": "Getting into a kayak is the reverse of getting off. It is relatively easy to climb onto them from the side as the freeboard is low, but they are not very stable and are easy to capsize. The diver's weights are usually removed first and secured on the boat. Other loose equipment may be loaded at this stage. The scuba set is removed and clipped to a tether. Sufficient air to float the set must be in the buoyancy compensator. The fins are kept on the feet as they are used to boost the diver onto the kayak. Boarding is usually done by holding onto the kayak and using the fins to get roughly horizontal at right angles to the boat, then boosting over the kayak so that the hips are over the cockpit, face down, then rolling face up and sitting before swinging the legs onto the boat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2371231", "title": "Flutter kick", "section": "Section::::Swimming.:Scuba diving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 483, "text": "Most scuba diving training organizations are agnostic as to kick techniques, and thus most underwater divers utilize the flutter kick of surface swimmers. However, as divers use swimfins, propulsion occurs almost entirely from the kick. Divers that subscribe to the Doing It Right approach and many other cave and wreck divers use a modified flutter kick or frog kick, done entirely with bent knees, pushing water up and behind the diver to avoid stirring up sediment on the bottom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "490008", "title": "Diving weighting system", "section": "Section::::Function and use of weights.:Ballast.:Scuba diving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 542, "text": "The scuba diver generally has an operational need to control depth without resorting to a line to the surface or holding onto a structure or landform, or resting on the bottom. This requires the ability to achieve neutral buoyancy at any time during a dive, otherwise the effort expended to maintain depth by swimming against the buoyancy difference will both task load the diver and require an otherwise unnecessary expenditure of energy, increasing air consumption, and increasing the risk of loss of control and escalation to an accident.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2791810", "title": "Anti-frogman techniques", "section": "Section::::Anti-frogman weapons.:Attack on the surface or onshore.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 201, "text": "In some circumstances, submerged open-circuit scuba divers can be followed by their bubbles until they run out of air and have to surface, and then tackled on the water surface or as they come ashore.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53769108", "title": "Surface-supplied diving skills", "section": "Section::::Stage diving procedures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 414, "text": "A diving stage or basket is used to lower divers to the underwater work site and raise them back to the surface after the dive. This provides a relatively safe and easy way of entering the water and getting out again onto the deployment platform. In-water decompression is facilitated as the stage can be held at a reasonably constant depth. The divers' umbilicals are continuous and are tended from the surface. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So... look at the sky. \n\nNow. With your hand make a circle \nNow through that circle, focus on only the sky you can see in the perimeters of your hand. Imagine zooming in almost endlessly, finding millions of different cosmic clusters just in those small confines. \n\nNow pick another random part of sky. Do it again and voila! You found a new galaxy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "not all galaxies are created equal - some are a lot larger/brighter than others\n\nit's like not being able to see a firefly a meter away from you because it has a stadium spotlight behind it, which even if it doesn't dazzle or blind you, still masks the presence of the closer object", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34253810", "title": "2012 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:December.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 778, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 778, "end_character": 343, "text": "BULLET::::- Astronomers report that the most distant known galaxy, UDFj-39546284, is now estimated to be even further away than previously believed. The galaxy, which is estimated to have formed around \"380 million years\" after the Big Bang (about 13.75 billion years ago), is approximately 13.37 billion light years from Earth. (\"Space.com\")\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29282822", "title": "UDFy-38135539", "section": "Section::::Subsequent discoveries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 429, "text": "Scientists hope to find older galaxies; however, closer to the Big Bang, fewer exist and they are dimmer on average. They will therefore be increasingly difficult to find, since they would be very faint with fewer observable stars. Trenti says that new \"most distant\" record holders will soon be announced, but only incremental distance gains will be realized until NASA's James Webb Space Telescope becomes operational in 2021.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "206919", "title": "Seyfert galaxy", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 2067, "text": "The majority of active galaxies are very distant and show large Doppler shifts. This suggests that active galaxies occurred in the early Universe and, due to cosmic inflation, are receding away from the Milky Way at very high speeds. Quasars are the furthest active galaxies, some of them being observed at distances 12 billion light years away. Seyfert galaxies are much closer than quasars. Because light has a finite speed, looking across large distances in the Universe is equivalent to looking back in time. Therefore, the observation of active galactic nuclei at large distances and their scarcity in the nearby Universe suggests that they were much more common in the early Universe, implying that active galactic nuclei could be early stages of galactic evolution. This leads to the question about what would be the local (modern-day) counterparts of AGNs found at large redshifts. It has been proposed that NLSy1s could be the small redshift counterparts of quasars found at large redshifts (z4). The two have many similar properties, for example: high metallicities or similar pattern of emission lines (strong Fe [II], weak O [III]). Some observations suggest that AGN emission from the nucleus is not spherically symmetric and that the nucleus often shows axial symmetry, with radiation escaping in a conical region. Based on these observations, models have been devised to explain the different classes of AGNs as due to their different orientations with respect to the observational line of sight. Such models are called unified models. Unified models explain the difference between Seyfert I and Seyfert II galaxies as being the result of Seyfert II galaxies being surrounded by obscuring toruses which prevent telescopes from seeing the broad line region. Quasars and blazars can be fit quite easily in this model. The main problem of such an unification scheme is trying to explain why some AGN are radio loud while others are radio quiet. It has been suggested that these differences may be due to differences in the spin of the central black hole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29282822", "title": "UDFy-38135539", "section": "Section::::Subsequent discoveries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 500, "text": "The James Webb telescope should be able to detect galaxies more than 13.4 billion light years away, less than 300 million years after the Big Bang. Bremer states that it, and eventually the European Extremely Large Telescope, which will have a mirror five times the diameter of Yepun's, and is tentatively scheduled for first light in 2024, will enable more detailed study of galaxies at such great distances. Lehnert states that this discovery is not \"the limit, perhaps not even that close to it\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "427999", "title": "List of nearest galaxies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 324, "text": "The list aims to reflect current knowledge: not all galaxies within the 3.59 Mpc radius have been discovered. Nearby dwarf galaxies are still being discovered, and galaxies located behind the central plane of the Milky Way are extremely difficult to discern. It is possible for any galaxy to mask another located beyond it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58935", "title": "Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure", "section": "Section::::Early 21st century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 295, "text": "BULLET::::- 2013 — The galaxy Z8 GND 5296 is confirmed by spectroscopy to be one of the most distant galaxies found up to this time. Formed just 700 million years after the Big Bang, expansion of the universe has carried it to its current location, about 13 billion light years away from Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29468127", "title": "UDF 423", "section": "Section::::Distance measurements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 427, "text": "The \"distance\" of a far away galaxy depends on how it is measured. With a redshift of 1, light from this galaxy is estimated to have taken around 7.7 billion years to reach Earth. However, since this galaxy is receding from Earth, the present comoving distance is estimated to be around 10 billion light-years away. In context, Hubble is observing this galaxy as it appeared when the Universe was around 5.9 billion years old.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well seeing as how humans are mammals. And mammals are animals. And we have have one. \n\nYes other animals do too", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14470771", "title": "Light effects on circadian rhythm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1078, "text": "Most animals and other organisms have \"built-in clocks\" in their brains that regulate the timing of biological processes and daily behavior. These \"clocks\" are known as circadian rhythms. They allow maintenance of these processes and behaviors relative to the 24-hour day/night cycle in nature. Although these rhythms are maintained by the individual organisms, their length does vary somewhat individually. Therefore, they must, either continually or repeatedly, be reset to synchronize with nature's cycle. In order to maintain synchronization (\"entrainment\") to 24 hours, external factors must play some role. The human circadian rhythm occurs typically in accordance with nature's cycle. The average activity rhythm cycle is 24.18 hours in adulthood but is shortened as age increases. One of the various factors that influence this entrainment is light exposure to the eyes. When an organism is exposed to a specific wavelength of light stimulus at certain times throughout the day, the hormone melatonin is suppressed, or prevented from being secreted by the pineal gland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "608162", "title": "Suprachiasmatic nucleus", "section": "Section::::Circadian effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 904, "text": "Different organisms such as bacteria, plants, fungi, and animals, show genetically-based near-24-hour rhythms. Although all of these clocks appear to be based on a similar type of genetic feedback loop, the specific genes involved are thought to have evolved independently in each kingdom. Many aspects of mammalian behavior and physiology show circadian rhythmicity, including sleep, physical activity, alertness, hormone levels, body temperature, immune function, and digestive activity. The SCN coordinates these rhythms across the entire body, and rhythmicity is lost if the SCN is destroyed. For example, total time of sleep is maintained in rats with SCN damage, but the length and timing of sleep episodes becomes erratic. The SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing \"slave oscillators,\" which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "425938", "title": "Animal cognition", "section": "Section::::Research questions.:Timing.:Time of day: circadian rhythms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 744, "text": "The behavior of most animals is synchronized with the earth's daily light-dark cycle. Thus, many animals are active during the day, others are active at night, still others near dawn and dusk. Though one might think that these \"circadian rhythms\" are controlled simply by the presence or absence of light, nearly every animal that has been studied has been shown to have a \"biological clock\" that yields cycles of activity even when the animal is in constant illumination or darkness. Circadian rhythms are so automatic and fundamental to living things – they occur even in plants – that they are usually discussed separately from cognitive processes, and the reader is referred to the main article (Circadian rhythms) for further information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14990054", "title": "Sleep in non-human animals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 600, "text": "Sleep in non-human animals refers to a behavioral and physiological state characterized by altered consciousness, reduced responsiveness to external stimuli, and homeostatic regulation. Sleep is observed in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some fish, and, in some form, in insects and even in simpler animals such as nematodes. The internal circadian clock promotes sleep at night for diurnal organisms (such as humans) and in the day for nocturnal organisms (such as rodents). Sleep patterns vary widely among species. It appears to be a requirement for all mammals and most other animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14016472", "title": "Chronotype", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 324, "text": "Humans are normally diurnal creatures, that is to say they are active in the daytime. As with most other diurnal animals, human activity-rest patterns are endogenously controlled by biological clocks with a circadian (~24-hour) period. Chronotypes have also been investigated in other species, such as fruit flies and mice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5329800", "title": "Circadian rhythm sleep disorder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 792, "text": "Humans, like most living organisms, have various biological rhythms. These biological clocks control processes that fluctuate daily (e.g. body temperature, alertness, hormone secretion), generating circadian rhythms. Among these physiological characteristics, our sleep-wake propensity can also be considered one of the daily rhythms regulated by the biological clock system. Our sleeping cycles are tightly regulated by a series of circadian processes working in tandem, which allow us to experience moments of consolidated sleep during the night and a long wakeful moment during the day. Conversely, disruptions to these processes and the communication pathways between them can lead to problems in sleeping patterns, which are collectively referred to as Circadian rhythm sleep disorders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7743448", "title": "Diel vertical migration", "section": "Section::::Vertical migration stimuli.:Endogenous factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 913, "text": "Biological clocks are an ancient and adaptive sense of time innate to an organism that allows them to anticipate environmental changes and cycles so they are able to physiologically and behaviorally respond to the expected change. Evidence of circadian rhythms controlling DVM, metabolism, and even gene expression have been found in copepod species, \"Calanus finmarchicus\". These copepods were shown to continue to exhibit these daily rhythms of vertical migration in the laboratory setting even in constant darkness, after being captured from an actively migrating wild population. An experiment was done at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography which kept organisms in column tanks with light/dark cycles. A few days later the light was changed to a constant low light and the organisms still displayed diel vertical migration. Thus suggestions that some type of internal response was causing the migration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your metabolism's job is to regulate the temperature of your body. \"Metabolizing\" food is basically like setting it on fire in your body and using the heat for energy. \n\nIn the extreme heat, your body temperature is already high. So your body doesn't burn the energy it has as aggressively (your metabolism slows down) so that you don't overheat. This decreases your appetite.\n\nIt's also why you have less energy and feel wiped out after a hot day. You still needed that energy, but your body converted less to avoid overheating. Basically put you in low power mode.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your body is a heater. It stays at 98.6°F like *all the time*. To keep it hot, you put food in it. If it is cold outside, you need more food. If it is hot, you need less.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "TIL that people in texas are fat, because of heat-induced-slowed-metabolism, rather than because heat makes things expand...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58685", "title": "Hypothalamus", "section": "Section::::Function.:Control of food intake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 203, "text": "BULLET::::4. Thermostatic hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, a decrease in body temperature below a given set-point stimulates appetite, whereas an increase above the set-point inhibits appetite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12126172", "title": "Palatability", "section": "Section::::Satiety and palatability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 475, "text": "The cessation of a desire to eat after a meal \"satiation\" is likely to be due to different processes and cues. More palatable foods reduce the effects of such cues upon satiation causing a larger food intake. In contrast, unpalatability of certain foods can serve as a deterrent from feeding on those foods in the future. For example, the Variable Checkerspot butterfly contains iridoid compounds that are unpalatable to avian predators, thus reducing the risk of predation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235548", "title": "Appetite", "section": "Section::::Role in disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 659, "text": "Both genetic and environmental factors may regulate appetite, and abnormalities in either may lead to abnormal appetite. Poor appetite (anorexia) can have numerous causes, but may be a result of physical (infectious, autoimmune or malignant disease) or psychological (stress, mental disorders) factors. Likewise, hyperphagia (excessive eating) may be a result of hormonal imbalances, mental disorders (e.g., depression) and others. Dyspepsia, also known as indigestion, can also affect appetite as one of its symptoms is feeling \"overly full\" soon after beginning a meal. Taste and smell (\"dysgeusia\", bad taste) or the lack thereof may also effect appetite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214938", "title": "Leptin", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Central nervous system.:Hypothalamus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 342, "text": "This appetite inhibition is long-term, in contrast to the rapid inhibition of hunger by cholecystokinin (CCK) and the slower suppression of hunger between meals mediated by PYY3-36. The absence of leptin (or its receptor) leads to uncontrolled hunger and resulting obesity. Fasting or following a very-low-calorie diet lowers leptin levels. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29265347", "title": "Food choice", "section": "Section::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 645, "text": "It has been suggested that energy intake also increases during conditions of extreme or prolonged cold temperatures. Relatedly, researchers have posited that reduced variability of ambient temperature indoors could be a mechanism driving obesity, as the percentage of US homes with air conditioning increased from 23 to 47 percent in recent decades. In addition, several human and animal studies have shown that temperatures above the thermoneutral zone significantly reduce food intake. However, overall there are few studies indicating altered energy intake in response to extreme ambient temperatures and the evidence is primarily anecdotal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "149422", "title": "Hunger", "section": "Section::::As a physical condition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 566, "text": "The physical sensation of hunger is related to contractions of the stomach muscles. These contractions—sometimes called hunger pangs once they become severe—are believed to be triggered by high concentrations of the ghrelin hormone. The hormones Peptide YY and Leptin can have an opposite effect on the appetite, causing the sensation of being full. Ghrelin can be released if blood sugar levels get low—a condition that can result from long periods without eating. Stomach contractions from hunger can be especially severe and painful in children and young adults.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24866018", "title": "Capsinoids", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms of action: capsaicin vs. capsinoids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 409, "text": "Both energy metabolism and body temperature increases are observed in humans following extracted capsinoids or CH-19 Sweet administration. Animal studies also demonstrate these increases, as well as suppressed in body fat accumulation following capsinoids intake. The exact mechanisms and the relative importance of each remain under investigation, as are the effects of capsinoids on appetite and satiation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's when it's turned to stone after millions of years. The wood becomes buried underground where it's preserved because of the lack of oxygen, and as water flows through the ground on top, the minerals enter the wood and replace the organic material. Eventually all of the organic material is replaced by mineral, and the wood is now stone which has kept its original structure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3677471", "title": "Fossil wood", "section": "Section::::Types.:Petrified wood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 206, "text": "Petrified wood are fossils of wood that have turned to stone through the process of permineralization. All organic materials are replaced with minerals while maintaining the original structure of the wood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "431109", "title": "Petrified wood", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 638, "text": "Petrified wood (from the Latin root \"petro\" meaning \"rock\" or \"stone\"; literally \"wood turned into stone\") is the name given to a special type of fossilized remains of terrestrial vegetation. It is the result of a tree or tree-like plants having completely transitioned to stone by the process of permineralization. All the organic materials have been replaced with minerals (mostly a silicate, such as quartz), while retaining the original structure of the stem tissue. Unlike other types of fossils which are typically impressions or compressions, petrified wood is a three-dimensional representation of the original organic material. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19828134", "title": "Plant", "section": "Section::::Diversity.:Fossils.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 441, "text": "Petrified wood is common in some parts of the world, and is most frequently found in arid or desert areas where it is more readily exposed by erosion. Petrified wood is often heavily silicified (the organic material replaced by silicon dioxide), and the impregnated tissue is often preserved in fine detail. Such specimens may be cut and polished using lapidary equipment. Fossil forests of petrified wood have been found in all continents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "431109", "title": "Petrified wood", "section": "Section::::Elements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 856, "text": "Petrified wood is a fossil in which the organic remains have been replaced by minerals in the slow process of being replaced with stone. This petrification process generally results in a quartz chalcedony mineralization. Special rare conditions must be met in order for the fallen stem to be transformed into fossil wood or petrified wood. In general, the fallen plants get buried in an environment free of oxygen (anaerobic environment), which preserves the original plant structure and general appearance. The other conditions include a regular access to mineral rich water in contact with the tissues, replacing the organic plant structure with inorganic minerals. The end result is petrified wood, a plant, with its original basic structure in place, replaced by stone. Exotic minerals allow the red and green hues that can be seen in rarer specimens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "431109", "title": "Petrified wood", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 572, "text": "The petrifaction process occurs underground, when wood becomes buried under sediment or volcanic ash and is initially preserved due to a lack of oxygen which inhibits aerobic decomposition. Mineral-laden water flowing through the covering material deposits minerals in the plant's cells; as the plant's lignin and cellulose decay, a stone mold forms in its place. The organic matter needs to become petrified before it decomposes completely. Under ideal conditions it can also occur rapidly. A forest where such material has petrified becomes known as a petrified forest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "602845", "title": "Petrifaction", "section": "Section::::Artificial petrifaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 2443, "text": "In 2005 scientists at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) reported that they had successfully petrified wood samples artificially. Unlike natural petrification, though, they infiltrated samples in acidic solutions, diffused them internally with titanium and carbon and fired them in a high-temperature oven (circa 1400 °C) in an inert atmosphere to yield a man-made ceramic matrix composite of titanium carbide and silicon carbide still showing the initial structure of wood. Future uses would see these artificially petrified wood-ceramic materials eventually replace metal-based superalloys (which are coated with ultrahard ceramics) in the tool industry. Other vegetal matter could be treated in a similar process and yield abrasive powders. Scientists attempted to artificially petrify organisms as early as the 18th century, when Girolamo Segato claimed to have supposedly \"petrified\" human remains. His methods were lost, but the bulk of his \"pieces\" are on display at the Museum of the Department of Anatomy in Florence, Italy. More recent attempts have been both successful and documented, but should be considered as semi-petrifaction or incomplete petrifaction or at least as producing some novel type of wood composite, as the wood material remains to a certain degree; the constituents of wood (cellulose, lignins, lignans, oleoresins, etc.) have not been replaced by silicate, but have been infiltrated by specially formulated acidic solutions of aluminosilicate salts that gel in contact with wood matter and form a matrix of silicates within the wood after being left to react slowly for a given period of time in the solution or heat-cured for faster results. Hamilton Hicks of Greenwich, Connecticut, received a patent for his \"recipe\" for rapid artificial petrifaction of wood under US patent 4,612,050 in 1986. Hicks' recipe consists of highly mineralized water and a sodium silicate solution combined with a dilute acid with a pH of 4.0-5.5. Samples of wood are penetrated with this mineral solution through repeated submersion and applications of the solution. Wood treated in this fashion is - according to the claims in the patent - incapable of being burned and acquires the features of petrified wood. Some uses of this product as suggested by Hicks include use by horse breeders who desire fireproof stables constructed of nontoxic material that would also be resistant to chewing of the wood by horses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1204992", "title": "Palmoxylon", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 398, "text": "Petrified palmwood is a favorite of rock collectors because it is replaced by silica and exhibits well-defined rod-like structures and variety of colors. As a result, it exhibits a wide range of colors and designs when cut that can be incorporated into jewelry and other ornamental items. Because it is composed of silica, it is hard enough to polish and withstand the wear and tear of normal use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I guess I'd tackle this question by first addressing what \"in the texts today\" means. Biblical versions in modern languages are translated from what's called *critical editions* of the NT. A critical edition is produced by taking the earliest manuscripts of the NT we have, comparing their texts and--through certain (quite complicated and contentious) processes--determining the common \"archetype\" for these manuscripts, which is thought to be close(r) to the original texts. (Big caveat on the term \"original text\" [here](_URL_0_), if you're looking to get waaay into some hardcore stuff.).\n\nMuch more could be said about this process, but the salient point is that the \"texts today\" are really based on manuscripts (or reconstructed texts) from the 2nd-5th centuries--which doesn't lie *too* far away from the time of their original composition. (Though there are many other texts--for example the Homeric works, etc.--for which the earliest manuscripts are ~1,500+ years after the time of their original composition, and yet are almost certainly very close to the \"original\" texts.)\n\n_____\n\nThe question is then this: if we can reconstruct, with good confidence, what the NT texts looked like in, say, the (mid-to-late) 2nd century, *how do we know that the texts weren't changed in the time between their original composition (in the mid-1st to early 2nd century) and then*? \n\nThere are some general methods for determining this. One of the main ways in that interpolations into the texts are often times *disruptive* to their style/vocabulary/syntax/flow, etc. Perhaps if one were unscrupulous enough to actually attempt to alter these texts, they were at the same time careless enough to not spend a lot of time making sure it wasn't an obvious intrusion into these elements of the text.\n\nBut there are other cases in which there is no consensus as to whether something is a secondary interpolation or not. Some of the most hotly-debated passages here include things like 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 and 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1. People can be trigger-happy about proposed interpolations, though; and you can find discussion/analysis of tons of proposed interpolations in books like William Walker's *Interpolations in the Pauline Letters*. \n\n____\n\nFinally: there are a few instances in the Hebrew Bible where what we think of today as a single \"book\" was originally a shorter original work, with later redactors then taking another (later) related work and adding it to the original one, so that it's almost like a \"collection\" of books within a single one. For example, in the Wiki article for the book of Isaiah, you can find this:\n\n > The scholarly consensus which held sway through most of the 20th century saw three separate collections of oracles: Proto-Isaiah (chapters 1–39), containing the words of Isaiah; Deutero-Isaiah (chapters 40–55), the work of an anonymous 6th-century author writing during the Exile; and Trito-Isaiah (chapters 56–66), composed after the return from exile. While one part of the consensus still holds – virtually no one maintains that the entire book, or even most of it, was written by one person – this perception of Isaiah as made up of three rather distinct sections underwent a radical challenge in the last quarter of the 20th century.\n\n(The book of Enoch is another great example of this, with the divisions between the separate works that comprise the \"one\" book even more obvious.)\n\nHowever, proposals of a similar process taking place in the NT have not held large sway. Yes, it's virtually uncontested that, say, the author of the gospel of Matthew copied large sections of the gospel of Mark; but this is merely a *utilization of another source*--it's not like Matthew is just Mark + another autonomous work tacked onto it.\n\nPerhaps the most comparable thing in the NT is in the composite nature of things like the [Second Epistle to the Corinthians](_URL_1_): that this \"single\" epistle was actually several separate letters that were then compiled into one \"collection.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We rely primarily on [Alexandrian Text-type](_URL_8_), as it is the oldest we have. It is older than [Byzantine Text-type](_URL_9_), which is what was used in Orthodox churches, and for the King James translation.\n\nThe oldest types of texts we have are [papyri](_URL_1_). The oldest one we have of those is [Papyrus 52](_URL_4_). However, it is just the corners of a page.\n\nProbably one of the oldest texts you would consider a \"book\" would be the [Codex Sinaiticus](_URL_5_), and the [Codex Vaticanus](_URL_2_). These are both [uncials](_URL_10_), which are generally more complete than the papyri. There are also more recent [lectionaries](_URL_11_) and [minuscules](_URL_12_).\n\nMany manuscripts were found in [Oxyrhynchus](_URL_3_) about one hundred years ago. As koine said, we currently use a critical edition of the New Testament, with the most popular being the [Novum Testamentum Graece](_URL_6_). You can look more at how the New Testament manuscripts are [categorized here](_URL_7_). And you can see a list of [textual variants here](_URL_0_). Some variants will be noted in your Bible translation. A major one is the ending of Mark. There are two endings known, both of which are later additions to the text. The first verse also has some controversy as to whether it contains a later addition.\n\n/u/koine_lingua, if I made any mistakes, please tell me/correct me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21433", "title": "New Testament", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 494, "text": "There is no scholarly consensus on the date of composition of the latest New Testament texts. Conservative scholars John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. But most scholars date some New Testament texts much later than this. For example, Richard Pervo dates Luke-Acts to c. AD 115, and David Trobisch places Acts in the mid- to late second century, contemporaneous with the publication of the first New Testament canon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21734", "title": "New International Version", "section": "Section::::Textual basis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 529, "text": "The manuscript base for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Masoretic Hebrew Text. Other ancient texts consulted were the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic Targum, and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of Jerome. The manuscript base for the New Testament was the Koine Greek language editions of the United Bible Societies and of Nestle-Aland. The deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38592442", "title": "Textual criticism of the New Testament", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 359, "text": "The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. There are approximately 300,000 textual variants among the manuscripts, most of them being the changes of word order and other comparative trivialities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "319094", "title": "List of discoveries", "section": "Section::::Writings.:20th.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 346, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 346, "end_character": 243, "text": "BULLET::::- 1935, the most ancient (March 2012 source) text of the New Testament (a part of St John's Gospel), thought written at a time during the period 100 to 150 AD. – identified by Colin H. Roberts (excavated by Bernard P. Grenfell 1920)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22765761", "title": "Ante-Nicene period", "section": "Section::::Development of the Christian Canon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 683, "text": "The oldest list of books for the New Testament canon is the Muratorian fragment dating to c. 170. It shows that by 200 there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the 27-book New Testament, which included the four gospels. Thus, while there was debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the current books of the New Testament were accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 2nd century, with the exception of James, Hebrews, and 2nd Peter. However, these 3 books were also agreed upon and recognized as canon by church leadership shortly thereafter. Following Eusebius, the disputed books are referred to as the Antilegomena.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22938460", "title": "Christianity in the 2nd century", "section": "Section::::Development of the Christian biblical canon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 683, "text": "The oldest list of books for the New Testament canon is the Muratorian fragment dating to c. 170. It shows that by 200 there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the 27-book New Testament, which included the four gospels. Thus, while there was debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the current books of the New Testament were accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 2nd century, with the exception of James, Hebrews, and 2nd Peter. However, these 3 books were also agreed upon and recognized as canon by church leadership shortly thereafter. Following Eusebius, the disputed books are referred to as the antilegomena.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "503214", "title": "Pseudepigrapha", "section": "Section::::Classical and biblical studies.:New Testament studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 2316, "text": "The first four historical books of the New Testament are supplied with titles, which however ancient, do not go back to the respective authors of those sacred texts. The Canon of Muratori, Clement of Alexandria, and St. Irenaeus bear distinct witness to the existence of those headings in the latter part of the second century of our era. Indeed, the manner in which Clement (Strom. I, xxi), and St. Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. III, xi, 7) employ them implies that, at that early date, our present titles to the gospels had been in current use for some considerable time. Hence, it may be inferred that they were prefixed to the evangelical narratives as early as the first part of that same century. That however, they do not go back to the first century of the Christian era, or at least that they are not original, is a position generally held at the present day. It is felt that since they are similar for the four Gospels, although the same Gospels were composed at some interval from each other, those titles were not framed and consequently not prefixed to each individual narrative, before the collection of the four Gospels was actually made. Besides as well pointed out by Prof. Bacon, \"the historical books of the New Testament differ from it's apocalyptic and epistolary literature, as those of the Old Testament differ from its prophecy, in being invariably anonymous, and for the same reason. Prophecies, whether in the earlier or in the later sense, and letters, to have authority, must be referable to some individual; the greater his name, the better. But history was regarded as common possession. Its facts spoke for themselves. Only as the springs of common recollection began to dwindle, and marked differences to appear between the well-informed and accurate Gospels and the untrustworthy ... become worth white for the Christian teacher or apologist to specify whether the given representation of the current tradition was 'according to' this or that special compiler, and to state his qualifications\". It thus appears that the present titles of the Gospels are not traceable to the Evangelists themselves.The earliest and best manuscripts of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were all written anonymously. Furthermore, the books of Acts, Hebrews, 1 John, 2 John and 3 John were also written anonymously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Disclaimer: I liked Generation War, for what it was, a piece of entertainment; and fairly decent combat scenes.\n\nNow, with that out of the way, I do agree there needed to be a huge suspension of disbelief. My eyebrows merged with my hairline when the 'Token Jewish Friend' made his first appearance. This was unheard of; the Series begins prior to Barbarossa so you wouldn't risk much more than negative attention from the regime at that time, but association or hiding of Jewish persons later on would be a death sentence. It wasn't just farfetched it was insulting; It *really* did seem like it was an alleviation of German guilt. \n\nOthers have taken issue with this as well. Poland did not take well to the depiction of the RKA. There has been arguments that there was heavy anti-semitism before and after WWII in Poland, but the series depicts them as so *collectively* anti semitic that it accomplishes nothing more but to say \"See look, we weren't the only ones!\" Its intellectually dishonest, and the Polish Newspaper \"The Catholic Weekly\" wrote a [good review](_URL_0_) (Use a good translator there) that echoes these sentiments and has some nuggets of info on the actual RK.\n\nIf I could inject my opinion here; I don't think the producers of Generation War meant to deliberately alleviate German guilt, however, based on how it was recieved abroad and the general touchiness of the subject, it certainly appeared that way. As a piece of entertainment, *of course* you need to be able to sympathize, empathize and relate to the main characters - so they become essentially decent people. The 5 main characters are meant to represent ''the typical Germans'' however, so its one big foggy looking-glass. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39066027", "title": "Generation War", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 768, "text": "Generation War (, literally \"Our mothers, our fathers\") is a German World War II TV miniseries in three parts. It was commissioned by public broadcasting organization ZDF, produced by the UFA subsidiary TeamWorx, and first aired in Germany and Austria in March 2013. The series tells the story of five German friends, aged around 20, on their different paths through Nazi Germany and World War II: as Wehrmacht soldiers on the Eastern Front, a war nurse, an aspiring singer, and a Jewish tailor. The narrative spans four years, starting in 1941 Berlin, when the friends meet up for a last time before embarking on their journeys, enthusiastically vowing to meet up again the following Christmas. The story's conclusion is set shortly after the end of the war in 1945.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15134849", "title": "American War Mothers", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 325, "text": "The American War Mothers was founded in 1917 and given a Congressional charter on February 24, 1925. It is a perpetual patriotic, 501(c) 4 non-profit, non-political, non-sectarian, non-partisan organization whose members are mothers of children who have served or are serving in the Armed Services during a time of conflict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "296627", "title": "War children", "section": "Section::::Situation of mothers, war children and fathers.:Mothers traumatized.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 221, "text": "Some of the mothers gave their war child to a home of public welfare. Others tried to integrate the child into the family formed with their new partner and children (step family). Some of the mothers died during the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "954420", "title": "Generation Jones", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 735, "text": "Generation Jones is the social cohort of the latter half of the Baby boomers to the first years of Generation X. The term was first coined by the cultural commentator Jonathan Pontell, who identified the cohort as those born from 1954 to 1965 in the U.S. who came of age during the oil crisis, stagflation, and the Carter presidency, rather than during the 1960s, but slightly before Gen X. Other sources place the starting point at 1956 or 1957. Unlike older baby boomers, most of Generation Jones did not grow up with World War II veterans as fathers, and for them there was no compulsory military service and no defining political cause, as opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War had been for the older boomers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47553142", "title": "Our Father (2015 film)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 329, "text": "Our Father is a 2015 British short war drama film written and directed by Calum Rhys. The film stars Luke Goddard, Ross O'Hennessy, Aaron Jeffcoate, Jonas Daniel Alexander and Mark Anthony Games. The film follows a detached British Army section in France during World War II. The film premiered at the 69th Cannes Film Festival.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3584913", "title": "Captain Mainwaring", "section": "Section::::Personality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 323, "text": "\"Dad's Army\" ends with the Second World War still in progress, Mainwaring giving Mrs Fox away when she marries Corporal Jones, because her father is dead. As shown at the start of the first episode, set in 1968, Mainwaring, who was born in 1885, would have been 82 years old then and 60 at the end of the Second World War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44132916", "title": "Generations in the workforce", "section": "Section::::Gen X.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 396, "text": "Generation X is the generation born after the Western post-World War II Baby Boomers between approximately 1965 and 1983. The term was noted by photographer Robert Capa in the early 1950s. Of the generation, Capa said \"We named this unknown generation, The Generation X, and even in our first enthusiasm we realised that we had something far bigger than our talents and pockets could cope with.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can specify for Early Medieval rather than necessarily High Medieval, although there is some considerable overlap. In essence, the answer boils down to the fundamental values of medieval kingship. A medieval king has three major responsibilities: to defend his people, to justly uphold the law, and to maintain the faith. In particular when dealing with early medieval kingship, such as in Anglo-Saxon England, it was vitally important for a king to be seen as a brave and competent military leader. This is why, for example, Harold Godwinson fights on foot in the middle of the battle line at Hastings in 1066.\n\nIt may seem dangerous to have your heirs alongside you in a battle, but symbolically, it could almost be *more* dangerous for them to be seen to be avoiding battle, and thus be weak. The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* portrays a long tradition of heirs taking part in conflict, either alongside their fathers and brothers, or often leading armies independently. According to Asser's *Vita Ælfredi*, King Alfred, for example, was initially unlikely to be a king, and trained for priesthood, but as his oldest brothers were killed, he begins accompanying his older brothers into battle and learning to be a military leader.\n\nAlfred's own son, Edward, campaigned extensively alongside his father in the 880s and 890s, and according to William of Malmesbury, his grandson and future King of England, Æthelstan, was raised in the Mercian court of his aunt Æthelflæd, and accompanied her military campaigns against both the Welsh and the Vikings. During Æthelstan's reign, his brothers and heirs Edmund and Eadred both take part in the Battle of *Brunanburh* alongside the king, and the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* describes them leading the charge into the Viking lines.\n\nWhere this tradition is not in effect, it can cause issues. The reign of Æthelred II \"the Unready\" is beset by issues, many of which stem from the fact that he takes the throne as a child and only comes of age to rule independently in the 980s, a decade after his accession. Lavelle (2002) and Roach (2016) both suggest that many of the political problems in Æthelred's reign begin after the deaths of his late father's ministers, who had been largely administering the kingdom. These men were widely respected as experienced leaders, and had fought and campaigned together, and the young Æthelred lacked the experience, symbolism or practiced charisma of leading men into battle.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37725135", "title": "Hoftag", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1106, "text": "From the feudal obligation of chief princes to stand by the king's side in word and deed, a consequent duty was derived by the time of the High Middle Ages to appear in person, at the request of the king, at royal assemblies in order to offer counsel and participate in decision-making. This was the so-called court attendance duty (\"Hoffahrtspflicht\"). The assemblies themselves were given various names in the different sources, such as \"parlamentum\", \"conventus\", \"colloqium\", \"curia\" or \"curia regis\". All these terms could be qualified with adjectives such as \"solemnis\" (\"ceremonial\") or \"magnus\" (\"great\") in order to clarify their nature. The \"Hoftag\" differed from the usual counsel meetings of the royal court essentially only in the additional participation of those invited. These could be princes, members of the nobility, prelates or representatives of foreign powers. From the 13th century, representatives of the free imperial cities were also invited to \"Hoftage\". The assemblies were organised along the lines of a royal court meeting (\"Hofhaltung\") and were firmly focussed on the king.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20503", "title": "Medieval warfare", "section": "Section::::Organization.:Recruiting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 389, "text": "In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "851721", "title": "Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces", "section": "Section::::Historical background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 571, "text": "Before the modern era, the King was expected to command the forces himself; not seldom on location during war campaigns as shown by Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X, Charles XI and Charles XII. This remained the case formally until the 20th century. From the late 19th century onwards, there were no service chiefs of the Army or Navy; all senior service commanders reported directly to the King in Council. Apart from a single Minister for Defence created in 1919 by merging the position of ministers of the land forces and naval forces, no joint command structure existed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25526707", "title": "John II, Count of Armagnac", "section": "Section::::Hundred Years War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 215, "text": "Since 1351, he actively participated in the battles of the Hundred Years' War, fighting under the command of his father, or for his lord, Philip III, Duke of Burgundy, or John, Duke of Berry, or the king of France.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7288533", "title": "Ordenamiento de Alcalá", "section": "Section::::Application.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 351, "text": "However, the king had to yield to pressure from the nobles who wished to see recognized different land concessions and privileges during the continued revolutions and civil wars of the Middle Ages, especially in the turbulent years under the regency of his grandmother María de Molina, during his years as a minor and those of his father Fernando IV.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36322054", "title": "Juan de Castilla y Haro", "section": "Section::::Political intrigues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 568, "text": "The chronicle of the reign of Alfonso XI of Castile describes the minority of the young king as a time of violence and social tension, when knights and powerful lords robbed and oppressed those weaker than they. In 1325, the fourteen year old king announced his intention to rule in his own right, without the aid of the regents who had exploited their time in control. Many of his subjects had fled to nearby kingdoms to avoid the turmoil. All hoped the king would restore order. Among the princes prepared to oppose the king militarily if necessary was \"el Tuerto\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37545690", "title": "The Legend of Mor'du", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1705, "text": "Even though the prince had a powerful army under his command, the brothers constantly fought to a stalemate. In looking for a way to change his fate, the prince came across a menhir ring within the woods. From there, the will-o'-the-wisps guided him to the edge of a dark loch, the witch's cottage standing far from the shore. Hoping to turn the tide of the war to his favor, the prince persuaded the witch to make a spell that would give him the strength of ten men by offering her his signet ring, and she gave him the spell in a drinking horn but, having seen darkness in his heart, warns him of making a choice: either to fulfill his dark wish or heal the family bonds he had broken. When the prince brought his brothers before him by staging up a false truce, he again claimed his kingdom. When his brothers protested, the prince in response drank the spell, which immediately took effect, giving him strength tenfold but to his surprise, in the form of a great black bear. While he would have broken the spell if he chose to \"mend the bond torn by pride\", the prince instead accepted his new form and brought his brothers down. He then tried to get his army to rule the kingdom, but they saw him as a wild beast and turned against him. Enraged, he attacked his former men, slaying a great many. The few survivors of the fractured armies of the brothers fled the kingdom in terror, leading to its collapse. Doomed to this bestial form in desiring power over the bonds of family, the prince -now known as the \"Great Black\", \"Mor'du\"- wandered the land endlessly, killing and instilling terror wherever he roamed, his once human consciousness and intelligence now overwritten by animalistic bloodlust.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What's more discouraging is the more common scenario, where you think you're going to lose 10 pounds a week and then gain 1 because you don't realize how hard dieting is.\n\nThe Biggest Loser, like all TV, is about entertainment. A realistic diet program would have half the people losing no weight and maybe the best 1% losing 2 pounds a week; that would be incredibly uninteresting to watch.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd imagine they lose said weight under very close supervision by health professionals. A contestant suffering health issues from rapid weight loss would be a huge liability for the network so the contestant's dietary and physical activities are probably very heavily scrutinized.\n\nSome random dude doing it at home won't have such supervision and would likely be far slower to react to negative consequences should they arise, so they prescribe a far more gradual approach to weight loss.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's much easier for morbidly obese people to lose significant amount of weight since there's more to lose to begin with. When you weight 400+ it's not impossible at all to lose 10 pounds a week. Those people normally get very little exercise and eat a lot of calories, so any change in lifestyle will result in weight loss. For example, you will gain one pound for every 3500 calories you consume, so if a fat person normally consumes 5500 calories a day and now you are making him eat only 2000 calories a day, he will lose several pounds within one week. If he exercise on top of that he will likely to lose more. \n\nNotice that weight loss will become harder and harder as you get thinner. On the show no one can lose more weight the second week than they did for the first week, and a person approaching his ideal weight will have to work extra hard to lose the last several pounds. His body is used to the workout routine and diet, so he will need to workout even longer or eat even less to break the plateau. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1151047", "title": "The Biggest Loser (American TV series)", "section": "Section::::Weight loss regimen: risks and criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1291, "text": "According to LiveScience.com, \"physicians and nutritionists worry the show's focus on competitive weight loss is, at best, counterproductive and, at worst, dangerous\". Contestants on the show lose upwards of 10 pounds per week (in the very first week, some contestants have lost 20–30+ pounds in that one week alone), whereas the established medical guidelines for safe weight loss are between 1 and 2 pounds per week. This is true even though that weight-loss rate originates from an examination of the database from the National Weight Control Registry, where members have lost a minimum of 30 pounds and maintained that weight loss for a minimum of a year. So while researchers did find a correlation between that rate, on average, with members of the Registry, all this correlation can mean—if there is any causal correlation at all (there is no control group) -- is that it is more likely, on average, for someone to be successful at losing a large amount of weight, and more successful at maintaining that weight loss. There is no way of stating whether this rate is more \"healthy\" than any other rate, simply because (a) there is no comparison with any other rate, and not even any comparison between disease or mortality rates of members of this Registry and any other random group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1151047", "title": "The Biggest Loser (American TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 476, "text": "\"The Biggest Loser\" has been fairly popular for some of its run, ranking among the top 50 shows in the United States from 2004 to 2005 and again from 2009 to 2011. It has also attracted significant controversy, including both general critiques of its approach of rapid weight loss, and specific allegations that contestants have been malnourished, dehydrated, overexerted and, in some cases, been given weight loss pills, in order for them to lose as much weight as possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10255667", "title": "The Biggest Loser Australia (season 1)", "section": "Section::::Records.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 832, "text": "A number of \"The Biggest Loser\" records were set during the first week, with contestant Wal losing , the most weight lost by any contestant in one week; together with the greatest total weight loss for all contestants with ; and the Blue team losing the most weight by a single team with . Kristie lost the most percentage of body weight in the first week of any show. In later shows, Shane, Fiona and Kristie were the only contestants to gain weight, Shane gaining and Fiona gaining - both \"Water Loaded\" so they could lose more weight the following week. Similarly, a contestant on US season 4 utilized the same strategy, water loading to gain in one week and then losing the following week, although unlike Kristie, he did not have immunity, and gained the weight not to lose extra the next week, but to sabotage another player.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38088828", "title": "Cheryl Forberg", "section": "Section::::Books and publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 201, "text": "BULLET::::- \"The Biggest Loser: The Weight Loss Program to Transform Your Body, Improve Your Health, and Add Years to Your Life\", contributor/recipe developer (Rodale 2005 \"New York Times\" bestseller)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1151047", "title": "The Biggest Loser (American TV series)", "section": "Section::::Weight loss regimen: risks and criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 363, "text": "In a July 2011 press conference with the Television Critics Association, comedian and actor Jerry Lewis was critical of the competitive nature of \"The Biggest Loser\", claiming that the show is about contestants \"knocking their brains out trying to see how we beat the fat lady at 375 pounds, and in four months she's going to be 240. Who cares? It's ridiculous.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20753871", "title": "The Biggest Loser (season 7)", "section": "Section::::Episode summaries.:Week 10.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 998, "text": "Mike's weigh in from week 9 is revealed to be 11 pounds. Because the contestants have lost more than 77 pounds combined, they all are safe and no one is eliminated for week 9. However, because there is no elimination, Week 10 begins immediately. As a twist for the week, elimination will be based on contests between two individuals, one from each team. Whoever has the higher percentage weight loss will get one point for their team and the first team to reach three points will be safe from elimination. There is a pop-challenge: contestants have a wall-sit while balancing a medicine ball on their laps – the winner will decide the matchups. Tara wins the challenge and therefore is allowed to choose the match-ups for the upcoming elimination. Because the Black Team has one more member, one person from the team will not have a match-up. Tara's choices are: Mike vs. Cathy, Sione vs. Mandi, Filipe vs. Kristin, Helen vs. Ron, and Laura vs. Aubrey, with herself being exempt from any face-off.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52512371", "title": "Rena R. Wing", "section": "Section::::Research completed and in progress.:Characteristics for maintaining weight loss.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 685, "text": "Wing recognized that maintenance of weight loss is an important issue when it comes to the treatment of obesity. She is the founder of the National Weight Control Registry, which has a registry of over 5,000 people who have lost over at least 30 pounds, with an average loss of 70 pounds, and kept that weight off for at least one year, with an average of 5.7 years. Information has been collected on the various behaviors that are correlated with long-term maintenance of weight loss through self-reported data. Wing has proven that it is possible to teach the strategies of successful weight losers, resulting in improving others' ability to maintain their own personal weight loss.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because of the segregation of the races way back when it was societally acceptable to publicly oppress certain peoples.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. Wealth distribution and property values make a self-feeding cycle. More money in one neighborhood means better upkeep of buildings and infrastructure. This increases property value, which in turn encourages developers to invest more money into high-end developments.\n\n2. Cities (and states and countries) have a different attitude and approach to wealthy and poor areas. This is why government housing (projects) and industrial zones still exist and are built in poor areas, while nicer areas become zoned for parks, schools, and high-end businesses and residences.\n\n3. Natural economics means the liquor stores and pawn shops continue popping up in bad areas, while designer clothing stores and fancy cupcake bakeries open in good areas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "136885", "title": "Hackensack, New Jersey", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 688, "text": "The city is known for a great diversity of neighborhoods and land uses very close to one another. Within its borders are the prominent Hackensack University Medical Center, a trendy high-rise district about a mile long, classic suburban neighborhoods of single-family houses, stately older homes on acre-plus lots, older two-family neighborhoods, large garden apartment complexes, industrial areas, the Bergen County Jail, a tidal river, Hackensack River County Park, Borg's Woods Nature Preserve, various city parks, large office buildings, a major college campus, the Bergen County Court House, a vibrant small-city downtown district, and various small neighborhood business districts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "100729", "title": "Regina, Saskatchewan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 483, "text": "Residential neighbourhoods include precincts beyond the historic city centre are historically or socially noteworthy neighbourhoods – namely Lakeview and The Crescents, both of which lie directly south of downtown. Immediately to the north of the central business district is the old warehouse district, increasingly the focus of shopping, nightclubs and residential development; as in other western cities of North America, the periphery contains shopping malls and big box stores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2614388", "title": "Tal Afar", "section": "Section::::Geography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 632, "text": "Each neighborhood is able to maintain its identity due to the tribal nature of the city. Several dozen extended families living in close proximity will typically identify with one local sheikh who takes it upon himself to serve as steward of the neighborhood’s citizens and liaison to the local government. The layout of the town consists of densely packed buildings, often constructed so closely to each other that they share common load-bearing walls and supports. The city streets further physically define each neighborhood by separating it from other groups of buildings, since they cut through the town in irregular patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8522", "title": "Denver", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Neighborhoods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 793, "text": "The character of the neighborhoods varies significantly from one to another and includes everything from large skyscrapers to houses from the late 19th century to modern, suburban-style developments. Generally, the neighborhoods closest to the city center are denser, older and contain more brick building material. Many neighborhoods away from the city center were developed after World War II, and are built with more modern materials and style. Some of the neighborhoods even farther from the city center, or recently redeveloped parcels anywhere in the city, have either very suburban characteristics or are new urbanist developments that attempt to recreate the feel of older neighborhoods. Most neighborhoods contain parks or other features that are the focal point of the neighborhood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40014784", "title": "Microapartment", "section": "Section::::Countries.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 202, "text": "In the United States, most cities have zoning codes that set the minimum size for a housing unit (often 400 square feet) as well as the number of non-related persons who can live together in one unit. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6121285", "title": "List of neighborhoods of St. Louis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "St. Louis is divided into 79 neighborhoods. Census data is collected for each neighborhood, as well as crime data, historic property data, and dining establishment health ratings. National historic neighborhoods are identified by the official neighborhood to which they belong.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18450811", "title": "Verrettes", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 414, "text": "The city is very self-sufficient with most of the population consuming goods produced from nearby family farms in rural neighborhoods. Most of the formal businesses are owned by the city's upper middle class residence. Their homes are usually located near the downtown area; just like Port-au-Prince most of the upper-middle-class homes are surrounded by large cement walls with iron gates or some sort of fences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Andalusian Cadence!](_URL_2_) Also known as the Diatonic Phrygian Tetrachord--sometimes written as i-bVII-bVI-V (or, in the key of A, the descending sequence A, G, F, E)\n\n [the Dorian tetrachord--](_URL_1_) A popular melodic pattern of Ancient Greece[5] offers a possible starting point for the Andalusian cadence. A sequence more or less close to the Greek tetrachord structure might have been known to the[ Moors in Southern Spain](_URL_0_) and spread from there through Western Europe. The French troubadours were influenced by the Spanish music.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21873030", "title": "I–V–vi–IV progression", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 283, "text": "The I–V–vi–IV progression is a common chord progression popular across several genres of music. It involves the I, V, vi, and IV chords; for example, in the key of C major, this would be: C–G–Am–F. Uses based on a different starting point but with the same order of chords, include:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18274560", "title": "Vi–ii–V–I", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 220, "text": "In music, the vi–ii–V–I progression is a chord progression (also called the circle progression for the circle of fifths, along which it travels). A vi–ii–V–I progression in C major (with inverted chords) is shown below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21873030", "title": "I–V–vi–IV progression", "section": "Section::::I–V–VII–IV.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 976, "text": "I–V–VII–IV may be viewed as a variation of I–V–vi–IV, replacing the submediant with the subtonic. It consists of two I-V chord progressions, the second a whole step lower (A–E–G–D = I–V in A and I–V in G), giving it harmonic drive. There are few keys in which one may play the progression with open chords on the guitar, so it is often portrayed with barre chords (\"Lay Lady Lay\"). The use of the flattened seventh may lend this progression a bluesy feel or sound, and the whole tone descent may be reminiscent of the ninth and tenth chords of the twelve bar blues (V-IV). The progression also makes possible a chromatic descent over a contiguous heptachord (minor third): formula_1–formula_2–formula_2–formula_4. The roots of the chords are in Mixolydian, which is used in \"Lay Lady Lay\", though the progression contains one note outside of Mixolydian (the third of V, see Phrygian dominant scale) and other modes, such as major, may be used when performing the progression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29744777", "title": "I'm Not the One", "section": "Section::::Composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 737, "text": "The official sheet music folio lists the chord progression as D, to D/C, to D/B (enharmonic to a B minor seventh chord), to D/B♭ (enharmonic to a B♭ augmented major seventh chord), and video exists of Ocasek performing the song, solo on acoustic guitar, according to this progression. However, other transcriptionists describe the chord progression as D to D/C, to G/B, or to Gm/B♭. Either way, the last chord of the verse is a G minor sixth chord, in transition to the chorus in B minor. Each verse is introduced with a guitar melody from Elliot Easton, who layers several clean-tone guitar parts over the synthesizer-dominated arrangement. There is also a horn-like synthesizer solo by Greg Hawkes, played over the chorus progression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21873030", "title": "I–V–vi–IV progression", "section": "Section::::Variations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 396, "text": "A common ordering of the progression, \"vi–IV–I–V\", was dubbed the \"sensitive female chord progression\" by \"Boston Globe\" Columnist Marc Hirsh. In C major this would be Am–F–C–G. Hirsh first noticed the chord progression in the song \"One of Us\" by Joan Osborne, and then other songs. He named the progression because he claimed it was used by many performers of the Lilith Fair in the late 1990s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1124684", "title": "God Only Knows", "section": "Section::::Musical structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1186, "text": "The composition is known for its harmonic sophistication and extensive use of inverted chords, including third inversions such as B/A. The first chord of the verse (D major/A) is a non-diatonic chord. The tonic chord (E major) usually only appears with the major 3rd or the 5th in the bass. The entire verse progression sounds restless and ambiguous, until the line \"\"God only knows what I'd be without you\"\" when the chord progression finally reaches a clear goal (A–E/G–Fm–E). This has been cited by musicologists as a good example of how lyrical meaning can be supported and enhanced by a chord progression—along with the melody hook which also provides an example of \"a sense of increasing melodic energy that comes by way of the gradually ascending line\". Stephen Downes similarly named the song's \"tonal plasticity\" emphasized by the disuse of authentic cadences and root-position tonics as the reason for its \"expansiveness\". In musicologist Philip Lambert's opinion, the song's vocal counterpoint evokes the sacred traditions of a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach or an oratorio by George Frideric Handel. Andy Gill of the post-punk band Gang of Four describes the composition:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "921672", "title": "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", "section": "Section::::Composition.:Music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 834, "text": "The chord progression over the verses includes a descending bass of A-G-F#-F (8–7–6-6) over an A-minor chord, leading to F-major on the F bass note. According to musicologist Dominic Pedler, the 8–7–6–6 progression represents a hybrid of the Aeolian and Dorian modes. The change to the parallel major key is heralded by a C chord as the verse's penultimate chord (replacing the D used in the second phrase of each verse) before the E that leads into the bridge. Musicologist Alan Pollack views this combination of C and E as representing a sense of \"arrival\", after which the bridge contains \"upward [harmonic] gestures\" that contrast with the bass descents that dominate the verse. Such contrasts are limited by the inclusion of minor triads (III, VI and II) played over the E chord that ends the bridge's second and fourth phrases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because the earth is a whole lot heavier than the moon. Even an asteroid large enough to crash and knock out a moon-sized piece of the Earth would barely change the orbital speed of the Earth. Think of it like standing on the highway and throwing a rock as hard as you can at an oncoming semi-truck. Then you wonder why the truck didn't slow down. Sure, you probably made a dent in the metal wherever you hit it, and it slowed down *a little*, but not nearly enough to send it hurdling into the sun (ok, the analogy falls apart there). Also, because of the mathematics of orbital mechanics, orbits can change considerably and still remain stable, so even if something so large were to hit us that our momentum changed by a considerable amount, the Earth wouldn't get \"knocked out\" of its orbit", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[This is why](_URL_0_)\n\n...Please don't remove this for being a quasi-joke, it really is the answer!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Who's saying it didn't get 'knocked' out of its previous orbit to some extent?\n\nThe Earth-Moon system are now on an orbit which is the combination/sum (for lack of better terms) of the combined orbits of the proto-Earth and proto-Moon. Both objects were almost certainly on relatively similar orbits.\n\n\n\nAlso remember that it takes a *frightening* amount of energy to move a given mass up or down the gravity well of a solar system. To move the mass of the proto-Earth substantially out of its previous orbit would have taken a staggering impact.\n\nThe 'Mars-sized' object that struck the proto-Earth, was not on some drastic comet-like orbit, likely rather on a similar intersecting orbit with a more glancing/gradual blow. Had the orbit been drastically different and the speeds and impact angles so much greater, the resulting explosion would have been a lot more catastrophic. Even then, the leftover mass that didn't reach escape velocity would have eventually returned to the Earth/Moon system, impacting one body or another and settling in the combined orbit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39076510", "title": "Asteroid Redirect Mission", "section": "Section::::Target asteroid.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 349, "text": "The carbonaceous boulder that would have been captured by the mission (maximum 6 meter diameter, 20 tons) is too small to harm the Earth because it would burn up in the atmosphere. Redirecting the asteroid mass to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon would ensure it could not hit Earth and also leave it in a stable orbit for future studies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50822522", "title": "469219 Kamoʻoalewa", "section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.:Quasi-satellite of Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 694, "text": "The asteroid's orbit also undergoes a slow, back-and-forth twist over multiple decades. \"The asteroid's loops around Earth drift a little ahead or behind from year to year, but when they drift too far forward or backward, Earth's gravity is just strong enough to reverse the drift and hold onto the asteroid so that it never wanders farther away than about 100 times the distance of the moon\", said Chodas. \"The same effect also prevents the asteroid from approaching much closer than about 38 times the distance of the moon. In effect, this small asteroid is caught in a little dance with Earth.\"As of now, it has by far the most stable quasi-satellite of Earth discovered, in terms of orbit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8481594", "title": "Co-orbital configuration", "section": "Section::::Trojans.:Trojan planets.:Formation of the Earth–Moon system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 328, "text": "According to the giant impact hypothesis, the Moon formed after a collision between two co-orbital objects—Theia, thought to have had about 10% of the mass of Earth (about as massive as Mars), and the proto-Earth—whose orbits were perturbed by other planets, bringing Theia out of its trojan position and causing the collision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51143", "title": "Giant-impact hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Difficulties.:Lack of a Venusian moon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 762, "text": "If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometers in diameter would likely have spiraled inwards and collided with Venus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41071610", "title": "Theia (planet)", "section": "Section::::Collision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 457, "text": "Originally, the hypothesis supposed that Theia had struck Earth with a glancing blow and ejected many pieces of both the proto-Earth and Theia, those pieces either forming one body that became the Moon or forming two moons that eventually merged to form the Moon. Such accounts assumed that if Theia had struck the proto-Earth head-on both planets would have been destroyed, creating a short-lived second asteroid belt between the orbits of Venus and Mars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25048163", "title": "2009 VA", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 290, "text": "The asteroid was first discovered by the Catalina Sky Survey at the University of Arizona. It was determined that the object would make a pass well within the orbit of the Moon, but would not strike Earth. The object passed so close to Earth that its orbit was modified by Earth's gravity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38058647", "title": "Origin of the Moon", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 531, "text": "In 2017, planetary researchers at Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel offered a new theory that suggests the Moon was forged in a violent rain of cosmic debris that repeatedly hammered the fledgling Earth over millions of years. They determined that a series of smaller impacts, which were likely more common in the early Solar System, could blast enough Earth rocks and dirt into orbit to form a small moonlet. As repeated impacts created more balls of debris, the moonlets could merge over time into one large moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Haven’t experienced it myself, but I thought they purposefully gave abnormal/weird tasting foods to chemo patients because patients start to associate their shitty nauseous feeling with what they ate and they don’t want patients to develop an aversion to normal foods. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Chemo kills tastebuds. Also, some chemo drugs are metallic and result in a metallic taste. Also, chemo sucks balls. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Everything changed for me\" \n\n\"I'll never forget the day that everything tadted like tofu. Everything tasted like nothing.\"\n\nSource, wife who went through chemo last year. \n\nTastebuds are fast turnover cells that regenerate and die quickly. Chemo kills the tastebuds before they can develop and mature. What taste you lose is specific to you individually. \n\nSource, same wife who is also a doctor. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Huh... I find this interesting....\n\nMy dad was just diagnosed, and one of the reasons was he said everything tastes terrible to him. He went from eating like royalty all the time, to only wanting beefaroni, and oatmeal.\n\nThe doctor said the cancer can release enzymes that change the way food tastes, but once the chemo starts he will be back to normal.\n\nHow is that possible? Can someone explain that?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7521201", "title": "Compounding", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 426, "text": "This may be done for medically necessary reasons, such as to change the form of the medication from a solid pill to a liquid, to avoid a non-essential ingredient that the patient is allergic to, or to obtain the exact dose(s) needed or deemed best of particular active pharmaceutical ingredient(s). It may also be done for more optional reasons, such as adding flavors to a medication or otherwise altering taste or texture. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1395311", "title": "Food intolerance", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 716, "text": "Salicylate-containing foods include apples, citrus fruits, strawberries, tomatoes, and wine, while reactions to chocolate, cheese, bananas, avocado, tomato or wine point to amines as the likely food chemical. Thus, exclusion of single foods does not necessarily identify the chemical responsible as several chemicals can be present in a food, the patient may be sensitive to multiple food chemicals and reaction more likely to occur when foods containing the triggering substance are eaten in a combined quantity that exceeds the patient's sensitivity thresholds. People with food sensitivities have different sensitivity thresholds, and so more sensitive people will react to much smaller amounts of the substance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21282070", "title": "Taste", "section": "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Starchiness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 210, "text": "A 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch (specifically, a glucose oligomer) independently of other tastes such as sweetness. However, no specific chemical receptor has yet been found for this taste.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "317450", "title": "Mortar and pestle", "section": "Section::::Material.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 370, "text": "In food preparation, a rough or absorbent material may cause the strong flavour of a past ingredient to be tasted in food prepared later. Also, the food particles left in the mortar and on the pestle may support the growth of microorganisms. When dealing with medications, the previously prepared drugs may interact or mix, contaminating the currently used ingredients.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1099396", "title": "Drug interaction", "section": "Section::::Pharmacokinetic interactions.:Absorption interactions.:Changes in motility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 278, "text": "BULLET::::- Chelation: The presence of di- or trivalent cations can cause the chelation of certain drugs, making them harder to absorb. This interaction frequently occurs between drugs such as tetracycline or the fluoroquinolones and dairy products (due to the presence of Ca).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265229", "title": "Health claim", "section": "Section::::United States.:Food.:Marketing and consumer perceptions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 827, "text": "Other studies have shown that marketing for food products has demonstrated an effect on consumers’ perceptions of purchase intent and flavor. One study in particular performed by Food and Brand Lab researchers at Cornell University looked at how an organic label affects consumers’ perceptions. The study concluded that the label claiming the product was “organic” altered perceptions in various ways. Consumers perceived these foods to have fewer calories and stated they were willing to pay up to 23.4% more for the product. The taste was supposedly “lower in fat” for the organic products as opposed to the regular ones. Finally, the study concluded that people who do not regularly read nutrition labels and who do not regularly buy organic food products are the most susceptible to this example of the health-halo effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40986774", "title": "Covert medication", "section": "Section::::Medical use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 243, "text": "In the care of paediatric patients, young children may be unwilling to take medication with an unpleasant taste or smell, or due to fear of the unfamiliar. In these cases, the medication is mixed with food or drink to make it more acceptable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Awesome! I'm looking forward to many enlightening discussions of the cultural significance of Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Don't forget the year the British formally handed over Hong Kong to China. That should lead to some interesting questions and plenty of good Rush Hour references. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Now we can talk about the *Second* Congo war! (or at least year 1 of it)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1998 actually starts to feel recent(and a year ago I would not have said the same about 97). Probably because I was a teenager. Yanks win get back to the WS. Ocarina of time is released. Phil Hartman died and that bummed me out since his character on the Simpsons was always so enjoyable. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Happy New Year!\n\n^What ^is ^“is”?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Happy New Year everyone! \n\n(I'm not a contributor but let me say this: big thanks to everyone answering and moderating the sub - keep up the great work, you often make my day! )", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I did not have historical relations with that year.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was in the museum of the world longest suspension bridge this summer. \n\ntldr: don't build a bridge there", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If I’m currently on the West Coast, do I have to wait another five hours to post questions about 1998?\n\nEDIT: NEVERMIND, Tubthumping came out in 1997. It’s been fair game all year and I haven’t asked!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Finally! I can have a question answered that's been burning in my mind for 20 years!\n\nWhat exactly is the function of a rubber duck?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not much people will ask about new about Israel. But that’s no prob. I’ll just be here.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Did Tennessee's national title in 1998 set the Vols up for the decade plus run of failure they've experienced by giving Cutcliffe a chance at being a head coach and increasing fanbase expectations to an untenable level?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aww man I feel old now. I'm history.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hey everyone, looks like the mods are all out drinking! Feel free to shitpost away! HNY", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*Say, one thousand nine nine nine, ask those questions, any time*\n\n*We gonna party with historians reprobate, like it's Nineteen Ninety Eight!*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What is the definition of \"is\"? Did we ever actually find out? Did anyone even really care since we apparently never did find out?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "May 2018 is just a month - it will be impossible for to that to be a year. \n\n/s", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I feel old reading this...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thank you for the starting gun. Drat! I didn't get the first 1998 question with [Did President Clinton's oral sex change US attitudes towards oral sex?](_URL_0_)! Beaten by\n\n~~/u/MaesterMagoo on Hong Kong~~ Happened in 1997, so that wasn't a new 2018 question.\n\n/u/jimjay: [Hugo Chavez was elected in 1998 - how did someone who had tried to lead a coup and overthrow democracy end up getting elected?](_URL_1_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm officially history!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ask me about my first divorce!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Does Viagra rhyme with Niagara?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1998, the year I graduated from High School.\n\nI don't feel any older...what happened?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Woot! I do have a lot of questions about the asian market failure, hoping for good answers!!\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So did we ever figure out who exactly wanted to know if that guy was Jimmy Ray?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Oh good. Now I can finally get to the bottom of who’s responsible for Smash Mouth", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pretty excited about the questions of nuclear tests of india and Pakistan in 1998.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fun fact: in 1998 I was 20. So I'm about to double my age. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Oh man, the year half of this subreddit apparently graduated high school, and I... Ate solid food? *Maybe* started walking?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It makes me feel old that the year of my birth can now be “history.”", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is there a similar subreddit that has similar moderation/perspective for more recent events?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The true origins of the Attitude Era can start to be fully unraveled. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Historians, how many hours did I spend playing Sim City that year? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'll have whatever relations with 1998 that I want, thank you very much.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To be fair, you have to have a very high IQ to understand Askhistorians comments. The historical analysis is extremely subtle, and without a solid grasp of Critical Theory most of the posts will go over a typical reader's head. There's also the mod team's nihilistic outlook, which is deftly woven into their content curation - their personal philosophy draws heavily from Pyrrhonic literature, for instance. The flairs understand this stuff; they have the intellectual capacity to truly appreciate the depths of these stickied comments, to realize that they're not just warnings against shitposting- they say something deep about LIFE. As a consequence people who dislike the Askhistorians mod team truly ARE idiots- of course they wouldn't appreciate, for instance, the humour in Automod's existencial catchphrase \"[deleted]\", which itself is a cryptic reference to Abelard's epic *Logica nostrorum petitioni sociorum*. I'm smirking right now just imagining one of those addlepated simpletons scratching their heads in confusion as /u/sunagainstgold's genius unfolds itself on their computer screens. What fools... how I pity them. And yes by the way, I DO have a complete Subreddit Rules tattoo. And no, you cannot see it. It's for the ladies' eyes only- And even they have to demonstrate that they're within 5 karma points of my own (preferably lower) beforehand.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "С Новым годом! Happy New Year! Жаңа жылыңызбен! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Happy New Year, everyone at AskHistorians!\n\nDoes this mean I can ask questions about the Good Friday Agreement, then?\n\n:D", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since you mentioned it.. wasn't N*sync's manager revealed to be a child molester? Did he ever abuse any of the members of the band?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Excellent, my knowledge of Starcraft can finally come of use", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I actually am pretty interested in the antitrust case against Microsoft and the international space station though. Please people, ask lots of questions about those.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yesssss, we can do the East Africa bombings. We're getting closer to the 21 Year Rule. You could say that it's the looming tower before us. [Everything that has transpired has done so according to my design.](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "you're kidding, Martin you lazy piece of..... *grumbles off into the distance*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm now a historical object!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Only a few more years until the 9/11 questions flood in. I hope you are all ready for that day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have little to contribute in this subreddit but the answers from here are one of the best reads from anywhere as I have general interest in history... erm in general, so I wish everyone great holidays and more good questions and good answers in here for me to read! (selfish but true :) )", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thank you all for your hard work and being the best subreddit on reddit. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Does that mean we can discuss Clinton’s impeachment from December 1998, but NOT the 1999 Senate trial? ;)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Happy new year everybody! May the new year bring everyone happiness.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1998?! That isn't history. I mean it was only like 5 years....fuck. I'm old aren't I? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi,\n\nWhat is the definition of is?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thanks for making me feel old! My fav podcast has a 50 year role, and academic historians generally shy away from topics if the political records haven’t been released yet (we’re in the 70s now). I though my lifetime was free from historical analysis, guess not. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What was the cultural impact in 1998 when The Undertaker threw Mankind off Hell In A Cell and plummeted 16 ft through an announcer’s table? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26994418", "title": "Happy New Year, America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 237, "text": "Happy New Year, America is an American television special that aired on the CBS television network to celebrate the New Year. It first aired on December 31, 1979 (leading into 1980), and last aired December 31, 1995 (leading into 1996).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41698925", "title": "Spirit of '76 (sentiment)", "section": "Section::::Usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 333, "text": "Ron Grossman, writing for the \"Chicago Tribune\", opined that the spirit of '76 is often lost in the fanfare over the Fourth of July, noting that \"historians and descendants of the first American citizens wonder if modern celebrations--from food fests and rock concerts to fishing tournaments and car rallies--are missing the point.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1024007", "title": "The Statler Brothers", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 432, "text": "In 1970, the group began performing at an annual Independence Day festival in Gypsy Hill Park in Staunton. The event, known as \"Happy Birthday USA\", lasted for 25 years and included many country music figures, including Mel Tillis, Charley Pride and many others. The event drew as many as 100,000 fans each year. The group also honored their hometown with the song \"Staunton, Virginia\" on their 1973 album \"Do You Love Me Tonight\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6310268", "title": "Oprah Winfrey's Legends Ball", "section": "Section::::Legends luncheon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 661, "text": "The historic weekend began Friday with a private luncheon at [Winfrey]'s Montecito home where the \"legends\" were greeted by the \"young'uns\" -- acclaimed stars, including Alicia Keys, Ashanti, Angela Bassett, Halle Berry, Mary J. Blige, Brandy, Naomi Campbell, Mariah Carey, Natalie Cole, Kimberly Elise, Missy Elliott, Tyra Banks, Iman, Janet Jackson, Phylicia Rashad, Debbie Allen and Alfre Woodard, among others. Throughout the weekend, the \"young'uns\" paid homage to the \"legends\" for their great contributions. World-renowned event planner Colin Cowie attended to every detail, and Grammy Award-winner John Legend performed his hit song, \"Ordinary People.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26994418", "title": "Happy New Year, America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 614, "text": "The show was commissioned to replace Guy Lombardo's New Year specials. Though Lombardo had died in 1977, Guy's brother, Victor Lombardo, led the Royal Canadians band for two more New Year specials (1977 and 1978) after that. \"Happy New Year, America\" featured coverage of the Times Square Ball in New York City and the party in the ballroom of The Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, both of which were also covered during the Lombardo years. However, the show also featured pre-taped segments from Billy Bob's Texas and Walt Disney World. (Billy Bob's was a location made popular as a result of CBS's hit TV series \"Dallas\".)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "372013", "title": "1967 in Canada", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 994, "text": "1967 is remembered as one of the most notable years in Canada. It was the centenary of Canadian Confederation and celebrations were held throughout the nation. The most prominent event was Expo 67 in Montreal, the most successful World's Fair ever held up to that time, and one of the first events to win international acclaim for the country. The year saw the nation's Governor General, Georges Vanier, die in office; and two prominent federal leaders, Official Opposition Leader John Diefenbaker, and Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson announced their resignations. The year's top news-story was French President Charles de Gaulle's \"Vive le Québec libre\" speech in Montreal. The year also saw major changes in youth culture with the \"hippies\" in Toronto's Yorkville area becoming front-page news over their lifestyle choices and battles with Toronto City Council. A new honours system was announced, the Order of Canada. In sports, the Toronto Maple Leafs won their 13th and last Stanley Cup.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "296524", "title": "Betty Williams (Nobel laureate)", "section": "Section::::Nobel Peace Prize.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 844, "text": "In her acceptance speech, Williams said, \"That first week will always be remembered of course for something else besides the birth of the Peace People. For those most closely involved, the most powerful memory of that week was the death of a young republican and the deaths of three children struck by the dead man's car. A deep sense of frustration at the mindless stupidity of the continuing violence was already evident before the tragic events of that sunny afternoon of August 10, 1976. But the deaths of those four young people in one terrible moment of violence caused that frustration to explode, and create the possibility of a real peace movement...As far as we are concerned, every single death in the last eight years, and every death in every war that was ever fought represents life needlessly wasted, a mother's labour spurned\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Animals that can see stars see the same stars we do, but they don't all see them the same way. Bees and reindeer can see ultraviolet light, and there are a few species of mantis shrimp that can see colors and waves no other creatures on Earth can see.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are two reasons why they see the same stars.\n\n1. Pretty much every star gives off light in the visible spectrum.\n\n2. Pretty much every animal can see the visible spectrum. \n\nSo effectively, we all see the same stars. The only reason some animals might see more or less is their sensitivity to a star's brightness. Some stars that are just barely fainter than our sensitivity to light will be visible to more sensitive animals and vice versa. Stars might also look a little different if animals are colorblind to certain regions of the spectrum relative to others, but they will continue to be visible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "508252", "title": "Pentachromacy", "section": "Section::::Color range in pentachromats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 260, "text": "Research shows that animals sensitive to more than three color channels are likely to see the world in a very different way from humans. These animals are likely to experience different and more numerous unique hues, along with additional ways of mixing them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19401812", "title": "Blindness in animals", "section": "Section::::Totally blind species.:Colour blindness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 669, "text": "Other animals, such as tropical fish and birds, have more complex color vision systems than humans. There is evidence that ultraviolet light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the animal kingdom, especially for insects; however, there has not been enough evidence to prove this. It has been suggested that it is likely that pigeons are pentachromats. \"Papilio\" butterflies apparently have tetrachromatic color vision despite possessing six photoreceptor types. The most complex color vision system in animal kingdom has been found in stomatopods with up to 12 different spectral receptor types which are thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9857088", "title": "Astropecten", "section": "Section::::Identification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 566, "text": "These sea stars are similar one to each other and it can be difficult to determine with certainty the species only from a photograph. To have a certain determination, in some cases, animals should be analyzed in the laboratory or using genetic testing, but often it isn’t possible. In order to determine the species, with a reasonable margin of error, it’s necessary to observe the appearance of the animal, in particular, based on some typical features described by principal authors that have analyzed over the years a large number of specimens in the laboratory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45105839", "title": "Albinism", "section": "Section::::Biological colouration.:Animal colouration.:Structural colours.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 639, "text": "Animals can also appear coloured due to structural colour, the result of coherent scattering perceived as iridescence. The structures themselves are colourless. Light typically passes through multiple layers and is reflected more than once. The multiple reflections compound one another and intensify the colours. Structural colour differs according to the observer's position whereas pigments appear the same regardless of the angle-of-view. Animals that show iridescence include mother of pearl seashells, fish, and peacocks. These are just a few examples of animals with this quality, but it is most pronounced in the butterfly family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56279481", "title": "Cooperative pulling paradigm", "section": "Section::::Method.:Conditions.:Visibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 253, "text": "Typically the animals can see each other, all rewards, and all parts of the apparatus. To assess the role of visual communication, sometimes an opaque divider is placed such that the animals can no longer see each other, but can still see both rewards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63025", "title": "Variable star", "section": "Section::::Extrinsic variable stars.:Planetary transits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 177, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 177, "end_character": 366, "text": "Stars with planets may also show brightness variations if their planets pass between Earth and the star. These variations are much smaller than those seen with stellar companions and are only detectable with extremely accurate observations. Examples include HD 209458 and GSC 02652-01324, and all of the planets and planet candidates detected by the Kepler Mission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3860680", "title": "List of birds of Yuma County, Arizona", "section": "Section::::Starlings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 442, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 442, "end_character": 371, "text": "Starlings are small to medium-sized passerines with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, (occasionally seen in open desert, semi-grassland) and they eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. There are 125 species worldwide and 3 North American species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We don't exactly know, unfortunately.\n\nThere were legitimate reasons for English people not to accept her as queen. When William I died in 1087, William Rufus immediately went to London to be crowned at the Tower; when William Rufus died in 1100, Henry I immediately went to London to be crowned at the Tower. When Henry I died in 1135, Matilda ... stayed in France, where, despite her role of heir presumptive to the English throne and former Holy Roman Empress, she was the countess of Anjou. She was pregnant at the time, and since her previous pregnancy had been quite dangerous, it's likely that she didn't want to risk the travel. That's fair, but as her cousin Stephen of Blois *did* cross the Channel and had himself crowned in London just a few weeks after Henry's death without any real reaction from her, it seemed quite natural for people to consider him the rightful king. He persuaded the Archbishop of Canterbury that Henry had forced his unwilling barons to swear the oaths acknowledging her as heir, and that he'd repented of it on his deathbed, so the Archbishop performed the coronation and Stephen effectively had God's mandate to rule. There was no opposition at the time.\n\nMatilda's husband had begun fighting for Normandy (which was an English possession at the time; remember, it was William I's home turf) soon after this, but Matilda didn't get involved in presenting herself as the rightful ruler of England until 1139. She appealed to the pope and Stephen counter-appealed and won. Turning to military means, she enlisted the help of her brother, Robert of Gloucester, and made his county her base. She would basically take over southwestern England - which is not the part with London in it. Once she captured Stephen in early 1141, however, she was broadly allowed to have become queen, with the backing of religious authorities that had previously supported her cousin, and that's when she decided to get herself crowned in London to get the divine stamp of approval. She moved to take the city with soldiers, but was met by Stephen's forces, under his wife's command; when she succeeded, she was at first welcomed, but then, as you know, the Londoners turned on her and she was forced to escape.\n\n*The Lioness Roared: The Problems of Female Rule in English History* lists the reasons given by primary sources, chronicles of the period: Henry of Huntington said that God caused the city to rise up; the Worcester chronicler wrote that the citizens asked her to let them live under \"the excellent laws of King Edward\" rather than her father's \"oppressive ones\" and she refused; the author of the *Gesta Stephani*, overall not a fan of hers, demanded a tax they didn't want to pay. The author, Charles Breem, interprets these criticisms as discomfort with a queen taking on masculine hardline authority, instead of acting with forgiving gentleness and compromise. This was not just a simple \"women shouldn't do men things\" - Stephen's wife directed his soldiers in protecting and retaking London, and the chroniclers were clear that this was brave and virtuous of her - but in large part there were people using \"this is not appropriately-gendered behavior\" as a justification for issues they already had. In this case, whatever the specifics, the Londoners didn't really want Matilda in the first place, and they probably wouldn't have been happy if she *had* released Stephen or taken a very publicly gentle stance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48951", "title": "Empress Matilda", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 585, "text": "Empress Matilda (c. 7 February 110210 September 1167), also known as the Empress Maude, was one of the claimants to the English throne during the civil war known as the Anarchy. The daughter of King Henry I of England, she moved to Germany as a child when she married the future Holy Roman Emperor Henry V. She travelled with her husband into Italy in 1116, was controversially crowned in St. Peter's Basilica, and acted as the imperial regent in Italy. Matilda and Henry had no children, and when Henry died in 1125, the crown was claimed by Lothair II, one of his political enemies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48951", "title": "Empress Matilda", "section": "Section::::Civil War.:Rout of Winchester and the Siege of Oxford.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 1064, "text": "Matilda's position was transformed by her defeat at the Rout of Winchester. Her alliance with Henry of Blois proved short-lived and they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy; the Bishop transferred his support back to Stephen's cause. In response, in July Matilda and Robert of Gloucester besieged Henry of Blois in his episcopal castle at Winchester, using the royal castle in the city as the base for their operations. Stephen's wife, Queen Matilda, had kept his cause alive in the south-east of England, and the Queen, backed by her lieutenant William of Ypres and reinforced with fresh troops from London, took the opportunity to advance on Winchester. Their forces encircled Matilda's army. Matilda decided to escape from the city with Fitz Count and Reginald of Cornwall, while the rest of her army delayed the royal forces. In the subsequent battle the Empress's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner during the retreat, although Matilda herself escaped, exhausted, to her fortress at Devizes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "160904", "title": "List of English monarchs", "section": "Section::::House of Blois.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 416, "text": "Empress Matilda was declared heir presumptive by her father, Henry I, after the death of her brother on the White Ship, and acknowledged as such by the barons. Upon Henry I's death, the throne was seized by Matilda's cousin, Stephen of Blois. During the ensuing Anarchy, Matilda controlled England for a few months in 1141—the first woman to do so—but was never crowned and is rarely listed as a monarch of England.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13051031", "title": "Robert de Bethune", "section": "Section::::Stephen's reign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1291, "text": "After the accession of King Stephen of England, Bethune supported Stephen and was often at his court. Stephen had seized the throne at King Henry's death, depriving Henry's surviving legitimate daughter and heiress, Matilda, of the throne. Matilda is usually known as the \"Empress\" because of her first marriage to the German Emperor Henry V, who died in 1125. Bethune accompanied Thurstan, the Archbishop of York, when Thurstan secured a truce between Stephen and the King of Scots, David shortly after the Battle of the Standard in 1138. When the Empress Matilda landed in England in September 1139 in pursuit of the throne, one of the local magnates of Hereford, Miles of Gloucester supported Matilda, while Bethune continued to support Stephen. Miles' hostility drove Bethune from his diocese, and Miles was in control of Hereford in 1140, leaving Bethune to perform his episcopal duties in Shropshire. During this time, Bethune assisted Theobald of Bec, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, in consecrating Maurice as Bishop of Bangor. Bethune had earlier persuaded the bishop-elect to swear fealty to King Stephen, after Maurice had originally refused. Bethune's standing as a bishop known for his piety and independence of the king helped persuade Maurice that the homage was canonical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "102848", "title": "White Ship", "section": "Section::::Repercussions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 577, "text": "A direct result of William Adelin's death was the period known as the Anarchy. The \"White Ship\" disaster had left Henry I with only one legitimate child, a second daughter named Matilda. Although Henry I had forced his barons to swear an oath to support Matilda as his heir on several occasions, a woman had never ruled in England in her own right. Matilda was also unpopular because she was married to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, a traditional enemy of England's Norman nobles. Upon Henry's death in 1135, the English barons were reluctant to accept Matilda as queen regnant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "153654", "title": "Theobald of Bec", "section": "Section::::Archbishop.:Civil war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 421, "text": "Matilda remained in England until 1148. The disorders were at their peak between 1142 and 1148, but her cause could never secure enough support to enable her to be crowned. Nor could Stephen decisively defeat Matilda's forces, which meant that England remained divided in allegiance between the two rivals. But while Matilda was in England, her husband Geoffrey was conquering Normandy, which he finally overran in 1144.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20188", "title": "Matilda of Tuscany", "section": "Section::::Childhood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 813, "text": "Matilda's mother and stepfather became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections during their regency, supporting the Gregorian Reforms. Godfrey's brother Frederick became Pope Stephen IX, while both of the following two popes, Nicholas II and Alexander II, had been Tuscan bishops. Matilda made her first journey to Rome with her family in the entourage of Nicholas in 1059. Godfrey and Beatrice actively assisted them in dealing with antipopes, while the adolescent Matilda's role remains unclear. A contemporary account of her stepfather's 1067 expedition against Prince Richard I of Capua on behalf of the papacy mentions Matilda's participation in the campaign, describing it as the \"first service that the most excellent daughter of Boniface offered to the blessed prince of the apostles.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Time crystals, can this idea be simplified?\n\nThink about a salt crystal, it has a regular cubic structure which repeats in each of the three spatial dimensions. You can imagine a 3D lattice with each axis having a repeating sequence of atoms bonded together.\n\nNow imagine that time is a dimension just like the spatial ones. A crystal in the dimension of time would have a repeating structure over time; basically it would cycle between states in a regular fashion. A \"time crystal\" then is a form of matter which cannot exist in a static equilibrium and instead cycles between states over time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36435766", "title": "Time crystal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 573, "text": "The idea of a time crystal was first described by Nobel laureate Frank Wilczek in 2012. Later work developed a more precise definition for time crystals. It was proven that they cannot exist in equilibrium. Then, in 2014 Krzysztof Sacha predicted the behaviour of discrete time crystals in a periodically-driven many-body system. and in 2016, Norman Yao et al. proposed a different way to create time crystals in spin systems. From there, Christopher Monroe and Mikhail Lukin independently confirmed this in their labs. Both experiments were published in \"Nature\" in 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36435766", "title": "Time crystal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 561, "text": "A time crystal or space-time crystal is a structure that repeats in time, as well as in space. Normal three-dimensional crystals have a repeating pattern in space, but remain unchanged as time passes. Time crystals repeat themselves in time as well, leading the crystal to change from moment to moment. A time crystal never reaches thermal equilibrium, as it is a type of non-equilibrium matter, a form of matter proposed in 2012, and first observed in 2017. This state of matter cannot be isolated from its environment—it is an open system in non-equilibrium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36435766", "title": "Time crystal", "section": "Section::::Thermodynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 442, "text": "Time crystals do not violate the laws of thermodynamics: energy in the overall system is conserved, such a crystal does not spontaneously convert thermal energy into mechanical work, and it cannot serve as a perpetual store of work. But it may change perpetually in a fixed pattern in time for as long as the system can be maintained. They possess \"motion without energy\"—their apparent motion does not represent conventional kinetic energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183089", "title": "List of unsolved problems in physics", "section": "Section::::Problems solved in recent decades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 751, "text": "BULLET::::- Existence of time crystals (2012–2016): In 2016, the idea of time-crystals was proposed by two groups independently Khemani et al. and Else et al. Both of these groups showed that in small systems which are disordered and periodic in time, one can observe the phenomenon of time crystals. Norman Yao et al. extended the calculations for a model (which has the same qualitative features) in the laboratory environment. This was then used by two teams, a group led by Christopher Monroe at the University of Maryland and a group led by Mikhail Lukin at Harvard University, who were both able to show evidence for time crystals in the lab-setting, showing that for short times the systems exhibited the dynamics similar to the predicted one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36435766", "title": "Time crystal", "section": "Section::::Time translation symmetry.:Broken symmetry in time crystals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 519, "text": "Time crystals seem to break \"time-translation symmetry\" and have repeated patterns in time even if the laws of the system are invariant by translation of time. Actually, studied time crystals shows \"discrete\" time-translation symmetry breaking: they are periodically driven systems oscillating at a \"fraction\" of the frequency of the driving force. The initial symmetry is already a discrete time-translation symmetry (formula_1), not a continuous one (formula_2), which are instead described by magnetic space groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36435766", "title": "Time crystal", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 358, "text": "Several realizations of time crystals, which avoid the equilibrium no-go arguments, were later proposed. Krzysztof Sacha at Jagiellonian University in Krakow predicted the behaviour of discrete time crystals in a periodically driven system of ultracold atoms. Later works suggested that periodically driven quantum spin systems could show similar behaviour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36435766", "title": "Time crystal", "section": "Section::::Time translation symmetry.:Broken symmetry in normal crystals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 368, "text": "Time crystals show a broken symmetry analogous to a discrete space-translation symmetry breaking. For example, the molecules of a liquid freezing on the surface of a crystal can align with the molecules of the crystal, but with a pattern \"less\" symmetric than the crystal: it breaks the initial symmetry. This broken symmetry exhibits three important characteristics:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sounds like low blood sugar. You may have a prediabetic condition. It would be good to see a doctor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hmm I don't think this relates to the majority of people. Seems like a personal condition. I would for sure get it checked out if you feel that you need to. Could be related to diabetes. But I am not a doctor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your body has nothing to sustain it so its breaking down at a faster pace, causing you to get heated and tense, hence the shakiness. It's also related to low blood pressure. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I get this exact same feeling also, it is horrible. It comes on fast and you feel like you are sweating and breathing heavy and heart pounding. I would like to know why ( I know it's low blood sugar for me, but why can't I just feel hungry instead). I sometimes don't even feel hungry when it happens. I am in good shape, and go to the gym regularly, pretty skinny. Weight 167/5'11. \n\nMy stepmom is diabetic (type 2 though) and one time I was feeling this way I borrowed her blood tester and my blood sugar was about 47. I checked it a few more times to see where my threshold was when this would happen and it was always around 50 or less.\n\n I don't know why my bloodsugar tanks like that all of a sudden. I tried to be on a clean diet for a while because I wanted to see what kind of results I could get from the gym but I found that even if I am full, my bloodsugar gets low unless I eat carbs or sugar. I cannot physically survive on non fat/sugar free foods without having the shakes happen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thanks everyone for the advice I really appreciate it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "221221", "title": "Stomach rumble", "section": "Section::::Other causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 493, "text": "BULLET::::- Louder rumbles may occur when one is hungry. Around two hours after the stomach has been emptied, it sends signals to the brain, which tells the digestive muscles to restart peristalsis in a wave called the migrating motor complex. Food left behind after the first cycle is swept up, and the vibrations of the empty stomach cause hunger. Appetite plays a big role in this situation. Peristalsis recurs about every hour, and one's appetite may cause 10- to 20-minute food cravings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "149422", "title": "Hunger", "section": "Section::::As a physical condition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 566, "text": "The physical sensation of hunger is related to contractions of the stomach muscles. These contractions—sometimes called hunger pangs once they become severe—are believed to be triggered by high concentrations of the ghrelin hormone. The hormones Peptide YY and Leptin can have an opposite effect on the appetite, causing the sensation of being full. Ghrelin can be released if blood sugar levels get low—a condition that can result from long periods without eating. Stomach contractions from hunger can be especially severe and painful in children and young adults.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46740248", "title": "Xunzi (book)", "section": "Section::::Chapters of the \"Xunzi\".:\"Human Nature is Bad\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 686, "text": "Now it is the nature of man that when he is hungry he will desire satisfaction, when he is cold he will desire warmth, and when he is weary he will desire rest. This is his emotional nature. And yet a man, although he is hungry, will not dare to be the first to eat if he is in the presence of his elders, because he knows that he should yield to them, and although he is weary, he will not dare to demand rest because he knows that he should relieve others of the burden of labor. For a son to yield to his father or a younger brother to relieve his elder brother — acts such as these are all contrary to man's nature and run counter to his proper forms enjoined by ritual principles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36168126", "title": "Iranian traditional medicine", "section": "Section::::Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic.:Choleric: warm and dry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 177, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 177, "end_character": 239, "text": "BULLET::::- Due to the warmness in their body they soon digest food and as they don't have adequate amount of nutrient supply to provide the energy needs of the body they soon get hungry and irritated if they don't get enough food timely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42528326", "title": "Emotional eating", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 554, "text": "Emotional hunger does not originate from the stomach, such as with a rumbling or growling stomach, but tends to start when a person thinks about a craving or wants something specific to eat. Emotional responses are also different. Giving in to a craving or eating because of stress can cause feelings of regret, shame, or guilt, and these responses tend to be associated with emotional hunger. On the other hand, satisfying a physical hunger is giving the body the nutrients or calories it needs to function and is not associated with negative feelings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "212818", "title": "Eating", "section": "Section::::Development in humans.:Hunger and satiety.:Initiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 551, "text": "There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body’s senses. The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sight of a plate, or hearing someone talk about food. The signals from the stomach are initiated by the release of the peptide hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite by signaling to the brain that a person is hungry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29979736", "title": "Snacking", "section": "Section::::Healthy snacking.:Satiation and satiety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 534, "text": "BULLET::::- Satiation occurs when the brain acknowledges that enough food has been eaten; there are triggers in the body that send these signals to the brain. Sizer and Whitney say a, “Greater exposure of the mouth to food triggers increased satiation. When the stomach stretches to accommodate a meal, nerve receptors in the stomach fire, sending a signal to the brain that the stomach is full”. Healthy snacks are ones that leave the body feeling filled so that it does not continue to signal to the brain that it still wants food.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[By developing this.](_URL_0_)\n\n\nAlso by [capturing one of them,](_URL_2_).\n\nWhat was known was that the thing could turn like a beast and climb like a Valkyrie. It was very maneuverable and fast. Nothing the US had could come close to it. However once the US captured one they found that it could turn great but when forced to roll it performed horrible. Also if you dove and made them chase you the engine of the Zero would stall out. With this knowledge strategies where adopted. Once the F6F came into the picture it was game over.\n\nAlso of note was that like with almost EVERYTHING in military terms the best pilots/soldier wins. The Japanese had pilots that where REALLY good and experienced that flew the Zero's. Once they started losing them they where not able to refill their ranks fast enough and keep the staffed long enough before the US killed them. This led to a feedback loop of great planes being staffed by worse and worse pilots while the US got better and better pilots.\n\nEdit: Also to Add to Backgrinders comment [Joe Foss](_URL_1_) a Marine Pilot ripped 4 Zero's apart in one pass to show you how vulnerable they where. Also I may be incorrect but Zeros did not have resealing gas tanks so one bullet = bad news.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " It should be noted here that superior is a bit of an awkward word choice in your first question. The Zero was a fine aircraft, and provided superior performance in some ways, but it was inferior in others. The Zero was designed with extended range operational capacity first and foremost, so it was a very, very light aircraft. This contributed to making it particularly fast and agile, because speed is determined largely by power to weight, and a lighter mass means you can turn quicker with the same amount of force on the control surfaces. \n\n The lighter weight also meant compromises though, primarily in defensive armor. Zeros were highly maneuverable and trouble one on one, but they were easy to knock down as well. Tough and durable is exceptionally important in combat, the Zero was neither of these things. Think of it like in American Football. It isn't much use being the fastest guy on the field if one hit knocks you out and you can't play the rest of the game.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**The outbreak of war**\n\n/u/backgrinder gave an excellent look at the compromises in the Zero’s design. I would like to expand on that portion of the answer, as well as add some other details. The Zero was indeed designed for excellent range. The Japanese knew that being able to fly a long distance would be of great importance in any war they ended up in. As such, the Zero was built with the demand that it be able to fly a very long way. It was able to fly nearly two thousand miles without refueling. The Brewster F2F Buffalo and the Grumman F4F Wildcat—the Zero’s main competitors at the beginning of the war—were able to fly only about a third of that distance. To get this range, the main thing that had to be done was lose weight. This did indeed lead to excellent maneuverability. \n\nSo, why did the American planes not have this range and maneuverability? Design choices led to very different solutions to the same problems of naval aviation. The US Navy demanded rugged planes that could survive the rigors of hard landings onto pitching flight decks. To get reliable and rugged aircraft, you add things like more bracing, redundant systems, and heavier landing gear. Also, with the Wildcat features like pilot armor and self sealing fuel tanks were added. All of this added weight, which had costs of its own. As has already been mentioned, range and maneuverability were restricted. However, there were advantages as well. Stability and speed in a dive were improved. Also, the same rugged characteristics that allowed good peacetime reliability meant that more battle damage could be absorbed by a plane before it became crippled or destroyed.\n\n**Thatch weave**\n\nThe ability to absorb damage is a good thing, but if that’s all you can do you’re still going to end up losing a fight. One on one, the Zero was able to get onto the tail of an American plane and destroy it. American pilots could not hope to climb or turn with a Zero, and individual brilliance was not enough to turn the tide. A new approach was needed.\n\nEnter John Thatch of the United States Navy. He tested out a new system that bears his name, [the Thatch weave.](_URL_0_) The wikipedia page has some good diagrams of how this innovation works. Instead of working one on one, American pilots flew as a team. Pair(s) of planes would weave through the sky. If enemy pilots attacked one element, the other would soon be on their tail. Now, the rugged nature of the Wildcat could be used to full effect. When they came under attack, they could absorb a few moments of fire while their teammate got into position to attack the pursuing plane. This tactic was employed to good effect at Midway, and it was soon picked up by the Cactus Air Force on Guadalcanal. The Thatch weave allowed for much greater success against the Zero. Since it had no pilot armor or self-sealing fuel tanks, the Japanese planes could not simply absorb battle damage and would quickly be destroyed. However, if the weave was not executed perfectly US pilots were quite vulnerable. Any mistake would leave US pilots very much alone in a plane that could not hope to match the acrobatics of their opponent.\n\n**Attrition and training**\n\nOne sometimes overlooked element of the Pacific theater was attrition. The Japanese entered the war with a cadre of highly experienced pilots. These men had been in combat for years before Pearl Harbor, and had learned a number of lessons that only combat can teach. In their incredible Zero fighters, they were able to fly circles around less experienced opponents. Those same Zeros would catch fire or succumb to damage quite easily, and unless the pilot was over friendlies he had very little chance of rejoining the war. Further, the lack of pilot armor meant that these highly experienced pilots were vulnerable to a single stray bullet that could end their career—or their life. There were dramatic losses of experienced pilots such as the Battle of Midway, and there was also slow attrition in the skies surrounding Guadalcanal and New Guinea. On the other side of the coin, American pilots received relatively lavish training and their more survivable aircraft allowed men to return home when a Zero would not have been able to.\n\n**Planes at the end of the war**\n\nThe development of the Hellcat was detailed by /u/pmaj82. The development of succeeding waves of fighters is the final part of how the Zero was countered by the US. The F6F Hellcat could match or beat the Zero in every aspect except range. It was rugged and survivable like the Wildcat, but with greatly added speed, rate of climb, and agility. And the Hellcat wasn’t alone. It was joined by the Chance Vaught F4U Corsair. (I like just *saying* that phrase. Chance Vaught F4U Corsair, try it!) These planes were as iconic to the Pacific theater as the P-51Mustang and P-47 Thunderbolt were in the European theater. In addition, there were Mustangs deployed in the Pacific as well, primarily due to their incredible range and high altitude capability making them ideal escorts for the B-29 Superfortress. \n\nNow, the technical capabilities of these planes is somewhat obvious. The less obvious event that went hand in hand with their success was the *production* of these fighters. American aircraft production dwarfed that of the Japanese. The American economy was able to produce huge numbers of highly advanced aircraft, and was agile enough to switch production from prewar designs to those designed during the war. While most of the other combatants in WWII were able to upgrade existing airframes during the war with more powerful engines and improved subsystems, the US was able to field entirely new fighters with seeming ease. Then, the US was able to make these new planes in the thousands. Paired with giving their pilots sufficient training, this prodigious rate of production resulted in a highly capable force that was able to island hop all the way to the doorstep of the Japanese home islands. Along the way, the Zero was first supreme, then contested, and finally driven from the skies by a succession of planes, tactics, and pilots.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "274942", "title": "History of the United States Navy", "section": "Section::::Worldwide expansion.:World War II (1941–1945).:Carrier warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 2074, "text": "At the start of the war, the United States and Japan were well matched in aircraft carriers, in terms of numbers and quality. Both sides had nine, but the Mitsubishi A6M Zero carrier fighter plane was superior in terms of range and maneuverability to its American counterpart, the F4F Wildcat. By reverse engineering a captured Zero, the American engineers identified its weaknesses, such as inadequate protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks, and built the Hellcat as a superior weapon system. In late 1943 the Grumman F6F Hellcats entered combat. Powered by the same 2,000 horsepower Pratt and Whitney 18-cylinder radial engine as used by the F4U Corsair already in service with the Marine Corps and the UK's allied Fleet Air Arm, the F6Fs were faster (at 400 mph) than the Zeros, quicker to climb (at 3,000 feet per minute), more nimble at high altitudes, better at diving, had more armor, more firepower (6 machine guns fired 120 bullets per second) than the Zero's two machine guns and pair of 20 mm autocannon, carried more ammunition, and used a gunsight designed for deflection shooting at an angle. Although the Hellcat was heavier and had a shorter range than the Zero, on the whole it proved a far superior weapon. Japan's carrier and pilot losses at Midway crippled its offensive capability, but America's overwhelming offensive capability came from shipyards that increasingly out produced Japan's, from the refineries that produced high-octane gasoline, and from the training fields that produced much better trained pilots. In 1942 Japan commissioned 6 new carriers but lost 6; in 1943 it commissioned 3 and lost 1. The turning point came in 1944 when it added 8 and lost 13. At war's end Japan had 5 carriers tied up in port; all had been damaged, all lacked fuel and all lacked warplanes. Meanwhile, the US launched 13 small carriers in 1942 and one large one; and in 1943 added 15 large and 50 escort carriers, and more arrived in 1944 and 1945. The new American carriers were much better designed, with far more antiaircraft guns, and powerful radar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459254", "title": "Dogfight", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:United States and Japan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 784, "text": "After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, in the Hawaiian Islands, the United States entered the war. The Japanese used the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, an extremely lightweight fighter known for its exceptional range and maneuverability. The U.S. military tested out the Akutan Zero, a Mitsubishi A6M2 which was captured intact in 1942, advising—along the same lines that General Claire Chennault, commander of the Kunming-based Flying Tigers had already advised his pilots over a year before—\"Never attempt to dogfight a Zero.\" Even though its engine was rather low in power, the Zero had very low wing loading characteristics, a small turn radius, a top speed over , and could climb better than any fighter used by the U.S. at that time, although it was poorly armored compared to U.S. aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10929", "title": "Fighter aircraft", "section": "Section::::Piston engine fighters.:World War II.:Pacific theater.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 836, "text": "By 1943, the Allies began to gain the upper hand in the Pacific Campaign's air campaigns. Several factors contributed to this shift. First, second-generation Allied fighters such as the Hellcat and the P-38, and later the Corsair, the P-47 and the P-51, began arriving in numbers. These fighters outperformed Japanese fighters in all respects except maneuverability. Other problems with Japan's fighter aircraft also became apparent as the war progressed, such as their lack of armor and light armament, which made them inadequate as bomber interceptors or ground-attack planes – roles Allied fighters excelled at. Most importantly, Japan's training program failed to provide enough well-trained pilots to replace losses. In contrast, the Allies improved both the quantity and quality of pilots graduating from their training programs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10929", "title": "Fighter aircraft", "section": "Section::::Piston engine fighters.:World War II.:Pacific theater.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 718, "text": "By mid-1942, the Allies began to regroup and while some Allied aircraft such as the Brewster Buffalo and the P-39 were hopelessly outclassed by fighters like Japan's Zero, others such as the Army's P-40 and the Navy's Wildcat possessed attributes such as superior firepower, ruggedness and dive speed, and the Allies soon developed tactics (such as the Thach Weave) to take advantage of these strengths. These changes soon paid dividends, as the Allied ability to deny Japan air superiority was critical to their victories at Coral Sea, Midway, Guadalcanal and New Guinea. In China, the Flying Tigers also used the same tactics with some success, although they were unable to stem the tide of Japanese advances there.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1095689", "title": "Aleutian Islands campaign", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 221, "text": "In the summer of 1942, the Americans recovered the Akutan Zero, an almost intact Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero fighter. This enabled the Americans to test-fly the Zero and contributed to improved fighter tactics later in the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "493939", "title": "Curtiss P-36 Hawk", "section": "Section::::Operational history.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 403, "text": "The only combat by U.S.-operated P-36s took place during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Five of the 39 P-36A Hawks at Pearl Harbor, delivered previously by the USS \"Enterprise\", were able to take off during the attack and were credited with shooting down two Japanese Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros for the loss of one P-36, thereby scoring U.S. aerial victories that were among the first of World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10929", "title": "Fighter aircraft", "section": "Section::::Piston engine fighters.:World War II.:Pacific theater.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 439, "text": "By mid-1944, Allied fighters had gained air superiority throughout the theater, which would not be contested again during the war. The extent of Allied quantitative and qualitative superiority by this point in the war was demonstrated during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, a lopsided Allied victory in which Japanese fliers were downed in such numbers and with such ease that American fighter pilots likened it to a great turkey shoot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "**Entropy** is the amount of energy in a system that is not available to do work - that is, it is \"waste heat\" that isn't useful. We know from thermodynamics that entropy is a measure of how likely a particular process will happen. Because a process that produces more randomness in the system is statistically favored, we say it has higher entropy. And while it is possible to increase the amount of order in the system (think of water freezing), we can only do this by using another process that produces even more entropy than you lose. This is the Second Law of Thermodynamics: the amount of entropy in the universe will always increase (ΔS_universe > 0).\n\nFor your class, just imagine that each substance in your chemical equation has a temperature-dependent amount of \"randomness\", which we track as the variable \"S\". A change in entropy is written as \"ΔS\". Entropy is a \"state variable\" - practically, this means that the value of S doesn't depend on how the substance arrived in that state (the path didn't matter, just the destination).\n\nEntropy is measured in units of energy/temperature (i.e. Joules/Kelvin).\n***\n**Enthalpy** is a measure of the total energy of a system. For your class, you can just visualize it as the amount of \"useful work\" a system can do. We track it as the variable \"H\", which we can't directly measure. Because of this, we are ever only interested in \"ΔH\", the change in the energy of the substance. Enthalpy has units of energy, usually expressed per mole of material (Joules/mol). Like entropy, it's also a state variable, which will be important when we get to Hess' Law.\n\nEvery chemical equation has a \"ΔH_rxn\", which is the amount of heat absorbed or released by the reaction. If the system has less energy than before, ΔH is negative, and heat has gone from the system to the surroundings (\"exothermic\"). If it has more energy, ΔH is positive, and heat has gone from the surroundings into the system (\"endothermic\"). We can measure ΔH directly by using a calorimeter (you've probably used one in your class experiments).\n\nEvery substance has a \"ΔH_formation\", which is the ΔH of the reaction used to form it from its elemental parts. For example, ΔH_f of methane (CH4) comes from the reaction C + 4H -- > CH4 (notice we're using elemental hydrogen, not hydrogen gas). You can think of ΔH_f as \"the amount of energy in this particular compound\".\n***\n**Hess' Law** is what makes that last paragraph useful. Remember how I said enthalpy is a state variable? That means that it doesn't matter what reaction path we take to form a particular compound - ΔH will be the same no matter what. This allows us to use ΔH_f's to compute the ΔH of any reaction we want!\n\nImagine the combustion of methane: CH4 + 2 O2 -- > CO2 + 2 H2. We want to know how much energy is released or absorbed (ΔH_rxn). We could use a bomb calorimeter to measure it directly, but your school was forced to sell all its lab equipment due to budget cuts. But it's okay! Visualize all the atoms of the reactants breaking apart into all their separate C's, H's, and O's. Because this is the opposite of a formation reaction, we can write ΔH = -[sum of ΔH_f_reactants]. Now imagine all those letters recombining to form the compounds on the other side of the equation; this is a formation reaction with ΔH = [sum of ΔH_f_products].\n\nNow for the big finish - since enthalpy is a state variable, it didn't matter that we took two steps instead of one! So just add the enthalpy changes of the two steps together:\n > ΔH_rxn = [sum of ΔH_f_products] - [sum of ΔH_f_reactants]\n\nSo using Hess' Law is really just playing accountant. First, use the table in the back of your textbook to find ΔH_f for each of the compounds in your reaction. Then, sum together all the heats from the products and subtract those of the reactants. Don't forget to multiply each term by its stoichiometric coefficient (two moles have twice as much heat as one).\n\nHope all that helps!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44041", "title": "Solvation", "section": "Section::::Solvation energy and thermodynamic considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 398, "text": "The enthalpy of solution is the solution enthalpy minus the enthalpy of the separate systems, whereas the entropy is the corresponding difference in entropy. Most gases have a negative enthalpy of solution. A negative enthalpy of solution means that the solute is less soluble at high temperatures. The sum of the enthalpy and entropy changes throughout these steps is called the solvation energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65905", "title": "Ideal gas", "section": "Section::::Ideal quantum gases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 760, "text": "In the above-mentioned Sackur–Tetrode equation, the best choice of the entropy constant was found to be proportional to the quantum thermal wavelength of a particle, and the point at which the argument of the logarithm becomes zero is roughly equal to the point at which the average distance between particles becomes equal to the thermal wavelength. In fact, quantum theory itself predicts the same thing. Any gas behaves as an ideal gas at high enough temperature and low enough density, but at the point where the Sackur–Tetrode equation begins to break down, the gas will begin to behave as a quantum gas, composed of either bosons or fermions. (See the gas in a box article for a derivation of the ideal quantum gases, including the ideal Boltzmann gas.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "225617", "title": "Third law of thermodynamics", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 379, "text": "The third law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy at any other temperature. The entropy of a closed system, determined relative to this zero point, is then the \"absolute\" entropy of that system. Mathematically, the absolute entropy of any system at zero temperature is the natural log of the number of ground states times Boltzmann's constant .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35976444", "title": "Wehrl entropy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 402, "text": "In quantum information theory, the Wehrl entropy, named after Alfred Wehrl, is a classical entropy of a quantum-mechanical density matrix. It is a type of quasi-entropy defined for the Husimi Q representation of the phase-space quasiprobability distribution. See for a comprehensive review of basic properties of classical, quantum and Wehrl entropies, and their implications in statistical mechanics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "225617", "title": "Third law of thermodynamics", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 422, "text": "The third law was developed by chemist Walther Nernst during the years 1906–12, and is therefore often referred to as Nernst's theorem or Nernst's postulate. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant. This is because a system at zero temperature exists in its ground state, so that its entropy is determined only by the degeneracy of the ground state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9891", "title": "Entropy", "section": "Section::::Approaches to understanding entropy.:Standard textbook definitions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 341, "text": "In Boltzmann's definition, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or microstates) of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. Consistent with the Boltzmann definition, the second law of thermodynamics needs to be re-worded as such that entropy increases over time, though the underlying principle remains the same.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9891", "title": "Entropy", "section": "Section::::Definitions and descriptions.:Statistical mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 227, "text": "In Boltzmann's 1896 \"Lectures on Gas Theory\", he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical thermodynamics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If we were lined up just right then they could probably see a transit of Venus and Earth. Essentially a mini-eclipse as the planets crossed the disk of the sun. The problem with Jupiter and Saturn is their years are so long they would take a long time to be confirmed. Jupiter takes 12 years to go around the sun, so you'd need to be observing for at least 36 years to confirm a transit. (2 times to determine a year length and a third to confirm it was a planet and not a large sunspot)\n\nAs for seeing the planets directly, nope. The glare from the sun is way too much. If you look at the list of exoplanets which have been directly observed, they are very far out (most are more than Pluto distances away) and much larger than Jupiter. Also the planets are relatively young, so they are hotter and are seen because of the energy emitted by the planet, not reflected from the star.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28017", "title": "Sirius", "section": "Section::::Stellar system.:Apparent third star.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 725, "text": "More recent (and accurate) astrometric observations by the Hubble Space Telescope ruled out the existence of such an object entirely. The 1995 study predicted an astrometric movement of roughly 90 mas (0.09 arcseconds), but Hubble was unable to detect any location anomaly to an accuracy of 5 mas (0.005 arcsec). This ruled out any objects orbiting Sirius A with more than 0.033 solar masses orbiting in 0.5 years, and 0.014 in 2 years. The study was also able to rule out any companions to Sirius B with more than 0.024 solar masses orbiting in 0.5 years, and 0.0095 orbiting in 1.8 years. Effectively, there are almost certainly no additional bodies in the Sirius system larger than a small brown dwarf or large exoplanet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "151651", "title": "Fomalhaut", "section": "Section::::Fomalhaut A.:Debris disks and planet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 678, "text": "On November 13, 2008, astronomers announced an object, which they assumed to be an extrasolar planet, orbiting just inside the outer debris ring. This was the first extrasolar orbiting object to be seen with visible light, captured by the Hubble Space Telescope. A planet's existence had been previously suspected from the sharp, elliptical inner edge of that disk. The mass of the planet, Fomalhaut b, was estimated to be no more than three times the mass of Jupiter, but at least the mass of Neptune. There are indications that the orbit is not apsidally aligned with the dust disk, which may indicate that additional planets may be responsible for the dust disk's structure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32252159", "title": "Kepler-14b", "section": "Section::::Discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 432, "text": "On August 7, 2010, the Infrared Array Camera aboard the Spitzer Space Telescope was used to find the centroid, the point in space around which both of the Kepler-14 stars orbit. Analysis of the collected data determined which component of the binary star system was the site of the transit signal, and, additionally, that the transit signal came from the primary star in the system (as opposed to the fainter, less prominent star).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "205702", "title": "Epsilon Indi", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Companions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 508, "text": "A visual search using the ESO's Very Large Telescope found one potential candidate. However, a subsequent examination by the Hubble Space Telescope NICMOS showed that this was a background object. As of 2009, a search for an unseen companion at 4 μm failed to detect an orbiting object. These observations further constrained the hypothetical object to be 5–20 times the mass of Jupiter, orbiting between 10–20 AU and have an inclination of more than 20°. Alternatively, it may be an exotic stellar remnant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "840191", "title": "Sagittarius A*", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1173, "text": "The VLBI radio observations of Sagittarius A* could also be aligned centrally with the images so S2 could be seen to orbit Sagittarius A*. From examining the Keplerian orbit of S2, they determined the mass of Sagittarius A* to be solar masses, confined in a volume with a radius no more than 17 light-hours (120 AU). Later observations of the star S14 showed the mass of the object to be about 4.1 million solar masses within a volume with radius no larger than 6.25 light-hours (45 AU) or about 6.7 billion kilometres. S175 passed within a similar distance. For comparison, the Schwarzschild radius is 0.08 AU. They also determined the distance from Earth to the Galactic Center (the rotational center of the Milky Way), which is important in calibrating astronomical distance scales, as . In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of a potential intermediate-mass black hole, referred to as GCIRS 13E, orbiting 3 light-years from Sagittarius A*. This black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1197737", "title": "47 Ursae Majoris", "section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 434, "text": "In 2001, preliminary astrometric measurements made by the Hipparcos probe suggested the orbit of 47 UMa b is inclined at an angle of 63.1° to the plane of the sky, implying the planet's true mass is around 2.9 times that of Jupiter. However, subsequent analysis suggested the Hipparcos measurements were not precise enough to accurately determine the orbits of substellar companions, and the inclination and true mass remain unknown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31830485", "title": "WASP-43", "section": "Section::::Observational history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 484, "text": "Scientists interpreted that a 0.81-day orbit of a possible planet from the data, and followed up with observations using the CORALIE spectrograph on the Leonhard Euler Telescope at Chile's La Silla Observatory. CORALIE provided radial velocity measurements that indicated that WASP-43 was being transited by a planet that was 1.8 times Jupiter's mass, now dubbed WASP-43b. Another follow-up using the TRAPPIST telescope further defined the light curve of the body transiting WASP-43.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most pills are basically small molecules designed to disolve and go right in. Most food is large molecules that need to be broken down first.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1099396", "title": "Drug interaction", "section": "Section::::Pharmacokinetic interactions.:Absorption interactions.:Changes in motility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 300, "text": "Some drugs, such as the prokinetic agents increase the speed with which a substance passes through the intestines. If a drug is present in the digestive tract's absorption zone for less time its blood concentration will decrease. The opposite will occur with drugs that decrease intestinal motility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2923321", "title": "Emergency psychiatry", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Medications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 940, "text": "The amount of time required for absorption varies dependent upon many factors including drug solubility, gastrointestinal motility and pH. If a medication is administered orally the amount of food in the stomach may also affect the rate of absorption. Once absorbed medications must be distributed throughout the body, or usually with the case of psychiatric medication, past the blood–brain barrier to the brain. With all of these factors affecting the rapidity of effect, the time until the effects are evident varies. Generally, though, the timing with medications is relatively fast and can occur within several minutes. As an example, physicians usually expect to see a remission of symptoms thirty minutes after haloperidol, an antipsychotic, is administered intramuscularly. Antipsychotics, especially Haloperidol, as well as assorted benzodiazepines are the most frequently used drugs in emergency psychiatry, especially agitation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "334816", "title": "Route of administration", "section": "Section::::Choice of routes.:Oral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 682, "text": "The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time-release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in the stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. However, recent research (2018) found an organic ionic liquid suitable for oral insulin delivery (a biopharmaceutical) into the blood stream.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "636555", "title": "Fluvastatin", "section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 288, "text": "The drug is quickly and almost completely (98%) absorbed from the gut. Food intake slows down absorption, but does not decrease it. Due to its first-pass effect, bioavailability is lower: about 24–30% according to different sources. Over 98% of the substance is bound to plasma proteins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40986774", "title": "Covert medication", "section": "Section::::Pharmacology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 296, "text": "Mixing medications with food or drink may also affect the metabolism of the drug. For example, grapefruit juice changes the bioavailability of many medicines by decreasing the rate of elimination. This alters drug levels in the blood which may cause side effects or make the drug less effective.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21869194", "title": "Self-microemulsifying drug delivery system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 490, "text": "SMEDDS offer numerous advantages: spontaneous formation, ease of manufacture, thermodynamic stability, and improved solubilization of bioactive materials. Improved solubility contributes to faster release rates and greater bioavailability. For many drugs taken by mouth, faster release rates improve the drug acceptance by consumers. Greater bioavailability means that less drug need be used; this may lower cost, and does lower the stomach irritation and toxicity of drugs taken by mouth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "769021", "title": "Bioavailability", "section": "Section::::Factors influencing bioavailability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 636, "text": "The absolute bioavailability of a drug, when administered by an extravascular route, is usually less than one (i.e., \"F\" 100%). Various physiological factors reduce the availability of drugs prior to their entry into the systemic circulation. Whether a drug is taken with or without food will also affect absorption, other drugs taken concurrently may alter absorption and first-pass metabolism, intestinal motility alters the dissolution of the drug and may affect the degree of chemical degradation of the drug by intestinal microflora. Disease states affecting liver metabolism or gastrointestinal function will also have an effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That's about it. Nutrients. Granted, you could get the exact same nutrients from food, too. The placenta is there to provide nutrition to the *baby*, not the mother, and even then usually only before birth.\n\nEating one's own placenta isn't terribly uncommon in the animal world, but that has more to do with the fact that resources can be very scarce than the fact that the placenta is somehow some miracle food.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Despite the belief of the many health benefits of eating your placenta, there is no conclusive evidence that placentophagy provides any substantial nutritional value. In fact the preparation process (cooking the placenta or drying it for encapsulation) removes a large portion of its nutrients by reducing protein hormones and other things. \nSome suggest that the health benefits perceived by people who consume their placenta is caused by the placebo effect. \nEating your placenta will provide you with about enough caloric energy and nutrition to make it to your next meal in the day (which is the most likely reason wildlife can be observed performing this practice as well). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you're a dirty hippie that believe in that kind of shit, you might get some sweet placebo (placent-ebo?) effects. Otherwise, no, there are no actual benefits. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Midwife's assistant here.\n\nPeople use several arguments to justify consumption of their placenta. I will note that in my experience most mothers pay a doula or other person to dehydrate and encapsulate their placenta and consume it gradually in pills after birth rather than snack on it raw, though some people make a post partum smoothie with raw placenta. \n\nHere are the common reasons I here for consumption of placenta post partum;\n\n\"All mammals eat their placentas after birth.\" While true, this is most likely done to keep away predators. \n\n\"It helps prevent post partum depression.\" This is not proven. Anecdotally, it seems to have the placebo effect, and what are placebos best at treating? You guessed it, depression.\n\n\"It helps increase milk supply.\" I take issue with this argument. The birth of the placenta is what signals to the mother's body that it's time to amp up milk production. It signals the release of prolactin. If any parts of infarcts of the placenta are retained in the uterus it will negatively impact a mother's milk supply, so I don't see how re-ingesting placenta would help milk supply. \n\n\"It's ancient Chinese medicine.\" This isn't necessarily a good reason to do something. I think this is self explanatory. \n\nHere is a study that explores common reasons for placentophagy and the science behind it.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1087196", "title": "Placentophagy", "section": "Section::::Human placentophagy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 838, "text": "Those who advocate placentophagy in humans believe that eating the placenta prevents postpartum depression and other pregnancy complications. Obstetrician and spokesperson for the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Maggie Blott disputes the post-natal depression theory, stating there is no medical reason to eat the placenta: \"Animals eat their placenta to get nutrition - but when people are already well-nourished, there is no benefit, there is no reason to do it.\" While no scientific study has proven any benefits, a survey was conducted by American Medical anthropologists at the University of South Florida and University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Among the respondents, about 3/4 claimed to have positive experiences from eating their own placenta, citing \"improved mood\", \"increased energy\", and \"improved lactation\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33966580", "title": "Human placentophagy", "section": "Section::::Current beliefs among placentophagists.:Nutritional benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1070, "text": "The placenta transports nutrients to the fetus during gestation. Proponents of modern placentophagy argue that the placenta retains some of these substances after delivery, and that consumption of the placenta by the mother will help her recover more quickly following childbirth by replenishing nutrients and hormones lost during parturition. One birthing website run by two Minnesota doulas lists possible health benefits including replenishing lost nutrients, increasing milk production, curbing postpartum depression and slowing postpartum hemorrhage. However, scientific study has found very limited and inconclusive evidence for any health benefits of placentophagy. A 2012 study by Michaelle Beacock out of Edge Hill University found that evidence to support midwives' and mothers' reported experiences of placentophagy is limited, dated, and ultimately inconclusive. A 2015 review of placentophagy research since 1950 again found limited and inconclusive evidence for placentophagy's health benefits, while also stating that its potential risks are yet unclear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1087196", "title": "Placentophagy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 399, "text": "Placentophagy (from 'placenta' + , to eat; also referred to as placentophagia) is the act of mammals eating the placenta of their young after childbirth. The placenta contains small amounts of oxytocin which eases birth stress and causes the smooth muscles around the mammary cells to contract and eject milk. There have been no studies of whether placentophagy provides hormonal effects in humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1087196", "title": "Placentophagy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 963, "text": "Some research has shown that ingestion of the placenta can increase the pain threshold in pregnant rats. Rats that consumed the placenta experienced a modest amount of elevation of naturally occurring opioid-mediated analgesia. Endogenous opioids, such as endorphin and dynorphin, are natural chemicals, related to the opium molecule, that are produced in the central nervous system. Production of these endogenous opioids is increased during the birthing process. They have the ability to raise the threshold of pain tolerance in the mother. When coupled with ingested placenta or amniotic fluid, the opioid effect on pain threshold is dramatically increased. Rats that were given meat instead of the placenta showed no increase in the pain threshold. There are no studies that show any benefits of placenta ingestions in humans. There have been no scientific studies which show that placentophagy enhances analgesia in humans or that it has any other benefits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33966580", "title": "Human placentophagy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 624, "text": "Human placentophagy, or consumption of the placenta, is defined as \"the ingestion of a human placenta postpartum, at any time, by any person, either in raw or altered (e.g., cooked, dried, steeped in liquid) form\". Numerous historical occurrences of placentophagy have been recorded throughout the world, whereas modern occurrences of placentophagy are rare since most contemporary societies do not promote its practice. Since the 1970s, however, consumption of the placenta believing that it has health benefits has been a growing practice among clients of midwives and alternative-health advocates in the U.S. and Mexico.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7125671", "title": "Placental insufficiency", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 265, "text": "The following characteristics of placentas have been said to be associated with placental insufficiency, however all of them occur in normal healthy placentas and full term healthy births, so none of them can be used to accurately diagnose placental insufficiency:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33966580", "title": "Human placentophagy", "section": "Section::::Modern placentophagy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 323, "text": "Modern practice of placentophagy is rare, as most contemporary human cultures do not promote its consumption. Placentophagy did receive popular culture attention in 2012, however, when American actress January Jones credited eating her placenta as helping her get back to work on the set of \"Mad Men\" after just six weeks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Oh, yes! I have [an earlier answer](_URL_0_) on \"Renaissance women\" bouncing off the idea of Leonardo da Vinci as a \"Renaissance man\" that might interest you. :D\n\nBut that post was narrow in scope to intellectual/polymath types. There were so many more ways that individual women made an impact! Religious leaders claiming gifts of ecstatic prophecy like bitter archrival nuns Domenica dal Paradiso and Dorotea da Lanciuole played active, even leading roles in post-Savonarolan religious politics--their feud spanned a decade and involved the entire city's mendicant community. Catherine of Genoa was a mystic who, more quietly, dictated her teachings to a circle of students.\n\nWomen also involved themselves in the flourishing art scene. Catherine of Bologna is probably the most famous one today. Antonia Pulchi was a playwright, composer, and lyricist of religious dramas and music that were performed in her native city of Florence.\n\nAnd then, of course, there were the aristocrats and politicians. Even though women were barred from holding formal office and in Italy, specifically, were almost never heads of household, as mediators and as proxies for male relatives they wielded a surprising amount of indirect influence and direct power. Alfonsina Orsini ruled Florence from 1517-1519 during yet another period of *male* Medici exile from the city.\n\nThere are two important points to raise here. First, nearly all the standout women from Renaissance Italy we can point to were not married: they were nuns, tertiaries (informal nuns), or widows. With the intellectual/humanist women in particular, the sad pattern is a father providing his daughter the best education possible, she flourishes as a young woman author/philosopher/theologian--and as soon as she marries, ceases public literary activity.\n\nSecond, when we talk about \"Renaissance\" Italy, we are necessarily speaking primarily or exclusively of the upper crust. There are some women among the tertiaries who would have had a more middle class background. But in general, \"the Renaissance\" and its developments were an urban and elite phenomenon. We don't hear about peasant widows making great art or writing religious plays for their village confraternity.\n\nNevertheless, there are some really excellent stories based around phenomenal--for good or ill--women to come out of 15th-16th century Italy. And thanks to the literary grounding of its elite society, we can tell those stories in quite a bit of depth today.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25794517", "title": "Women in Italy", "section": "Section::::History.:Women in Pre-modern Italy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 648, "text": "The Renaissance (15th–16th centuries) challenged conventional customs from the Medieval period. Women were still confined to the roles of \"monaca, moglie, serva, cortigiana\" (\"nun, wife, servant, courtesan\"). However, literacy spread among upper-class women in Italy and a growing number of them stepped out into the secular intellectual circles. Venetian-born Christine de Pizan wrote \"The City of Ladies\" in 1404, and in it she described women's gender as having no innate inferiority to men's, although being born to serve the other sex. Some women were able to gain an education on their own, or received tutoring from their father or husband.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25794517", "title": "Women in Italy", "section": "Section::::History.:Women in Pre-modern Italy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 552, "text": "Lucrezia Tornabuoni in Florence; Veronica Gambara at Correggio; Veronica Franco and Moderata Fonte in Venice; and Vittoria Colonna in Rome were among the renowned women intellectuals of the time. Powerful women rulers of the Italian Renaissance, such as Isabella d'Este, Catherine de' Medici, or Lucrezia Borgia, combined political skill with cultural interests and patronage. Unlike her peers, Isabella di Morra (an important poet of the time) was kept a virtual prisoner in her own castle and her tragic life makes her a symbol of female oppression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44741895", "title": "Laudomia Forteguerri", "section": "Section::::References.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 218, "text": "BULLET::::- McClure, George W. \"The Academy of the Intronati and Sienese Women (1525–1555).\" \"Parlour Games and the Public Life of Women in Renaissance Italy.\" Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. 35–51. Print.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30728432", "title": "Joan Kelly", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 413, "text": "Joan Kelly (March 29, 1928 – August 15, 1982) was a prominent American historian who wrote on the Italian Renaissance, specifically on Leon Battista Alberti. Among her best known works is the essay \"Did Women Have a Renaissance?\" which was published in 1977. The article challenged the contemporary historiography of the Renaissance, arguing that women's power and agency declined during the early modern period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "311401", "title": "Renaissance art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 323, "text": "The influences upon the development of Renaissance men and women in the early 15th century are those that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government, and other aspects of society. The following list presents a summary, dealt with more fully in the main articles that are cited above.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5455722", "title": "Cecilia Ferrazzi", "section": "Section::::Further reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 236, "text": "BULLET::::- Anne Jacobson Schutte: \"Discernment and Discipline: Giorgo Polacci and Religious Women in Early Modern Italy\" in William Connell (ed) \"Culture and Self in Renaissance Europe\": Berkeley: University of California Press: 1997.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50400560", "title": "Flood Ladies", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 375, "text": "Following the devastating flooding that damaged and destroyed cultural treasures of Florence, Italy in 1966, while those losses can never be replaced, the generosity of some of Italy’s most significant women artists of the 20th century as well as distinguished painters and sculptors from around the world brought donations of hundreds of notable creative works to the city.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Saudis had long backed and had long-standing connections with traditionalist forces in North Yemen. In the 1962-70 North Yemen Civil War (really a proxy war) they backed the Zaydi Shia Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen against the Egyptian-backed Yemen Arab Republic. The death of Nasser in 1970 helped bring an end to the hottest phase of the Arab Cold War and Saudi Arabia recognized the victorious Yemen Arab Republic and worked in coordination with various factions in North Yemen, preferring it over the Marxist South.\n\nYemen's unification in 1990 came at a precarious time. The overall Cold War was ending with a Soviet collapse and Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait threatened to rip apart the Middle East. The president of the newly re-united Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, backed Saddam in sharp contrast to the rest of the Gulf States.\n\nPartly as a result of that the GCC countries split from Saleh, and flirted with the secessionist movement in 1994. As it happened, the 1994 Civil War so brief that I'm not sure you should quite read into it the way the wording of your question suggests.\n\n[Saleh claimed US support](_URL_2_) but it wasn't a major break from the rest of the US' GCC partners. \n\nSaleh won so quickly that the war couldn't become the kind of protracted proxy conflict that characterized the North Yemen Civil war decades prior, or for that matter that characterizes the conflict in Syria today.\n\nThe other motivating issue that remains relevant are accusations that Saudi Arabia is concerned about the potential power of a united Yemen on its southern border. The population of Yemen is at least equal to Saudi Arabia, and that's only if you believe the official Saudi population figures, which are dubious and likely inflated.\n\nYou're not likely to find much in the way of concrete discussion/documentation of any of these factors from Saudi officials, however. Saudi Arabia remains one of the most opaque polities in the world, these Carnegie Endowment articles would be a good overview though:\n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2118164", "title": "Abd Al-Rahman Ali Al-Jifri", "section": "Section::::Political activities.:Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 684, "text": "Southern leaders, supported by the Saudis, declared secession and the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Yemen (DRY) on May 21, 1994, but the Democratic Republic of Yemen was not recognized by the international community. Although the southerners had their own motives for fighting, northern leaders have long maintained that the Saudis supported the southern cause as a way of furthering their own border dispute with the Republic of Yemen. Ali Nasir Muhammad’s supporters greatly assisted military operations against the secessionists and Aden was captured on July 7, 1994. Other resistance quickly collapsed and thousands of southern leaders and military went into exile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9753135", "title": "Saudi Arabia–United States relations", "section": "Section::::History.:Oil embargo and energy crises.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 457, "text": "The Saudis' increase of oil production to stabilize the oil price and the support of anti-communism have all contributed to closer relations with the U.S. In January 1979, the U.S. sent F-15 fighters to Saudi Arabia for further protection from communism. Furthermore, the U.S. and Saudi Arabia were both supporting anti-communist groups in Afghanistan and struggling countries, one of those groups later became known as the Al-Qaida terrorist organization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9167938", "title": "Houthi insurgency in Yemen", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 473, "text": "During Yemen's 1994 civil war, the Wahhabis, an Islamic group adhering to a strict version of Sunni Islam found in neighboring Saudi Arabia, helped the government in its fight against the secessionist south. Zaidis complain the government has subsequently allowed the Wahhabis too strong a voice in Yemen. Saudi Arabia, for its part, worries that strife instigated by the Zaidi sect so close to Yemen's border with Saudi Arabia could stir up groups in Saudi Arabia itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27277", "title": "Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 444, "text": "Saudi Arabia and its oil policy are thought to have contributed to the downfall of Soviet Communism in the late 1980s and early 1990. Saudi helped to finance not just the Afghan Mujahideen but non-Muslims anti-communists. It also seriously harmed the Soviet Communist cause by stabilizing oil prices \"throughout the 1980s, just when the Russians were desperate to sell energy in order to keep up with huge hikes in American military spending.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48998216", "title": "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict", "section": "Section::::Involvement in regional conflicts.:Yemeni Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 948, "text": "Yemen has been called one of the major fronts in the conflict as a result of the revolution and subsequent civil war. Yemen had for years been within the Saudi sphere of influence. The decade-long Houthi insurgency in Yemen stoked tensions with Iran, with accusations of covert support for the rebels. A 2015 UN report alleged that Iran provided the Houthi rebels with money, training, and arms shipments beginning in 2009. However, the degree of support has been subject to debate, and accusations of greater involvement have been denied by Iran. The 2014–2015 coup d'état was viewed by Saudi leadership as an immediate threat, and as an opportunity for Iran to gain a foothold in the region. In March 2015, a Saudi-led coalition of Arab states, including all GCC members except Oman, intervened and launched airstrikes and a ground offensive in the country, declaring the entire Saada Governorate a military target and imposing a naval blockade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41231298", "title": "Al-Wadiah War", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 482, "text": "Simultaneously PRSY-Saudi relations had been incredibly tense, with Faisal of Saudi Arabia regarding the left-wing government with extreme hostility, which was in turn reciprocated by the PRSY, which supported the overthrow of the Gulf monarchies. The Saudi government went so far as to fund and arm South Yemeni dissidents, and encouraged them to conduct raids across the border into South Yemen. The PRSY accused the Saudi government of planning further attacks in November 1969.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "718749", "title": "South Yemen", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 680, "text": "The Federation of South Arabia and the Protectorate of South Arabia merged to become South Yemen on 30 November 1967 and became a Marxist socialist republic in 1970 supported by the Soviet Union. Despite its efforts to bring stability into the region, it was involved in a brief civil war in 1986. With the collapse of communism, South Yemen was unified with the Yemen Arab Republic (commonly known as \"North Yemen\") on 22 May 1990, to form the present-day Yemen. After four years, however, South Yemen declared its secession from the north, which resulted in the north occupying south Yemen and the 1994 civil war. Another attempt to restore South Yemen continues on since 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Synchronous call - I'll drop you off at the store and wait her until you come back\n\nAsynchronous call - I'll drop you off at the store and periodically check to see if you are done\n\nMost calls are synchronous because the caller usually wants something right now and can't really proceed without it.\n\nBut if what the call is doing is low priority, can take a long time, or is outside the control of the system, asynchronous calls make more sense. The drawback is they require extra logic to periodically check to see if the call has completed, or if it fails to complete.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53345935", "title": "Asynchronous procedure call", "section": "Section::::Some specific implementations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 235, "text": "In Windows, an asynchronous procedure call (abbreviated APC) is a function that executes asynchronously in the context of a specific thread. APCs can be generated by the system (kernel-mode APCs) or by an application (user mode APCs).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19662248", "title": "Asynchronous method invocation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 356, "text": "In multithreaded computer programming, asynchronous method invocation (AMI), also known as asynchronous method calls or the asynchronous pattern is a design pattern in which the call site is not blocked while waiting for the called code to finish. Instead, the calling thread is notified when the reply arrives. Polling for a reply is an undesired option.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54305815", "title": "Communication in Distributed Software Development", "section": "Section::::Forms of communication.:Asynchronous systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 580, "text": "Asynchronous systems provide a mechanism for submission and retrieval of messages, where the sender can send information whenever he likes and the recipient will only retrieve it and reply when he is available. This form of communication can be used to have a discussion or convey information about less urgent matters, since no answer is guaranteed promptly. It is useful in a distributed development process specially because most of the times the different teams working on a project don't do so simultaneously, and matters that are not urgent can be discussed asynchronously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49031794", "title": "Asynchrony (computer programming)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 454, "text": "A common way for dealing with asynchrony in a programming interface is to provide subroutines (methods, functions) that return to their caller an object, sometimes called a future or promise, that represents the ongoing events. Such an object will then typically come with a synchronizing operation that blocks until the operation is completed. Some programming languages, such as Cilk, have special syntax for expressing an asynchronous procedure call.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53345935", "title": "Asynchronous procedure call", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1047, "text": "Asynchronous procedure call is a unit of work in a computer. Usually a program works by executing a series of synchronous procedure calls on some thread. But if some data are not ready (for example, a program waits user to reply), then keeping thread in wait state is impractical, as a thread allocates considerable amount of memory for procedure stack, and this memory is not used. So such a procedure call is formed as an object with small amount of memory for input data, and this object is passed to the service which receive user inputs. When the user's reply is received, the service puts it in the object and passes that object to an execution service. Execution service consists of one or more dedicated worker threads and a queue for tasks. Each worker thread reads in a loop task queue and, when a task is retrieved, executes it. When there is no tasks, worker threads are waiting and so their memory is not used, but the number of worker threads is small enough (no sense to have more threads than there are processors on the machine).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "332693", "title": "Burroughs large systems", "section": "Section::::Stack architecture.:Procedures.:Asynchronous calls.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 228, "text": "In the example program only normal calls are used, so all the information will be on a single stack. For asynchronous calls, the stack would be split into multiple stacks so that the processes share data but run asynchronously.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3801097", "title": "Asynchronous system", "section": "Section::::Asynchronous communication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 706, "text": "Asynchronous communication is typically performed on channels. Communication is used both to synchronize operations of the concurrent system as well as to pass data. A simple channel typically consists of two wires: a request and an acknowledge. In a '4-phase handshaking protocol' (or return-to-zero), the request is asserted by the sender component, and the receiver responds by asserting the acknowledge; then both signals are de-asserted in turn. In a '2-phase handshaking protocol' (or transition-signalling), the requester simply toggles the value on the request wire (once), and the receiver responds by toggling the value on the acknowledge wire. Channels can also be extended to communicate data.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "can't be sure of the exact method, but at the very least you can be sure that Google Maps was not relying on the IP address of your http request to determine your location. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In modern web browsers on some types of computers, a mechanism is provided to web developers to determine your location (with your approval). This has nothing to do with how your computer is connecting to the web site. \n\nBasically, the web site asks your browser for your current location (in longitude and latitude). The browser asks your permission (which may have been given previously) and then asks your computer operating system for the location information. \n\nYour operating system uses various techniques to determine its location:\n\n- cell phones, tablets, or other hand held devices may have GPS services available. \n- many devices (phones, tablets, and desktop computers) use wifi to determine location. In a nutshell, they have access to a database of hundreds of thousands of know wifi access points and their locations. By comparing the relative strengths of every access point the computer can \"see\" it can determine your position. \n\nYour operating system tells the browser where you are, and it tells google. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48818452", "title": "Location inference", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 302, "text": "Location inference is the method of identifying the location profiles of users on social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook from their message content, friends' network and social interaction even when they did not explicitly disclose such on their account profiles or geotag their messages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41730586", "title": "Map matching", "section": "Section::::Examples and use cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 521, "text": "Probably the most common use of map-matching is where a traveller has some mobile computer giving him or her directions across a street network. In order to give accurate directions, the device must know exactly where in the street network the user is. A GPS location has positional error though, so picking the nearest street segment and routing from there will likely not work. Instead, the history of locations reported by the GPS can be used to guess a plausible route and infer the current location more accurately.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25280408", "title": "Online locator service", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 212, "text": "Location finders often operate in conjunction with a well-known online map service, such as Google Maps, MapQuest, or Bing Maps, allowing the user to see on a map where the particular location is found on a map.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8411201", "title": "OmniPeek", "section": "Section::::Extensibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 349, "text": "PlaceMap: is a freely available standalone Google Maps Packet sniffer application for Windows that captures network traffic and maps nodes to the Google Map. PlaceMap is a notable example of extensibility in that it uses exactly the same Google Map plugin that is also available for the Omnipeek, and is uses the peek driver API to capture packets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16137133", "title": "Globrix", "section": "Section::::Functionality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 617, "text": "As an alternative to the regular 'list view' of property results, users can also opt to see the search results plotted on Bing Maps (previously they used Google map) to allow users to look for property by location. (Some users are unimpressed with the lack of precision of the inferior Bing offering, which often manages to put the marker in a field, compared to the accuracy and ease of use of Googlemaps). Users are able to drag and zoom the map, with relevant properties automatically placed in view. It is also possible for users to draw a catchment area directly onto the map of where they would like to search.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2566345", "title": "Location information server", "section": "Section::::Architecture and protocols.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 405, "text": "The IETF has defined an architecture and protocols for acquiring location information from a LIS. A LIS in the immediate access network is automatically discovered and location information is retrieved using the HELD protocol. Location information can be retrieved directly—known as by value—or the LIS can generate a temporary URI that can be used to provide location indirectly—known as a location URI.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39680745", "title": "GeoGuessr", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1090, "text": "The Street View window of \"GeoGuessr\" does not provide any information beyond the street view images and a compass; things such as road signs, vegetation, businesses, climate, and landmarks have been suggested as some clues that may help the player determine their location. The player may also move about along the roads through the normal directional controls provided by Street View. Once the player is ready to guess the location, they will place a location marker on a zoomable Google Map. After the placed marker is submitted as a guess, \"GeoGuessr\" reveals the true geographic location and assigns the player a score depending on how far away the player's guess was from the true location. Scores range between 0 for a guess at an antipode and 5000 points if the guess is within about 150 meters of the correct location. A new location is then provided to the player, and the process repeats until the player has guessed five locations for a maximum of 25,000 possible points. Newer features include a variable time limit and grouped challenges, such as \"Famous Places\" or \"Sweden\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The best why I can describe this is how a computer works. A computer processes data and displays that data on a screen. A single core computer is of like the windows 95 or 97 version. The more cores you have the better the computer processes data. This is kinda like what IQ means. IQ isn't how smart you are, it's how well you can process information. The Questions in an IQ test are to specifically to see what you can process and if you can come up with the right answer in a fast enough time. So basically some tasks require a deeper thinking. Those with high IQs can process high amounts of information or the core of a problem at a better rate than someone with a low IQ. Think of someone with mental disabilities. It takes them a while to do a simple task that would be a normal task for someone without those disabilities. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Presumably a mental task that requires more effort recruits from more \"areas\" of the brain. For example, a simple discrimination task, such as is this a boy or girl, recruits the visual pathway and then continues down through the ventral pathway towards the temporal and limbic structures so you can then discern whether it is a guy or girl. \n\nHowever asking the persons ethnicity, job, age, and other identifications takes longer (read: effort) as the mental task recruits additional neurons/areas of the brain. Mental effort, which is the emotional byproduct of waiting for information to compute and be integrated, is dependent on several factors. Some of which such as, distance between recruited areas, myelination, and if those connections have been recruited before (long-term potentiation/neuroplasticity). \n\nEdit: which theoretically could be computed using biophysical models of circuit theory (e.g., membrane potentials, conductance, resistance, capacitance)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50213367", "title": "Desirable difficulty", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 486, "text": "A desirable difficulty is a learning task that requires a considerable but desirable amount of effort, thereby improving long-term performance. The term was first coined by Robert A. Bjork in 1994. As the name suggests, desirable difficulties should be both desirable and difficult. Research suggests that while difficult tasks might slow down learning initially, the long term benefits are greater than with easy tasks. However, to be desirable, the tasks must also be accomplishable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33456209", "title": "Learned industriousness", "section": "Section::::Antecedents of industriousness.:Effort.:The relationship between effort and task interest/difficulty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 358, "text": "Task difficulty is also suggested to precede high effort. The reasoning behind this claim is that high difficulty tasks evoke high effort exertion if the individual is motivated to succeed on the task. The study conducted by Fisher and Noble also supports this hypothesis, as a significant positive relationship between task difficulty and effort was found.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24297453", "title": "Attention restoration theory", "section": "Section::::Directed attention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 339, "text": "Tasks that require mental effort draw upon \"directed attention\". People must expend effort to achieve focus, to delay expression of inappropriate emotions or actions, and to inhibit distractions. That is, they must concentrate on the higher task, avoiding distractions. Performing the actual task also requires other knowledge and skills.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23469564", "title": "Introspection illusion", "section": "Section::::Attitude change.:Criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 1394, "text": "The theory that there are mental processes that act as justifications do not make behaviour more adaptive is criticized by some biologists who argue that the cost in nutrients for brain function selects against any brain mechanism that does not make behaviour more adapted to the environment. They argue that the cost in essential nutrients causes even more difficulty than the cost in calories, especially in social groups of many individuals needing the same scarce nutrients, which imposes substantial difficulty on feeding the group and lowers their potential size. These biologists argue that the evolution of argumentation was driven by the effectiveness of arguments on changing risk perception attitudes and life and death decisions to a more adaptive state, as \"luxury functions\" that did not enhance life and death survival would lose the evolutionary \"tug of war\" against the selection for nutritional thrift. While there have been claims of non-adaptive brain functions being selected by sexual selection, these biologists criticize any applicability to introspection illusion's causal theories because sexually selected traits are most disabling as a fitness signal during or after puberty but human brains require the highest amount of nutrients before puberty (enhancing the nerve connections in ways that make adult brains capable of faster and more nutrient-efficient firing).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1008644", "title": "Psychomotor retardation", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 245, "text": "BULLET::::- Activities usually requiring little mental effort can become challenging. Balancing one's checkbook, making a shopping list or making decisions about mundane tasks (such as deciding what errands need to be done) are often difficult.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35044291", "title": "Multicommunicating", "section": "Section::::Successful and unsuccessful instances.:Presence allocator.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 522, "text": "There are limits to our working memory that in turn restrict our cognitive information processing capabilities. Performance deteriorates when these limits are exceeded. Because of these limits, performing two tasks at the same time or rapidly switching between two tasks results in decreased task performance in terms of accuracy and response time. These problems can be partially alleviated (but not eliminated) by practice and physical compatibility of the tasks being performed, but they increase with task complexity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22266890", "title": "LC4MP", "section": "Section::::Cognitive resources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1306, "text": "The reasons for these fine-tuned distinctions are several. First, people may not allocate all of the available resources to a task at hand because they are cognitive misers. Unless highly motivated, people tend to use as few resources as necessary. Thus, a distinction is made between total resources and allocated resources. Second, people will allocate resources only as required by the task. If people are watching a program they have seen before, fewer resources may be required because of the familiarity of the program. Conversely, if the production is such that the visual elements of the programming are important, then more resources may be required. In both cases, the same amount of resources may have been allocated to the TV program, but different amounts were actually used, leaving some allocated resources available in one case but not in another. Third, some elements in the environment will automatically draw resources. For example, formal features automatically attract attention (e.g., unrelated cuts), drawing required resources from the total pool of resources without conscious allocation of resources. In this case, the difference between the automatic attraction (i.e., required) of resources and the total resources leaves some remaining resources for allocation to other tasks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In a car meant to take regular, no. In a luxury or sporty car designed for premium/super, yes. \n \nEngines use gasoline by igniting it, high octane gas ignites at a higher temperature than regular octane does, so it can withstand more compression. \n \nWith modern cars, there is no real negative to adding high octane in a car not designed for it. As for any pros, the gas has a slight chance of being better quality; however, going to say a Shell and getting regular compared to a regional company will also be higher quality. \n \nWith cars made for high octane, using low octane used to result in engine ping, but now it just results in slower acceleration.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Higher octane fuel is more stable at high temperatures and pressures than lower octane fuel. In an engine, there is a thing called 'Knocking' that can happen if you squeeze/heat fuel too much, and it's basically the fuel spontaneously combusting instead of being ignited by the spark plug.\n\nWhy is that a problem? Well in a diesel engine it isn't, because they are designed for it. A gasoline engine, however, is not built for it (literally: less metal, thinner walls, etc). When the fuel spontaneously combusts, two bad things can/do happen.\n\n1. The explosion happens too soon, the piston is in the wrong position.\n2. The explosion starts in the wrong spot, and so it puts stress on parts of the cylinder from directions they were not built to handle.\n\nThis can cause tremendous damage to an engine. Higher octane fuel prevents this premature detonation.\n\nedit: The engineers know what your engine will do under normal operation. IF your engine says it needs 87 octane, you do NOT need higher octane fuel to prevent knocking unless you install a turbo or some other compression/temperature modification to the car.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A car engine has four \"strokes\" as the piston head moves up and down inside the engine:\n\n* An intake valve opens and the piston moves down, drawing in air and fuel\n\n* The intake valve closes and the piston moves upward, compressing the gas mixture\n\n* The spark plug fires, driving the piston down to produce power\n\n* The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up, pushing out the exhaust.\n\nDuring the second stroke—compression—the fuel/air mixture is heated substantially. That's what happens whenever you rapidly compress a gas. This compression and associated heat increase is an important part of making a car's engine powerful and efficient.\n\nThere's a danger during that stoke, though: if you compress the fuel/air mixture too much then it could get hot enough that the fuel ignites on its own. This premature ignition is bad for the engine and is bad for efficiency. It's referred to as engine knock or pinging and is something to avoid. Modern engines even have a sensor to detect if it's happening and they'll put some extra fuel into the cylinder to cool things off (the fuel has to be turned from liquid to vapor, which takes energy. You might expect more fuel to be more energy, but there isn't enough air to burn it so you get no extra power from the extra fuel. Pressing the gas pedal gives you more fuel *and* more air, hence more power). If your engine's anti-knock system is dumping extra fuel into the cylinder then that's going to kill your efficiency.\n\nDue to the possibility of engine knock you want to be sure that you have a fuel that can resist autoignition. That's what octane rating describes. That's *all* the octane rating describes.\n\nAn engine is designed to cause a certain amount of compression on its compression stroke. That amount of compression is fixed due to the geometry of the engine. The engine designers will then determine how high of an octane rating is necessary to prevent knocking and will publish that information in the car's handbook. If you put that grade of fuel into the engine then it shouldn't knock (and shouldn't have to take countermeasures against knock), so there is zero benefit in paying more for higher octane fuel.\n\nMost cars are designed to accept the lowest grade fuel that's sold, typically about 87 octane (aside: different countries use different scales; I'm referring to AKI, the scale used in the U.S., which is an average of RON and MON). High performance cars look to get as much power out of the engine as possible, so they often are designed to compress the fuel/air mixture more, therefore requiring a higher grade of gasoline to prevent knock. Check your car's manual and it'll tell you what grade of fuel to use.\n\nA final variable to consider is altitude. If you happen to be at a very high altitude then you can get away with a lower octane rating since the lower density air will also deter knock. Gas stations in high altitude areas will often sell 85 octane fuel which will run fine in a car designed for 87 octane at sea level. Keep this in mind if you're filling up in a high altitude region but are planning to drive to a much lower elevation on that tank of gas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "170045", "title": "Four-stroke engine", "section": "Section::::Fuel considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 382, "text": "The octane rating of a given fuel is a measure of the fuel's resistance to self-ignition. A fuel with a higher numerical octane rating allows for a higher compression ratio, which extracts more energy from the fuel and more effectively converts that energy into useful work while at the same time preventing engine damage from pre-ignition. High Octane fuel is also more expensive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23643", "title": "Propane", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Motor fuel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 964, "text": "The advantage of propane in cars is its liquid state at a moderate pressure. This allows fast refill times, affordable fuel cylinder construction, and price ranges typically just over half that of gasoline. Meanwhile, it is noticeably cleaner (both in handling, and in combustion), results in less engine wear (due to carbon deposits) without diluting engine oil (often extending oil-change intervals), and until recently was a relative bargain in North America. The octane rating of propane is relatively high at 110. In the United States the propane fueling infrastructure is the most developed of all alternative vehicle fuels. Many converted vehicles have provisions for topping off from \"barbecue bottles\". Purpose-built vehicles are often in commercially owned fleets, and have private fueling facilities. A further saving for propane fuel vehicle operators, especially in fleets, is that pilferage is much more difficult than with gasoline or diesel fuels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "626455", "title": "Alternative fuel", "section": "Section::::Propane autogas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 361, "text": "Propane as an automotive fuel shares many of the physical attributes of gasoline while reducing tailpipe emissions and well to wheel emissions overall. Propane is the number one alternative fuel in the world and offers an abundance of supply, liquid storage at low pressure, an excellent safety record and large cost savings when compared to traditional fuels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18854620", "title": "North American P-51 Mustang variants", "section": "Section::::Dimensions, performance and armament.:Power ratings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 213, "text": "The power of the engine could also change according to the octane rating of the aviation fuel being used. Higher octane fuels allowed boost pressures to be increased without the risks of pre-ignition or knocking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147242", "title": "Octane rating", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 971, "text": "An octane rating, or octane number, is a standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the octane number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before detonating (igniting). In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane rating are used in high-performance gasoline engines that require higher compression ratios. In contrast, fuels with lower octane numbers (but higher cetane numbers) are ideal for diesel engines, because diesel engines (also referred to as compression-ignition engines) do not compress the fuel, but rather compress only air and then inject fuel into the air which was heated by compression. Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture, which is ignited at the end of the compression stroke using spark plugs. Therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for gasoline engines. Use of gasoline with lower octane numbers may lead to the problem of engine knocking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147242", "title": "Octane rating", "section": "Section::::Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 511, "text": "The other rarely-discussed reality with high-octane fuels associated with \"high performance\" is that as octane increases, the specific gravity and energy content of the fuel per unit of weight are reduced. The net result is that to make a given amount of power, more high-octane fuel must be burned in the engine. Lighter and \"thinner\" fuel also has a lower specific heat, so the practice of running an engine \"rich\" to use excess fuel to aid in cooling requires richer and richer mixtures as octane increases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11567567", "title": "Energy-efficient driving", "section": "Section::::Techniques.:Fuel type.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 1536, "text": "Using high octane gasoline fuel in a vehicle that does not need it is generally considered an unnecessary expense, although Toyota \"has\" measured slight differences in efficiency due to octane number even when knock is not an issue. All vehicles in the United States built since 1996 are equipped with OBD-II on-board diagnostics and most models will have knock sensors that will automatically adjust the timing if and when pinging is detected, so low octane fuel can be used in an engine designed for high octane, with some reduction in efficiency and performance. If the engine is designed for high octane then higher octane fuel will result in higher efficiency and performance under certain load and mixture conditions. The energy released during combustion of hydrocarbon fuel increases as the molecule chain length decreases, so gasoline fuels with higher ratios of the shorter chain alkanes such as heptane, hexane, pentane, etc. can be used under certain load conditions and combustion chamber geometries to increase engine output which can lead to lower fuel consumption, although these fuels will be more susceptible to predetonation ping in high compression ratio engines. Gasoline direct injection compression ignition engines make more efficient use of the higher combustion energy short chain hydrocarbons as the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber during high compression which auto-ignites the fuel, minimizing the amount of time that the fuel is available in the combustion chamber for predetonation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hi there, since this is a crosspost linked to a very popular video on Reddit at the moment, I figured I should welcome some redditors unfamiliar with AskScience.\n\n Welcome to AskScience! We have a few specific rules on this subreddit, you can find them on the sidebar that way --- > \n\nIn a nutshell, please do not respond with personal anecdotes or speculations. Please stay on topic, even though you might have a funny tangent to get that sweet sweet karma (you can post that [joke here instead](_URL_0_)!).\n\nThanks\n\nAskScience Mod Team", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The water, under pressure from the weight of the ice above it, is shooting out of cracks in the ice, and the air temp is cold enough to instantly freeze the water. The new ice lands on top of the other ice, increasing the weight of ice and therefore the water pressure. The water jets out and freezes, and the cycle repeats. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1399625", "title": "Hummock", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 245, "text": "An ice hummock is a boss or rounded knoll of ice rising above the general level of an ice-field. Hummocky ice is caused by slow and unequal pressure in the main body of the packed ice, and by unequal structure and temperature at a later period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20321879", "title": "Ice (Lights song)", "section": "Section::::Music videos.:First version.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 474, "text": "The video for \"Ice\" consists mostly of two scenes. The first features a 2D cutout figured of Lights and two monsters. It shows Lights walking along a street texting her boyfriend sad faces and sorry notes. The monsters, one purple and one yellow, jump out of several cardboard boxes and begin chasing Lights who flees to her house. Her house is actually a mini-replica of the room shown in \"February Air\" and \"Drive My Soul\". The cutouts are all operated by Lights herself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46282858", "title": "Ice Princess (song)", "section": "Section::::Promotion.:Music video.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1061, "text": "The video for \"Ice Princess\" was directed by duo WeWereMonkeys. It was released on March 31, 2015, via Banks' VEVO channel. The video depicts Banks as the frozen leader of a robotic ninja army, with snakes for hair, in the style of Greek mythology's Medusa. She leads her CGI army into battle with a volcano that produces multicolored clouds, that eventually end up destroying her. Reviews of the video were positive. Kate Beaudoin of \"Mic\" called the video \"epic\", while \"Daily Mail\"'s Jennifer Pearson called it \"spine-tingling\" and according to James Rettig from Stereogum, it's a \"slick\" music video. Banks initially caused controversy with promotion for the song, posting pictures of her in makeup for the video, claiming she was in whiteface, which caused outrage on the internet. However, Banks ultimately revealed that she was trolling the media, and the makeup was not finished, being applied for the music video for \"Ice Princess\". She later tweeted \"Lol u crackers wish I cared enough to be doing whiteface. I'm becoming the ICE PRINCESS YAAAAAAS\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27321311", "title": "I Rep That West", "section": "Section::::Music video.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 381, "text": "Directed by Gabriel Hart, the video was shot in Santa Monica, and several places in Los Angeles including Memorial Coliseum and at the Hollywood Sign. Ice Cube goes back in time in the Wild, Wild West times. The video features Ice Cube driving a Lowrider, while his sons Doughboy, O'Shea Jackson Jr., and WC make cameo appearances. The video has had over 10 million YouTube views.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21078746", "title": "Ice circle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 209, "text": "Ice discs, ice circles, ice pans, or ice crepes are a natural phenomenon that occur in slow moving water in cold climates. They are thin circular slabs of ice that rotate slowly on a body of water's surface. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22827171", "title": "Fanboy & Chum Chum", "section": "Section::::Characters.:Minor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 279, "text": "BULLET::::- The Ice Monster is a frighteningly large beast created from the combination of Frosty Freezy Freeze and Ice-Monster Bun Bun, in the pilot episode from Random! Cartoons. It reappears in \"Brain Freeze\" when Blue-Tonium and Radioactive Red Frosty Freezy Freeze combine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "999934", "title": "Minnesota Iceman", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 380, "text": "The Minnesota Iceman is a sideshow exhibit and elaborate hoax that depicts a fake man-like creature frozen in a block of ice. It was displayed at shopping malls, state fairs, and carnivals in the United States and Canada in the 1960s and early 1970s and promoted as the \"missing link\" between man and Neanderthals. It was sold on eBay in 2013 and put on display in Austin, Texas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Go to a quality site like _URL_0_, create a portfolio (used to be free, now it might require basic membership of around $7 a month, not sure), and set the parameters (such as how much the assumed cost is per transaction fee, account value, etc...)\n\n\nNow, this imaginary portfolio will be tracked and charted as though it was real. Spend a few months learning about the stock market, and buying and selling the money in this portfolio as you think you should. \n\n\nAs you learn and develop new strategies, create new portfolios and test them in a the same fashion. After a few months, you can see EXACTLY how successful the different strategies were... review what worked and what didn't.\n\n\nTHEN, and only then, open a real account and put it on the line. I would recommend Scottrade.\n\n\nIf you figure out a formula that works, the HARDEST THING IN THE WORLD is to stick to it. Don't get greedy... it is easier than you think. Stick to your plan, or stop, scrap the plan in its entirety and re-evaluate before continuing.\n\n\nSOURCE: Used to daytrade a LOT... as in, highest volume year had a 40 page transaction report on my tax return with almost $4 million in trades.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I hope you're not American, cause if you are, you need more money", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1115680", "title": "Jovan Kirovski", "section": "Section::::Club career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 305, "text": "\"My job is constant— like the stock market, I have to know value of how much people pay— Sweden, France. I know what he can make in MLS, China, Germany. I know that and I am up-to-date with the market. You have to know the world markets in terms of how much people earn and the values of certain players.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48732", "title": "Pyramid scheme", "section": "Section::::Connection to multi-level marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 347, "text": "The Federal Trade Commission warns, \"It’s best not to get involved in plans where the money you make is based primarily on the number of distributors you recruit and your sales to them, rather than on your sales to people outside the plan who intend to use the products.\" It states that research is your best tool and gives eight steps to follow:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27948608", "title": "¿Quién quiere ser millonario? (Venezuelan game show)", "section": "Section::::Rules.:First Step: Let's play Millionaire!\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 525, "text": "There are two ways to participate by calling the \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?\" 0900-900-1009 or sending a text message to your age, sex and identification number from any phone to the number 6724 and follow the instructions of the system. The call comes at a cost of 0.60 BSF BS or 595 plus the cost of local call and every text message will cost $0.50 F or 500 BS. Both options will be three questions, you have five seconds to answer correctly each and have the option to participate in \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27948608", "title": "¿Quién quiere ser millonario? (Venezuelan game show)", "section": "Section::::Rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 537, "text": "First step: There are two ways to participate by calling the \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?\" 0900-900-1009 or sending a text message to your age, sex and identification number from any phone to the number 6724 and follow the instructions of the system. The call comes at a cost of 0.60 BSF BS or 595 plus the cost of local call and every text message will cost $0.50 F or 500 BS. Both options will be three questions, you have five seconds to answer correctly each and have the option to participate in \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10442694", "title": "Manuel P. Asensio", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 361, "text": "If you do identify a security that's trading significantly above its fundamental value and if there are a set of representations made by a company which you find to be faulty, and that those representations impact the stock price, you will make money. If you have the sophistication to be able to trade, you will be able to make a substantial amount of money.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23900638", "title": "List of Internet phenomena in China", "section": "Section::::Memes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 487, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Make 100 million first\" (先挣它一个亿) — During a 2016 interview, talk show host Chen Luyu asked Wanda Group chairman and Asia's richest man Wang Jianlin what his advice was for young people whose goal was to \"become the richest person,\" Wang responded, \"first, set a small goal. For instance, let's make one hundred million first.\" That Wang referred to an astronomical sum of money as a \"small goal\" was derided on social media, with many spoofs appearing parodying the phrase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "312007", "title": "James F. Byrnes", "section": "Section::::United States Senate and Supreme Court.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 246, "text": "I admit I am a New Dealer, and if [the New Deal] takes money from the few who have controlled the country and gives it back to the average man, I am going to Washington to help the President work for the people of South Carolina and the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are a couple of diagrams [here](_URL_0_) that illustrate the direction and *relative* magnitude of tidal acceleration over the surface of the earth.\n\nNote that I would not describe this exactly as \"the moon's gravity tugging on the Earth's surface water.\" This can at least potentially be misleading; for example, consider the example presented in the link above: what would be the effect on the tides of a *second* moon, on the opposite side of the earth (at the same distance)? Would the gravitational \"tugging\" of the two moons \"cancel\" the tides, or increase them? (Answer: the latter.)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19331", "title": "Moon", "section": "Section::::Earth-Moon system.:Tidal effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 982, "text": "In a like manner, the lunar surface experiences tides of around amplitude over 27 days, with two components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, and a varying component from the Sun. The Earth-induced component arises from libration, a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular, there would only be solar tides). Libration also changes the angle from which the Moon is seen, allowing a total of about 59% of its surface to be seen from Earth over time. The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of the absence of water to damp out the seismic vibrations. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30718", "title": "Tide", "section": "Section::::Physics.:Amplitude and cycle time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 968, "text": "The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of , while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to . Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5672031", "title": "Orbit of the Moon", "section": "Section::::Tidal evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 791, "text": "The gravitational attraction that the Moon exerts on Earth is the cause of tides in the sea; the Sun has a smaller tidal influence. If Earth had a global ocean of uniform depth, the Moon would act to deform both the solid Earth (by a small amount) and the ocean in the shape of an ellipsoid with the high points roughly beneath the Moon and on the opposite side of Earth. However, because of the presence of the continents, Earth's much faster rotation and varying ocean depths, this simplistic visualisation does not happen. Although the tidal flow period is generally synchronized to the Moon's orbit around Earth, its relative timing varies greatly. In some places on Earth, there is only one high tide per day, whereas others such as Southampton have four, though this is somewhat rare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30647", "title": "Tidal acceleration", "section": "Section::::Earth–Moon system.:Discovery history of the secular acceleration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 905, "text": "It took some time for the astronomical community to accept the reality and the scale of tidal effects. But eventually it became clear that three effects are involved, when measured in terms of mean solar time. Beside the effects of perturbational changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity, as found by Laplace and corrected by Adams, there are two tidal effects (a combination first suggested by Emmanuel Liais). First there is a real retardation of the Moon's angular rate of orbital motion, due to tidal exchange of angular momentum between Earth and Moon. This increases the Moon's angular momentum around Earth (and moves the Moon to a higher orbit with a lower orbital speed). Secondly there is an apparent increase in the Moon's angular rate of orbital motion (when measured in terms of mean solar time). This arises from Earth's loss of angular momentum and the consequent increase in length of day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9228", "title": "Earth", "section": "Section::::Moon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 462, "text": "The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41044068", "title": "Long period tide", "section": "Section::::Effect on lunar orbit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 988, "text": "The effect of long-period tides on lunar orbit is a controversial topic, some literatures conclude the long-period tides accelerate the moon and slow down the earth. However Cheng found that dissipation of the long-period tides brakes the moon and actually accelerates the earth's rotation. To explain this, they assumed the earth's rotation depends not directly on the derivation of the forcing potential for the long period tides, so the form and period of the long-period constituents is independent of the rotation rate. For these constituents, the moon (or sun) can be thought of as orbiting a non-rotating earth in a plane with the appropriate inclination to the equator. Then the tidal \"bulge\" lags behind the orbiting moon thus decelerating it in its orbit (bringing it closer to the earth), and by angular momentum conservation, the earth's rotation must accelerate. But this argument is qualitative, and a quantitative resolution of the conflicting conclusions is still needed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4536514", "title": "Babylonian astronomy", "section": "Section::::Neo-Babylonian astronomy.:Heliocentric astronomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 522, "text": "According to Lucio Russo, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of tides. Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the Moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the Earth's atmosphere. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Honestly an ELI5 is just going to tell you want to think. There numerous lists and sites out there which go over his stance (as well as others) on individual issues.\n\n[Use the search](_URL_0_), there are 20 threads on Paul here. Check r/libertarian too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Wikipedia](_URL_0_) has a great article that I actually just read today. Very basic and informative.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In a nutshell, \"Mind your own damned business.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Video introductions: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here is a more recent intro site that lays out major issues: _URL_1_\n\nAlso, for a more detailed introduction about a particular issue, you can check out the online version of his new book, Liberty Defined: \n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Honestly an ELI5 is just going to tell you want to think. There numerous lists and sites out there which go over his stance (as well as others) on individual issues.\n\n[Use the search](_URL_0_), there are 20 threads on Paul here. Check r/libertarian too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Wikipedia](_URL_0_) has a great article that I actually just read today. Very basic and informative.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In a nutshell, \"Mind your own damned business.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Video introductions: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here is a more recent intro site that lays out major issues: _URL_1_\n\nAlso, for a more detailed introduction about a particular issue, you can check out the online version of his new book, Liberty Defined: \n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15549498", "title": "The Revolution: A Manifesto", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Reviews.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 592, "text": "David Weigel of \"Reason\" reviewed the book favorably, comparing Paul's political ideas to those of fellow anti-war conservative Sen. Chuck Hagel. \"Paul has a grand unified theory to offer readers, knowing full well that he's opening minds, not programming them,\" Weigel wrote, adding that Paul \"offers readers, first and foremost, the lesson that 'leaders' and universally accepted concepts shouldn't be trusted. It is worried and informed neostructuralists who can change things, not historical 'great men.' If Ron Paul doesn't provide perfect solutions, he certainly provides a blueprint.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24026546", "title": "Ron Paul 1988 presidential campaign", "section": "Section::::General election campaign.:Spreading the message.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1111, "text": "Paul traveled to Rome, Georgia and appeared at the downtown Holiday Inn in November 1987. During the appearance, he railed against the policies of Washington D.C., commenting that there was no difference between the two major parties, and that both supported \"intervention overseas, ... in our personal lives ... [and] in the marketplace.\" Paul went on to compare his Libertarian ideology to the mindset of the founding fathers. The next month, vice presidential nominee Andre Marrou traveled to Texas and discussed the Paul campaign's prospects. He opined that the ticket could possibly win 2 to 12 million votes in the following year's election, and that Paul might win if Jesse Jackson and Pat Robertson were selected as the Democratic and Republican presidential nominees, respectively. He explained that America did not want a preacher as president. Since the chance that either of those candidates would be named as their party's representative seemed unlikely, by this point in the election one of the campaign's priorities was securing a place on the ballot, which they had done in 20 of the 50 states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39531", "title": "1988 United States presidential election", "section": "Section::::Other nominations.:Libertarian Party.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 497, "text": "Ron Paul and Andre Marrou formed the ticket for the Libertarian Party. Their campaign called for the adoption of a global policy on military nonintervention, advocated an end to the federal government's involvement with education, and criticized Reagan's \"bailout\" of the Soviet Union. Paul was a former member of the U.S. House of Representatives, first elected as a Republican from Texas in an April 1976 special election. He protested the War on Drugs in a letter to Drug Czar William Bennett.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17234920", "title": "Paulville", "section": "Section::::Reaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1148, "text": "The site was chosen by and for the large market of \"100% Ron Paul supporters and or people that live by the ideals of freedom and liberty\"; motivated followers of Paul have been estimated to number several hundred thousand, have had fundraising history that suggests \"seemingly bottomless bank accounts\", and appear not to be giving up in pursuing his campaign goals. Paulville has attracted mixed reviews. The alternative Seattle \"Stranger\" found it suitable for those who have \"the covenant of freedom espoused by Ron Paul guiding their every decision\". The Houston-based \"Lone Star Times\" referred to founding members as \"Paulvillains\" and as creating \"an insane asylum\", and presented diverse posts from forum members, while Philly.com and \"Reason\" anticipated other \"dusty exurbs\" named after presidential candidates, both citing \"Bidentown\" as an imaginary example. The \"Guardian\" expects shareholders to be interested in libertarian views like \"the right to wield semi-automatic weapons and the abolition of income tax\", and the \"Economist\" wonders whether the new town constitutes \"a framework for utopia, or just a hilarious catastrophe\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168715", "title": "Ron Paul", "section": "Section::::Political positions.:Social issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 402, "text": "Paul was critical of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, arguing that it sanctioned federal interference in the labor market and did not improve race relations. He once remarked: \"The Civil Rights Act of 1964 not only violated the Constitution and reduced individual liberty; it also failed to achieve its stated goals of promoting racial harmony and a color-blind society\". Paul opposes affirmative action.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55762944", "title": "The Only Story", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 273, "text": "Paul is a quintessentially alienated character. With no interest in either politics or religion, and no particular ambition, he takes life as it comes. As he narrates his life in this book, he freely admits that memory is unreliable and he may not be telling us the truth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "952322", "title": "Eric Margolis (journalist)", "section": "Section::::Work.:Political views on United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 508, "text": "In a 2009 column, Margolis stated that an American politician he very much admires is Ron Paul. Margolis wrote about Paul:I came to deeply respect and admire Paul's courage, honesty, and his refusal to accept special interest money ... In fact, Rep. Paul has been a model of the type of legislators envisaged by America's founding fathers: men of high moral standards and intellect dedicated to the nation's wellbeing. He reminds me in many ways of the fiercely upright senators of the early Roman Republic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > Latent heat of vaporization.\nIt's generally accepted that water always boils when it reaches exactly 100 Celsius. This is not entirely the case, but we'll assume that it's true for the explanation since it illustrates the point.\nOnce water hits 100 degrees, all heat added to the system no longer raises its temperature; instead the extra energy allows water molecules to break free from the surface tension and escape into the atmosphere, even if the atmosphere is already saturated with water. This is what we characterize as the state change from liquid to gas.\nThis extra energy is not added symmetrically to the collection of liquid; rather, it's transferred as radiant or conducted heat from one or multiple directions. The thin layer of water closest to the heat source absorbs the energy and creates a localized state change into a gas, which can then be reabsorbed by the water and the energy distributed, or can rise as a bubble with more gaseous water and escape the liquid. The more energy you add at the boiling point, the more water that turns to a gas, and the more violent the boil. Convection then replenishes the water against the heat source, which absorbs sufficient heat to vaporize and the cycle continues.\nIf you have a sufficiently hot source and a sufficiently small amount of water, you can flash boil an entire collection of water, like if you throw a cup of water on a lava flow or hot fire - nearly all of the water vaporizes at once. However, this requires a great amount of surface area for the water to contact the heat source, and a very large heat differential between the two.\n\ncourtesy of /u/techadams", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Two reasons:\n\n* The water does not reach boiling temperature all at once - it is heated from somewhere, and the water closer to the source of heat reaches it first. It forms bubbles of steam, and then you get all the incredibly complex circus of fluid dynamics going.\n* It takes a considerable amount of extra energy to go from water at 100°C to steam at 100°C, the [enthalpy of vaporization](_URL_0_) - this makes the whole process \"jerky\".\n\nThe two points together result in the familiar \"boiling\" process with bubbles", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With regards to the Maxwell Distribution, the molecules at the water's surface boils first, then as those molecules leave, the next layer of water molecules boils off and so on. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 627, "text": "Water and other homogeneous liquids can superheat when heated in a microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven or while adding solid ingredients such as powdered creamer or sugar. This can result in spontaneous boiling (nucleation) which may be violent enough to eject the boiling liquid from the container and cause severe scalding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213088", "title": "RBMK", "section": "Section::::Design flaws and safety issues.:High positive void coefficient.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 659, "text": "In the case of evaporation of water to steam, the place occupied by water would be occupied by water vapor, which has a density vastly lower than that of liquid water (the exact number depends on pressure and temperature; at standard conditions, steam is about as dense as liquid water). Because of this lower density (of mass, and consequently of atom nuclei able to absorb neutrons), light water's neutron-absorption capability practically disappears when it boils. This allows more neutrons to fission more U-235 nuclei and thereby increase the reactor power, which leads to higher temperatures that boil even more water, creating a thermal feedback loop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52636", "title": "Boiling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 330, "text": "Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70 °C (158 °F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12293642", "title": "Boiler (power generation)", "section": "Section::::Combustion.:Superheater.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 368, "text": "A greater quantity of steam can be generated from a given quantity of water by superheating it. As the fire is burning at a much higher temperature than the saturated steam it produces, far more heat can be transferred to the once-formed steam by superheating it and turning the water droplets suspended therein into more steam and greatly reducing water consumption.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24027000", "title": "Properties of water", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.:Density of water and ice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 489, "text": "These effects are due to the reduction of thermal motion with cooling, which allows water molecules to form more hydrogen bonds that prevent the molecules from coming close to each other. While below 4 °C the breakage of hydrogen bonds due to heating allows water molecules to pack closer despite the increase in the thermal motion (which tends to expand a liquid), above 4 °C water expands as the temperature increases. Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175722", "title": "Boiler", "section": "Section::::Superheated steam boiler.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 815, "text": "When water is boiled the result is saturated steam, also referred to as \"wet steam.\" Saturated steam, while mostly consisting of water vapor, carries some unevaporated water in the form of droplets. Saturated steam is useful for many purposes, such as cooking, heating and sanitation, but is not desirable when steam is expected to convey energy to machinery, such as a ship's propulsion system or the \"motion\" of a steam locomotive. This is because unavoidable temperature and/or pressure loss that occurs as steam travels from the boiler to the machinery will cause some condensation, resulting in liquid water being carried into the machinery. The water entrained in the steam may damage turbine blades or in the case of a reciprocating steam engine, may cause serious mechanical damage due to hydrostatic lock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52636", "title": "Boiling", "section": "Section::::Uses.:For making water potable.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 433, "text": "The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than and bringing it to its boiling point is also a useful indication that can be seen without the help of a thermometer, and by this time, the water is disinfected. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Cartilage transition happens in 4 zones, with details [here](_URL_1_).\n\nAll parts of the cartilage is important for load distribution, but where a transition from cartilagenous histology to more bone-like histology appears at the *tidemark* zone. A really good picture of this can be found [here](_URL_0_) showing the transition from more pliant non-calcified cartilage to the hardened calcified cartilage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1311539", "title": "Intramembranous ossification", "section": "Section::::Formation of osteon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 424, "text": "Osteons are components or principal structures of compact bone. During the formation of bone spicules, cytoplasmic processes from osteoblasts interconnect. This becomes the canaliculi of osteons. Since bone spicules tend to form around blood vessels, the perivascular space is greatly reduced as the bone continues to grow. When replacement to compact bone occurs, this blood vessel becomes the central canal of the osteon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1311158", "title": "Endochondral ossification", "section": "Section::::Fracture healing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 381, "text": "During fracture healing, cartilage is often formed and is called callus. This cartilage ultimately develops into new bone tissue through the process of endochondral ossification. Recently it has been shown that biomimetic bone like apatite inhibits formation of bone through endochondral ossification pathway via hyperstimulation of extracellular calcium sensing receptor (CaSR). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1427908", "title": "Ossification", "section": "Section::::Endochondral ossification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 442, "text": "In long bones, bone tissue first appears in the diaphysis (middle of shaft). Chondrocytes multiply and form trebeculae. Cartilage is progressively eroded and replaced by hardened bone, extending towards the epiphysis. A perichondrium layer surrounding the cartilage forms the periosteum, which generates osteogenic cells that then go on to make a collar that encircles the outside of the bone and remodels the medullary cavity on the inside.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "166945", "title": "Cartilage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 492, "text": "Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than muscle. The matrix of cartilage is made up of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, collagen fibers and, sometimes, elastin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57233472", "title": "Glossary of medicine", "section": "Section::::C.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 439, "text": "BULLET::::- Cartilage – is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than muscle.The matrix of cartilage is made up of chondrin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "419986", "title": "Osteoblast", "section": "Section::::Bone remodeling.:Osteoclasts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 761, "text": "Osteoclasts break down bone tissue, and along with osteoblasts and osteocytes form the structural components of bone. In the hollow within bones are many other cell types of the bone marrow. Components that are essential for osteoblast bone formation include mesenchymal stem cells (osteoblast precursor) and blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients for bone formation. Bone is a highly vascular tissue, and active formation of blood vessel cells, also from mesenchymal stem cells, is essential to support the metabolic activity of bone. The balance of bone formation and bone resorption tends to be negative with age, particularly in post-menopausal women, often leading to a loss of bone serious enough to cause fractures, which is called osteoporosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "419986", "title": "Osteoblast", "section": "Section::::Mineralization of bone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 808, "text": "Osteoblasts separate bone from the extracellular fluid by tight junctions by regulated transport. Unlike in cartilage, phosphate and calcium cannot move in or out by passive diffusion, because the tight osteoblast junctions isolate the bone formation space. Calcium is transported across osteoblasts by facilitated transport (that is, by passive transporters, which do not pump calcium against a gradient). In contrast, phosphate is actively produced by a combination of secretion of phosphate-containing compounds, including ATP, and by phosphatases that cleave phosphate to create a high phosphate concentration at the mineralization front. Alkaline phosphatase is a membrane-anchored protein that is a characteristic marker expressed in large amounts at the apical (secretory) face of active osteoblasts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The water you drink travels through your digestive system to get absorbed by cells lining your small intestines and large intestines. These cells pass the water on into your bloodstream, and hence water circulates as blood around your body.\n\nBlood vessels supply the cells in your body with water, oxygen, and other nutrients via diffusion and through other channels. These nutrients are essential for every cell in your body to perform their function \n\nSimilarly, cells in your lacrimal glands (which produce tears) and salivary glands (comprising submandibular, submental, and parotid glands) will use these nutrients as well, and they function to combine water with other substances to form tears and saliva respectively.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "479385", "title": "Extracellular fluid", "section": "Section::::Regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 464, "text": "The sodium ions in the ECF also play an important role in the movement of water from one body compartment to the other. When tears are secreted, or saliva is formed, sodium ions are pumped from the ECF into the ducts in which these fluids are formed and collected. The water content of these solutions results from the fact water follows the sodium ions (and accompanying anions) osmotically. The same principle applies to the formation of many other body fluids.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2906037", "title": "Tears of wine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 326, "text": "The phenomenon called tears of wine is manifested as a ring of clear liquid, near the top of a glass of wine, from which droplets continuously form and drop back into the wine. It is most readily observed in a wine which has a high alcohol content. It is also referred to as wine legs, \"fingers\", curtains, or church windows.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14001249", "title": "Wine tasting descriptors", "section": "Section::::I–P.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 204, "text": "BULLET::::- Legs: The tracks of liquid that cling to the sides of a glass after the contents have been swirled. Often said to be related to the alcohol or glycerol content of a wine. Also called \"tears\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22221930", "title": "Punctoplasty", "section": "Section::::Rationale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 371, "text": "Tears are produced by the lacrimal gland, situated just outside the eye. Blinking the eyelids distributes the tears to keep the eyes moist, clean and lubricated. Excess tears are drained via the punctum through the tiny channels called canaliculi located on the inner side of the eyes into the tear sac, from there to the tear duct, the nose and finally down the throat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17389946", "title": "Crying", "section": "Section::::Lacrimal system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 530, "text": "The lacrimal system is made up of a secretory system, which produces tears, and an excretory system, which drains the tears. The lacrimal gland is primarily responsible for producing emotional or reflexive tears. As tears are produced, some fluid evaporates between blinks, and some is drained through the lacrimal punctum. The tears that are drained through the punctum will eventually be drained through the nose. Any excess fluid that did not go into the punctum will fall over the eyelid, which produces tears that are cried.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1852572", "title": "Marangoni effect", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 979, "text": "As an example, wine may exhibit a visible effect called \"tears\", as shown in the photograph. The effect is a consequence of the fact that alcohol has a lower surface tension and higher volatility than water. The water/alcohol solution rises up the surface of the glass due to capillary action. Alcohol evaporates from the film leaving behind liquid with a higher surface tension (more water, less alcohol). This region with a lower concentration of alcohol (greater surface tension) pulls on the surrounding fluid more strongly than the regions with a higher alcohol concentration (lower in the glass). The result is the liquid is pulled up until its own weight exceeds the force of the effect, and the liquid drips back down the vessel's walls. This can also be easily demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface and then allowing a drop of alcohol to fall on the center of the film. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66254", "title": "Drinking", "section": "Section::::Methods: Humans & Animals.:In humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 559, "text": "When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's a very interesting theory about this, called the sperm (or semen) displacement theory. It goes a little something like this.\n\nWay back when, humans, and in particular, human males, weren't so much into the pair-bonding thing, and women regularly had sex with multiple men. This meant that the sperm in the woman's vagina (which can live for a few days) wasn't necessarily 100% yours. Larger penises with coronal ridges (that is, a long shaft with a slightly wider head) created a \"vacuum scraper\" that essentially allowed the most recent male mate to scrape away the semen from the previous mate. Larger penises achieved this more effectively than smaller penises, giving them the selective advantage necessary to become a relatively common trait among human males.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20598355", "title": "Human penis size", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 407, "text": "The human penis is thicker than that of any other primate, both in absolute terms and relative to the rest of the body. Early research, based on inaccurate measurements, concluded that the human penis was also longer. In fact, the penis of the common chimpanzee is no shorter than in humans, averaging 14.4 cm (5.7 inches), and some other primates have comparable penis sizes relative to their body weight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18885237", "title": "Sexual selection in humans", "section": "Section::::Sexual dimorphism.:Sexual anatomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 629, "text": "\"Homo\" has a thicker penis than the other great apes, though it is on average no longer than the chimpanzee's. It has been suggested the evolution of the human penis towards larger size was the result of female choice rather than sperm competition, which generally favors large testicles. However, penis size may have been subject to natural selection, rather than sexual selection, due to a larger penis' efficiency in displacing the sperm of rival males during sexual intercourse. A model study showed displacement of semen was directly proportional to the depth of pelvic thrusting, as an efficient semen displacement device.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12137890", "title": "Human penis", "section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 465, "text": "The human penis differs from those of most other mammals, as it has no baculum (or erectile bone) and instead relies entirely on engorgement with blood to reach its erect state. A distal ligament buttresses the glans penis and plays an integral role to the penile fibroskeleton, and the structure is called \"os analog,\" a term coined by Geng Long Hsu in the Encyclopedia of Reproduction. It is a remnant of baculum evolved likely due to change in mating practice. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50412926", "title": "Human sperm competition", "section": "Section::::Physiological adaptations to sperm competition.:Penis anatomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 844, "text": "Several features of the anatomy of the human penis are proposed to serve as adaptations to sperm competition, including the length of the penis and the shape of the penile head. By weight, the relative penis size of human males is similar to that of chimpanzees, although the overall length of the human penis is the largest among primates. It has been suggested by some authors that penis size is constrained by the size of the female reproductive tract (which, in turn is likely constrained by the availability of space in the female body), and that longer penises may have an advantage in depositing semen closer to the female cervix. Other studies have suggested that over our evolutionary history, the penis would have been conspicuous without clothing, and may have evolved its increased size due to female preference for longer penises.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2151644", "title": "Hemipenis", "section": "Section::::Other vertebrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 491, "text": "Among vertebrates, penises can be found in a variety of shapes, sizes and structures, such as the lymphatic erection mechanism of ratites and the single vascular erectile body of turtles. One of the most similar organs to the squamata hemipenes, however, is the four-headed penis of echidnas. One of the most primitive mammals in the world, echidnas possess internal testes like squamata and similarly alternate usage of sides. Unlike squamata, however, their singular penis is four-headed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4149673", "title": "The Naked Ape", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 561, "text": "Morris said that \"Homo sapiens\" not only have the largest brains of all higher primates, but that sexual selection in human evolution has caused humans to have the highest ratio of penis size to body mass. Morris conjectured that human ear-lobes developed as an additional erogenous zone to facilitate the extended sexuality necessary in the evolution of human monogamous pair bonding. Morris further stated that the more rounded shape of human female breasts means they are mainly a sexual signalling device rather than simply for providing milk for infants. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20598355", "title": "Human penis size", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 456, "text": "The most accurate measurement of the size of a human penis can be derived from several readings at different times since there is natural minor variability in size depending upon arousal level, time of day, room temperature, frequency of sexual activity, and reliability of measurement. When compared to other primates, including large examples such as the gorilla, the human penis is thickest, both in absolute terms and relative to the rest of the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No. You'll burn extra fuel getting up the hill, but you won't save that much going down the other side, because your engine will be (at least) idling, which consumes some fuel.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " In my personal experience of driving a manual transmission car around Colorado I can actually get better fuel economy driving in mountainous terrain then I get driving on flat land. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23714374", "title": "Energy conservation in the United States", "section": "Section::::Transportation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 921, "text": "Fuel economy-maximizing behaviors also help reduce fuel consumption. Among the most effective are moderate (as opposed to aggressive) driving, driving at lower speeds, using cruise control, and turning off a vehicle's engine at stops rather than idling. A vehicle's gas mileage decreases rapidly with increasing highway speeds, normally above 55 miles per hour (though the exact number varies by vehicle), because aerodynamic forces are proportionally related to the square of an object's speed (when the speed is doubled, drag quadruples). According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), as a rule of thumb, each one drives over is similar to paying an additional $0.30 per gallon for gas. The exact speed at which a vehicle achieves its highest efficiency varies based on the vehicle's drag coefficient, frontal area, surrounding air speed, and the efficiency and gearing of a vehicle's drive train and transmission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "149861", "title": "Work (physics)", "section": "Section::::Work–energy principle.:Coasting down a mountain road (gravity racing).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 353, "text": "Consider the case of a vehicle that starts at rest and coasts down a mountain road, the work-energy principle helps compute the minimum distance that the vehicle travels to reach a velocity \"V\", of say 60 mph (88 fps). Rolling resistance and air drag will slow the vehicle down so the actual distance will be greater than if these forces are neglected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7261826", "title": "Sheppee", "section": "Section::::Sheppee Cycleaid.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 212, "text": "Note: The engine unit increased the weight of a cycle by 35 lb. It was claimed that it would propel a bicycle at speeds from 3 mph to 20 mph and that a 100-mile journey could be completed on a full tank of fuel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "440246", "title": "Corporate average fuel economy", "section": "Section::::Active debate.:Increased automobile usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 518, "text": "As fuel efficiency rises, people may drive their cars more, which can mitigate some of fuel savings and the decrease in carbon dioxide emissions from the higher standards. According to the National Academies Report (Page 19) a 10% improvement in fuel efficiency leads to an average increase in travel distance of 1–2%. This phenomenon is referred to as the \"rebound effect\". The report stated (page 20) that the fuel efficiency improvements of light-duty vehicles have reduced the overall U.S. emissions of CO2 by 7%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1301655", "title": "Toyota JZ engine", "section": "Section::::1JZ.:1JZ-FSE.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 225, "text": "This is necessary to run at extremely lean air-fuel ratios around 20 to 40:1 at certain engine load and revs. Not surprisingly, fuel consumption is reduced by around 20 percent (when tested in the Japanese 10/15 urban mode).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11567567", "title": "Energy-efficient driving", "section": "Section::::Techniques.:Acceleration and deceleration (braking).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 252, "text": "Generally, fuel efficiency is maximized when acceleration and braking are minimized. So a fuel-efficient strategy is to anticipate what is happening ahead, and drive in such a way so as to minimize acceleration and braking, and maximize coasting time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56462262", "title": "Škoda 633", "section": "Section::::Across the Sahara.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 264, "text": "The difficult journey increased fuel consumption to an average of 13.75 litres per 100 km. On the harshest section, which took him south to Gao, consumption rose to 18 litres per 100 km. But the car remained reliable and completed the journey without a breakdown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "0-4ish: pre-school, this is optional but is correlated with higher socioeconomic status and attending is shown to be a good predictor of future success.\n\n5-11: kingergarten (grade 0) and grades 1-6, this is called elementary or primary school.\n\n12-13: middle school, or junior high school. grades 7-8\n\n14-17: high school or senior high school, grades 9-12, with years referred to as freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior. These schools are separated differently depending on the school districts. My schooling has grades 0-6 in one school and 7-12 in another school. This is compulsory until the age of 16.\n\n18+ is university, which typically starts with about 4 years of an undergraduate program, and usually culminates with a bachelor of science or a bachelor of arts, but there are also other programs, such as 5 year engineering programs which end with a masters, or other vocational programs like nursing, etc. Some people decided to go to community college first, which are typically local to each county, and have 2-year programs that reward an associates degree, which can later be applied to the first two years of a 4-year program at a university. Community colleges also have vocational programs like the trades (carpentry, electrician, mechanic), and may have other programs like nursing.\n\nAfter you have a 4-year degree, you can choose to pursue higher (postgraduate) education. Most masters and doctorate programs are examples of postgraduate education.\n\nIn the sciences, most candidates pursuing PhDs are fully funded by their university, and some receive a Masters degree along the way. PhD programs typically take about six years and must include original research.\n\nIn engineering or the liberal arts, you can go for a masters or PhD but these programs are less likely to be funded. A masters usually takes 2-3 years.\n\nThere are also the professions, such as medicine, dentistry, and law, which have their own separate schools and processes, but are still likely to be part of the major universities. These programs are all very expensive, and can be extremely competitive to get into. A typical MD will graduate with $250,000 in debt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Something small to add onto what DoubleSidedTape said.\n\nThe specifics of the earlier years very quite a bit even among public education based on state.\n\nIn some cases grades 6 and/or 9 are even considered part of a middle school.\n\nI don't know if colleges and universities have any specific \"rules\" for the name, but if so it would likely be tied to whether they offer masters or above education, which is as far as I know always associated with schools called \"universities\".\n\nAlso, unlike our british counterparts, we don't \"go to university\", that just sounds strange to most americans.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "0-4ish: pre-school, this is optional but is correlated with higher socioeconomic status and attending is shown to be a good predictor of future success.\n\n5-11: kingergarten (grade 0) and grades 1-6, this is called elementary or primary school.\n\n12-13: middle school, or junior high school. grades 7-8\n\n14-17: high school or senior high school, grades 9-12, with years referred to as freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior. These schools are separated differently depending on the school districts. My schooling has grades 0-6 in one school and 7-12 in another school. This is compulsory until the age of 16.\n\n18+ is university, which typically starts with about 4 years of an undergraduate program, and usually culminates with a bachelor of science or a bachelor of arts, but there are also other programs, such as 5 year engineering programs which end with a masters, or other vocational programs like nursing, etc. Some people decided to go to community college first, which are typically local to each county, and have 2-year programs that reward an associates degree, which can later be applied to the first two years of a 4-year program at a university. Community colleges also have vocational programs like the trades (carpentry, electrician, mechanic), and may have other programs like nursing.\n\nAfter you have a 4-year degree, you can choose to pursue higher (postgraduate) education. Most masters and doctorate programs are examples of postgraduate education.\n\nIn the sciences, most candidates pursuing PhDs are fully funded by their university, and some receive a Masters degree along the way. PhD programs typically take about six years and must include original research.\n\nIn engineering or the liberal arts, you can go for a masters or PhD but these programs are less likely to be funded. A masters usually takes 2-3 years.\n\nThere are also the professions, such as medicine, dentistry, and law, which have their own separate schools and processes, but are still likely to be part of the major universities. These programs are all very expensive, and can be extremely competitive to get into. A typical MD will graduate with $250,000 in debt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Something small to add onto what DoubleSidedTape said.\n\nThe specifics of the earlier years very quite a bit even among public education based on state.\n\nIn some cases grades 6 and/or 9 are even considered part of a middle school.\n\nI don't know if colleges and universities have any specific \"rules\" for the name, but if so it would likely be tied to whether they offer masters or above education, which is as far as I know always associated with schools called \"universities\".\n\nAlso, unlike our british counterparts, we don't \"go to university\", that just sounds strange to most americans.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3163574", "title": "Central University of Venezuela", "section": "Section::::Organization and degrees.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 298, "text": "All schools offer undergraduate degrees at the level of Licenciatura (5 years) and graduate degrees at the level of master's degree (2 years) and PhD (3–4 years) from the Graduate School. The Graduate School, founded in 1941, offers 222 different specializations, 109 Master's degrees and 40 PhDs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47929623", "title": "List of doctoral degrees in the US", "section": "Section::::Types of doctorate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 421, "text": "The United States Department of Education published a \"Structure of US Education\" in 2008 that differentiated between associate degrees, bachelor's degrees, first professional degrees, master's degrees, intermediate graduate qualifications and research doctorate degrees. This included doctoral degrees in the \"first professional degree\", \"intermediate graduate qualification\" and \"research doctorate degree\" categories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4157", "title": "Brown University", "section": "Section::::Academics.:The Graduate School.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 342, "text": "Established in 1887, the Graduate School has around 2,000 students studying over 50 disciplines. 20 different master's degrees are offered as well as Ph.D. degrees in over 40 subjects ranging from applied mathematics to public policy. Overall, admission to the Graduate School is most competitive with an acceptance rate of about 10 percent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "568930", "title": "Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations", "section": "Section::::Organization and degree programs.:Graduate programs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 319, "text": "Graduate-level degrees offered through the Graduate School include the Master of Industrial and Labor Relations (MILR), the dual MILR/Master of Business Administration (MBA) (joint with the Johnson School), the Master of Professional Studies (MPS), the Executive Master of Human Resource Management, and the M.S./Ph.D.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "133421", "title": "Upper Dublin Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania", "section": "Section::::Education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 299, "text": "There are four elementary schools (K-5), one middle school (6-8) and one high school (9-12) which are fully accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. The professional staff has an average of 16 years teaching experience and approximately 85 percent hold advanced degrees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1886191", "title": "Specialist degree", "section": "Section::::Specialist degree in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 812, "text": "The coursework for an Ed.S. or Sp.A. in Education program is approximately the same workload as a second Master's in terms of credits. But whereas coursework for the initial Master's degree is from the introductory and lower intermediate levels of graduate study (e.g. Levels 500 and 600 at institutions that use 100 - 900 level course numbering systems), work for the Specialist's degree will be in the intermediate and upper levels (e.g. 600, 700 and 800 level courses). According to the U.S. Department of Education's International Affairs Office's leaflet, entitled, \"Structure of the U.S. Education System: Intermediate Graduate Qualifications,\" (Feb 2008), the Ed.S., as a degree, is equivalent to the D.Min. or Psy.D. / D.Psy. This reflects the degree's origin as an alternate to professional doctorates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55083377", "title": "Female University of the Sacred Heart", "section": "Section::::History and Purpuse.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 329, "text": "The Graduate School was created in 1971, initiating its academic activities with the programs of doctorate and masters in Education. The master's degree in Psychology and Philosophy were created in 1988, and the doctorate in Psychology in 1994. Subsequently, created the master's degree in Civil Law and Nutrition and Dietetics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Quick little answer here: \nThe reason for the seasons is because of the angle of the sunlight hitting the earth. When it is summer, the lift is hitting more directly than in winter. Back to different seasons for different hemispheres: because the earth is tilted, when the sun's light hits the earth directly in one hemisphere it will hit less directly in the other. This is also why the equator's seasons are less extreme.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "you seem to be confused - the days do not get longer at just one end of the day. both sunrise and sunset get earlier and later at roughly an equal rate. the closer you are to the poles, the more drastically they change, and the closer you are to the equator the less they change. \n\nthe graphs below help demonstrate this. go to the link, and slide your mouse along the big blue graph with the red line. underneath you will see the sunrise and sunset times growing and shrinking together. (those jumps near the beginning and end is when daylight savings comes in). i chose london and melbourne as the cities to use as examples, both relatively far north and south respectively. \n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29392", "title": "Summer", "section": "Section::::Summer timing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 277, "text": "Where a seasonal lag of half a season or more is common, reckoning based on astronomical markers is shifted half a season. By this method, in North America, summer is the period from the summer solstice (usually 20 or 21 June in the Northern Hemisphere) to the autumn equinox.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29392", "title": "Summer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 431, "text": "Summer is the hottest of the four temperate seasons, falling after spring and before autumn. At the summer solstice, the days are longest and the nights are shortest, with day length decreasing as the season progresses after the solstice. The date of the beginning of summer varies according to climate, tradition, and culture. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice versa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20611356", "title": "Equator", "section": "Section::::Equatorial seasons and climate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 421, "text": "Seasons result from the tilt of the Earth's axis compared to the plane of its revolution around the Sun. Throughout the year the northern and southern hemispheres are alternately turned either toward or away from the sun depending on Earth's position in its orbit. The hemisphere turned toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter (see solstice).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11890785", "title": "Summer solstice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 431, "text": "The summer solstice occurs during summer. This is the June solstice in the Northern Hemisphere and the December solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on the shift of the calendar, the summer solstice occurs sometime between June 20 and June 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and between December 20 and December 23 in the Southern Hemisphere. The same dates in the opposite hemisphere are referred to as the winter solstice. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11890785", "title": "Summer solstice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 675, "text": "The summer solstice (or estival solstice), also known as midsummer, occurs when one of the Earth's poles has its maximum tilt toward the Sun. It happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere (Northern and Southern). For that hemisphere, the summer solstice is when the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky and is the day with the longest period of daylight. Within the Arctic circle (for the northern hemisphere) or Antarctic circle (for the southern hemisphere), there is continuous daylight around the summer solstice. On the summer solstice, Earth's maximum axial tilt toward the Sun is 23.44°. Likewise, the Sun's declination from the celestial equator is 23.44°.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1784060", "title": "Astronomy on Mars", "section": "Section::::Seasons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 513, "text": "In practical terms, this means that summers and winters have different lengths and intensities in the northern and southern hemispheres. Winters in the north are warm and short (because Mars is moving fast near its perihelion), while winters in the south are long and cold (Mars is moving slowly near aphelion). Similarly, summers in the north are long and cool, while summers in the south are short and hot. Therefore, extremes of temperature are considerably wider in the southern hemisphere than in the north.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24873453", "title": "Season", "section": "Section::::Causes and effects.:Axial tilt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1086, "text": "Regardless of the time of year, the northern and southern hemispheres always experience opposite seasons. This is because during summer or winter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun (see \"Fig. 1\") than the other, and this exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. For approximately half of the year (from around March 20 to around September 22), the Northern Hemisphere tips toward the Sun, with the maximum amount occurring on about June 21. For the other half of the year, the same happens, but in the Southern Hemisphere instead of the Northern, with the maximum around December 21. The two instants when the Sun is directly overhead at the Equator are the equinoxes. Also at that moment, both the North Pole and the South Pole of the Earth are just on the terminator, and hence day and night are equally divided between the two hemispheres. Around the March equinox, the Northern Hemisphere will be experiencing spring as the hours of daylight increase, and the Southern Hemisphere is experiencing autumn as daylight hours shorten.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It you'd classify them as a \"gang\" (I would) Blackbeard's pirates are interesting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "80408", "title": "Gang", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 605, "text": "A number of gangs have gained notoriety in the course of history, including the Italian Mafia, the Russian mafia, the Irish mob, the Polish mob, the Jewish mob, the Albanian mafia, the Yakuza in Japan, the Kkangpae in Korea, the Triads in China, the gangs of New England, the Jamaican Shower Posse and Yardies, the African-American Gangster Disciples, Bloods, Crips, Vice Lords, Black P Stones, and Four Corner Hustlers Latino gangs such as the Latin Kings, MS-13, Norteños, Sureños, and Trinitarios, white supremacist gangs such as the Aryan Brotherhood, Aryan Nations and biker gangs like Hells Angels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80408", "title": "Gang", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 351, "text": "A wide variety of gangs, such as the Order of Assassins, the Damned Crew, Adam the Leper's gang, Penny Mobs, Indian Thugs, Chinese Triads, Snakehead, Japanese Yakuza, Irish mob, Pancho Villa's Villistas, Dead Rabbits, American Old West outlaw gangs, Bowery Boys, Chasers, the Italian Mafia, Jewish mafia, and Russian mafia have existed for centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4697441", "title": "Organized crime in Italy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 528, "text": "Five major heavily active mafia-like organizations are known to exist in Italy. Among the oldest and most powerful of these organizations, having started to develop between 1500 and 1800, include: Cosa Nostra (the original \"Mafia\" or the Sicilian Mafia) of Sicily; 'Ndrangheta of Calabria (who are considered to be among the biggest cocaine smugglers in Europe); and Camorra of Naples. The remainder of the five most powerful are two organizations created in the 20th century: Stidda of Sicily and Sacra Corona Unita of Apulia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57746134", "title": "List of New Orleans gangs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 213, "text": "The most infamous gangs formed in the city in the mid-1980s; the Glenn Metz Gang was the biggest most notorious. Other gangs like the \"Scully\" Clay Gang and Pena Gang were also active during the 1980s and 1990s. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7805768", "title": "Vincenzo Terranova", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 309, "text": "Vincenzo \"the Tiger of Harlem\" Terranova (May 1886 – May 8, 1922) was a gangster and an early Italian-American organized crime figure in the United States. He served as boss and underboss of the Morello crime family, today known as the Genovese crime family, the oldest of the Five Families in New York City.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2642799", "title": "Whyos", "section": "Section::::Early years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 239, "text": "During the 1870s, the gang would include some of the most notorious gangsters of the era, including Red Rocks Farrell, Clops Connolly, \"Big\" Josh Hines, Hoggy Walsh, Piker Ryan, Dorsey Doyle, Bull Hurley, Fig McGerald, and Googy Corcoran.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59984352", "title": "White Tigers (gang)", "section": "Section::::Membership.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 745, "text": "Sources vary as to the size of the gang. One gang member said it had 10 core members to and 20 to 30 peripheral members. Another survey said that like smaller gangs like the Green Dragons, Taiwan Brotherhood and Golden Star appear to have a maximum of 20 core members and 50 peripheral members. What is known for sure for is that membership of the gang was regular to other gangs of the time in Flushing Queens compared to the larger gangs of Mahanttan like the Ghost Shadows and Flying Dragons which had 100 core members and 200 peripheral members. Another survey said that they are like smaller gangs of the time like the Green Dragons, Taiwan Brotherhood and Golden Star appear to have a maximum of 20 core members and 50 peripheral members.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think the easiest way to explain it is: 1/9 = 0.111..., and 9 x 0.111... would be 0.999... for the same reason that 4 x 111 = 444. So we have 9 x 1/9 = 0.999..., and 9 x 1/9 = 9/9 = 1. So we have 1 = 0.999...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First, we must define what \"0.9999...\" means.\n\nThe '...' at the end means that you should take the limit of the behavior before that. So we want the number that is reached by starting with 0.9, and then 0.99, followed by 0.999, 0.9999, 0.99999... etc. The number we want is the number that this process has as a limit (if such a number exists).\n\nWell, now we need a second fact: if two numbers aren't the same number, then there has to be a definite distance between them. That is, if you give me the two numbers, I must be able to tell you a positive number such that they are at least that far apart.\n\nBut what about the limit of 0.9999... and 1?\n\nWell, if you give me a distance, I can find some number of 9s in a row such that 1 minus that number is less than the distance you gave me. So we can't name a distance between the limit of 0.9999... and 1!\n\nSince we can't say they have any distance between them, they're the same number.\n\ntl;dr: \"0.99999....\" is a statement about a process, like \"3 - 2\", and is just another way to specify the number \"1\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am going to assume you know that:\n\n1/3 = 0.3333...\n\nand \n\n2/3 = 0.6666...\n\nso adding them together you get\n\n1 = 0.9999...\n\njust like you suspected.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1849799", "title": "0.999...", "section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:Infinitesimals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 387, "text": "Some proofs that 0.999... = 1 rely on the Archimedean property of the real numbers: that there are no nonzero infinitesimals. Specifically, the difference 1 − 0.999... must be smaller than any positive rational number, so it must be an infinitesimal; but since the reals do not contain nonzero infinitesimals, the difference is therefore zero, and therefore the two values are the same.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1849799", "title": "0.999...", "section": "Section::::Generalizations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 342, "text": "The result that 0.999... = 1 generalizes readily in two ways. First, every nonzero number with a finite decimal notation (equivalently, endless trailing 0s) has a counterpart with trailing 9s. For example, 0.24999... equals 0.25, exactly as in the special case considered. These numbers are exactly the decimal fractions, and they are dense.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1849799", "title": "0.999...", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 788, "text": "In mathematics, 0.999... (also written 0., among other ways) denotes the repeating decimal consisting of infinitely many 9s after the decimal point (and one 0 before it). This repeating decimal represents the smallest number no less than every decimal number in the sequence (0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ...). This number is equal to 1. In other words, \"0.999...\" and \"1\" represent the same number. There are many ways of showing this equality, from intuitive arguments to mathematically rigorous proofs. The technique used depends on the target audience, background assumptions, historical context, and preferred development of the real numbers, the system within which 0.999... is commonly defined. (In other systems, 0.999... can have the same meaning, a different definition, or be undefined.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1849799", "title": "0.999...", "section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:Infinitesimals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 557, "text": "The standard definition of the number 0.999... is the limit of the sequence 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ... A different definition involves what Terry Tao refers to as \"ultralimit\", i.e., the equivalence class [(0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ...)] of this sequence in the ultrapower construction, which is a number that falls short of 1 by an infinitesimal amount. More generally, the hyperreal number with last digit 9 at infinite hypernatural rank \"H\", satisfies a strict inequality Accordingly, an alternative interpretation for \"zero followed by infinitely many 9s\" could be\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1849799", "title": "0.999...", "section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:Revisiting subtraction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 116, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 116, "end_character": 527, "text": "First, Richman defines a nonnegative \"decimal number\" to be a literal decimal expansion. He defines the lexicographical order and an addition operation, noting that 0.999...  1 simply because 0  1 in the ones place, but for any nonterminating \"x\", one has 0.999... + \"x\" = 1 + \"x\". So one peculiarity of the decimal numbers is that addition cannot always be cancelled; another is that no decimal number corresponds to . After defining multiplication, the decimal numbers form a positive, totally ordered, commutative semiring.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12735825", "title": "Multiplicative digital root", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 248, "text": "It has been conjectured that there are only a finite number of numbers with only digits in the 2-9 interval whose multiplicative digital root is not 0; the largest of these is 77,333,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222 (44 digits.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1849799", "title": "0.999...", "section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:\"p\"-adic numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 483, "text": "As a final extension, since 0.999... = 1 (in the reals) and ...999 = −1 (in the 10-adics), then by \"blind faith and unabashed juggling of symbols\" one may add the two equations and arrive at ...999.999... = 0. This equation does not make sense either as a 10-adic expansion or an ordinary decimal expansion, but it turns out to be meaningful and true if one develops a theory of \"double-decimals\" with eventually repeating left ends to represent a familiar system: the real numbers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's steam and it's most likely blowoff from the steam heating system. Power plants generate excess steam and instead of dumping it into the air, they pipe it all over the city to heat buildings. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41995849", "title": "Steampunk HQ", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 315, "text": "Outside of the imposing free-standing stone building, a coin-operated \"steampunk\" engine greets visitors, complete with lights, engine and train while noises, and fire breathing out of its chimney. The building's exterior walls are decorated with creations such as giant flies made from metal and industrial parts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12323291", "title": "New York City steam system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 238, "text": "The New York City steam systems include Con Edison’s Steam Operations, and other smaller steam systems that provide steam to New York University and Columbia University. Many individual buildings in New York have their own steam systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3666356", "title": "Kate Ascher", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 318, "text": "In the wake of the 2007 New York City steam explosion Ascher was quoted by several media outlets on the history and nature of utility steam use. \"We are an older city with infrastructure that was sophisticated in its time,\" she told the New York Sun. \"In any one of those systems, there is older pipe and newer pipe.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12323291", "title": "New York City steam system", "section": "Section::::Con Edison’s Steam Operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 304, "text": "Con Edison’s Steam Operations is a district heating system which takes steam produced by steam generating stations and carries it under the streets of Manhattan to heat and cool high rise buildings and businesses. Some New York businesses and facilities also use the steam for cleaning and disinfection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27000", "title": "Smog", "section": "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 400, "text": "BULLET::::- The London \"pea-soupers\" earned the capital the nickname of \"The Smoke\". Similarly, Edinburgh was known as \"Auld Reekie\". The smogs feature in many London novels as a motif indicating hidden danger or a mystery, perhaps most overtly in Margery Allingham's \"The Tiger in the Smoke\" (1952), but also in Dickens's \"Bleak House\" (1852) and T.S. Eliot's \"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12323291", "title": "New York City steam system", "section": "Section::::Environmental effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 491, "text": "At least 12 steam pipe explosions have occurred in New York City since 1987. The most recent incident was the 2018 Steam Pipe explosion which occurred in the Flatiron District and forced the evacuation of 49 buildings. The explosion released concrete, asphalt, \"asbestos-containing material\" and mud into the air. The asbestos cleared out of the air to safe-level. A previous incident was the 2007 New York City steam explosion, and another on June 28, 1996, at a plant on East 75th Street.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1564140", "title": "Gramercy Park", "section": "Section::::History.:20th and 21st centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 223, "text": "One of the most significant steam explosions in New York City occurred near Gramercy Park in 1989, killing two Consolidated Edison workers and one bystander, and causing damage of several million dollars to area buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm probably going to offend you in saying this, but this sounds a *lot* like a homework question. If so, we can provide you with good sources, but we can't answer it for you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39108393", "title": "History of Native Americans in the United States", "section": "Section::::18th century.:Native American influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 398, "text": "In the 20th century, some writers have credited the Iroquois nations' political confederacy and democratic government as being influences for the development of the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. In October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois Constitution upon the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39108393", "title": "History of Native Americans in the United States", "section": "Section::::Settlement of the Americas.:Post-Archaic stage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 417, "text": "The Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th  century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14098", "title": "History of the Americas", "section": "Section::::Pre-colonization.:Classic stage (800 BCE – 1533 CE).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 415, "text": "The Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3577014", "title": "Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 222, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 222, "end_character": 437, "text": "The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania and around the Great Lakes. The Iroquois confederacy or Haudenosaunee became the most powerful political grouping in the Northeastern woodlands, and still exists today. The confederacy consists of the Mohawk, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora tribes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19195965", "title": "Iroquois", "section": "Section::::Government.:Influence on the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 323, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 323, "end_character": 854, "text": "Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of government influenced the development of the United States's government, although the extent and nature of this influence has been disputed. Contact between the leaders of the English colonists and the Iroquois started with efforts to form an alliance via the use of treaty councils. Prominent individuals such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were often in attendance. Bruce Johansen proposes that the Iroquois had a representative form of government. The Six Nations' governing committee was elected by the men and women of the tribe, one member from each of the six nations. Giving each member the same amount of authority in the council ensured no man received too much power, providing some of the same effect as the United States's future system of checks and balances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "315239", "title": "First Nations", "section": "Section::::History.:Nationhood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 417, "text": "The Iroquois influence extended from northern New York into what are now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec. The Iroquois Confederacy is, from oral tradition, formed circa 1142. Adept at cultivating Three Sisters (maize/beans/squash), the Iroquois became powerful because of their confederacy. Gradually the Algonquians adopted agricultural practises enabling larger populations to be sustained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63876", "title": "History of the United States", "section": "Section::::Pre-Columbian Era.:Native American development prior to European contact.:Major cultures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 445, "text": "BULLET::::- Iroquois Culture: The Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Typically such a person believes he has been treated unjustly by society, so he is striking back at society in general -- which includes basically everyone.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They may believe that they have been mistreated by society as a whole and want revenge, even on strangers. They also may feel like their life was pointless so want to do something that makes them notorious, even in an extremely negative way.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1468613", "title": "Murder–suicide", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 204, "text": "A murder–suicide is an act in which an individual kills one or more people before (or while) killing oneself. The combination of murder and suicide can take various forms, often linked to the first form:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "485437", "title": "Suicide by cop", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 639, "text": "There are two broad categories of \"suicide by cop\". The first is when someone has committed a crime and is being pursued by the police and decides that they would rather die than be arrested. These people may not otherwise be suicidal but may simply decide that life is not worth living if they are incarcerated and thus will provoke police to kill them. The second version involves people who are already contemplating suicide and who decide that provoking law enforcement into killing them is the best way to act on their desires. These individuals may commit a crime with the specific intention of provoking a law enforcement response.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1468613", "title": "Murder–suicide", "section": "Section::::Homicide and suicide theories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 551, "text": "According to the psychiatrist Karl A. Menninger, murder and suicide are interchangeable acts – suicide sometimes forestalling murder, and vice versa. Following Freudian logic, severe repression of natural instincts due to early childhood abuse, may lead the death instinct to emerge in a twisted form. The cultural anthropologist Ernest Becker, whose theories on the human notion of death is strongly influenced by Freud, views the fear of death as a universal phenomenon, a fear repressed in the unconscious and of which people are largely unaware. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1839443", "title": "Disposal of human corpses", "section": "Section::::Criminal disposal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 334, "text": "This often occurs as part of a murder or voluntary manslaughter. In other cases, an individual who did not intend to cause death may still feel guilt about a death (e.g. by involuntary manslaughter or an accident) and may attempt to prevent discovery of the body. This can exacerbate any legal consequences associated with the death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1468613", "title": "Murder–suicide", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 443, "text": "Many spree killings have ended in suicide, such as in many school shootings. Some cases of religiously-motivated suicides may also involve murder. All categorization amounts to forming somewhat arbitrary distinctions where relating to intention in the case of psychosis, where the intention(s) is/are more likely than not to be irrational. Ascertaining the legal intention (mens rea) is inapplicable to cases properly categorized as insanity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22529331", "title": "Lonely hearts killer", "section": "Section::::Varied motives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 747, "text": "The actual motivations of these criminals are varied. By definition, a killing will have taken place inasmuch as the suspected, accused, or convicted perpetrator has been dubbed a want-ad or lonely hearts killer. However, the crime may have involved a simple robbery gone wrong, an elaborate insurance fraud scheme, sexual violence, or any of several other ritualized pathological impulses (e.g. necrophilia, mutilation, cannibalism, etc.). Sometimes murder is not the (original) intent, but becomes a by-product of rape or other struggle; in some cases, murder is committed simply to cover up the original crime. Some, on the other hand, are serial killers who utilize this method of targeting victims, either exclusively, or when it suits them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18002243", "title": "Sadayam", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 453, "text": "It is not a planned murder but is also not something that happens in the heat of the moment. Eliminating just the perpetrators will not help, he reckons, because in some form of the other, they will eventually make their appearance and destroy the lives of the hitherto innocent kids; the society will never allow them to survive with dignity. A sense of moral uprightness coupled with desperation and extreme paranoia drives him to stab them to death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This should be a last resort (you dont realy ever want to be in a situation where you are in the water). I have seen people say grab onto something which can keep you afloat, a log or part of the surrounding infrastructure still above the water level (try to get out of the water). There are also reports of people out to sea surfing the waves back inland. Due to its long wavelength trying to dive under the break/wave front is impractical, you will be underwater for a very long time (also due to the debris).\n\nEdit: first part of the question\nSpeed and power/momentum also being caught off guard", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not sure that swimming skills would help much. Someone looking at tsunami videos [estimated](_URL_0_) the velocity of the recent tsunami in Japan over land near the Sendai airport at 5-6 m/s. World-caliber swimmers go about 2 m/s during a race -- but that's in nearly-perfect conditions. In a tsunami, you'd be wearing clothes and swimming in extremely rough water.\n\nSo you wouldn't have much choice about where you'd be going, you'd be in rough (and possibly very cold) water with tons of debris and unpredictable currents, you'd be weighed down with wet clothing, and you might be submerged at unexpected times. If you hit something stationary, it'd be like you swam into it twice as fast as an Olympic swimmer goes. Imagine hitting a pool wall like that, and then getting pinned there (the water's still coming!) while debris comes your way at that same speed and the water level possibly continues to rise -- that probably wouldn't end well.\n\nIf you absolutely couldn't avoid the wave, I'd say you'd probably want to find something large and buoyant and hope for the best. You really wouldn't want to swim for it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I got dumped out of a raft on a rafting trip. I have no idea how fast the current was but it was August so, relatively speaking, current wasn't too fast and the water was the warmest it was going to get. We had been given directions on what to do if we ended up in the water: assume a sitting/reclining position with feet pointed downstream and rest with feet against a rock if you happened to find yourself at a calm point in the river. I was wearing t-shirt, shorts, Tevas and a float vest.\n\nFalling in the water was the biggest shock. The lower temp just inches below the surface caused me to gasp and I didn't breathe normally for the rest of my short ordeal. I remembered to point my feet downstream but the rush of the current seemed very strong. Between trying to control my breathing and being carried along by the current, I couldn't see anyone else in the river or try to look for the aforementioned calm spot toward which I could maneuver for rescue.\n\nDespite wearing the vest, the water pushed my head under several times. I remember looking up at the sun through a few inches of water and wondering how I'd get my head up to take a breath. Suddenly, the water would push me up long enough to breathe, then it would push me under again. This how people drown: silently. There's no time or energy left to scream for help.\n\nI finally managed to push my feet up against a rock toward which I drifted in the middle of the stream. I tried to stay put, hoping that another raft would be along to pick me up. But the water pushing up against me from behind was really strong. I didn't have the strength to keep pushing back with my legs in order to maintain position. So I let go. Luckily, the rapid gave out shortly after that and I floated in calm water until a raft came by.\n\nTl;dr: There's very little chance you could survive what's sure to be a freezing cold ocean wave flowing at maximum force even if you could keep your fully-clothed wits about you. Which you can't.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "56657109", "title": "Seismic risk in Malta", "section": "Section::::Evaluation of seismic risk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 316, "text": "The risk of a tsunami wave between 4 m and 7 m high is estimated as a possibility every 600 to 1500 years. The occurrence of an event comparable to that of 1603, could have grave social and economic consequences as areas near the sea are largely built up, in particular for tourist activity in the region of Sliema.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10417124", "title": "1998 Papua New Guinea earthquake", "section": "Section::::Earthquake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 369, "text": "The tsunami raised awareness among scientists of the potential for small earthquakes to trigger large tsunamis, if they cause undersea landslides. It is now recognised that such events can be very dangerous, as the earthquake may be too small to be felt on land, or detected by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. Any resulting tsunami can thus appear without warning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9502903", "title": "Beach evolution", "section": "Section::::Erosion and accretion.:Extraordinary processes: tsunamis and hurricane-driven storm surges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 451, "text": "Tsunamis, potentially enormous waves often caused by earthquakes, have great erosional and sediment-reworking potential. They may strip beaches of sand that may have taken years to accumulate and may destroy trees and other coastal vegetation. Tsunamis are also capable of flooding hundreds of meters inland past the typical high-water level and fast-moving water, associated with the inundating tsunami, can crush homes and other coastal structures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1359364", "title": "Tsunami warning system", "section": "Section::::Shortcomings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 453, "text": "While there remains the potential for sudden devastation from a tsunami, warning systems can be effective. For example, if there were a very large subduction zone earthquake (moment magnitude 9.0) off the west coast of the United States, people in Japan, would therefore have more than 12 hours (and likely warnings from warning systems in Hawaii and elsewhere) before any tsunami arrived, giving them some time to evacuate areas likely to be affected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31161", "title": "Tsunami", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 227, "text": "About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions, glacier calvings, and bolides.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10106", "title": "Earthquake", "section": "Section::::Effects of earthquakes.:Tsunami.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 662, "text": "Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water—including when an earthquake occurs at sea. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass , and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600–800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19925686", "title": "Mount Breakenridge", "section": "Section::::Potential landslide and tsunami hazard.:Social, environmental, ecological, and economic significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 953, "text": "It is important that citizens of the area and also the rest of the world know about the danger that is possible due to the instability of the mountainside and the potential for a resulting megatsunami. Tsunamis are an unstoppable force but people need to be proactive, educated, and prepared to try to lessen the damage and loss through evacuation planning and be ready to assist in recovery after the fact. People's lives, property, homeland, and financial livelihoods are at risk, as well as the species of the surrounding ecosystem and the landscape itself being in the path of danger. Depending on how common these species are and what roles they play in the ecosystem, their extinction caused by such a disaster would have a large impact on the way the area's systems functioned. If nothing else, the economic hit that the tsunami would produce would be devastating due to the effects it could have on the logging, fishing, and tourism industries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you wanted a picture of every building from exactly overhead you would need to fly exactly over every one. That is a ton of flying, it is much easier just to fly where you can see them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23253", "title": "Parallax", "section": "Section::::Photogrammetry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 412, "text": "Aerial picture pairs, when viewed through a stereo viewer, offer a pronounced stereo effect of landscape and buildings. High buildings appear to 'keel over' in the direction away from the centre of the photograph. Measurements of this parallax are used to deduce the height of the buildings, provided that flying height and baseline distances are known. This is a key component to the process of photogrammetry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "217296", "title": "Shadow", "section": "Section::::Photography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 249, "text": "On satellite imagery and aerial photographs, taken vertically, tall buildings can be recognized as such by their long shadows (if the photographs are not taken in the tropics around noon), while these also show more of the shape of these buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5206360", "title": "Aerial landscape art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1030, "text": "There were other pre-20th century Western artworks sometimes depicting a single town or precinct in a manner that comes closer to real aerial landscape, showing a town or city more or less as it might look from directly overhead. These map-like aerial townscapes often employed a kind of mixed perspective; while the overall view was quasi-aerial—showing the disposition of features arrayed as if seen from directly above—individual features of importance (such as churches or other major buildings) were pictured larger than scale, angled as they might look to someone standing on the ground. The map-like functional purpose of these pictures meant that such landmarks ought to be recognizable to a viewer, therefore, a realistic overhead view of the scene would defeat the purpose. The advent of balloon travel in the 19th century encouraged the development of more realistic aerial landscapes, as the first pioneering aviators begin to learn what landscapes and buildings really looked like when viewed from directly overhead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46324483", "title": "Copperplate map of London", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 393, "text": "The map takes the form of a \"bird's-flight view\": that is to say, the street layout and other ground features are shown in plan, as if viewed directly from above; while buildings, people and other standing features are shown as if viewed from a great height to the south of the City, but without the foreshortening of more distant features that would be necessary for a true perspective view.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37308105", "title": "Anton van den Wyngaerde", "section": "Section::::Work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 500, "text": "In a 1563 \"View of Valencia\", the city seems to be viewed from the north, but the cathedral is depicted as it appears from the west, displaying the building to better advantage. The streets are made wider and straighter as though the city had been formally planned, the squares are made larger, and some of the towers are moved to different positions. Despite the appearance of detail and realism, the picture gives an idealized sense of the city's appearance rather than an accurate representation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31211773", "title": "Earthquake casualty estimation", "section": "Section::::Simplifications.:Models for settlements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 351, "text": "The height of buildings can be estimated from the shadows they cast in photographs from space and from the air. Based on height, estimates 3D models of cities can be constructed, as shown in the example of Central Bucharest (Figure 7). Governmental office buildings can be seen at the center, whereas small residential buildings dominate in the East.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10461151", "title": "Keystone effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 462, "text": "In photography, the term is used to describe the apparent leaning of buildings towards the vertical centerline of the photo when shooting upwards, a common effect in Architectural photography. Likewise, when taking photos looking down, e.g., from a skyscraper, buildings appear to get broader towards the top. The effect is usually corrected for by either using special lenses in Tilt–shift photography or in post-processing using modern image editing software.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is no reason for luxury cars to make the sacrifices in performance to give them good gas milage as their buyers can easily afford gas. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People who can afford and purchase luxury cars aren't usually concerned by mpg. Also these cars often serve as a status symbol, so the bigger the engine, the more expensive and exotic the car is, you look \"better\" with that car. Whereas cheaper cars are aimed towards people who commute, and have to go from A to B while spending the least, so it's a great selling point to be able to travel more for less.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's a matter of priorities. Some people want 400 horsepower and 0-60mph in 5 seconds, and are willing to take the poor fuel economy trade-off to get that. Others, especially those with limited budgets, prioritize ongoing costs in addition to purchase price... so they're willing to forego performance to get the good fuel economy. They're fine with 100 horsepower and 0-60 in 12 seconds to spend half as much per year on fuel.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1617053", "title": "Energy Tax Act", "section": "Section::::Gas Guzzler Tax.:Market impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 540, "text": "Critics of the Gas Guzzler Tax contend that the increased fuel economy of the US passenger car fleet observed since 1978 must be considered in the context of the increased market share of mid-size and full-size SUVs. Many consumers' stated reasons for SUV purchase (comfort, interior room, and a perception of safety based on the vehicle's size) also apply to the now-obsolete American full-size car as produced from the 1920s through the 70s; critics contend that the dominance of the modern SUV is a direct result of the Gas Guzzler Tax.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "440246", "title": "Corporate average fuel economy", "section": "Section::::Active debate.:Economic arguments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 546, "text": "Automakers have said that small, fuel-efficient vehicles cost the auto industry billions of dollars. They cost almost as much to design and market but cannot be sold for as much as larger vehicles such as SUVs, because consumers expect small cars to be inexpensive. In 1999, \"USA Today\" reported small cars tend to depreciate faster than larger cars, so they are worth less in value to the consumer over time. However, 2007 Edmunds depreciation data show that some small cars, primarily premium models, are among the best in holding their value.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "342520", "title": "Fuel efficiency", "section": "Section::::Fuel efficiency of motor vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 388, "text": "The average fuel economy for all vehicles on the road is higher in Europe than the USA because the higher cost of fuel changes consumer behaviour. In the UK, a gallon of gas without tax would cost US$1.97, but with taxes cost US$6.06 in 2005. The average cost in the United States was US$2.61. Consumers prefer \"muscle cars\", but choose more fuel efficient ones when gas prices increase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "744361", "title": "Dodge Charger Daytona", "section": "Section::::1975–1977.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 233, "text": "These cars like their predecessor were slow to move off showroom floors. Not because of their appearance, but because of heavy, gas guzzling cars of the time. With gas prices increasing, America was looking for more economical cars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1858787", "title": "Gas-guzzler", "section": "Section::::Means to decrease fuel consumption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 363, "text": "Gas-guzzlers are not only seeing a scale back in engine size and weight but also in the type of fuel used to power it to prevent environmental damage caused by the use of fossil fuels. The problem with these alternative fuel technologies is that they are either too expensive for widespread use and/or they are scarcely available especially in smaller countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "440246", "title": "Corporate average fuel economy", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 876, "text": "Thus higher fuel efficiency was associated with lower traffic safety, intertwining the issues of fuel economy, road-traffic safety, air pollution, and climate change. In the mid-2000s, increasing safety of smaller cars and the poor safety record of light trucks began to reverse this association. Nevertheless, in 2008, the on-road vehicle fleets in the United States and Canada had the lowest overall average fuel economy among first world nations: in North America, versus in the European Union and was even higher in Japan, according to data as of 2008. Furthermore, despite general opinion that larger and heavier (and therefore relatively fuel-uneconomical) vehicles are safer, the U.S. traffic fatality rate—and its trend over time—is higher than some other western nations, although it has recently started to gradually decline at a faster rate than in previous years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1617053", "title": "Energy Tax Act", "section": "Section::::Gas Guzzler Tax.:Economic impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 475, "text": "Gas guzzler tax creates incentive to meet the minimum MPG requirement by manufacturer. Due to elimination of vehicles that are below minimum MPG which is 22.5 MPG, vehicle sales have decreased approximately 0.5 percent. However, sales revenues increase by a greater amount due to the added value in vehicles making greater use of fuel economy technology. Currently, the additional cost of efficient hybrid systems can range from $2,000-$10,000 on the vehicle sticker price. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "random chance and recognizing false patters. \nHow many faces do your eyes shift to in a full room? 10? 20? A hundred? How often do you catch people's eyes just at the right time? Maybe once? It's not that it happens that often, its that when it does happen, its memorable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's theorized that the Sclera (the white part) of our eyes aids in non verbal communication. Humans are very social animals and in my interpretation of the theory we have evolved socially and visually to make eye contact with each other.\n\nIn other words when you notice someone looking at you out of your peripheral vision you're compelled to look at them. While our white Sclera make it easier to tell if someone is looking your way. \n\nhere is a very small reference for the topic:\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1007108", "title": "Eye contact", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 519, "text": "Eye contact occurs when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time. In human beings, eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and is thought to have a large influence on social behavior. Coined in the early to mid-1960s, the term came from the West to often define the act as a meaningful and important sign of confidence, respect, and social communication. The customs and significance of eye contact vary between societies, with religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "566664", "title": "Nonverbal communication", "section": "Section::::Eye contact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 508, "text": "Eye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Some studies have demonstrated that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows. Disinterest is highly noticeable when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested, however, the pupils will dilate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11100514", "title": "Any Love (Misia song)", "section": "Section::::Composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 513, "text": "(\"Soba ni Ite...\") speaks of a message I've wanted to express for a few years now. I think it's great that, with the Internet, cell phones, and e-mail, there are now a variety of ways for us to communicate with each other, but they've somewhat become substitutes for direct interactions. The reason people feel the need to be close to each other is because, as humans, we connect with more than just our eyes or our ears, but with our entire body. We can never be entirely sastified without meeting face-to-face.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1007108", "title": "Eye contact", "section": "Section::::Social meanings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 387, "text": "Eye contact provides some of the strongest emotions during a social conversation. This primarily is because it provides details on emotions and intentions. In a group if eye contact is not inclusive of a certain individual it can make that individual feel left out of the group, while on the other hand prolonged eye contact can tell someone you are interested in what they have to say.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60982538", "title": "Eye contact effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 444, "text": "The eye-contact effect is a psychological phenomenon in human selective attention and cognition. It is the effect that the perception of eye contact with another human face has on certain mechanisms in the brain..This contact has been shown to increase activation in certain areas of what has been termed the ‘social brain’ . This social brain network process social information such as the face theory of mind , empathy and goal-directedness \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "566664", "title": "Nonverbal communication", "section": "Section::::Eye contact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 290, "text": "According to Eckman, \"Eye contact (also called mutual gaze) is another major channel of nonverbal communication. The duration of eye contact is its most meaningful aspect.\" Generally speaking, the longer there is established eye contact between two people, the greater the intimacy levels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33932515", "title": "Social cue", "section": "Section::::Use in communication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 969, "text": "An important tool for communication in social interactions is the eyes. Even 12-month-old babies respond to the gaze of adults. This indicates that the eyes are an important way to communicate, even before spoken language is developed. People must detect and orient to people's eyes in order to utilize and follow gaze cues. Real-world examples show the degree to which we seek and follow gaze cues may change contingent on how close the standard is to a real social interaction. People may use gaze following because they want to avoid social interactions. Past experiments have found that eye contact was more likely when there was a speaker's face available, for longer periods of real-world time. Individuals use gaze following and seeking to provide information for gaze cuing when information is not provided in a verbal manner. However, people do not seek gaze cues when they are not provided or when spoken instructions contain all of the relevant information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The process of making computers is in fact very very expensive, but because they are mass produced the price of an individual computer is relatively cheap.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Shouldn't it take a lot of effort to put all of the transistors in the right places?\n\nTransistors aren't \"put in place\". All of the billions of transistors are created together at the same time, using a technique called [photolithography](_URL_0_). In simple terms, CPUs are manufactured in a manner similar to how you would develop a photograph from a piece of film.\n\nYes, it's expensive, but most of the expense is in the development of new processors, and the equipment needed to manufacture them. That cost is spread out across all of the millions and millions of processors that are sold.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is the central insight of \"Moore's Law\".\n\nMaking semiconductors (\"transistors\") turns out to be a process where the fixed costs do not correlate to the variable costs. In other words, most of the cost of a chip is the machine that makes all the chips not the individual components of a single chip.\n\nThe technology to make chips smaller and faster keeps improving by doubling about 18 months so the value of the chips made by the machines built 18 months ago is forced to decline.\n\nMaking the smallest, fastest chips is the most expensive part of the industry. But the machines to make larger, slower chips are still working (until they so become obsolete nobody has any reason to buy what they can produce and they're scrapped). That means that the price of a given performance level always declines over time.\n\nIf the price between \"smallest/fastest\" and \"previous smallest/fastest\" becomes too great, consumers will just opt for the previous generation. That puts an upper limit on what chipmakers can charge for the current generation. That limit has remained essentially unchanged since the 1970s. You pay about as much for the highest-end intel CPU today as you would have paid for the highest-end chip in the 70s. But today's chips have doubled in speed and density every 18 months for 40 years so they're billions of times better.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15150", "title": "Integrated circuit", "section": "Section::::Advances.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 301, "text": "As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using Multi-chip modules, Three-dimensional integrated circuits, 3D NAND, Package on package, and Through-silicon vias to increase performance and reducing size, without having to reduce the size of the transistors. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30011", "title": "Transistor", "section": "Section::::Importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 411, "text": "The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system to control that same function.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7622", "title": "Complex instruction set computer", "section": "Section::::Historical design context.:Design issues.:Superscalar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1237, "text": "Transistors for logic, PLAs, and microcode are no longer scarce resources; only large high-speed cache memories are limited by the maximum number of transistors today. Although complex, the transistor count of CISC decoders do not grow exponentially like the total number of transistors per processor (the majority typically used for caches). Together with better tools and enhanced technologies, this has led to new implementations of highly encoded and variable length designs without load-store limitations (i.e. non-RISC). This governs re-implementations of older architectures such as the ubiquitous x86 (see below) as well as new designs for microcontrollers for embedded systems, and similar uses. The superscalar complexity in the case of modern x86 was solved by converting instructions into one or more micro-operations and dynamically issuing those micro-operations, i.e. indirect and dynamic superscalar execution; the Pentium Pro and AMD K5 are early examples of this. It allows a fairly simple superscalar design to be located after the (fairly complex) decoders (and buffers), giving, so to speak, the best of both worlds in many respects. This technique is also used in IBM z196 and later z/Architecture microprocessors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5218", "title": "Central processing unit", "section": "Section::::History.:Transistor CPUs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 849, "text": "Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39418", "title": "Moore's law", "section": "Section::::Other formulations and similar observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 398, "text": "As more transistors are put on a chip, the cost to make each transistor decreases, but the chance that the chip will not work due to a defect increases. In 1965, Moore examined the density of transistors at which cost is minimized, and observed that, as transistors were made smaller through advances in photolithography, this number would increase at \"a rate of roughly a factor of two per year\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54005385", "title": "Power amplifier classes", "section": "Section::::Power amplifier classes.:Class A.:Single-ended and triode class-A amplifiers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 367, "text": "Transistors are much less expensive than tubes so more elaborate designs that use more parts are still less expensive to manufacture than tube designs. A classic application for a pair of class-A devices is the long-tailed pair, which is exceptionally linear, and forms the basis of many more complex circuits, including many audio amplifiers and almost all op-amps.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2986949", "title": "Ross Freeman", "section": "Section::::Founding of Xilinx.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 325, "text": "Ross postulated that because of Moore's Law, transistors would be getting less expensive each year, making customizable programmable chips affordable. The idea was \"far out\" at the time, but the company and technology grew quickly, eventually catching the attention of new-found competitors in what is now a mature industry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > that doesn't answer why a smooth brain wouldn't be able to hold the same amount of grey matter with a similar volume to a wrinkly brain.\n\nYour head can only get so big before your neck can no longer support it. So in order for more neurons to fit in the skull, the increase in surface area must be in wrinkles rather than over a smooth area. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "490620", "title": "Human brain", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 598, "text": "A characteristic of the brain is the cortical folding known as gyrification. During fetal development, the cortex starts off smooth. By the gestational age of 24 weeks, the wrinkled morphology showing the fissures that begin to mark out the lobes of the brain is evident. Scientists do not have a clear answer as to why the cortex wrinkles and folds, but they have linked gyrification with intelligence and neurological disorders, and have proposed a number of gyrification theories. These theories include those based on mechanical buckling, axonal tension, and differential tangential expansion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2045927", "title": "Gyrus", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 213, "text": "Lissencephaly (\"smooth brain\") is a rare congenital brain malformation caused by defective neuronal migration during the 12th to 24th weeks of fetal gestation resulting in a lack of development of gyri and sulci.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220444", "title": "Morchella", "section": "Section::::False morels.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 217, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Gyromitra\" species often have a \"wrinkled\" or \"cerebral\" (brain-like) appearance to the cap due to multiple wrinkles and folds, rather than the honeycomb appearance of true morels due to ridges and pits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55028839", "title": "Daphna Joel", "section": "Section::::Academic career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 606, "text": "One of the most important studies on which Joel's theory is based was done by pharmacologist Margaret McCarthy from the University of Maryland. McCarthy found that characteristics in male and female animal brains can cause changes in their shapes as a result of external circumstances such as stress. Joel concluded from the results of this study and other studies she examined that if under pressure certain areas of the brain can turn from their typical \"female form\" to the typical \"male form\" – there is no point in talking about a female brain and a male brain, and that this division is meaningless.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "892026", "title": "Miller–Dieker syndrome", "section": "Section::::Presentation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 425, "text": "The brain is abnormally smooth, with fewer folds and grooves. The face, especially in children, has distinct characteristics including a short nose with upturned nares, thickened upper lip with a thin vermilion upper border, frontal bossing, small jaw, low-set posteriorily rotated ears, sunken appearance in the middle of the face, widely spaced eyes, and hypertelorism. The forehead is prominent with bitemporal hollowing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1584059", "title": "Craniosynostosis", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.:Neurobehavioural impairment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 460, "text": "It has been suggested that these problems are caused by a primary malformation of the brain, rather than being a consequence of the growth restriction of the skull and elevated intracranial pressure. Some evidence for this statement has been provided by studies using computed tomographic (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to identify differences between the structures of the brains of healthy children and those affected with craniosynostosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24197817", "title": "Gelotophobia", "section": "Section::::Strengths, intelligence and humour ability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 595, "text": "A number of tests show that gelotophobes often underestimate their own potential and achievements. Gelotophobes tend to see themselves as less virtuous than people who know them. Similarly, in an intelligence study, gelotophobes consistently underestimated their intellectual performance by as much as 6 IQ points. Gelotophobes have a different experience of laughter: it does not lift their mood or make them more cheerful. They personally characterise their own humour as being inept, yet once again, tests show that they are no different from other people at making witty remarks and humour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They have those sensors at the doors and security tags on items. When you checkout they remove or disable the security tag. So when you walk out the alarm doesn’t sound. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They have a tiny chip inside them (RFID), and it gets magnetized at the factory. When you buy the item, there is a demagnetizer built into the scanner which deactivates the tag. \n\nThat's why often there is a big sticker saying \"DO NOT PUT CREDIT CARDS HERE\" as the credit cards have a similar magnetic stripe on the back and the demagnetizer will accidentally demagnetize them thinking they are the RFID tags.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most theft detectors rely on one of two mechanisms. Small tags and large tags.\n\nLarge tags get removed by the cashier, and are either attached in a way that damages the item if you try and force it open or locked in a larger and more cumbersome package.\n\nSmall tags are usually small magnetic stickers, and are demagnetized during the checkout process. You may see in some stores that there is a large circle on the counter that the clerk slides everything across. That's for small tags.\n\nWith the tags demagnetized, you can pass through the theft detectors without setting off alarms.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a few methods, I'll describe one of the more common ones.\n\nThe item being protected has a small circuit in it, about the size and shape of a postage stamp. It is essentially a radio receiver, and when a certain frequency is applied to it, it emits an echo that can be detected. That's how the alarm part works. \n\nWhen that same radio frequency is applied with high intensity the circuit becomes overloaded and shorts out, permanently damaging it so it no longer echoes. That's how the deactivation works.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "207076", "title": "Confused deputy problem", "section": "Section::::Physical world examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 303, "text": "When checking out at a grocery store, the cashier will scan the barcode of each item to determine the total cost. A thief could replace barcodes on his items with those of cheaper items. In this attack the cashier is a confused deputy that is using seemingly valid barcodes to determine the total cost.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1802422", "title": "Electronic article surveillance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 752, "text": "Electronic article surveillance is a technological method for preventing shoplifting from retail stores, pilferage of books from libraries or removal of properties from office buildings. Special tags are fixed to merchandise or books. These tags are removed or deactivated by the clerks when the item is properly bought or checked out. At the exits of the store, a detection system sounds an alarm or otherwise alerts the staff when it senses active tags. Some stores also have detection systems at the entrance to the restrooms that sound an alarm if someone tries to take unpaid merchandise with them into the restroom. For high-value goods that are to be manipulated by the patrons, wired alarm clips called spider wrap may be used instead of tags.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3333009", "title": "Self-checkout", "section": "Section::::Scanning while shopping.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 990, "text": "An alternative system (self-scanning) consists of a portable barcode scanner that is used by the customer to scan and bag items while shopping. When the customer has finished shopping, the scanner is brought to a checkout kiosk, where the information from the barcode scanner is downloaded to the kiosk, usually in conjunction with a customer loyalty card. The customer pays and receives a receipt at the checkout kiosk. The integrity of the system is maintained through the use of random audits or RFID. The Walmart-owned warehouse club, Sam's Club, allows customers to download an app and scan items into their cart using a mobile application. In summer 2018, Walmart China launched its Wechat-based \"Scan and Go\" program, allowing customers to scan items into their carts without downloading another mobile app, while paying through Wechat Payment or Alipay. The \"Scan and Go\"program carried 30% of all payments made in Chinese stores, and even improved sales in certain markets by 10%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14363774", "title": "Shared Check Authorization Network", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 453, "text": "Retailers using the SCAN system have at least one scanner in the store, and often one at every register, that is used to scan checks that are written. The scanner reads the account number and compares it with the database of checking account numbers for which bad checks have been written to any participating retailer and not repaid. If the account number matches one in the system, the retailer will be notified, and will not likely accept the check.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1922382", "title": "Fence (criminal)", "section": "Section::::Approach.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 539, "text": "The degree to which the purchasers of the stolen goods know or suspect that the items are stolen varies. If a purchaser buys a high-quality item for a low price, in cash, from a stranger at a bar or from the back of a van, there is a higher likelihood that the items may be stolen. On the other hand, if a purchaser buys the same high-quality item for the standard retail price from a used goods store, and obtains a proper receipt, the purchaser may reasonably believe that the item is not stolen (even if, in fact, it is a stolen item).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1717626", "title": "Anti-theft system", "section": "Section::::Methods of theft prevention.:Raising the awareness of theft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 210, "text": "Another common method is the alerting of other individuals to the act of theft. This is commonly seen in department stores, where security systems at exits alert store employees of the removal of unpaid items.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "790258", "title": "Cashier", "section": "Section::::Retail.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 917, "text": "In a shop, a cashier (or checkout operator) is a person who scans the goods through a cash register that the customer wishes to purchase at the retail store. The items are scanned by a barcode positioned on the item with the use of a laser scanner. After all of the goods have been scanned, the cashier then collects the payment (in cash, check and/or by credit/debit card) for the goods or services exchanged, records the amount received, makes change, and issues receipts or tickets to customers. Cashiers will record amounts received and may prepare reports of transactions, reads and record totals shown on cash register tape and verify against cash on hand. A cashier may be required to know value and features of items for which money is received; may cash checks; may give cash refunds or issue credit memorandums to customers for returned merchandise; and may operate ticket-dispensing machines and the like.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Entropy is the disorder of a system. The universe is moving toward more disorder, or entropy. \n \nWhat does \"disorder\" mean? Well, chemical reactions that take place without any energy create more entropy, or chaos. For example, when you mix baking soda and vinegar, you don't have to stir the mixture, or heat it, or even shake it, it just starts fizzing up and carries out the reaction. \n\nThis reaction increases entropy. What used to be two orderly substances, the solid baking soda and the liquid vinegar, is now all over the place, broken into multiple parts of gas and liquid, and generally more chaotic. You start with two substances and end up with three. One of which is a gas, and gasses are chaotic because they go everywhere, unlike liquids and solids whose molecules are somewhat bonded to each other.\n\nIf a reaction does not increase entropy, it requires energy. So if I wanted to make a cake, I can't just throw all the ingredients in a bowl and produce a cake. I need to heat it, or apply energy, to cause the reaction. This is because this reaction decreases entropy by taking five or six separate ingredients and turning them into just one finished product. Going from six separate parts to one decreases the chaos of a system. If I threw all the ingredients into the air it would make a really bad mess and create disorder. Cake thrown in the air would be much easier to clean. \n\nEntropy is just the disorder of a system. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here we have a cardboard box, about the size of a shoebox, filled with coins. Not a ton of them, just enough so that the all lay flat on the bottom of the box.\n\nThere are three possible states for that box to be in: all coins heads-side-up, all coins heads-side-down, and the other thing where some of the coins are heads-up and some are heads-down.\n\nImagine the box starts out in the all-coins-up state. We put the lid on and shake it. Without opening the lid, what state do you expect the box to be in?\n\nThe answer is obvious: Some of the coins will be heads-up and some will be heads-down. Why? Because the all-heads-up and all-heads-down states correspond to *exactly one arrangement of coins* each, while there are *many* arrangements of coins that correspond to the some-up-some-down state.\n\nThe \"all-up, all-down, some-of-both\" states are what we call *macrostates.* They're the states we care about, the ones we can easily observe. The individual position and heads-up-or-down-ness of all the coins comprises what we call a *microstate.* It's a state that is normally invisible to us, hidden from view, either because we just don't care about that much detail, or because that much detail is practically impossible for us to measure.\n\nEntropy is, in a sense, how many microstates correspond to a particular macrostate. In this example, the all-heads-up and all-heads-down macrostates each correspond to just a single microstate; that's a very low-entropy condition. But the some-of-each macrostate corresponds to *many* microstates, making that a high-entropy condition.\n\nWhen we started out, all the coins were heads-side-up, but when we put the lid on the box and shook it, the system moved from a low-entropy state to a high-entropy state.\n\nIn nature, systems always tend to move from low-entropy to high-entropy states. In the most abstract sense, this is just because of pure dumb luck: There are more combinations of coins that add up to \"some of each\" than either \"all up\" or \"all down,\" so *pure random chance* dictates that we're far more likely to go from the all-up state to the some-of-each state than the other way around … and furthermore, that as we continue to shake the box, we're far more likely to *stay* in the some-of-each state, because the odds against getting all the coins to land heads-side-up are enormous.\n\nIn reality, this use of pure-dumb-luck-based statistics to describe complex systems is a mathematical approximation. After all, things like the motions of molecules in a bathtub of water aren't really random. They're actually the product of a *huge* number of very simple interactions … but that's the thing. When you take something that's fundamentally simple but that becomes vastly complex because of sheer scale, that thing tends to behave very much like a purely random system governed by dumb luck. So it turns out those dumb-luck-based statistical approximations are actually incredibly useful and predictive.\n\nSo basically, entropy can be thought of as a way of quantifying just how likely or unlikely it is that a complex system will evolve in a particular way. If the evolution you're imagining is from a low-entropy state to a high-entropy state, in general that's pretty likely. If it's the other way around, from a high-entropy state to a low-entropy state, then in general that's probably not going to happen. The more complex the system you're thinking about, the better statistical methods tend to be for predicting the evolution of that system over time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Disorder is easy. Order, on the other hand, requires work.\n\nEntropy is the overall natural tendency towards chaos, towards disorder.\n\nSay you spend about 1 hour cleaning your room. You have put work into your room, to make it orderly.\n\nLet's wait a week.\n\nLo and behold, your room is even messier than before! Why? Because disorder is easier to maintain than order. Disorder does not need to be maintained. Your room will get messy on its own. Your room will not get clean on its own.\n\nOrder requires work. Disorder simply happens without intervention.\n\nNow apply this to the universe. The universe is very stubborn, and doesn't like cleaning its room. In fact it never does. It's got a lot of space, so why should it? It's just gonna keep getting messier and messier, for an amount of time our monkey brains cannot comprehend. \n\n/how a professor explained it to me, I thought it was a cute analogy", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9891", "title": "Entropy", "section": "Section::::Approaches to understanding entropy.:Information theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 537, "text": "In information theory, \"entropy\" is the measure of the amount of information that is missing before reception and is sometimes referred to as \"Shannon entropy\". Shannon entropy is a broad and general concept which finds applications in information theory as well as thermodynamics. It was originally devised by Claude Shannon in 1948 to study the amount of information in a transmitted message. The definition of the information entropy is, however, quite general, and is expressed in terms of a discrete set of probabilities \"p so that\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28305", "title": "String theory", "section": "Section::::Black holes.:Bekenstein–Hawking formula.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 751, "text": "In the branch of physics called statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a physical system. This concept was studied in the 1870s by the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who showed that the thermodynamic properties of a gas could be derived from the combined properties of its many constituent molecules. Boltzmann argued that by averaging the behaviors of all the different molecules in a gas, one can understand macroscopic properties such as volume, temperature, and pressure. In addition, this perspective led him to give a precise definition of entropy as the natural logarithm of the number of different states of the molecules (also called \"microstates\") that give rise to the same macroscopic features.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4700845", "title": "Entropy (classical thermodynamics)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 337, "text": "Entropy is a property of thermodynamical systems. The term entropy was introduced by Rudolf Clausius who named it from the Greek word τρoπή, \"transformation\". He considered transfers of energy as heat and work between bodies of matter, taking temperature into account. Bodies of radiation are also covered by the same kind of reasoning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9891", "title": "Entropy", "section": "Section::::Interdisciplinary applications of entropy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 146, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 146, "end_character": 219, "text": "Although the concept of entropy was originally a thermodynamic construct, it has been adapted in other fields of study, including information theory, psychodynamics, thermoeconomics/ecological economics, and evolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "812296", "title": "Entropy (anonymous data store)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 586, "text": "Entropy was a decentralized, peer-to-peer communication network designed to be resistant to censorship, much like Freenet. Entropy was an anonymous data store written in the C programming language. It pooled the contributed bandwidth and storage space of member computers to allow users to anonymously publish or retrieve information of all kinds. The name \"Entropy\" was a backronym for \"Emerging Network To Reduce Orwellian Potency Yield\", referring to George Orwell's novel \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" and its totalitarian thought police enslaving people by controlling their information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40625991", "title": "Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Groups and Statistical Mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 249, "text": "The concept of entropy in statistical mechanics is developed, and its relationship to the way the concept is used in thermodynamics. By an analysis of the thought experiment Maxwell's demon, he relates the concept of entropy to that of information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46278620", "title": "Quantum thermodynamics", "section": "Section::::Dynamical view.:Emergence of the second law.:Entropy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 268, "text": "In thermodynamics, entropy is related to a concrete process. In quantum mechanics, this translates to the ability to measure and manipulate the system based on the information gathered by measurement. An example is the case of Maxwell’s demon, which has been resolved\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's an inverse relationship - the less you want your SO to know you ate it, the more it stains.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Different fabrics have different molecular structures. These structures allow the colors to take different effects, and they bind with the fabric differently. [These](_URL_0_) can show you what effects the dye can have across a variety of fabrics, and how well they bind or how they react with detergents.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4884616", "title": "Stain", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 307, "text": "A stain is a discoloration that can be clearly distinguished from the surface, material, or medium it is found upon. They are caused by the chemical or physical interaction of two dissimilar materials. Staining is used for biochemical research, metal staining, and art (e.g., wood staining, stained glass).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1750229", "title": "Wood stain", "section": "Section::::Comparison with paint and varnish.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 965, "text": "The initial application of any paint or varnish is similarly absorbed into the substrate, but because stains contain lower amounts of binder, the binder from a stain resides mainly below the surface while the pigment remains near the top or at the surface. Stains that employ metallic pigments such as iron oxides usually are more opaque; first because metallic pigments are opaque by nature, but also because the particles of which they consist are much larger than organic pigments and therefore do not penetrate as well. Most wood stains for interior uses (e.g. floors and furniture) require a secondary application of varnish or finish for longer-term protection of the wood, and also to adjust for matter or gloss effects. Stains are differentiated from varnishes in that the latter usually has no significant added color or pigment and is designed primarily to form a protective surface film. Some products are marketed as a combination of stain and varnish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1750229", "title": "Wood stain", "section": "Section::::Composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 656, "text": "Stain is composed of the same three primary ingredients as paint (pigment, solvent (or vehicle), and binder) but is predominantly vehicle, then pigment and/or dye, and lastly a small amount of binder. Much like the dyeing or staining of fabric, wood stain is designed to add color to the substrate (wood and other materials) while leaving some of the substrate still visible. Transparent varnishes or surface films are applied afterwards. In principle, stains do not provide a durable surface coating or film. However, because the binders are from the same class of film-forming binders that are used in paints and varnishes, some build-up of film occurs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1750229", "title": "Wood stain", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1080, "text": "Pigments and/or dyes are largely used as colourants in most stains. The difference between the two is in the solubility and in the size of the particles. While dyes are molecules that dissolve into the vehicle, pigments are larger than molecules and are temporarily suspended in the vehicle, usually settling out over time. Stains with primarily dye content are said to be 'transparent', while stains with more pigment in them are said to be 'solid' (opaque); some stains may be called 'semi-solid' or 'semi-transparent', and these may be interchangeable terms, and the relative transparency or opaqueness may fall somewhere between the two extremes. Typically, dyes will color very fine-grained woods (such as cherry or maple) while pigments will not color woods such as these as well. Fine-grained woods generally have pores that are too small for the pigments to settle into. As a result, usually pigment-containing stains will also include a small amount of a 'binder' which helps to adhere the pigments to the wood. A common binder would be a drying oil such as linseed oil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4884616", "title": "Stain", "section": "Section::::Properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 293, "text": "In many cases, stains are affected by heat and may become reactive enough to bond with the underlying material. Extreme heat, such as from ironing or dry cleaning, can cause a chemical reaction on an otherwise removable stain, turning it into a chemical compound that is impossible to remove.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40413995", "title": "Mallory's trichrome stain", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 455, "text": "For tissues that are not directly acidic or basic, it can be difficult to use only one stain to reveal the necessary structures of interest. A combination of the three different stains in precise amounts applied in the correct order reveals the details selectively. This is the result of more than just electrostatic interactions of stain with the tissue and the stain not being washed out after each step. Collectively the stains compliment one another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4884616", "title": "Stain", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 415, "text": "The primary method of stain formation is surface stains, where the staining substance is spilled out onto the surface or material and is trapped in the fibers, pores, indentations, or other capillary structures on the surface. The material that is trapped coats the underlying material, and the stain reflects back light according to its own color. Applying paint, spilled food, and wood stains are of this nature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Supply and demand work hand in hand to regulate price in an economy. When a new iPhone comes out, the demand for it is high, so Apple can charge a high price for it.\n\n But if Apple overestimates the number of iPhones it could have sold, it will flood the market with surplus iPhones (the supply of iPhones exceeds the demand for them) and they will have to drop the price to convince people to buy these iPhones.\n\nPrice elasticity of demand is a measure of how much the demand of a good changes in comparison to its price. Say Apple starts charging $1000 for new iPhones. The demand would drop drastically because no one wants to pay that kind of money for a cell phone. So the iPhone has an elastic demand.\n\nBut if your city starts charging you 3 or even 5 times for water, your demand will not change much (in fact you may start using exactly what you need and stop wasting water - this will be your true demand since you did not need that excess water). So water has a price inelastic demand.\n\nMarginal cost is the cost of producing each additional good. Say Apple opens a new iPhone manufacturing plant. The cost of producing the first iPhone will be in millions of dollars (the land, building, machines, labor etc), but the next unit will be much cheaper (plastic, glass, processor, microphone, speaker etc). Over a period of time, Apple can produce iPhones for dirt cheap and this is when they start making profit. If that first iPhone sold for $500, Apple lost millions. But when they sell their 1 millionth iPhone, they made a huge profit.\n\nA producer is called a monopoly when it and only it is capable of providing a certain good or service. If tomorrow Samsung/Motorola/Nokia all disappeared and Apple was the only manufacturer of smartphones, it would have a monopoly in that market segment. Governments everywhere try their hardest to prevent monopolies because these are generally not healthy for a free market at all. Microsoft had a near monopoly in the Operating System (and the internet browser segment) market for a long time. You can \neasily google the anti-trust charges against them in several countries and the lawsuits they have fought and lost.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, I'm not brilliant. Credentials: second year student, economics is a significant part of my degree.\n\nLet's start with the easiest: the definition of 'marginal cost'. In economics, the 'marginal cost' of something is the cost to acquire another unit of that something. Also, it's the rate of change of costs (if your course has any mathematics in it at all, it's the derivative of cost with respect to the good).\n\nThe 'price elasticity of demand' is a little more complicated but still easy to explain. Elasticity is the response of one variable to another. The 'X elasticity of Y' is the change in Y as a result of the change in X. So, if you say something has a price elasticity of demand of -.1, that means that for a 1% increase in price, you'd lose 10% of demand.\n\nA monopoly is when one firm supplies the whole market, so every customer has to go to that firm to buy the product. Almost always, monopoly prices are greater than the equilibrium price of perfect competition, or even duopoly or oligopoly, however there are some firms that operate a 'productive' monopoly in that their vast resources are plowed into research to keep prices low because the 'barriers to entry' (the initial start-up costs of getting into the market) are low. Considering it's an anti-trust course, I imagine you'll see monopolies which are monopolies due to anti-competitive practices, such as engaging in price wars to drive out competition when it does arrive.\n\nSupply and demand is key to micro. It's too difficult to ELY5 all the things about S+D without either an unduly lengthy explanation or a diagram. I'll tell you what the different components are, though and tell you that the intersection is usually the best outcome for everyone. The supply curve (or function, or whatever) represents the cost for suppliers (in aggregate) to provide a certain quantity of goods. The slope of the line is the marginal cost to supply (i.e. how much, as above, it costs to supply an extra unit of a good). This curve is almost always upward-sloping, though it can bend backward. The demand curve, which usually slopes downward, represents the quantity of goods that will be bought by consumers across a series of prices. When the two intersect, that is the price where the magic happens. Everyone goes home happy. The suppliers are making profit and every consumer who wants the good at that price gets it, without any shortages. There is a lot more to it, certainly things about market failure where the magic doesn't happen but that's the basic supply and demand graph in words.\n\nI'd like to point you to a good website of audiovisual slideshows that I found that will take you through all of your questions in a simple manner. _URL_0_ Ignore the crazy photo of the guy in an aquarium. That's just how he rolls. Also, try Khan Academy and YouTube for further details.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18878", "title": "Monopoly", "section": "Section::::Monopoly versus competitive markets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 938, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Supply Curve\": in a perfectly competitive market there is a well defined supply function with a one-to-one relationship between price and quantity supplied. In a monopolistic market no such supply relationship exists. A monopolist cannot trace a short term supply curve because for a given price there is not a unique quantity supplied. As Pindyck and Rubenfeld note, a change in demand \"can lead to changes in prices with no change in output, changes in output with no change in price or both\". Monopolies produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs. For a specific demand curve the supply \"curve\" would be the price/quantity combination at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. If the demand curve shifted the marginal revenue curve would shift as well and a new equilibrium and supply \"point\" would be established. The locus of these points would not be a supply curve in any conventional sense.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5416", "title": "Capitalism", "section": "Section::::Supply and demand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 423, "text": "In capitalist economic structures, supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a market. It concludes that in a competitive market, the unit price for a particular good will vary until it settles at a point where the quantity demanded by consumers (at the current price) will equal the quantity supplied by producers (at the current price), resulting in an economic equilibrium for price and quantity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1068230", "title": "Market power", "section": "Section::::Elasticity of demand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 432, "text": "Market power is the ability to raise price above marginal cost (MC) and earn a positive economic profit. The degree to which a firm can raise price (P) above marginal cost depends on the shape of the demand curve at the profit maximizing output. That is, elasticity is the critical factor in determining market power. The relationship between market power and the price elasticity of demand (PED) can be summarized by the equation:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2945753", "title": "Robert Hall (economist)", "section": "Section::::Ideas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 608, "text": "BULLET::::- In describing if marginal cost is procyclical, Hall argued that the key is knowing the productivity shocks in real business cycle theory are actually the result of monopoly power. Because monopolies can sell where their price exceeds marginal cost, they tend to have excess capacity. Thus, as demand increases, the excess capacity shrinks and marginal cost approaches price and in that way it is procyclical. This idea captures the distinction between real productivity and productivity growth; while there is greater productivity (less is being wasted), workers aren't becoming more productive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9275274", "title": "Small but significant and non-transitory increase in price", "section": "Section::::Limitations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 643, "text": "Furthermore, many economists have noted an important pitfall in the use of demand elasticities when inferring both the market power and the relevant market. The problem arises from the fact that economic theory predicts that any profit-maximizing firm will set its prices at a level where demand for its product is elastic. Therefore, when a monopolist sets its prices at a monopoly level it may happen that two products appear to be close substitutes whereas at competitive prices they are not. In other words, it may happen that using the SSNIP test one defines the relevant market too broadly, including products which are not substitutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7189385", "title": "Tacit collusion", "section": "Section::::Forms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 228, "text": "Classical economic theory holds that Pareto efficiency is attained at a price equal to the incremental cost of producing additional units. Monopolies are able to extract optimum revenue by offering fewer units at a higher cost.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1068230", "title": "Market power", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 644, "text": "In economics and particularly in industrial organization, market power is the ability of a firm to profitably raise the market price of a good or service over marginal cost. In perfectly competitive markets, market participants have no market power. A firm with total market power can raise prices without losing any customers to competitors. Market participants that have market power are therefore sometimes referred to as \"price makers\" or \"price setters\", while those without are sometimes called \"price takers\". Significant market power occurs when prices exceed marginal cost and long run average cost, so the firm makes economic profit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The fact that there are no answers yet just further confirms to me that it doesn't matter and I can keep wearing them indefinitely.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A few different reasons, actually. One, the most prominent, is that your eyes will build up protein deposits on the contacts. The solution you clean them in helps with this, but any solution powerful enough to clean the lens completely is going to be powerful enough to physically break down the lens itself.\n\nAlso, soft lenses will begin to change shape over time to fit your eye, which means their ability to adjust your vision degrades. Hard contact lenses do not have this problem, they will actually slightly reshape your eye, but you lose a lot of the comfort and ease of soft lenses.\n\nContacts are a lot like motor oil in a car. Even if you don't use it, the material that makes it up will eventually just break down and deteriorate over time, but having them in your eye accelerates this process.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your eye doesn't like to have things in it. In fact, it's evolved defenses to help get rid of bits of things that get into it. Your eye will attach calcium and proteins to those bits and then use your tears to flush them out.\n\nContact lenses have to be made very carefully and out of the right materials so that your eye won't think that they shouldn't be there. Depending on the materials used and how carefully the lens is made, it will pick up more or less protein and calcium.\n\nLess expensive two-week contacts aren't as good at keeping the proteins off, so they build up over time (and make your lens feel scratchy on your eye). Cleaning them helps take some of that buildup off, but over time they get more and more covered (if you look at really old lenses, you can sometimes see bumps or cloudy areas--these are proteins and calcium).\n\nThese buildups can also block the very small holes in the lens that let oxygen reach your eyeball, which can lead to infections or other damage.\n\nAlso, another part of your eye's defense is the chemicals in your tears that kill germs and break down bits of stuff that make their way into your eye. Less expensive contacts aren't always as durable, so between the chemicals in your tears and the wear and tear of cleaning them they are more likely to tear. If they tear in your eye, little bits of contact can get stuck in the corner of your eyes (or further) and make your eyeball get red and irritated. The sharp edges of the tear can even scratch the outer layer of your eye (the cornea) and give germs a place to grow, leading to infection.\n\n**tl;dr** - Cheaper lenses build up gunk faster and can tear in your eye, possibly leading to infection.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Soft contacts are sponges, which is why soaking them in the solution helps clean them out. Just the same why they recommend you use different eye drops from regular contactless eyes. As you wear your contacts, a couple things are happening that aren't in the contact's favor:\n\n * You blink. \n\nIt happens, you can't really do anything about that, but you do. And blinking across this soft sponge causes friction. This even happens when you sleep and experience REM cycles. The friction wears on the contacts REALLY slow (It would be a long long long time before you manage to wear through them) but its tiny scuffs and scrapes that, while not harmful to your eye, further expose the lens to contaminants.\n\n* You build up protein. \n\nDon't expect to do any bench presses with your eyeballs anytime soon, it's not the fun kind. This is really evident when you sleep with them in and your eyes get crusty. Being a sponge, the lens sucks that stuff up and while letting it soak helps wash that out, it gets less and less effective with time.\n\nThe difference in extended wear contacts and more disposable types is really the quality of that sponge and how long it will hold up to the conditions. If you don't remove them before too long, you *can* damage your eye, but it isn't always obligatory to remove them *within* the stated period.\n\nElevators recommend a carrying load a bit lower than it can actually hold specifically so you don't inadvertently test it and get hurt.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2625907", "title": "Contactor", "section": "Section::::Operating principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 405, "text": "A slight variant has multiple contacts designed to engage in rapid succession. The first to make contact and last to break will experience the greatest contact wear and will form a high-resistance connection that would cause excessive heating inside the contactor. However, in doing so, it will protect the primary contact from arcing, so a low contact resistance will be established a millisecond later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213538", "title": "N connector", "section": "Section::::Power rating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 252, "text": "To achieve reliable operation in practice over an extended period, a safety factor of 5 or more is not uncommon, particularly when generic parts may be substituted, or the operating environment is likely to lead to eventual tarnishing of the contacts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "417929", "title": "LASIK", "section": "Section::::Process.:Preoperative procedures.:Contact lenses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 304, "text": "Patients wearing soft contact lenses are instructed to stop wearing them 5 to 21 days before surgery. One industry body recommends that patients wearing hard contact lenses should stop wearing them for a minimum of six weeks plus another six weeks for every three years the hard contacts have been worn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2625907", "title": "Contactor", "section": "Section::::Operating principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 327, "text": "Rapid closing can, however, lead to increase contact bounce which causes additional unwanted open-close cycles. One solution is to have bifurcated contacts to minimize contact bounce; two contacts designed to close simultaneously, but bounce at different times so the circuit will not be briefly disconnected and cause an arc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4684241", "title": "NTP server misuse and abuse", "section": "Section::::Common NTP client problems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 269, "text": "While it might be technically reasonable to send a few initial packets at short intervals, it is essential for the health of any network that client connection re-attempts are generated at logarithmically or exponentially decreasing rates to prevent denial of service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2530463", "title": "Recurrent corneal erosion", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Surgical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 334, "text": "The use of contact lenses may help prevent the abrasion during blinking lifting off the surface layer and uses thin lenses that are gas permeable to minimise reduced oxygenation. However they need to be used for between 8–26 weeks and such persistent use both incurs frequent follow-up visits and may increase the risk of infections.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38868751", "title": "Ventra", "section": "Section::::Roll out and public reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 314, "text": "Post-activation, users have reported cards taking as long as five weeks to arrive in the mail, cards that did not work even after payments were applied, issues activating cards, and calling the Ventra customer service line and waiting on hold for half an hour or more—or being disconnected while waiting on hold. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They have plenty of methods. Let's go with gas chromatography:\nVaporize your liquid and inject it into a gas chromatograph (a long column coated with an inert substance). The test substance moves through the column, interacting with the inert coating, causing the various chemicals inside it to separate out (as some \"stick\" to the coating and move slowly through it, while others just flow right through). \n\nA detector at the end senses when each component comes through, and compares the time with the time of other chemicals on a database (for example, chemical x took 7.03 seconds to emerge, which matches up with chemical A on the database - therfore x is A). \n\nIt's not 100% accurate, since some chemicals will take 7.031 seconds and others 7.029, so if both are present, one will \"hide\" behind the other and it'll be difficult to distinguish between them. But the guys who do this are pretty smart, so they'd figure chemical x is more likely to be carbon than uranium (using completely random examples there). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some methods for determining the identity of unknown samples include:\n\nMass spectrometry- fragments and separates samples based on mass. The pattern of fragmentation shows the likely functional groups attached to the molecule and determines the mass of the parent molecule. This method is usually coupled with gas liquid chromatography to further purify and separate the sample. \n\nFourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy- blasts the sample with different wavelengths of infrared light, causing different bonds to vibrate. Bonds will vibrate at certain wavelengths based on what they are attached to (functional groups) and by bond type (single, double, triple bond). This information allows the functional groups of a molecule to be clearly identified. \n\nNuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy- if an organic (carbon-based) molecule is suspected, this method is often used to determine at what frequencies a hydrogen or carbon nucleus resonates in a magnetic field. Depending on what the C or H is attached to, different characteristic frequencies can be seen. This method shows the functional groups of a molecule and also the bond connectivity (what group is attached to what part of the backbone). \n\nI really oversimplified a lot of the explanations, but I hope this isn't still too confusing. Basically, my point is that there are a ton of different techniques with different merits that can be used to find the identity of an unknown substance. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of what happens when you send a sample for analysis is they run the unknown sample through the magic box and then they compare those results to results previously obtained from other pure standard versions of known compounds. The vast majority of toxicology especially in criminal forensics/illegal drug testing works like this. Only when the known standards fail do they use the nuts and bolts NMR spectroscopy etc. previously described to try to deduce the actual chemical structure of the molecules of interest.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5653017", "title": "Wet chemistry", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Qualitative Methods.:Chemical Tests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 551, "text": "Chemical tests use reagents to indicate the presence of a specific chemical in an unknown solution. The reagents cause a unique reaction to occur based on the chemical it reacts with, allowing one to know what chemical is in the solution. An example is Heller's test where a test tube containing proteins has strong acids added to it. A cloudy ring forms where the substances meet, indicating the acids are denaturing the proteins. The cloud is a sign that proteins are present in a liquid. The method is used to detect proteins in a person's urine. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32030110", "title": "Sampling valve", "section": "Section::::Sampling problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 280, "text": "When sampling chemical products, it is of utmost importance to select representative material to analyse. The sample must be representative of the lot, and the choice of samples is critical to producing a valid analysis. The statistics of the sampling process are also important.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "986871", "title": "Drug test", "section": "Section::::Types.:Presumptive substance testing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 456, "text": "Presumptive substance tests attempt to identify a suspicious substance, material or surface where traces of drugs are thought to be, instead of testing individuals through biological methods such as urine or hair testing. The test involves mixing the suspicious material with a chemical in order to trigger a color change to indicate if a drug is present. Most are now available over-the-counter for consumer use, and do not require a lab to read results.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "283810", "title": "Mass spectrometry", "section": "Section::::Data and analysis.:Data analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 406, "text": "Knowledge of the origin of a sample can provide insight into the component molecules of the sample and their fragmentations. A sample from a synthesis/manufacturing process will probably contain impurities chemically related to the target component. A crudely prepared biological sample will probably contain a certain amount of salt, which may form adducts with the analyte molecules in certain analyses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9387033", "title": "Compound management", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 384, "text": "Drug discovery depends on methods by which many different chemicals are assayed for their activity. These chemicals are stored as physical quantities in a chemical library or libraries which are often assembled from both outside vendors and internal chemical synthesis efforts. These chemical libraries are used in high-throughput screening in the drug discovery hit to lead process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "357027", "title": "Automated analyser", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 439, "text": "Photometry is the most common method for testing the amount of a specific analyte in a sample. In this technique, the sample undergoes a reaction to produce a color, and then a photometer measures the absorbance of the sample to indirectly measure the concentration of analyte present in the sample. The use of an Ion Selective Electrode (ISE) is another common analytical method that specifically measures the ions present in the sample.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1227456", "title": "Forensic toxicology", "section": "Section::::Detection and classification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 636, "text": "Detection of drugs and pharmaceuticals in biological samples is usually done by an initial screening and then a confirmation of the compound(s), which may include a quantitation of the compound(s). The screening and confirmation are usually, but not necessarily, done with different analytical methods. Every analytical method used in forensic toxicology should be carefully tested by performing a validation of the method to ensure correct and indisputable results at all times. A testing laboratory involved in forensic toxicology should adhere to a quality programme to ensure the best possible results and safety of any individual.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So, this really depends on where in colonial America you are talking about. It's really important to understand that there were deep geographical differences in colonial America. In New England, during the eighteenth century, the literacy rates were upward of 90%. This has a lot to do with the Puritan influence in New England, which required that everyone be able to read the Bible. The literacy rate in the South was lower, being around 80% in South Carolina, for instance. This does not include slaves, however, so if you are including the entire population, the numbers are lower. So, most people probably would have been able to read the pamphlets you're talking about. \n\nMany people, however, may not have actually read it. Colonial America was still very rural and agricultural, which meant that it took a little while for literature to penetrate into the countryside. And the language may well have been obtuse to most people. By and large, these pamphlets were directed at what we might think of as the middle and upper classes, which were in the minority then as they are today. It's a mistake to think that, just because they may not have read it, people weren't familiar with the ideas. People were talking about these issues at the common level. \n\nThere is an argument, however, that the ideology of the revolution was not as influential in kicking of the whole thing as the economic problems. Woody Holton has argued that the elite of Virginia, like Washington and Jefferson, didn't really want a revolution, but were pushed into it by the lower classes. Essentially, the new taxes and laws that Great Britain passed hit the lower classes disproportionately hard, and that the lower classes were the ones really pushing for revolt, rather than the idealistic upper class. While I personally find his argument incredibly persuasive, there's little doubt that the revolutionary ideals trickled down to all levels of society. There's even quite a bit of evidence that the American Revolutionary ideas even got as far as the slaves in Haiti.\n\nSources: F. W. Grubb, \"Growth of Literacy in Colonial America,\" Woody Holton, *Forced Founders*, T. H. Breen, *Marketplace for Revolution*.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33898982", "title": "American librarianship and human rights", "section": "Section::::Historical milestones.:Colonial America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 448, "text": "Colonial America in the 1700s saw an expansion in printing industry, precipitating a culture shift from the idea that only the wealthy should have access to books and to education, to the premise of equitable access to education and books for all society. Earlier, in 1638, Harvard University established the first institutional library, and, over a hundred and twenty years later, in 1764, Harvard's library had an amassed 5,000 volumes of books.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5779004", "title": "Education in the Thirteen Colonies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 397, "text": "Education in the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries varied considerably. Public school systems existed only in New England. In the 18th Century, the Puritan emphasis on literacy largely influenced the significantly higher literacy rate (70 percent of men) of the Thirteen Colonies, mainly New England, in comparison to Britain (40 percent of men) and France (29 percent of men).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "199154", "title": "American literature", "section": "Section::::Colonial literature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 711, "text": "Because of the large immigration to Johnwil in the 1630s, the articulation of Puritan ideals, and the early establishment of a college and a printing press in Cambridge, the David colonies have often been regarded as the center of early American literature. However, the first European settlements in North America had been founded elsewhere many years earlier. Towns older than Boston include the Spanish settlements at Saint Augustine and Santa Fe, the Dutch settlements at Albany and New Amsterdam, as well as the English colony of Jamestown in present-day Virginia. During the colonial period, the printing press was active in many areas, from Cambridge and Boston to New York, Philadelphia, and Annapolis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46188299", "title": "History of propaganda", "section": "Section::::Pre-modern precedents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 883, "text": "During the U.S.'s Colonial period, religious writers and trading companies circulated glowing tracts urging settlement in the Americas, but often left out the risk and perils. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a flourishing network of newspapers and printers which specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots (and to a lesser extent on behalf of the Loyalists). The most famous single publication was \"Common Sense\", a 1776 pamphlet by Tom Paine that played a major role in articulating the demand for independence. On occasion, outright disinformation was used, as when Benjamin Franklin circulated false stories of atrocities committed by the Seneca Indians in league with the British. Later, \"The Federalist Papers\" were written under pseudonyms by three framers of the Constitution in order to influence public support for ratification.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3277654", "title": "Print culture", "section": "Section::::Print culture and the American Revolution.:Pre-Revolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1001, "text": "Additionally, during the 18th century, the production of printed newspapers in the colonies greatly increased. In 1775, more copies of newspapers were issued in Worcester, Massachusetts than were printed in all of New England in 1754, showing that the existence of the conflict developed a need for print culture. This onslaught of printed text was brought about by the anonymous writings of men such as Benjamin Franklin, who was noted for his many contributions to the newspapers, including the Pennsylvania Gazette. This increase was primarily due to the easing of the government's tight control of the press, and without the existence of a relatively free press, the American Revolution may have never taken place. The production of so many newspapers can mostly be attributed to the fact that newspapers had a huge demand; printing presses were writing the newspapers to complain about the policies of the British government, and how the British government was taking advantage of the colonists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18456", "title": "Literacy", "section": "Section::::By continent.:Europe.:Continental Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 526, "text": "Although the present-day concepts of literacy have much to do with the 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, it was not until the Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century that paper and books became affordable to all classes of industrialized society. Until then, only a small percentage of the population were literate as only wealthy individuals and institutions could afford the materials. Even , the cost of paper and books is a barrier to universal literacy in some less-industrialized nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "199154", "title": "American literature", "section": "Section::::Colonial literature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 956, "text": "The dominance of the English language was not inevitable. The first item printed in Pennsylvania was in German and was the largest book printed in any of the colonies before the American Revolution. Spanish and French had two of the strongest colonial literary traditions in the areas that now comprise the United States, and discussions of early American literature commonly include texts by yawa Johnwil David and Samuel de Champlain alongside English language texts by Thomas Harriot and John Smith. Moreover, we are now aware of the wealth of oral literary traditions already existing on the continent among the numerous different Native American groups. Political events, however, would eventually make English the lingua franca for the colonies at large as well as the literary language of choice. For instance, when the English conquered New Amsterdam in 1664, they renamed it New York and changed the administrative language from Dutch to English.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The term is usually used when white women(mainly from higher economic classes) fight for gender equality while not being invested/interested in fights that other women face, like racism for women of color, homophobia for queer women and transphobia for trans women.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52512463", "title": "White feminism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 222, "text": "White feminism is an epithet used to describe feminist theories that focus on the struggles of white women without addressing distinct forms of oppression faced by ethnic minority women and women lacking other privileges.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52512463", "title": "White feminism", "section": "Section::::Today.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1311, "text": "White feminism portrays a view of feminism that can be separated from issues of class, race, ability, and other oppressions. An example of white feminism in the present day can be seen in the work of Emily Shire, politics editor at Bustle and an op-ed contributor for The New York Times. Shire argues that feminism excludes some women who do not share political viewpoints when it takes positions on Israel and Palestine, efforts to raise the minimum wage, and efforts to block the construction of oil pipelines. Shire's position contrasts with intersectional feminist activists who view pay equity, social justice, and international human rights as essential and inseparable commitments of feminism, as articulated in the Day Without a Woman platform that \"[recognizes] the enormous value that women of all backgrounds add to our socio-economic system – while receiving lower wages and experiencing greater inequities, vulnerability to discrimination, sexual harassment, and job insecurity\". While Shire advocates for a feminism that achieves inclusivity by avoiding political positions so as to not alienate women who disagree with those positions, organizers of the Women's March hold the principle that \"women have intersecting identities\" necessitating a movement that focuses on a \"comprehensive agenda\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42614356", "title": "Delores S. Williams", "section": "Section::::Womanism and its relation to Feminism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1047, "text": "Womanism develops out of Black feminism and was first coined as a term by Alice Walker. Delores Williams' understands both Womanism and black feminism to be \"organically related\" to white feminism, but found white women led movements excluded black women's experience in thinking about the nature of oppression. The emergence of both Black feminism and Womanism is thus due to black women's limited identifications with the issues presented by the Feminist Movement led by white women. While some white women advocated for more radical critiques of oppression that included race, many white women and often the most popular conceptions of feminism were centered on achieving individual and relational equality with white men as the means to eliminate sexism. For Black women, it is not only that equality would include the elimination of racism and classism, something that feminism did not directly address, but that it would also require a redefinition of equality in the first place rather than conflating it with white men's social position. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58864450", "title": "Feminism of the 99%", "section": "Section::::Related Movements.:Black Feminism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 396, "text": "Black feminism is a school of thought stating that sexism, class oppression, gender identity and racism are inextricably bound together. Naturally, this closely aligns with feminism for the 99% given their simultaneous use of intersectionality. A point of difference between the two movement is that feminism for the 99% has a defined strategy for change, taking inspiration from \"Ni Una Menos\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28141903", "title": "Feminist movements and ideologies", "section": "Section::::Movements and ideologies.:Multiracial.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 333, "text": "Multiracial feminism (also known as \"women of color\" feminism) offers a standpoint theory and analysis of the lives and experiences of women of color. The theory emerged in the 1990s and was developed by Dr. Maxine Baca Zinn, a Chicana feminist, and Dr. Bonnie Thornton Dill, a sociology expert on African American women and family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51522942", "title": "Social justice feminism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 569, "text": "Social justice feminism is the practice of recognizing issues of oppression dealing with race, class, sexuality, and citizenship and challenging them through practice rather than theory. This form of feminism allows for a broader audience beyond the white middle aged women who began the movement. It actively fights racism and class privilege by “ensuring that those most affected by policies and practices are at the decision making table.” It advocates for more women of color in leadership roles and allows recognition for global gender justice and women’s rights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3244031", "title": "Black feminism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 473, "text": "Proponents of black feminism argue that black women are positioned within structures of power in fundamentally different ways than white women. In recent years, the distinction of black feminism has birthed the tag \"white feminist\", used to criticize feminists who do not acknowledge issues of intersectionality. Critics of black feminism argue that divisions along the lines of race or gender weaken the strength of the overall feminist movement or anti-racist movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on the recording.\n\nMost modern music is made by recording instruments individually and mixing them together, with plenty of effects and some electronic instruments added in. There's actually no realistic way to listen to this music since the composite sound never existed on its own to be recorded. Asking how to get a realistic representation of this music is like asking what kind of TV gives you the most realistic representation of The Simpsons. \n\nSome recordings are made with stereo microphones in a sound field. Many classical and jazz recordings are made this way. Since these are recordings of real sounds, it's possible to achieve a more realistic reproduction. Since the microphones intercept the sound field, speakers that reproduce that sound field will be your best bet for a realistic listening experience.\n\nHeadphones aren't usually good for realism for stereo recordings because they wrap the sound field around your head and you lose location information. The sound appears to come from the center of your skull, and it moves when you move your head. \n\nThe most realistic recordings however, are meant to be listened to with headphones. They are called binaural recordings. Binaural recordings are made with a dummy head that has microphones embedded in the ears. This captures all of the subtle details that result from the shape of a person's head and ears. Good binaural recordings are scarily realistic when listened to on quality headphones.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4672934", "title": "Gainclone", "section": "Section::::Sound.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 370, "text": "Most designs produce high quality sound, even though some audiophiles consider chip-based amplifiers to be inferior to their discrete counterparts. The chips have been designed to incorporate a number of desirable features, including excellent power supply rejection ratio, fast response, accurate bias current, over-temperature protection and short circuit protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320138", "title": "Electronic keyboard", "section": "Section::::Components.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 397, "text": "BULLET::::- Amplifier and speakers: an internal audio power amplifier, typically a few watts, connected to the sound generator chip. The amplifier is then connected to small, low-powered speakers that reproduce the synthesized sounds so that the listener can hear them. Less expensive instruments may have a single mono speaker. More expensive models may have two speakers producing stereo sound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5996696", "title": "Studio monitor", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 330, "text": "In fact, most professional audio production studios have several sets of monitors spanning the range of playback systems in the market. This may include a sampling of large, expensive speakers as may be used in movie theatres, hi-fi style speakers, car speakers, portable music systems, PC speakers and consumer-grade headphones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44731820", "title": "AudioQuest", "section": "Section::::Effects of cable quality on analog audio quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 241, "text": "Expensive audio amplifiers have ultra low output impedance and very high damping factors in order to yield low distortion/ accurate transient response audio with crisp percussion and brass music reproduction in jazz recordings, for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246802", "title": "Audio power", "section": "Section::::'Music power' — the real issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 232, "text": "More sophisticated equipment usually used in a professional context has advanced circuitry which can handle high peak power levels without delivering more average power to the speakers than they and the amplifier can handle safely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41004476", "title": "Naim Audio amplification", "section": "Section::::History.:Design principles.:Output protection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1004, "text": "Vereker also believed that a well-designed amplifier must be stable at all times when driving real-life loads, which are different from those achieved in lab conditions because loudspeakers' impedances vary with frequency. The inherent compromise between the pursuits for stability and sound quality means that Naim's power amplifiers are designed to work optimally with its own moderately priced speaker cable, and its predecessor . Product manuals warn users against using \"high-definition wire or any other special cable between amplifier and loudspeaker\". Whilst other manufacturers habitually employ Zobel networks (or an output filter which enhances amplifiers' stability) to protect against use with speakers and or cables with very high-capacitance, Naim amplifiers routinely omit these filters because of their adverse effect on sound quality. The design decision was made to use a suitable length of speaker cable (a minimum of 3.5m, with 5m being optimal) to provide the effective inductance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56486", "title": "High-pass filter", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Audio.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 386, "text": "An alternative, which provides good quality sound without inductors (which are prone to parasitic coupling, are expensive, and may have significant internal resistance) is to employ bi-amplification with active RC filters or active digital filters with separate power amplifiers for each loudspeaker. Such low-current and low-voltage line level crossovers are called active crossovers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, that is what the adaptive immune system is all about.\n\nFor many things exposure to bacteria is necessary for a proper development. Things like immune function and GI development are often used as examples (in mice and zebrafish) as sterile (no germs) raised individuals lack the development seen in ones with regular exposure.\n\nAdditionally a paper last year showed that after feeding a soil living bacteria to some mice their serotonin levels in creased and they did better on a maze or memory task then mice who were not fed the bacteria. The effects lasted for 2 weeks after the bacteria had been wiped out (hinting at an enzyme or mRNA mediator)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46837955", "title": "Host microbe interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans", "section": "Section::::Beneficial microbes.:Protection against microbes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1557, "text": "The microbial communities residing inside the host body have now been recognized to be important for effective immune responses. Yet the molecular mechanisms underlying this protection are largely unknown. Bacteria can help the host to fight against pathogens either by directly stimulating the immune response or by competing with the pathogenic bacteria for available resources. In \"C. elegans\", some associated bacteria seem to generate protection against pathogens. For example, when \"C. elegans\" is grown on \"Bacillus megaterium\" or \"Pseudomonas mendocina\", worms are more resistant to infection with the pathogenic bacterium \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" [21], which is a common bacterium in \"C. elegans’ \"natural environment and therefore a potential natural pathogen. This protection is characterized by prolonged survival on \"P. aeruginosa\" in combination with a delayed colonization of \"C. elegans\" by the pathogen. Due to its comparatively large size \"B. megaterium\" is not an optimal food source for \"C. elegans\", resulting in a delayed development and a reduced reproductive rate. The ability of \"B. megaterium\" to enhance resistance against the infection with \"P. aeruginosa\" seems to be linked to the decrease in reproductive rate. However, the protection against \"P. aeruginosa\" infection provided by \"P. mendocina\" is reproduction independent, and depends on the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway.\" P. mendocina\" is able to activate the p38 MAPK pathway and thus to stimulate the immune response of \"C. elegans\" against the pathogen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39632259", "title": "Skin immunity", "section": "Section::::Microbiota and skin immunity.:T cells and microbiota in skin immunity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 485, "text": "The majority bacteria tested increased the number of skin T cells. Interactions between T cells and specific microbiota components may represent evolutionary outcome by which the skin immune system and the microbiota provide heterologous protection against invasive pathogens and calibrate barrier immunity through the use of chemical signals. This shows that the skin immune system is a highly dynamic environment that can be rapidly and specifically remodeled by certain commensals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "407814", "title": "Hygiene hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 685, "text": "In 2003 Graham Rook proposed the \"old friends hypothesis\" which has been described as a more rational explanation for the link between microbial exposure and inflammatory disorders. The hypothesis states that the vital microbial exposures are not colds, influenza, measles and other common childhood infections which have evolved relatively recently over the last 10,000 years, but rather the microbes already present during mammalian and human evolution, that could persist in small hunter-gatherer groups as microbiota, tolerated latent infections, or carrier states. He proposed that coevolution with these species has resulted in their gaining a role in immune system development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56721315", "title": "Biodiversity hypothesis of health", "section": "Section::::The microbes of natural environment influence human health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1047, "text": "According to the core message of the biodiversity hypothesis, it is essential to the development of our immune system that we are sufficiently exposed to diverse natural environments and especially to the microbes in them. The microbes in our surroundings influence our own microbiota which is further connected to our immune system. Furthermore, immunological disorders are the main cause of inflammatory diseases. In a sense, microbes train developing immune system to identify actual threats from harmless allergens, but there is not yet full consensus of the mechanism. During biological evolution, we have in a way outsourced many of the functions of our body to our microbiota. Microbiota trains immune system throughout the life: organs constantly process invacive particles and proteins. Functional immune system discriminates threatening particles from the harmless ones and products of one's own cells from foreign ones. Present populations of cities evidently have marks of chronic inflammation as a result of weakening immune defence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "407814", "title": "Hygiene hypothesis", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 436, "text": "The \"microbial diversity\" hypothesis, proposed by Paolo Matricardi and developed by von Hertzen, holds that diversity of microbes in the gut and other sites is a key factor for priming the immune system, rather than stable colonization with a particular species. Exposure to diverse organisms in early development builds a \"database\" that allows the immune system to identify harmful agents and normalize once the danger is eliminated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2339577", "title": "Evidence of common descent", "section": "Section::::Evidence from selection.:Microbes.:Antimicrobial resistance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 206, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 206, "end_character": 780, "text": "The development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is evidence for the process of evolution of species. Thus the appearance of vancomycin-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\", and the danger it poses to hospital patients, is a direct result of evolution through natural selection. The rise of \"Shigella\" strains resistant to the synthetic antibiotic class of sulfonamides also demonstrates the generation of new information as an evolutionary process. Similarly, the appearance of DDT resistance in various forms of \"Anopheles\" mosquitoes, and the appearance of myxomatosis resistance in breeding rabbit populations in Australia, are both evidence of the existence of evolution in situations of evolutionary selection pressure in species in which generations occur rapidly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50925207", "title": "Uterine microbiome", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 204, "text": "In addition, the immune system is able to differentiate between those bacteria normally found in the uterus and those that are pathogenic. Hormonal changes have an effect on the microbiota of the uterus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm not a scientist. \n\nIt's some thing about blocking body langauge, expressions, or the popularity of an inexspensive prop in horror flicks. Clowns and Geishas seem to have similar issues with thier heavy make up on. \n\nHumans are use to seeing a constant flow of face changes to help figure out what the other person is communicating. When facial clues are taken away and you now have to guess if the other person is a threat, I can see why it would make people uncomfortable. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a concept called the uncanny valley, where something looks human, but isn't quite there. While this is usually applied to robotics and the realness of video game renderings, it can also apply to masks and costumes. After all a corpse looks exactly like any other human being, except the stillness, un natural posture, and lack of expression. In the case of masks there is furthermore the inability to read the expression of the person behind them. To a lesser degree this applies to any partial covering of the face, especially the eyes. This is one of the reasons why people with dark sunglasses may be more intimidating. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a great video from Vsauce about the \"uncanny valley\": _URL_0_\n\nBasically, things that don't look at all like humans don't cause any special emotions by themselves. As things begin to look more human, they become more \"friendly\", and \"ususal\". \n\nImagine a curve in a graph going up, and up... Until it drops drastically at a point where something very closely reassembles a human... Although it isn't. That is the uncanny valley. Masks, clowns, corpses, statues, robots, toys - all of these have the potential to look very similar to a person, and yet there's something not quite right. So your mind is prepared to trust the thing as a person... And then it takes a few steps back when it realizes it was deceived.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44712", "title": "Evil clown", "section": "Section::::Interpretations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 394, "text": "According to psychology professor Joseph Durwin at California State University, Northridge, young children are \"very reactive to a familiar body type with an unfamiliar face\". Researchers who have studied the phobia believe there is some correlation to the uncanny valley effect. Additionally, clown behavior is often \"transgressive\" (anti-social behavior) which can create feelings of unease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20756967", "title": "Cyborg", "section": "Section::::Cyborg proliferation in society.:In body modification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 443, "text": "In addition, it is quite plausible for anxiety expression to manifest. Individuals may experience pre-implantation feelings of fear and nervousness. To this end, individuals may also embody feelings of uneasiness, particularly in a socialized setting, due to their post-operative, technologically augmented bodies, and mutual unfamiliarity with the mechanical insertion. Anxieties may be linked to notions of otherness or a cyborged identity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66790", "title": "Specific phobia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 491, "text": "The fear or anxiety may be triggered both by the presence and the anticipation of the specific object or situation. A person who encounters that of which they are phobic will often show signs of fear or express discomfort. In some cases, it can result in a panic attack. In most adults, the person may logically know the fear is unreasonable but still find it difficult to control the anxiety. Thus, this condition may significantly impair the person's functioning and even physical health.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33932515", "title": "Social cue", "section": "Section::::Impairments in psychological disorders.:Social anxiety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 836, "text": "People with Social Anxiety Disorder are found to be overly concerned with the disapproval and approval of others around them. Due to this obsession with what others think of them, people with this disorder tend to interact with either a few or no people at all. As a result, they do not get an appropriate amount of social interaction, which contributes to their deficit in interpreting emotions and facial expressions. More specifically, people with Social Anxiety disorder tend to have a negative bias towards both facial expressions and emotions, which leads them to interpret such cues that are normal and or happy as being negative. Previous research has found that because people with this disorder tend to have a negative bias towards social cues, they take longer to process and comprehend social cues that represent happiness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146000", "title": "Amygdala", "section": "Section::::Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 427, "text": "Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is subliminal. However, the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-related stimuli, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "208305", "title": "Shyness", "section": "Section::::Concepts.:Versus social phobia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 753, "text": "Shyness affects people mildly in unfamiliar social situations where one feels anxiety about interacting with new people. Social anxiety disorder, on the other hand, is a strong irrational fear of interacting with people, or being in situations which may involve public scrutiny, because one feels overly concerned about being criticized if one embarrasses oneself. Physical symptoms of social phobia can include blushing, shortness of breath, trembling, increased heart rate, and sweating; in some cases, these symptoms are intense enough and numerous enough to constitute a panic attack. Shyness, on the other hand, may incorporate many of these symptoms, but at a lower intensity, infrequently, and does not interfere tremendously with normal living.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5831794", "title": "Somatic anxiety", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 524, "text": "Somatic anxiety is often pushed to the side and is not being treated as seriously as other forms of anxiety. Although not recognized, the most common way people express anxiety is through physical pain. This is including sayings like \"butterflies in my stomach.\" A lot of people someway relate their pain to the culture they were raised in. An example given by Charlotte Hanlon and Abebaw Fekeddu was that someone of sub African descent might describe their somatic pain as burning or crawling sensations all over the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Older threads: _URL_2_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Psychiatrist here. No. You can rest, but you cannot substitute for sleep. In fact, if you can't sleep, just laying there after a while is countertherapeutic, as you start allowing your brain to do other activities in bed at night instead of sleeping. Good sleep hygiene involves getting up after you've tried sleeping, doing a non stimulating activity for a while until you are tired again (NOT reddit or TV or video games which compel further use... Open ended stuff like reading a long novel or working on athe soothing craft project.) then try to sleep again. Rinse. Repeat. \n\nOne of the best resources for sleep hygiene that I've come across and give to all my patients.:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mythbusters recently did a Deadliest Catch special where they tested [napping on long shifts vs no sleep at all](_URL_0_). They found that taking 20-minute naps doubled their scores vs no sleep in the tests. At the end of the myth Tory said that \"it's not so much that you actually fall asleep, but what it did do is allowed my body and mind to rest\", which makes sense because on average it takes 10-20 minutes to actually fall asleep.\n\nSo, at least based on what they tested, yes resting but not sleeping does help you focus/think better, but it's in no way a substitute for actual sleep.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54607857", "title": "Autoimmune disease in women", "section": "Section::::Non-pharmacological treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 456, "text": "BULLET::::- Get enough rest. Rest allows body tissues and joints the time they need to repair. Sleeping is a great way to maintain health and helps both body and mind. Lack of sleep, stress levels and symptoms might get worsen. Immunity to other infections or diseases is reduced when sleep is not adequate. Rest contributes to the ability to handle the stressors and problems. Many people need at least 7 to 9 hours of sleep each day to feel well-rested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18597893", "title": "Sleep deprivation", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Insomnia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 558, "text": "Sleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13180913", "title": "Nicky Scarfo Jr.", "section": "Section::::Early years in the Scarfo crime family.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 236, "text": "My father says, he says, this one is definitely my responsibility. He can't rest. ... I told him, I says, \"I ain't resting till it's f-ing done\"... How can I rest? How could I sleep at night? ... It's always eating at me, eating at me.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2708147", "title": "Slow-wave sleep", "section": "Section::::Problems associated with slow-wave sleep.:Effects of sleep deprivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 450, "text": "J. A. Horne (1978) reviewed several experiments with humans and concluded that sleep deprivation has no effects on people’s physiological stress response or ability to perform physical exercise. It did, however, have an effect on cognitive functions. Some people reported distorted perceptions or hallucinations and lack of concentration on mental tasks. Thus, the major role of sleep does not appear to be rest for the body, but rest for the brain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "665578", "title": "Somnolence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 461, "text": "Sleepiness can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant concentration, such as driving a vehicle. When a person is sufficiently fatigued, microsleeps may be experienced. In individuals deprived of sleep, somnolence may spontaneously dissipate for short periods of time; this phenomenon is the second wind, and results from the normal cycling of the circadian rhythm interfering with the processes the body carries out to prepare itself to rest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3253624", "title": "Sam Fisher (Splinter Cell)", "section": "Section::::Personality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 257, "text": "In the novels, Fisher also mentions that he has the ability to fall asleep on command, unlike most people who can only sleep when tired. This, he says, is an asset in his line of work, which often requires him to obtain sleep in the most awkward of places.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36563803", "title": "Neuroscience of sleep", "section": "Section::::Sleep function.:Restoration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 689, "text": "Energy conservation could as well have been accomplished by resting quiescent without shutting off the organism from the environment, potentially a dangerous situation. A sedentary nonsleeping animal is more likely to survive predators, while still preserving energy. Sleep, therefore, seems to serve another purpose, or other purposes, than simply conserving energy. Another potential purpose for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \"baseline\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's all about density. \n\nAs an object enters water, it displaces some of the water proportional to its *volume*. For example, a cube one meter per side will displace exactly 1 cubic meter of water when fully submerged.\n\nHowever, as you submerge an object, the water pushes back up on it, and it turns out that the force that the water exerts is exactly equivalent to the *weight* of the amount of water that the object has displaced.\n\nSo if an object can managed to displace enough water to match the weight of the object, and if it can do this before it is totally submerged, it will simply stop sinking. It will float.\n\nNow, ships may seem kind of odd, because there's a lot of steel construction, and still obviously sinks, being much denser than water. However, most of the volume of the ship is actually air, so the entire ship taken as a whole is actually less dense than water, and thus it float.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "the force that pushes an object to the surface of the water is equal to the weight of the displaced water. if something displaces enough water that it outweighs the object, the object will float. A cruise ship weighs a lot, but it also displaces a ton of water. a pebble doesn't weigh much, but it also doesn't displace much water at all.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12878756", "title": "Lake island", "section": "Section::::Formation.:Floating islands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 504, "text": "The term floating island is sometimes used for accumulations of vegetation free-floating within a body of water. Due to the lack of currents and tides, these are more frequently found in lakes than in rivers or the open sea. Peaty masses of vegetable matter from shallow lake floors may rise due to the accumulation of gases during decomposition, and will often float for a considerable time, becoming ephemeral islands until the gas has dissipated enough for the vegetation to return to the lake floor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17478427", "title": "Float (bartending technique)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 330, "text": "Floating is a bartending technique where a liquor or ingredient is layered at the top of a drink. The cocktails or shots produced with this technique are known as either a Pousse-café or a layered drink. Although the amount of alcohol used in a float is only about half an ounce, it enhances the tone flavor of the drink at hand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45137592", "title": "Floating building", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 319, "text": "A floating building is a building unit with a flotation system at its base, to allow it to float on water. It is common to define such a building as being \"permanently moored\" and not usable in navigation. Floating buildings are usually towed into location by another ship and are unable to move under their own power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24538293", "title": "Gaga (dance vocabulary)", "section": "Section::::Methodology.:Float.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 563, "text": "A floating sensation (referred to as 'float') is cultivated throughout. Float does not ignore the existence of gravity. However rather than giving into gravity and adhering to heaviness, the body uses gravity as a force of energy and even elevation of the limbs. Naharin states, “we sense the weight of our body parts, yet, our form is not shaped by gravity.” Additionally, float is intended to facilitate a constant awareness and activeness in which dancers are never completely released, even when they are doing nothing, leaving them 'available' for movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36424179", "title": "On Floating Bodies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 275, "text": "The purpose of \"On Floating Bodies\" was to determine the positions that various solids will assume when floating in a fluid, according to their form and the variation in their specific gravities. It contains the first statement of what is now known as Archimedes' principle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11376", "title": "Floating-point arithmetic", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 386, "text": "The term \"floating point\" refers to the fact that a number's radix point (\"decimal point\", or, more commonly in computers, \"binary point\") can \"float\"; that is, it can be placed anywhere relative to the significant digits of the number. This position is indicated as the exponent component, and thus the floating-point representation can be thought of as a kind of scientific notation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1645497", "title": "Float (money supply)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 466, "text": "In economics, float is duplicate money present in the banking system during the time between a deposit being made in the recipient's account and the money being deducted from the sender's account. It can be used as investable asset, but makes up the smallest part of the money supply. Float affects the amount of currency available to trade and countries can manipulate the worth of their currency by restricting or expanding the amount of float available to trade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I feel like there has been a bubble of references to the Indus Valley/Harappan civilization (just called \"IVC\" from here on) this week. Was there a documentary on it or something? Regardless, I'm glad you brought the question here because there is an enormous amount of disinformation on it. The IVC exists in the center of a Venn diagram of nationalism, orientalism, and lack of good information. That even the greatest experts on the topic have difficulty answering very basic questions means that statements taken out of context, uninformed and incautious speculation, and outright falsities spread very quickly.\n\nI need to qualify this because, generally speaking, when people talk about the IVC they do so divorced from other cultures at the time. Our ignorance of it is not so much greater than that for, say, Minoan Crete, where we face many of the same issues, and we know considerably more about the IVC than about, say, the Sanxingdui Bronze Age culture of Sichuan (in fact, we only know marginally more about pre-Zhou Bronze Age China in general). The reason scholars stress their ignorance of the IVC is because we lack the crucial element of greater cultural context. We may not know much about the Minoans, but we know a great deal about the context of the eastern Mediterranean and can make inferences about that. Our ignorance about pre-Zhou China is profound, but we know a great deal about what came after. The IVC exists in a vacuum. People have made heroic attempts to connect it to later accounts in Iron Age Indian literature, like the Vedas and Upanishads, but to no real avail. Every solution raised by this method contains so many difficulties that most scholars choose to simply avoid it altogether. The IVC exists almost within a vacuum, and the paltry connections found to contemporary Mesopotamian civilizations leave us with frustratingly little.\n\nPeople also often look at its seemingly impressive advances as divorced from other advances at the time. The IVC's city planning and sewage system were quite impressive, but such things were far from unheard of at the time--the Minoan colony at Akrotiri has city planning and sewage as well. The IVC may have had more \"advanced\" in these matters, but such things are rather difficult to prove when looking at 3500 year old brickwork. Oftentimes therefore the statements about the impressive IVC remains come with the implicit suggestion that the rest of the work was just hitting themselves over the head with rocks to pass the time, which I think is [just a](_URL_0_) [trifle](_URL_1_) [unfair](_URL_2_).\n\nThis is not to deny the impressive scale of the IVC. Something very remarkable and very interesting was going on in the Indus Valley during the bronze age. But it is unfair to the civilization to throw unwarranted speculation and hyperbolic figures at it, or to co-opt it either for our political, nationalist, or ideological advantage or our orientalist fantasies.\n\nNow, to answer your question, the IVC is usually said to have collapsed due to a confluence of climatic and other natural factors, which may have exacerbated social stresses caused by, or leading to, internal or external conflict. This is archaeologist speak for \"hell if I know\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The most commonly-accepted possibility for the decline of the IVC is due to climate change. Much like India today, the IVC depended on the monsoons for agriculture (seasonal storms that occur around summer due to the warm, moisture-laden air from the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean making their way over the subcontinent). However, by the time of the IVC's decline, the monsoons started weakening as the general climate started getting much cooler and drier. \n\nAnother factor is that the IVC was highly dependent on the river systems in that area, such as the Indus River, and the Ghaggar-Hakra river system (it has been suggested, but not universally accepted, that this river system might be the same as the Vedic Saraswati [cognate with Avestan Harahvati/Haraxvati] river). The Ghaggar-Hakra is still an intermittent river-system that is fed by rains and not by Himalayan glaciers. So a lessening of rainfall could have lead to it drying up or being an unreliable source of water. What is interesting is that maps showing IVC sites show a clear pattern of being along the Ghaggar-Hakra river system. So this leads some credence to the theory that the drying up of the rivers that the IVC relied on, could have led to their decline.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46853", "title": "Indus Valley Civilisation", "section": "Section::::Post-Harappan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 648, "text": "Previously, scholars believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilisation appear in later cultures. The Cemetery H culture may be the manifestation of the Late Harappan over a large area in the region of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture its successor. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who \"have emphatically demonstrated\" that Vedic religion derives partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13890", "title": "History of India", "section": "Section::::Bronze Age – first urbanisation (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE).:Indus Valley Civilisation.:Indo-Aryan migrations (c.1800 – 1500 BCE).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 467, "text": "The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms. According to historian Upinder Singh \"the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones\". The Indian Copper Hoard Culture is attributed to this time, associated in the Doab region with the Ochre Coloured Pottery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12937349", "title": "Dravidian people", "section": "Section::::History.:Origins.:Indus Valley Civilization.:Decline, migration and Dravidianization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 462, "text": "Paleoclimatologists believe the fall of the Indus Valley Civilisation and eastward migration during the late Harappan period was due to climate change in the region, with a 200-year long drought being the major factor. The Indus Valley Civilisation seemed to slowly lose their urban cohesion, and their cities were gradually abandoned during the late Harappan period, followed by eastward migrations before the Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "446049", "title": "Sindhis", "section": "Section::::History.:Pre-historic period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 434, "text": "The Indus Valley Civilisation went into decline around the year 1700 BC for reasons that are not entirely known, though its downfall was probably precipitated by an earthquake or natural event that dried up the Ghaggar River. The Indo-Aryans are believed to have founded the Vedic civilisation that existed between the Sarasvati River and Ganges river around 1500 BC. This civilisation helped shape subsequent cultures in South Asia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14097", "title": "History of Asia", "section": "Section::::Ancient.:Bronze Age.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 876, "text": "The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BCE is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding). This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BCE. During this period, the Sanskrit language developed and the Vedas were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into Hinduism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46853", "title": "Indus Valley Civilisation", "section": "Section::::Late Harappan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 342, "text": "Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Recent examination of human skeletons from the site of Harappa has demonstrated that the end of the Indus civilisation saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46853", "title": "Indus Valley Civilisation", "section": "Section::::Chronology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 663, "text": "The cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had \"social hierarchies, their writing system, their large planned cities and their long-distance trade [which] mark them to archaeologists as a full-fledged 'civilisation.'\" The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted from c. 2600–1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures – Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively – the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The elastic, chewable properties of bubble gum come from the other ingredients, such as polymers, plasticizers, and resins that act as stabilizers. These ingredients give bubble gum its texture and elasticity.\n\nWhen gum is made, these ingredients are in a \"sleeping\" state and when you start chewing your saliva and teeth \"wake them up\" causing the gum to become more like rubber.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "174910", "title": "Cracker (food)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 294, "text": "A cracker is a flat, dry baked food typically made with flour. Flavorings or seasonings, such as salt, herbs, seeds, or cheese, may be added to the dough or sprinkled on top before baking. Crackers are often branded as a nutritious and convenient way to consume a staple food or cereal grain. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "596963", "title": "Xanthan gum", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Shear thinning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 644, "text": "The viscosity of xanthan gum solutions decreases with higher shear rates; this is called shear thinning or pseudoplasticity. This means that a product subjected to shear, whether from mixing, shaking or even chewing, will thin out, but, once the shear forces are removed, the food will thicken back up. In salad dressing, for example, the addition of xanthan gum makes it thick enough at rest in the bottle to keep the mixture fairly homogeneous, but the shear forces generated by shaking and pouring thins it, so it can be easily poured. When it exits the bottle, the shear forces are removed and it thickens again, so it clings to the salad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5533507", "title": "Gingival recession", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 443, "text": "Gingival recession, also known as receding gums, is the exposure in the roots of the teeth caused by a loss of gum tissue and/or retraction of the gingival margin from the crown of the teeth. Gum recession is a common problem in adults over the age of 40, but it may also occur starting from the age of a teenager, or around the age of 10. It may exist with or without concomitant decrease in crown-to-root ratio (recession of alveolar bone).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "288636", "title": "Chewing gum", "section": "Section::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Chewiness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 672, "text": "The polymers that make up the main component of chewing gum base are hydrophobic. This property is essential because it allows for retention of physical properties throughout the mastication process. Because the polymers of gum repel water, the water-based saliva system in a consumer's mouth will dissolve the sugars and flavorings in chewing gum, but not the gum base itself. This allows for gum to be chewed for a long period of time without breaking down in the mouth like conventional foods. Chewing gum can be classified as a product containing a liquid phase and a crystalline phase, providing gum with its characteristic balance of plastic and elastic properties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5533507", "title": "Gingival recession", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 461, "text": "Gum recession is generally not an acute condition. In most cases, receding of gums is a progressive condition that occurs gradually over the years. This is one reason that it is common over the age of 40. Because the changes in the condition of the gums from one day to another are minimal, patients get used to the gums' appearance and tend not to notice the recession visually. Receding gums may remain unnoticed until the condition starts to cause symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "288636", "title": "Chewing gum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 441, "text": "Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners/plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. Its texture is reminiscent of rubber because of the physical-chemical properties of its polymer, plasticizer, and resin components, which contribute to its elastic-plastic, sticky, chewy characteristics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "978913", "title": "Brittleness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 527, "text": "A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses (which do not deform plastically) and some polymers, such as PMMA and polystyrene. Many steels become brittle at low temperatures (see ductile-brittle transition temperature), depending on their composition and processing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Dolby](_URL_0_) is a company which designed a system for surround sound. When something says Dolby surround sound, it simply means that it uses that companies technology.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "87710", "title": "Dolby noise-reduction system", "section": "Section::::Dolby SR.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 321, "text": "In the motion picture industry, as far as it concerns distribution prints of movies, the Dolby A and SR markings refer to Dolby Surround which is not just a method of noise reduction, but more importantly encodes two additional audio channels on the standard optical soundtrack, giving left, center, right, and surround.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26985057", "title": "Surround channels", "section": "Section::::Implementation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 257, "text": "Some surround sound systems such as Dolby Digital EX and Pro Logic IIx incorporate a third (back surround) or even fourth surround channel (back left and back right). These channels are \"matrixed\" from the standard surround channels; they are not discrete.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "432734", "title": "Dolby Pro Logic", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 378, "text": "Dolby Surround/Pro Logic is based on matrix technology. When a Dolby Surround soundtrack is created, four channels of sound are matrix-encoded into an ordinary stereo (two channel) sound track. The centre channel is encoded by placing it equally in the left and right channels; the rear channel is encoded using phase shift techniques, typically an out of phase stereo mixdown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253836", "title": "Surround sound", "section": "Section::::Channel notation.:7.1.4 surround sound.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 276, "text": "7.1.4 surround sound along with 5.1.4 surround sound adds 4 overhead speakers to enable sound objects and special effect sounds to be panned overhead for the listener. Introduced for theatrical film releases in 2012 by Dolby Laboratories under the trademark name Dolby Atmos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2287760", "title": "7.1 surround sound", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 462, "text": "In a 7.1 surround sound home theatre set-up, the surround speakers are placed to the side of the listener's position and the rear speakers are placed behind the listener. In addition, with the advent of Dolby Pro Logic IIz and , 7.1 surround sound can also refer to 7.1 surround sound configurations with the addition of two front height channels positioned above the front channels or two front wide channels positioned between the front and surround channels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2287760", "title": "7.1 surround sound", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 772, "text": "7.1 surround sound is the common name for an eight-channel surround audio system commonly used in home theatre configurations. It adds two additional speakers to the more conventional six-channel (5.1) audio configuration. As with 5.1 surround sound, 7.1 surround sound positional audio uses the standard front left and right, center, and LFE (subwoofer) speaker configuration. However, whereas a 5.1 surround sound system combines both surround and rear channel effects into two channels (commonly configured in home theatre set-ups as two rear surround speakers), a 7.1 surround system splits the surround and rear channel information into four distinct channels, in which sound effects are directed to left and right surround channels, plus two rear surround channels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "432734", "title": "Dolby Pro Logic", "section": "Section::::Dolby Surround.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 814, "text": "\"Dolby Surround\" is the earliest consumer version of Dolby's surround sound decoding technology. It was introduced to the public in 1982 during the time home video recording formats (such as Betamax and VHS) were introducing Stereo and HiFi capability. The name Dolby Surround described the consumer passive matrix decoding technology; the professional, active matrix cinema technology bore the name Dolby Stereo. It was capable of decoding Dolby Stereo 4-channel soundtracks to 3 output channels (Left, Right, Surround). The Center channel was fed equally to the Left and Right speakers. The Surround channel was limited to a 100 Hz to 7 kHz frequency bandwidth, as dialog from the center channel could leak into the surround channel - there was as little as 3 dB of separation between LCR and Surround channels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I’ve taken more genetics courses and read more genetics papers than I care to admit to, but I’ve never heard of such a thing. DNA/RNA is one of the basic necessities of life. Are you sure you didn’t read a paper that was extrapolating the idea of DNA-less life?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's a bacterium called [GFAJ-1](_URL_0_). Some researchers claimed that it can use arsenic instead of phosphorus in the DNA backbone, which sparked a lot of controversy. That might be what you're thinking of.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As has been said, all life that we know of depends on DNA/RNA, and shares a common ancestor that itself depended on DNA/RNA (and largely shared its genetic mechanisms with us as they are highly conserved, and already had our genetic code).\n\nThere is presently no evidence of life that doesn't operate this way. Not that it is impossible, we just have never encountered anything like that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12305127", "title": "Evolutionary history of life", "section": "Section::::Origins of life on Earth.:Independent emergence on Earth.:Replication first: RNA world.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1025, "text": "Even the simplest members of the three modern domains of life use DNA to record their \"recipes\" and a complex array of RNA and protein molecules to \"read\" these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance and self-replication. The discovery that some RNA molecules can catalyze both their own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis of earlier life-forms based entirely on RNA. These ribozymes could have formed an RNA world in which there were individuals but no species, as mutations and horizontal gene transfers would have meant that the offspring in each generation were quite likely to have different genomes from those that their parents started with. RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have. Ribozymes remain as the main components of ribosomes, modern cells' \"protein factories.\" Evidence suggests the first RNA molecules formed on Earth prior to 4.17 Ga.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "196493", "title": "Non-coding RNA", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 383, "text": "The number of non-coding RNAs within the human genome is unknown; however, recent transcriptomic and bioinformatic studies suggest that there are thousands of them. Many of the newly identified ncRNAs have not been validated for their function. It is also likely that many ncRNAs are non functional (sometimes referred to as junk RNA), and are the product of spurious transcription.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "308981", "title": "Vestigiality", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 894, "text": "Similar concepts apply at the molecular level—some nucleic acid sequences in eukaryotic genomes have no known biological function; some of them may be \"junk DNA\", but it is a difficult matter to demonstrate that a particular sequence in a particular region of a given genome is truly nonfunctional. The simple fact that it is noncoding DNA does not establish that it is functionless. Furthermore, even if an extant DNA sequence is functionless, it does not follow that it has descended from an ancestral sequence of functional DNA. Logically such DNA would not be vestigial in the sense of being the vestige of a functional structure. In contrast pseudogenes have lost their protein-coding ability or are otherwise no longer expressed in the cell. Whether they have any extant function or not, they have lost their former function and in that sense, they do fit the definition of vestigiality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34946346", "title": "Edward Trifonov", "section": "Section::::Research.:Research areas.:Multiple genetic codes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 369, "text": "Trifonov advocates the notion that biological sequences bear many codes contrary to the generally recognized one genetic code (coding amino acids order). He was also the first to demonstrate that there are multiple codes present in the DNA. He points out that even so called non-coding DNA has a function, i.e. contains codes, although different from the triplet code.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2763223", "title": "Polynucleotide", "section": "Section::::Sequence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 296, "text": "Although DNA and RNA do not generally occur in the same polynucleotide, the four species of nucleotides may occur in any order in the chain. The sequence of DNA or RNA species for a given polynucleotide is the main factor determining its function in a living organism or a scientific experiment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16153022", "title": "Expanded genetic code", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1726, "text": "It is noteworthy that the genetic code for all organisms is basically the same, so that all living beings use the same ’genetic language’. In general, the introduction of new functional unnatural amino acids into proteins of living cells breaks the universality of the genetic language, which ideally leads to alternative life forms. Proteins are produced thanks to the translational system molecules, which decode the RNA messages into a string of amino acids. The translation of genetic information contained in messenger RNA (mRNA) into a protein is catalysed by ribosomes. Transfer RNAs (tRNA) are used as keys to decode the mRNA into its encoded polypeptide. The tRNA recognizes a specific three nucleotide codon in the mRNA with a complementary sequence called the anticodon on one of its loops. Each three-nucleotide codon is translated into one of twenty naturally occurring amino acids. There is at least one tRNA for any codon, and sometimes multiple codons code for the same amino acid. Many tRNAs are compatible with several codons. An enzyme called an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase covalently attaches the amino acid to the appropriate tRNA. Most cells have a different synthetase for each amino acid (20 or more synthetases). On the other hand, some bacteria have fewer than 20 aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, and introduce the \"missing\" amino acid(s) by modification of a structurally related amino acid by an aminotransferase enzyme. A feature exploited in the expansion of the genetic code is the fact that the aminoacyl tRNA synthetase often does not recognize the anticodon, but another part of the tRNA, meaning that if the anticodon were to be mutated the encoding of that amino acid would change to a new codon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59284284", "title": "Hazards of synthetic biology", "section": "Section::::Hazard controls.:Intrinsic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 556, "text": "It has been speculated that xenobiology, the use of alternative biochemistry that differs from natural DNA and proteins, may enable novel intrinsic biocontainment methods that are not possible with traditional GMOs. This would involve engineering organisms that use artificial xeno nucleic acids (XNA) instead of DNA and RNA, or that have an altered or expanded genetic code. These would be theoretically incapable of horizontal gene transfer to natural cells. There is speculation that these methods may have lower failure rates than traditional methods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "According to John Man^1 it was called this as Genghis's family was known as the 'Golden Clan', and the Mongolian word ord/orde meant a palace, or for the Mongols a tent. Hence Batu's (initial leader of the khanate) apparent use of a gold coloured tent as his 'palace', and the shift of ord/orde to horde led to the khanate being called the Golden Horde.\n\nWorth noting that initially it was known as the Khanate of Qipchak^2 (named after the nomads who previously inhabited that area) and according to David Morgan the popularization of Golden Horde came about later.\n\n---\n\n^1: The Mongol Empire, John Man\n\n^2: David Morgan, The Mongols", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "147911", "title": "Golden Horde", "section": "Section::::Name.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1283, "text": "The name Golden Horde is said to have been inspired by the golden color of the tents the Mongols lived in during wartime, or an actual golden tent used by Batu Khan or by Uzbek Khan, or to have been bestowed by the Slavic tributaries to describe the great wealth of the khan. But the Mongolic word for the color yellow (Sarı/Saru) also meant \"center\" or \"central\" in Old Turkic and Mongolic languages, and \"horde\" probably comes from the Mongolic word ordu, meaning palace, camp or headquarters, so \"Golden Horde\" may simply have come from a Mongolic term for \"central camp\". In any event, it was not until the 16th century that Russian chroniclers begin explicitly using the term \"Golden Horde\" (Russian: Золотая Орда) to refer to this particular successor khanate of the Mongol Empire. The first known use of the term, in 1565, in the Russian chronicle History of Kazan, applied it to the Ulus of Batu (Russian: Улуса Батыя), centered on Sarai. In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries such as the Yuanshi and the Jami' al-tawarikh, the khanate was called the \"Ulus of Jochi\" (\"realm of Jochi\" in Mongolian), \"\"Dasht-i-Qifchaq\"\" (Qipchaq Steppe) or \"Khanate of the Qipchaq\" and \"Comania\" (Cumania).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "147911", "title": "Golden Horde", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 346, "text": "The Golden Horde (, '; , '; , ') was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after 1259 it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or as the Ulus of Jochi.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24369833", "title": "The Golden Horde (video game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 346, "text": "The Golden Horde (\"\") is a real-time strategy video game released on July 15, 2008. It was developed by World Forge and has been published by JoWooD. The distributor is DreamCatcher Interactive. It was released in Germany and Austria on March 27, 2008, and was released in France and UK next day. In Russia, the game was published by Russobit-M.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59931767", "title": "Timurid conquests and invasions", "section": "Section::::Eastern Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 572, "text": "Golden Horde was a division of Mongol Empire which was mainly dominanted on the Eastern Europe. After the death of Jochi, the eldest son of Ghenghis Khan and emperor of Golden Horde, the Golden Horde itself divided into many wings with mainly White and Blue wings among Jochi's descendants. In the late 1370s and early 1380s, Timur firstly helped Tokhtamysh against his uncle Urus Khan to assume supreme power in the White wing and then in the unification of Golden Horde. Timur also supported him to attack Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1382 and get tribute from the Muscovy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47241446", "title": "Division of the Mongol Empire", "section": "Section::::Civil war.:Golden Horde.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 278, "text": "The Golden Horde was founded by Batu, son of Jochi, in 1243. The Golden Horde included the Volga region, mountains of Ural, the steppes of the northern Black Sea, Fore-Caucasus, Western Siberia, Aral Sea and Irtysh bassin, and held principalities of Rus in tributary relations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22534684", "title": "The Golden Horde (film)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 396, "text": "The Golden Horde is a 1951 American historical adventure film directed by George Sherman and starring Ann Blyth, David Farrar, with George Macready, Richard Egan and Peggie Castle. Many of the exterior scenes were shot in the Death Valley National Park in California. It was made using Technicolor, and was one of a series of color films in exotic setting released by Universal around this time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44740", "title": "Turkic peoples", "section": "Section::::History.:Central Asia.:Golden Horde (13th–16th century).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 133, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 133, "end_character": 311, "text": "The [[Golden horde]] established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after 1259 it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or as the Ulus of Jochi and lasted until 16th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This recording of Thomas Edison from 1906 is full of \"uh\" as conversational filler or \"verbal disfluency\". It doesn't sound much different than speech today. I'll see if I can find an earlier recorded example \n_URL_0_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All of this has only discussed English conversion fillers, which is what I assume is what you're mainly interested but maybe you'd like to know about other languages as well. In Turkish, among the most common are *şey* (\"thing\") and *yani* (\"that is\"). One can tell that they predate the massive language reform of the 1930's, which attempted to get rid of all words with foreign etymologies--şey and yani were both originally Arabic words. In fact, yani is still used as a space filler in Arabic, at least as far as I can tell from eavesdropped conversations at airports, and if it was borrowed into Ottoman Turkish a space filler, I can imagine it has been used as one for quite a long time (actually, I looked it up. The Turkish etymologist Sevan Nişanyan notes that it was already in use ~1300 with the meaning \"that is to say\", so it is a pre-Ottoman borrowing into Turkic languages, though maybe not in the specific space filler sense).\n\nGeoffery Lewis, in his book *the Turkish Language Reform*, recounts that şey's banning was unlikely because şey is:\n\n > a word without which many Turks would find difficulty in conversing, for it is what comes automatically to their lips when groping for a word or a name, or thinking what to say next. It is used much like the English 'what-d'you-call-it' or the French *chose* and, as a sentence opening, like 'Well now' or 'I'll you what', or 'Il-y-a une autre chose qui est celle-ci'. Atatürk wanted it abandoned as it was a borrowing from Arabic (Had that happened, an English analogy would be the inhibiting effect of a ban on 'y'know' or 'basically).\n\nEventually, as Lewis recounts, one of the reformers was able to win Atatürk over with the argument:\n\n > 'Don't do it, Pasha!' I was saying, 'If a miracle were to occur and all the dead Turks in Anatolia could suddenly be resurrected, the first word to come out of their mouths in unison would be *şey*. That's how Turkish *şey* is.'\n\nWhich, I think indicates just how ingrained it was in Late Ottoman daily speech.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is conversation fillers the right term?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not seeing any responses to the words such as like, you know? So all I know is 1800's English literature, where the 'extra' words and phrases are such as \"wouldn't you agree\" used rhetorically as our \"isn't it\" or \"y'know\". Also \"verily\", \"are we not\". That's all that spring to mind right now. They also did use ums and ahs then but fiction rarely wrote conversational place holders, preferring very correct grammar. Reading transcripts or affadavits from the time would help answer this because they are word for word. Also I think Hansard was established by the late 1800's. That's a written record of what is spoken in Parliamentary discussions. Hope I've helped a bit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32653042", "title": "Monologist", "section": "Section::::Diseuse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 855, "text": "Diseuse (, ), French for \"teller\", also called talkers, storytellers, dramatic-singers or dramatic-talkers, is a term, at least on the English-speaking stage, that appears to date back only to the last decade of the 19th century. The early uses of “diseuse” as a theatrical term in the American press seem to coincide with Yvette Guilbert’s tour of New York City in the mid-1890s. \"Cosmopolitan Magazine\" in a February 1896 article on Guilbert described the term as a \"newly-coined and specific title\". Diseuse is the feminine form of the French word \"diseur\" \"teller\", a derivative of \"dire\" \"to say, to tell\", which in turn came from Latin \"dīcere\". It would appear that over the last century or so few male actors became noteworthy performing solely as a dramatic monologist, though many well known actors have played in monodramas over their careers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1667927", "title": "Claque", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 319, "text": "This inspired the 16th-century French poet Jean Daurat to develop the modern claque. Buying a number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he gave them away in return for a promise of applause. In 1820 claques underwent serious systematization when an agency in Paris opened to manage and supply claqueurs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49345428", "title": "Conversation tart", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 264, "text": "A conversation tart () is a type of pâtisserie made with puff pastry that is filled with frangipane cream and topped with royal icing. The recipe was created in the late 18th century to celebrate the publication of \"les Conversations d'Émilie\" by Louise d'Épinay.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2684265", "title": "Grands Rhétoriqueurs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 469, "text": "The expression \"rhétoriqueurs\" comes from the publication of several treatises on versification in French in the 15th century that used the term \"rhetoric\" in their titles, such as in \"Arts de seconde rhétorique\" (\"Arts of Second Rhetoric\", \"first rhetoric\" being prose and \"second rhetoric\" being verse), or \"rhétorique vulgaire\" (\"vernacular\" as opposed to \"Latin\" rhetoric). The implication in these poetic manuals was that rhyming was a form or branch of rhetoric.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1709648", "title": "Cruet", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 629, "text": "Some speculate that the early use of cruets was ecclesiastical —there is for example Biblical use of a \"cruse of oil\", a jug or jar to hold liquid (I Kings 17:16). A few cruets dating from the Medieval ages still exist today. Its culinary use however was first introduced in the late 17th century. Cardinal Mazarin had a pair of salad cruets on his dining table at his home in France, one for olive oil and the other for vinegar. The use of oil and vinegar cruets rapidly spread throughout Italy, where oil and vinegar were already in frequent use. Oil and vinegar cruets are common on Italian and Portuguese tables to this day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13099494", "title": "Scottish Gypsy and Traveller groups", "section": "Section::::Non-Romani groups.:Fairground travellers.:Language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 758, "text": "The use of slang used by Showmen or Parlyaree, is based on a cant slang spoken throughout the U.K. by Scottish, English, Welsh and Irish showfamilies. It is a mixture of Mediterranean Lingua Franca, Romany, Yiddish, Cant London slang and backslang. The language has been spoken in fairgrounds and theatrical entertainment since at least the 17th century. As theatrical booths, circus acts and menageries were once a common part of European fairs it is likely that the roots of Polari/Parlyaree lie in the period before both theatre and circus became independent of the fairgrounds. The Parlyaree spoken on fairgrounds tends to borrow much more from Romany, as well as other languages and argots spoken by other travelling groups, such as cant and backslang.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45448630", "title": "Lapalissade", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 492, "text": "In the early 18th century Bernard de la Monnoye collected over 50 of these humorous \"La Palice\" quatrains, and published them as a burlesque \"Song of La Palice\". From that song came the French term \"lapalissade\" meaning an utterly obvious truth—i.e. a truism or tautology, and it was borrowed into several other languages. Since that day, when you say something very obvious, your interlocutor answers: \"\"La Palice would have said as much!\"\" (in French: \"\"La Palice en aurait dit autant!\"\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Mesopotamians didn't really use \"currency\" as such, which we can define as a centrally issued object having the function of store of account, medium of exchange and measure of value. In short, they did not have coins. But they did have standardized systems of weights and measures that, in practice can fulfill one or the other functions of currency. In Sumerian documents for example you will see value expressed in units of silver even if no silver is involved in the transaction. Currency in the form of coinage does not really come into being until the Iron Age in Anatolia, and it was taken up by the Persian Empire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9298034", "title": "Korean currency", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 300, "text": "Korean currency dates back as far as the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) when the first coins were minted. The coins, cast in both bronze and iron, were called \"tongbo\" and \"jungbo\". Additionally, silver vases called \"ŭnbyŏng\" were widely used and circulated as a currency among the aristocracy of Goryeo.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "949245", "title": "Roman commerce", "section": "Section::::Commercial infrastructure.:Standard weights and measures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 215, "text": "A fairly standard and fairly stable and abundant currency, at least up to c. 200 AD, did much to facilitate trade. (Egypt had its own currency in this period and some provincial cities also issued their own coins.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "490811", "title": "Maldivian rufiyaa", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 599, "text": "During the 17th and 18th centuries, lārin (parallel straps of silver wire folded in half with dyed Persian and Arabic inscriptions) were imported and traded as currency. This form of currency was used in the Persian Gulf, India, Ceylon and the Far East during this time. Historians agree that this new form of currency was most probably exchanged for cowry shells and indicates Maldives’ lucrative trade with these countries. The first Sultan to imprint his own seal onto this currency was Ghaazee Mohamed Thakurufaanu Al Auzam. The seal was much broader than the wires hence it was barely legible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23476108", "title": "Anuradhapura Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Trade and economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 636, "text": "Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in the form of land revenue. The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BC. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as \"kahavanu\". These eventually became circular in shape, which were in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver, were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3436857", "title": "Aksumite currency", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 463, "text": "Aksumite currency was coinage produced and used within the Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) centered in present-day Eritrea and the Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Its mintages were issued and circulated from the reign of King Endubis around AD 270 until it began its decline in the first half of the 7th century. During the succeeding medieval period, Mogadishu currency, minted by the Sultanate of Mogadishu, was the most widely circulated currency in the Horn of Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54197741", "title": "Ryukyuan mon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1021, "text": "The was the currency of the Ryukyu Kingdom from 1454 to 1879, when the kingdom was annexed by the Empire of Japan and the currency was replaced by the Japanese yen. The Chinese character for mon is , which was widely used in the Chinese-character cultural sphere, e.g. Chinese wén, Vietnamese văn, and Korean mun. The Ryukyuans produced their own coins until the 15th century, but became dependent on Chinese coins until the 19th century when they briefly minted their own coins again. From 1862 the minting was outsourced to Kagoshima City, Satsuma Domain and were based on the Japanese mon (specifically on the \"Kan'ei Tsūhō\" copper coins). All of the Kagoshima-minted coins bear the phrase \"Ryūkyū Tsūhō\" () (circulating treasure of Ryukyu); this phrase was written in Seal script on the half shu (248 mon) coin. Despite the annexation of the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1879, these coins continued to circulate within Okinawa Prefecture well into the 1880's as the Ryukyuans were initially unwilling to use Japanese yen coins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3673755", "title": "Coinage of Asia", "section": "Section::::Coinage of Southeast Asia.:Funan, Dvaravat and Khmer Empires.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 520, "text": "Not much is known of the currency of the Funan, Dvaravati, Chenla or Kambuja in Cambodia and the Khmer Empire from 100–1370 CE. The origin of the coins were based on ancient Indian coinage that has been more stylised over the millennia. Funan and Dvaravat coins were silver and bronze or brass. Khmer coins were made of lead and came in 3 weights, 1unit, 3unit and 6unit, a 10unit coin may exist but is debatable. There is not much variation to these coins when compared to Indian coinage, Roman coinage or Greek coins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If someone wants it they'll buy it. If someone else wants it more they'll pay more for it. Eventually you've got an expensive work of art. As for why people want it, preferences are impossible to determine across a population.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Usually it's based on the body of work of the artist.\n\nFor example, by the end of his work life Joan Miró was placing a single stripe of paint on a canvas and these are very prized even though *anybody* could place a stripe of paint on a canvas.\n\nLike he'd stare at the canvas for a while and then in one fluid movement put a single stroke down and he'd love it and everyone else would love it.\n\nThis is because he spent his whole life evolving from being a talented painter that you'd probably call \"normal\" (i.e. he made pretty pictures with paint) to becoming a more and more abstract painter.\n\nHe kept reducing the complexity of his forms to see how to express emotions and form in an ever increasingly abstract way so that after decades of doing this he had developed a kind of language of form that was uniquely his.\n\nSo if you're aware of his progression and have an understanding of how to \"read\" his abstraction you can see how his single stripe of paint has meaning and is different and special compared to a stupid stripe of paint that just *anyone* could do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is what we mean when we say \"market forces\". So there is no single person or organization that decides what is worth what. A thing is worth as much as someone else is willing to pay for it. That dot sold for what it did because someone else was willing to pay that much for it. There is no central authority that sets prices for art.\n\nThe question is, why would someone pay that much for a dot painting. And the answer is complex. Could be that they really liked the dot and really hated money, but likely not. A better answer is that they felt, given their experience in buying art, that this particular painting by this particular artist was worth that much money. This feeling was based on other paintings by that artist and how much other people have paid for them, along with a general feeling about what the future value of that artist's paintings is going to be. \n\nArt has no intrinsic value. Meaning, you can't break it down and sell it for parts. Art is only worth money because other people are willing to pay for it. If people all of a sudden decided that Pasco's paintings were all worthless, you'd not be able to sell them at all. The price of art is 100% based on other people's perceptions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8395427", "title": "Economics of the arts and literature", "section": "Section::::Market for artworks.:Price determination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 839, "text": "Components of a work of art, like raw stone, tubes of paint or unpainted canvas, in general have a value much lower than the finished products, such as a sculpture or a finished painting. Also, the amount of labour needed to produce an item does not explain the big price differences between works of art. It seems that the value is much more dependent on potential buyers', and experts' perception of it. This perception has three elements: First, social value, which is the social status the buyer has by owning it. The artist thus has an \"artistic capital\". Second, the artistic value, compared to contemporary works, or as importance to later generations. Third, the price history of the item, if a buyer uses this for his expectation of a future price at which he might sell the item again (given the oligopolistic market structure).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "76640", "title": "John Ruskin", "section": "Section::::Theory and criticism.:Art and design criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 158, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 158, "end_character": 215, "text": "BULLET::::7. Good art is done with enjoyment. The artist must feel that, within certain reasonable limits, he is free, that he is wanted by society, and that the ideas he is asked to express are true and important.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "752", "title": "Art", "section": "Section::::Creative art and fine art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 882, "text": "Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35201256", "title": "Paul Kos", "section": "Section::::Paul Kos’s sound bites from the Spark interview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 266, "text": "BULLET::::3. All art should have good craft—that's just an assumption. But good craft is not art. Art is that magic that happens somewhere between the viewer, the object and the artist. The artist initiating it, but the viewer being that receiver of that triangle.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1273900", "title": "A Guide for the Perplexed", "section": "Section::::Art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 381, "text": "Great art is a multi-faceted phenomenon, which is not content to be merely propaganda or entertainment; but by appealing to people's higher intellectual and emotional faculties, it is designed to communicate truth. When entertainment and propaganda are transcended by, and subordinated to the communication of truth, art helps develop our higher faculties and that makes it great.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "90317", "title": "Fine art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 643, "text": "One definition of \"fine art\" is \"a visual art considered to have been created primarily for aesthetic and intellectual purposes and judged for its beauty and meaningfulness, specifically, painting, sculpture, drawing, watercolor, graphics, and architecture.\" In that sense, there are conceptual differences between the fine arts and the decorative arts or applied arts (these two terms covering largely the same media). As far as the consumer of the art was concerned, the perception of aesthetic qualities required a refined judgment usually referred to as having good taste, which differentiated fine art from popular art and entertainment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42206807", "title": "Bauer (play)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 712, "text": "They say art is the freedom of expression. A painting should hold no boundaries, no musts and don'ts but simply put into colors and shapes anything that flashes through a mind. But what happens in the collision between the need for the artful substantiation of thoughts and ideas, and the earthly materialistic notion of money? For whom is art created and what happens when the artist is no longer the owner of his art? These are questions that are handled and mangled through the 90 minutes of heated and reflective dialogue that constitutes this play. The characters slowly work through the troubles of money and art as a business as well as the personal problems and dilemmas of their past and present lives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They don’t deliver within 24 hours to every nation. I live in Singapore (just moved from USA) and it takes a minimum of 2-3 days to ship prime items from the USA. There are few items stocked locally that allow for true one-day shipping.\n\nThe cost of international shipping is also paid for by the prime customer. The 2-3 days shipping I mentioned would cost anywhere from $16 USD to $30 USD. The cheapest option would take 2 weeks (for my location).\n\nBut for the few items stocked locally (eg fire tv sticks) you can get same day delivery.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It can't and it doesn't\n\nAmazon prime provides free *two day* delivery for *many* items in *many* locations. There are a fair number of locations where Amazon Prime gets you free *three to five day* shipping rather than two day\n\nAmazon does not proclaim that you can get any item anywhere in the world within 24 hours.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They can't\n\n1-day delivery is only available for a small subset of items and only in certain areas. \n\nAmazon maintains a number of warehouses and logistics affiliates across the globe. Its most popular items in urban areas are stocked locally for fast delivery to Prime customers. If you order a set of tractor tires to Tahiti, it's gonna take a while.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52791355", "title": "Amazon Prime", "section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 558, "text": "In 2005, Amazon announced the creation of Amazon Prime, a membership service offering free two-day shipping within the contiguous United States on all eligible purchases for a flat annual fee of $79 (), and discounted one-day shipping rates. Amazon launched the program in Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom in 2007; in France (as \"Amazon Premium\") in 2008, in Italy in 2011, in Canada in 2013, in India in July 2016 and in Mexico in March 2017. According to Amazon, there are now Prime members in 17 countries in North America, Europe and Asia-Pacific.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51172107", "title": "List of Amazon products and services", "section": "Section::::Amazon Prime.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 429, "text": "In 2005, Amazon announced the creation of Amazon Prime, a membership offering free two-day shipping within the contiguous United States on all eligible purchases for a flat annual fee of $79 (), as well as discounted one-day shipping rates. Amazon launched the program in Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom in 2007; in France (as \"Amazon Premium\") in 2008, in Italy in 2011, in Canada in 2013, and in India on July 26, 2016.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52791355", "title": "Amazon Prime", "section": "Section::::Prime Pantry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 258, "text": "In April 2014, Amazon began a service for shipping non-perishable grocery store items into a single box for delivery for a flat fee. The service is available in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, India, Japan, Italy, Spain, and France.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52791355", "title": "Amazon Prime", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 404, "text": "Amazon Prime is a paid subscription service offered by Amazon that gives users access to services that would otherwise be unavailable, or cost extra, to the typical Amazon customer. This includes free two-day delivery, Two hour delivery for a fee through Prime Now, streaming music and video, and other benefits. In April 2018, Amazon reported that Prime had more than 100 million subscribers worldwide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52791355", "title": "Amazon Prime", "section": "Section::::Prime Air.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 472, "text": "\"60 Minutes\" announced on December 1, 2013 that Amazon Prime Air was a possible future delivery service expected to be in development for several more years. In concept, the process would use drones to deliver small packages (less than five pounds) within 30 minutes by flying short distances (10–20 km) from local Amazon Fulfillment Centers. In the United States, the project will require the Federal Aviation Administration to approve commercial use of unmanned drones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48980006", "title": "2016 in aviation", "section": "Section::::Events.:December.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 903, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 903, "end_character": 288, "text": "BULLET::::- For the first time, Amazon.com makes a delivery to a customer using an unmanned aerial vehicle. The Amazon Prime Air delivery takes place in the United Kingdom. The customer's order – for an Amazon Fire TV device and a bag of popcorn – arrives 13 minutes after it was placed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52791355", "title": "Amazon Prime", "section": "Section::::Prime Pantry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 373, "text": "This is an Amazon Prime member exclusive service that helps prime subscribers purchase household goods and get them delivered fast. At a flat rate of $6, Amazon Prime members can enjoy shipping a box of \"pantries\" to their homes. As you shop, Amazon quantifies the space each item takes up so that you can assess the number of boxes you need before check off and shipping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Something to keep in mind is that's a bit of an older post, and one that was written when the rules of the subreddit were still being hashed out. But that said, I would offer the simplest explanation that I can: \n\nWhat's the point of passing moral judgment on past societies? And how much time do we have to waste on doing it? To quote a professor of mine from a historiography class, \"if I'm writing a book about the Holocaust, how many pages do I have to spend detailing how awful it was? Don't the facts of the Holocaust speak for themselves?\" \n\nThat's not a morally nihilistic stance, it's a pragmatic one that allows us to present events in their context without getting bogged down in determining the relative moral scale of past tragedies. We have a rueful term for questions that get asked here along the lines of \"was genocide X worse than ethnic cleansing Y,\" -- we call it playing genocide Olympics, because it's an exercise that's fruitless, and to be frank somewhat masturbatory. The point of writing history, after all, is to explain events and ground them in their contemporary context, not pass judgment on how good or bad past events were. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi Historian in training and longtime lurker here,\n\nFrom what I was taught it is because otherwise we would judge everyone to be bad in some sense of the word. For example, Thomas Jefferson is idolized in the United States,but he also owned slaves. He wrote the American constitution and is considered a great man. Does the fact that we owned slaves factor in if he was a good person or not? In our modern view we say that this is morally reprehensible and that it makes people immoral, but at time it was more than standard, his handling was even considered radical. \n\nTake for example Gay marriage today. It would absolutely not have been allowed one or two hundred years ago, but today we are for it. Are we better than those of a hundred years ago? You cannot judge the people of the past by the ideals of the present. Our ideals and morals are not universal nor are they native to our species. They are a learned experience and if those in the past did not grow up exactly as we did, maybe something we consider obvious would never occur to them. If you are taught all your life that blacks are evil, you will think that. Does that make you intrinsically evil? No it just means you were raised with different morals. \n\nThat is why as historians we cannot judge the past by our morals because it would alter our perception of the past and undermine the deeds of the past. One day something we consider normal may be looked down on as evil. \n\nHopefully I understood your question and answered it well. Apologies if my English is less than stellar, I'm not a native speaker.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Presentism does not facilitate or encourage an answer to (one of) the main historical question(s): \"Why did these people do what they did?... what led them to that train of thought and chain of actions?\"\n\nHistory seeks understanding and comprehension, and that is best achieved in many cases by viewing the world *not* through the hind-sight of 21st century righteousness, but by trying to view and understand people and events in the contexts of their own times, places, and actions.\n\nSure, it's easy enough to say, \"but Naziism was bad.\" Pretty low fruit, that. But what about... other historical questions? What happens if and when we start breaking off from the Modern Western morality spectrum altogether?\n\nWhat happens when we start asking why Genghis Khan felt justified in doing what he did? Is a 21st Century \"well, killing is bad and inhumane\" presentist viewpoint going to help or hinder that answer? Or how about if we ask into An Lushan's justifications for killing 2/3 of the Chinese population in the 8th century? Or Alexander the Great's justifications for invading half of Asia?\n\nPresentism isn't helpful because it is essentially a moral judgement. That's not helpful to history because history seeks to understand *how* and*why*, rather than seeking to place arbitrary blame against those who are no longer capable of explaining or defending themselves or their actions, in many cases. \n\nJudging an ancient battlefield or political tangle from a modern perspective will render judgement, to be sure... but in doing so it will warp what actually happened and *why* it happened beyond any actual comprehension or meaning.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't think that historians in general (or in this sub specifically) actually do embrace moral relativism or nihilism. The OP of that thread, who you're quoting there, is not a flaired user, nor do they seem to be particularly qualified to discuss the subject. For comparison, [here](_URL_0_) is a user flaired in Spanish colonialism discussing Columbus and arguing that his actions are \"absolutely indefensible\" due to his violence, slaving, and genocide. This does not seem relativistic or nihilistic to me. For another example, look at the posts by users who study slavery in this subreddit, who are some of our best and most erudite flairs. People like /u/freedmenspatrol, /u/sowser, /u/dubstripsquads, and others do an excellent job of understanding the ideology, culture, and mentality of antebellum southern slaveowners, but understanding the mindset of American slaveowners does not equate to rationalizing away the abhorrent system of slavery. \n\nAlthough historians are capable of and sometimes do make moral judgements on their subjects, there's also a limit to the utility of doing so. For a much more trite example than slavery or imperialism, the killing of the French prisoners at Agincourt is an infamous episode in medieval history. When discussing this event, does it actually add to our understanding of medieval combat and of the Hundred Years War to insert a footnote saying that stabbing wounded and disarmed prisoners is, in fact, a Bad Thing? The most interesting aspect of that event is that it was specifically not condemned by its contemporaries and was considered an acceptable part of warfare. Is it \"morally nihilistic\" to point out that medieval soldiers in 1415 would sometimes kill their prisoners without it being considered a war crime? I don't think we need an addendum to every book on premodern warfare explicitly stating that the murder, sexual violence, and theft that occurred during the sack of a city were morally bad things. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow-up question:\n\nI think /u/jschootiger gets to the nub of the issue\n\n > The point of writing history, after all, is to explain events and ground them in their contemporary context, not pass judgement on how good or bad past events were.\n\nI'd largely agree with that, however I wonder if there are uses of history that *do* involve passing this kind of judgement. For example, if we want to hold up a historical figure as an inspiration or an exemplar, does this require some judgement of them by contemporary standards?\n\nIf so, are invocations against presentism also linked to a decline in this sort of history? (If it is declining - \"great man\" history is, but maybe other figures are now exemplars.) Or are the warnings simply about making sure you pay attention to context? ie. it took a much stronger character to condemn slavery in the 18th century US than it does today, so we should make allowances for people.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Given my specialty, I can share some thoughts on my approach to the subject:\n\nI hope it is pretty obvious from my work in general and my posts here that I absolutely abhor the Nazis and what they did. They were criminals who committed horrible deeds by any moral standard. And they knew it, which is why they went to great lengths to hide it. And yet, on some level they did what they taught was right and necessary. That doesn't mean that it was objectively necessary and right when in fact it was the very opposite of that, but my job as a historian is to explore what factors lead to them thinking they were right and necessary. In my opinion my explaining of these factors does not portray that as right but rather is a contribution to how we can on some level recognize the factors leading to people thinking that doing something obviously wrong by any standard, i.e. committing genocide, in order to prevent similar factors and tendencies growing strong in contemporary society.\n\nTaking one concrete and slightly different example from my line of work, I hope I can also show some problems that are associated with making moral judgement calls: The Judenräte. I describe them [here](_URL_0_) but in essence, the Jewish councils were set-up by the Nazis to help them administer the Ghettos. On a regular basis, they had to make-up the lists of people who were to be deported to their deaths. Different Jewish councils approach this in different ways but here the perfidy of the Nazi system becomes obvious: They forced their victims to assist in their own murder. After the war was over, many members of these Jewish Councils, provided they had survived as well as those who didn't, were called traitors and collaborators. As were the Jewish members of the Sonderkommandos in the Camps, i.e. the people who had to clean the gas chambers of bodies and burn them.\n\nThe thing is, in 99.9% of all cases, I am confident in my moral judgement of the Nazi perpetrators. In the case of the Jewish councils however, I am entering a massive grey area morally where I feel confident in describing the moral dilemmas they faced but less confident in making a moral judgement call on their actions. They were people put in a morally impossible situation by genocidal maniacs and making a definitive moral judgment call on them is something that I don't feel I am able to do. I can describe the circumstances, I can analyze the historical factors and describe the dilemma they faced but I don't think that it is my place to morally condemn them. I can emphasize what could have been done differently in certain cases based on what others in the same situation historically did but that also is not the same as making a moral judgement.\n\nI also don't think that qualifies as moral nihilism or relativism. It's merely that sometimes historians need to acknowledge that some historical situations were so impossible or difficult that it is best not to make the definitive judgement on morally correct actions.\n\nPresentism imo is related but something different: Presentism is the projection of current concepts in way that makes historically little sense. To exemplify: When ratheists try to portray certain of their scientific heroes as atheists beacons or reason and rationality but fail to acknowledge that for someone like Galileo a world view without God would simply be unthinkable. Or to pick an example of a discussion recently in the area of studies of Nazi Germany: There was recent discussion whether in an effort to make German language more gender neutral, if it is necessary to write not of Wehrmachtsoldaten but of Wehrmachtsoldat_innen. The _ and female word ending usually used to signifying that peoples' gender identities are open to their own definition. Using both male and female endings to describe them as well as the _ to leave open an empty space for those who either reject male and female as identities or see themselves somewhere in between. While generally a nifty concept if you are into that, in the case of the German Wehrmacht it makes no sense because by its very organizational ethic, it was a very very male organization that instilled its members with values and ethos that was in gender terms codified as male. Thus, leaving room for alternate identities without empirical evidence that they existed and with an organization whose ethos is strongly codified as male makes imo little sense and obscures an important factor in why they did what they did rather than clearing it up.\n\nAdditionally and in connection to some of the examples you mentioned: As historians frequently do in this sub in connection to slavery, we as historians are absolutely entitled to making moral judgement calls. We can also go a step further even: We can show that not only was it wrong what historical actors did at the time but also show that it was understood as wrong at the time. There were actors who justified slavery in many places of the world,but there were also actors who from the very beginning of the system of slavery objected to it on the grounds that owning other people is wrong.\n\nSimilar to the Nazis who were obviously aware that murder was wrong, they too had the perspective of what they did was wrong as we can infer from their arguments and the arguments of their opponents. Why they were not convinced by these arguments is an interesting historical question. I mean, concerning the so-called New World, we have the writings of Bartolomé de las Casas pretty much right after the Spanish incursions start, who strongly objects – with different justifications and different system of thinking – to the system the Spanish established there. As historians, we also have the duty to emphasize these arguments and point at them in order to be able to fully appreciate and portray actors' contingency.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I draw a line between methodological neutrality / relativism (I prefer the word 'symmetry'), and moral judgement. When I study the past, I must keep an open mind and suppress my modern preconceptions if I hope to understand why people in the past acted the way they did. This is in some ways a hopeless cause - I can never fully escape my own prejudices - but there is value in entering as much as possible into the experiences, perceptions, and values of people in the past to try to see things from something close to their own perspectives.\n\nBut that doesn't mean I leave my moral judgement behind. The ability to judge and learn from events in the past and present is an important part of being human, especially when used alongside openminded credulity. The important skill historians train ourselves to develop is to hold that judgment back until we've given the data / facts / sources a chance to speak, as much as they can, for themselves. Then we insert ourselves, and start making sense of things, and this often includes our own moral prejudices.\n\nI study human burials in the early middle ages, and one grave in particular sticks in my mind. A young girl, maybe 16, was buried face-down, perhaps with her hands and feet tied together. Her thigh bones were scarred from her muscle's tearing, the kind of injury women receive when they try, and fail, to fight off a rapist. And one of her legs had a healed knife wound from where someone had pressed a blade into her thigh to make her cooperate. Her wounds suggest multiple assailants: she was gang raped. And about six months later (judging from the healing of her injuries), she was dead and dumped, face forward, into a grave. There's no evidence she was wear any clothes when she was buried.\n\nPart of my job as a historian is trying to enter into the minds of the people who did this to her: her rapists, the people who buried her, the possible causes of her death. One theory is that she became pregnant, and her community killed her out of shame. Perhaps she was a slave, raped after she was captured, and buried once she was used up. Maybe she killed herself, in response to the trauma. Maybe her community starved after losing a war, and she was one of the casualties. We can keep going, and imagine the kind of mentality that would normalize these behaviors, where rape is a normal part of war, or where women can be enslaved and killed with so little seeming compassion. A society where shame killings are considered good and honorable, something that earned her father or brother respect. And so on.\n\nAll of that can help me, dispassionately, understand her world. And I try my best to leave my modern assumptions about rape, violence, and the value of human life behind me when I do this, because I want to understand what happened in the past on its own terms, and not merely interject my own prejudices into the sixth century.\n\nBut none of that for one minute makes me feel that her rape and death was ok. And I dearly hope that whoever did this to her died with a spear in his belly. My methodological scholarly dispassion helps me understand the past, but it doesn't keep me from judging it.\n\nAnd just as there's value in understanding the past from its own moral perspective, seeing questions of right, wrong, and normalcy through other people's and culture's eyes, there's also value in allowing the past to shape our own understanding of the moral world of the present. This young woman reminds me that rape and violence against women continues to be a horror of the present, that war continues to hurt women and children more than anyone else, that sex slavery is still a great struggle, and I need to open my eyes to these tings and fight against them now, for people who haven't yet become a footnote in an archaeologist's report.\n\nSo methodologically, I try to keep my morals to myself. I need to understand before I can judge. But once I understand the past, I lift that barrier and let it interact with my present values, because if the past cannot help us learn to be better humans in the present, history has very little value.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just to tack on small addendum to other responses: relativism can be a _methodology_ even if you don't embrace it as a _philosophy_. That is, one can say, \"you do better _history_ if you adopt a relativist stance in your relationship to the past (with regards to writing history), but you can believe whatever you want with regards to the rest of your life.\" This is a way that historians of science, for example, deal with epistemological relativism — we tend to write histories of debates over truth without trying to over-privilege the side that we now believe is correct, because that ends up being a very impoverished account (it becomes the scientific equivalent of \"history written by the victors\"). But in our private lives very few of us as probably truly epistemological relativists — I do believe that many scientific claims are to some degree essentially true, and lead my life as such. \n\n(To make it concrete: one might write about the dispute between Boyle and Hobbes over the existence of a vacuum or not without taking the stance that Boyle was \"right\" and Hobbes was \"wrong,\" instead looking at the different ways in which they marshal different types of logic and evidence and rhetorical techniques to make their points. But outside of that specific mode, I do believe vacuums exist.) \n\nPersonally with regards to moral relativism I make a distinction between \"historian mode\" (I am talking about people in the past on their own terms) and \"today mode\" (where I am really trying to engage with something in the present), even if they are muddled. If I was in pure historian mode talking about slavery I wouldn't bother condemning it as evil because it's not really here or there. But if I'm talking to people who believe that the Constitution was a totally perfect document and are using that to justify certain policies over others I might bring up that it had slavery baked into its DNA, and I would happily explain why slavery was an evil thing if I were pressed. (Though to be honest, I'd also mention that its evils were in fact recognized in its time, as well, so to say it is an awful institution is not _merely_ passing a present-day judgment on it. Maybe that is my historian instinct, but I generally find that if you want to find someone condemning something awful in the past, you can usually find that person, even if their opinion isn't the one that was the most dominant.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2687740", "title": "Presentism (literary and historical analysis)", "section": "Section::::Moral judgments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 572, "text": "Presentism is also a factor in the problematic question of history and moral judgments. Among historians, the orthodox view may be that reading modern notions of morality into the past is to commit the error of presentism. To avoid this, historians restrict themselves to describing what happened and attempt to refrain from using language that passes judgment. For example, when writing history about slavery in an era when the practice was widely accepted, letting that fact influence judgment about a group or individual would be presentist and thus should be avoided.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2687740", "title": "Presentism (literary and historical analysis)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 445, "text": "In literary and historical analysis, presentism is the anachronistic introduction of present-day ideas and perspectives into depictions or interpretations of the past. Some modern historians seek to avoid presentism in their work because they consider it a form of cultural bias, and believe it creates a distorted understanding of their subject matter. The practice of presentism is regarded by some as a common fallacy in historical writing. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13276", "title": "Historiography", "section": "Section::::20th century.:British debates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 683, "text": "Carr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history. Others have modified or rejected this use of the label \"determinist\". He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of chance and contingency in the workings of history. In Carr's view, no individual is truly free of the social environment in which they live, but contended that within those limitations, there was room, albeit very narrow room for people to make decisions that affect history. Carr emphatically contended that history was a social science, not an art, because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the understanding of one's subject.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2687740", "title": "Presentism (literary and historical analysis)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1078, "text": "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" gives the first citation for \"presentism\" in its historiographic sense from 1916, and the word may have been used in this meaning as early as the 1870s. The historian David Hackett Fischer identifies presentism as a fallacy also known as the \"fallacy of \"nunc pro tunc\"\". He has written that the \"classic example\" of presentism was the so-called \"Whig history\", in which certain 18th- and 19th-century British historians wrote history in a way that used the past to validate their own political beliefs. This interpretation was presentist because it did not depict the past in objective historical context but instead viewed history only through the lens of contemporary Whig beliefs. In this kind of approach, which emphasizes the relevance of history to the present, things that do not seem relevant receive little attention, which results in a misleading portrayal of the past. \"Whig history\" or \"whiggishness\" are often used as synonyms for \"presentism\" particularly when the historical depiction in question is teleological or triumphalist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1523764", "title": "Herbert Butterfield", "section": "Section::::Work.:\"The Whig Interpretation of History\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 527, "text": "Butterfield found the Whig interpretation of history objectionable, because it warps the past to see it in terms of the issues of the present and attempts to squeeze the contending forces of the past into a form that reminds us of ourselves. Butterfield argued that the historian must seek the ability to see events as they were perceived by those who lived through them. Butterfield wrote that \"Whiggishness\" is too handy a \"rule of thumb... by which the historian can select and reject, and can make his points of emphasis\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5266241", "title": "Modern liberalism in the United States", "section": "Section::::History.:Liberal coalition.:Intellectuals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 566, "text": "Commager's biographer Neil Jumonville has argued that this style of influential public history has been lost in the 21st century because political correctness has rejected Commager's open marketplace of tough ideas. Jumonville says history now comprises abstruse deconstruction by experts, with statistics instead of stories and is now comprehensible only to the initiated while ethnocentrism rules in place of common identity. Other experts have traced the relative decline of intellectuals to their concern race, ethnicity and gender and scholarly antiquarianism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14329", "title": "Historicism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 508, "text": "Historicism is the idea of attributing meaningful significance to space and time, such as historical period, geographical place, and local culture. Historicism tends to be hermeneutical because it values cautious, rigorous, and contextualized interpretation of information; or relativist, because it rejects notions of universal, fundamental and immutable interpretations. The approach varies from individualist theories of knowledge such as empiricism and rationalism, which neglect the role of traditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's going to be difficult to tell you the exact consequences because we just don't know. Everyone is different, but there have been studies done about sleep debt and the adverse effects it has on our health. The negative effects of sleep deprivation are *not* simply cognitive. I think your argument is solely about not messing up your circadian rhythm, which can be a valid concern. But basically skipping an entire night of sleep is not good for you and you should avoid doing it whenever possible. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "During sleep, the brain clears away toxic waste products which accumulate during the day. One of these products is beta-amyloid, the protein involved in Alzheimer's disease. It's been found that a single night of sleep deprivation greatly increases beta-amyloid ([source](_URL_0_)). In the long run, it could potentially increase Alzheimer's risk.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Notes taken from a Brandon Marcello, Ph.D. seminar: \n\n* Not getting enough sleep leads to increased risk of injury and reduced pain threshold; greater susceptibility to sickness; reduced physical and psychological performance; reduced motivation, learning ability, and memory; increased anxiety, irritability, and mistakes; increase in body fat percentage; reverting to old habits; poor justment of distance, speed, and/or time.\n\n* Most of the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) cycle occurs in the final 2-3 hours of a night's rest. Missing ~25% of your total sleep one night may have a larger than 25% negative impact on your mind and body. \n\n* Getting enough sleep improves motivation; recovery of muscle strength; sprint speeds; muscle glycogen (stored energy in muscle); cortisol (stress) regulation; motor skill development; memory consolidation.\n\n* Sleep debt simplified: if you need 8 hours and get 7 hours, that means you accrue 1 hour of sleep debt. Need to get 9 hours to repay that 1 hour of debt. Sleep debt can build up over time to *(30 hours? I failed to write this down)*.\n\n* After extending time in bed to 10 hours per night for several weeks, collegiate swimmers showed improvements of +8% 15meter sprint speed; +20% reaction time off the block; +10% turn time efficiency; +19% kickstrokes.\n\n* During sleep, the brain will get rid of waste products and clean out toxic proteins which can impair healthy aging of the brain and cause brain related diseases such as Alzheimer's and other neurological disorders.\n\n* Sleep Myths: you can get too much sleep; naps are bad; 8 hours of sleep is ideal *(everyone is biologically wired to require different amounts of sleep)*; older people don't need as much sleep *(they need more because they usually awaken more frequently)*; storing up sleep for the week ahead; alcohol helps you sleep.\n\n* Sleep/Nutrition Interaction: sleep deprivation alters the ability of the body to metabolize and store carbohydrates for recovery, as well as use for a later time; reduces glycogen levels.\n\n* Ask yourself: what is detracting from your sleep quality? Noise? Light? Pain? Temperature? Priorities? Stress? Alcohol/Drugs/Food?\n\nStudies: Predicting Major League Baseball (MLB) Player Career Longevity via Sleepiness Measurements, Validation of a Statistical Model Predicting Possible Fatigue Elementas in Major League Baseball, Chronic lack of sleep is associated with increased sports injuries in adolescent athletes, Sleep patterns of U.S. Military academy cadets (2003), Effect of 1 Week of Sleep Restriction on Testosterone Levels in Young Healthy Men\n\nSeminars: One More Reason to Get a Good Night's Sleep (Jess Iliff), Why Do We Sleep? (Russell Foster)\n\nBooks: The Promise of Sleep (William Dement, M.D., Ph.D.), Take a Nap! (Sara Mednick, Ph.D.), The Sleep Revolution (Arianna Huffington)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "if your interested in sleep related things hidden brain podcast did a great two part episode on the effects of missing sleep \n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is an npr podcast about a guy who set a world record for going 11 days without sleep. He’s interviewed at the end and discusses his experiences. Then they bring in a neuroscientist to talk about the negative effects. Pretty crazy! [eyes Wide Open](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You never really \"make up\" lost sleep. Some research I came across once indicated your body can keep an accurate log of sleep deprivation for up to 15 days potentially and sleeping extra doesn't ever \"make up\" for sleep lost.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ive also been traveling the last months \n\nI had some nights without sleeping and always noticed (using the mi band) that on the next day I always have near the double of the deep sleep time compared to a regular night.. so for sure the body \"compensates\" in the short term but in a long term for sure is not that good ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How does one know how many hours of sleep is efficient? Do 8 hours apply to everyone or is that an average?\n\nThe reason I ask is because even with no distractions/alarm clocks, I wake up around 6-7am and this only gives me about 6-7 hours of sleep. I so far don't feel like I'm poorly performing any differently than I would. \n\nI want to sleep 8 hours, but I seem to default to 6-7, and sometimes I wonder if sleeping more than that makes me groggy. \n\n & #x200B;", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While I didn’t conduct the study, I’ve performed extensive data analysis & published on a sleep deprivation study. The only way that it would likely be seriously detrimental is if something happened (e.g., a car accident because you were tired). These things are much more likely if you are very tired, but still overall unlikely. \nHowever, this study was done only with healthy adults; these are serious physical risk for someone with compromised health. Me, I’d take the day off if I had serious heart issues, and I wouldn’t get behind the wheel of a semi. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some good information here. \n\nI am an amputee from a bad car wreck and suffer from intense chronic pain. And I will tell you that the disruption of sleep is the biggest problem for me. It is not uncommon to go 48 hours plus without sleep. My whole life goes to hell when I am not sleeping due to pain or my head injury. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hello! Neuroscience major here.\nFirst of all, your wake/sleep rhythm is dictated by two cycles that work together to sync up and fluctuate at the same time: the circadian rhythm and homeostasis.\nNow, the circadian rhythm normally stays consistent and even, even when you skip a night’s sleep. It fluctuates and regulates your body temperature and helps produce slow brain waves (delta usually) to initiate sleep.\nBUT! Homeostasis is the equilibrium process of your sleep. There’s this thing called the Process H, which means that as soon as you wake up in the morning, you accumulate a kind of pressure that will lead you to go to sleep around 10pm. You can imagine it as a graph, X being the number of waking hours and Y the % of accumulated pressure, that slowly rises until 9pm then rapidly drops as the night goes on (the pressure wears off because you’re recuperating and sleeping). And it starts all over again the next day. \nNow, imagine that same graph when you take a 1h nap around 2pm. The pressure drops around 2pm and the graph is unstable — you won’t have enough pressure to go to sleep tonight, and your quality of sleep will be significantly lowered. Delta waves will be scarce and deep sleep will make up probably only 5-10% of your sleep. See how one hour of napping has a snowball effect?\nNow, imagine the same thing but for one night where you don’t sleep at all. You will lack delta waves and produce too many alpha and theta waves, keeping you awake but uncomfortable. \nThe worst thing is, you can never “make up” for an all nighter. Sleeping 12 hours the next day will only worsen things, because of Process H. The only way to even it out is to stick to a strict waking and sleeping time for a few days and to not exceed 8 hours of sleep for each subsequent night. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a statistically significant increase in your odds of having a heart attack on any day you are deprived of just one hour of sleep, and while I can't find the source to quote it, Freakanomics claimed it was a 30% increase in daily risk ([this site claims a much smaller, but still significant, risk](_URL_0_)).\n\nRegardless of the exact increase, and regardless of whether the cardiac arrest is fatal or merely an instance of risky, permanent damage to your heart, it's obvious that no amount of sleep \"later on\" will compensate for this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is there a correction between mothers that breastfed and alzheimers? Because they are definitely getting less than 7 hours a night on a regular basis. The reason I ask about breastfed vs formula is that in theory formula fed babies can be fed by others, allowing some of the sleep debt to be repaid. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nothing good. As with most things, doing it once won’t kill you, but if you make a habit of it there are extremely serious and long term effects on your health. Hugely increased risk Alzheimer’s disease and most cancers being the ones I’d worry about. \n\nIt’s also worth noting that it’s impossible for the human body to catch up properly on sleep debt. A human needs approx 8 hours a night - if you get 0, there is no chance of you getting 2 nights worth of sleep (16 hours) the next night. The human body does not work that way. \n\nIf you’re interested, I’d recommend picking up a copy of Matthew Walker’s “Why We Sleep”. It’s not just “why” but also “how” and what”. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Last year I had to miss a night’s sleep twice a week. \n\nThe main consequences I remember were feeling very cold and dizzy all the time. \n\nAlso after eating dinner on the first day I had no urge to eat again even 24 hours later. \n\nWhen I did finally sleep it was just a normal nights sleep. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wish I could remember the source, but went to a lecture by a neurologist who said (iirc) that you can run ok on getting poor sleep one or two nights, but to maintain ok brain function you need a GOOD sleep by the third night at least.\nI'm sure individual differences apply though\n\n.. Edit: in your situation I'd def prioritise not mucking up your circadian rhythm over getting a few hours now. I'd go to bed earlier than usual bedtime (maybe 2-3hrs earlier), but not too different. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Weekend sleep-ins may counteract the effects of lack of sleep during weekdays - Adults under the age of 65 who get 5 or fewer hours of sleep may have a higher risk of death compared to those who get 6 or 7 hours. However, individuals who then sleep longer on weekends had no raised mortality risk.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On a similar note, are there any consequences to purposely waking up during the night ever day? I set an alarm 1-2 hours before I have to wake up, just so I get the feeling of being like 'Hell yeah I don't have to get out of bed' and then I go to sleep again for 1-2 more hours.\n\nI've done it for years", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is there a correlation between sleeping less and wanting to eat junk? I find sometimes, like at the moment, when I get 4-5 hours sleep I just crave fast food and junk all day, whilst when I sleep more I’m happy with fruits and nuts and good meals.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Haha oh brother... I used to work nights. It’s the worst. Don’t listen to anyone who tells you otherwise. \n\nThere is no making up for a full night of sleep lost - no matter how much you sleep the next day or no matter how used to it you are. It’s honestly just unnatural. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I listened to a Joe Rogan podcast with Matthew Walker about sleep and it totally blew my mind. I ended up buying Matthew Walker's book, \"Why We Sleep\". Highly recommend the podcast if you don't like reading, even if you don't like Joe Rogan. Walker is extremely informed, well-spoken, and they cover a variety of topics (all sleep related). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8389", "title": "Major depressive disorder", "section": "Section::::Management.:Lifestyle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 262, "text": "There is a small amount of evidence that skipping a night's sleep may improve depressive symptoms, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18597893", "title": "Sleep deprivation", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Insomnia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 558, "text": "Sleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15514352", "title": "Hours of service", "section": "Section::::Purpose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 605, "text": "Sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects describe how individuals who fail to have an adequate period of sleep (7–8 hours in 24 hours) or who have been awake longer than the conventional 16–17 hours will suffer sleep deprivation. A sleep deficit accumulates with successive sleep-deprived days, and additional fatigue may be caused by breaking daily sleep into two shorter periods in place of a single unbroken period of sleep. A sleep deficit is not instantly reduced by one night's sleep; it may take two or three conventional sleep cycles for an individual to return to unimpaired performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50798", "title": "Insomnia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 292, "text": "It is common for patients who have difficulty falling asleep to also have nocturnal awakenings with difficulty returning to sleep. Two-thirds of these patients wake up in the middle of the night, with more than half having trouble falling back to sleep after a middle-of-the-night awakening.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20261953", "title": "Effects of fatigue on safety", "section": "Section::::Factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 619, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects\" describe how individuals who fail to have an adequate period of sleep (7–8 hours in 24 hours) or who have been awake longer than the conventional 16–17 hours will suffer sleep deprivation. A sleep deficit accumulates with successive sleep-deprived days, and additional fatigue may be caused by breaking daily sleep into two shorter periods in place of a single unbroken period of sleep. A sleep deficit is not instantly reduced by one night's sleep; it may take two or three conventional sleep cycles for an individual to return to unimpaired performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4761393", "title": "Treatment of bipolar disorder", "section": "Section::::Lifestyle changes.:Sufficient sleep.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 416, "text": "If sleeping is disturbed, the symptoms can occur. Sleep disruption may actually exacerbate the mental illness state. Those who do not get enough sleep at night, sleep late and wake up late, or go to sleep with some disturbance (e.g. music or charging devices) have a greater chance of having the symptoms and, in addition, depression. It is highly advised to not sleep too late and to get enough high quality sleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19064282", "title": "Management of depression", "section": "Section::::Other treatments.:Total/partial sleep deprivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 497, "text": "Sleep deprivation (skipping a night's sleep) has been found to improve symptoms of depression in 40% - 60% of patients. Partial sleep deprivation in the second half of the night may be as effective as an all night sleep deprivation session. Improvement may last for weeks, though the majority (50%-80%) relapse after recovery sleep. Shifting or reduction of sleep time, light therapy, antidepressant drugs, and lithium have been found to potentially stabilize sleep deprivation treatment effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The post-WW1 Reichswehr did not generally agree with the bounds of the treaty of Versailles, but its commanders (like Hans von Seeckt) did their best to abide by the letter of the law while maintaining the basic structure of a capable army.\n\nFor one thing, the General Staff was officially abolished, but went underground as the Truppenamt (Troop Office) for most of the interwar years. The army itself was limited to 100,000 men, which von Seeckt organized into 7 divisions. When the prewar officer corps was severely purged to a significantly smaller number, the army generally chose to retain men born within a certain time period, neither too old nor too young, with an eye toward expansion once the 'unjust' treaty was done away with. The junior officers and NCOs of the interwar Reichswehr were eventually to serve as an elite cadre around which the later Wehrmacht would form.\n\nAs for the French and British, they had other priorities during the interwar years, and were none too keen on another European war. Some people within Britain (including, arguably, Edward VIII) did not regard Hitler as a threat in the prewar years. The German military did expand, secretly at first, but later openly when no protests came. The Rhineland was reoccupied with only the slightest complaint from France and Britain, so it's no real surprise that the Germans believed they could get away with anything. Until the French and British made good on their guarantee of Polish independence, those Germans were right. The Allies did nothing about the Anschluss of Austria, the Czech cessation of the Sudetenland, and eventually Neville Chamberlain came home after the total annexation of Bohemia with a piece of paper bearing Hitler's signature proclaiming \"Peace in our time!\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Britain would not have been capable of going to war in say, 1938, because it could not depend on the support of its colonies (Canada, Australia, NZ, etc.) The most militarily useful colonies were by this time all self-ruled, had all experienced the horrors of WWI, and didn't want to enter another European war. Only when it became clear how bent on domination of Europe Hitler was, and the reality of the threat to Britain, did this change.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just as a side note, and on a point of semantics, but you probably don't mean England: instead use the United Kingdom or the UK or Britain when referring to the country as a whole.\n\nIt's sort of like referring to the US as Texas, or Germany as Bavaria. While a large part of the country, England is only one region of the UK.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19283335", "title": "Great Depression", "section": "Section::::Socio-economic effects.:Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 326, "text": "Hitler followed an autarky economic policy, creating a network of client states and economic allies in central Europe and Latin America. By cutting wages and taking control of labor unions, plus public works spending, unemployment fell significantly by 1935. Large-scale military spending played a major role in the recovery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31273000", "title": "Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)", "section": "Section::::Historical background.:Pre-war situation in Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1285, "text": "Although Hitler was credited with lowering unemployment from 6 million (some sources claim the real figure was as high as 11m) to virtually nil by conscription and by launching enormous public works projects (similar to Roosevelt's New Deal), as with the Autobahn construction he had little interest in economics and Germany's 'recovery' was in fact achieved primarily by rearmament and other artificial means conducted by others. Because Germany was nowhere as wealthy in real terms as she had been a generation earlier, with very low reserves of foreign exchange and zero credit, Hjalmar Schacht, and later Walther Funk, as Minister of Economy used a number of financial devices – some very clever – to manipulate the currency and gear the German economy towards Wehrwirtschaft (War Economy). One example was the Mefo bill, a kind of IOU produced by the Reichsbank to pay armaments manufacturers but which was also accepted by German banks. Because Mefo bills did not figure in government budgetary statements, they helped maintain the secret of rearmament and were, in Hitler's own words, merely a way of printing money. Schacht also proved adept at negotiating extremely profitable barter deals with many other nations, supplying German military expertise and equipment in return.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16354915", "title": "Economy of Nazi Germany", "section": "Section::::Pre-war economy: 1933–1939.:Recovery and rearmament.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 759, "text": "The enormous military buildup was financed to a large extent through deficit spending, including Mefo bills. Between 1933 and 1939 the total revenue of the German government amounted to 62 billion Reichsmarks, whereas government expenditure (up to 60% of which consisted of rearmament costs) exceeded 101 billion, thus causing a huge deficit and rising national debt (reaching 38 billion marks in 1939). Joseph Goebbels, who otherwise mocked the government’s financial experts as narrow-minded misers, expressed concern in his diary about the exploding deficit. Hitler and his economic team expected that the upcoming territorial expansion would provide the means of repaying the soaring national debt, by using the wealth and manpower of conquered nations. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "954", "title": "Albert Speer", "section": "Section::::Minister of Armaments.:Defeat of Nazi Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1222, "text": "By mid-March Speer had accepted that Germany's economy would collapse within the next eight weeks. While he sought to frustrate directives to destroy industrial facilities in areas at risk of capture so that they could be used after the war, he still supported the war's continuation. Speer provided Hitler with a memorandum on March 15 which detailed Germany's dire economic situation and sought approval to cease demolitions of infrastructure. Three days later he also proposed to Hitler that Germany's remaining military resources be concentrated along the Rhine and Vistula rivers in an attempt to prolong the fighting. This ignored military realities, as the German armed forces were unable to match the Allies' firepower and were facing total defeat. Hitler rejected Speer's proposal to cease demolitions. Instead, he issued the \"Nero Decree\" on March 19, which called for the destruction of all infrastructure as the army retreated. Speer was appalled by this order, and persuaded several key military and political leaders to ignore it. During a meeting with Speer on March 28/29, Hitler rescinded the decree and gave him authority over demolitions. Speer ended them, though the army continued to blow up bridges.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2194173", "title": "Home front during World War II", "section": "Section::::Axis.:Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 624, "text": "Germany had not fully mobilized in 1939, nor even in 1941. Not until 1943, under Albert Speer (the minister of armaments in the \"Reich\"), did Germany finally redirect its entire economy and manpower to war production. Instead of using all available Germans, it brought in millions of slave workers from conquered countries, treating them badly (and getting low productivity in return). Germany's economy was simply too small for a longer all-out war. Hitler's strategy was to change this by a series of surprise blitzkriegs. This failed with defeats in Russia in 1941 and 1942, and against the economic power of the allies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2731583", "title": "Adolf Hitler", "section": "Section::::Leadership style.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 1434, "text": "Hitler dominated his country's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader. He strengthened his control of the armed forces in 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany's military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France, and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure. Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory. In the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender. The military did not challenge Hitler's dominance of the war effort, and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4652", "title": "Blitzkrieg", "section": "Section::::Post-war controversy.:Economics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 666, "text": "Adam Tooze wrote that the German economy was being prepared for a long war. The expenditure for this war was extensive and put the economy under severe strain. The German leadership were concerned less with how to balance the civilian economy and the needs of civilian consumption but to figure out how to best prepare the economy for total war. Once war had begun, Hitler urged his economic experts to abandon caution and expend all available resources on the war effort but the expansion plans only gradually gained momentum in 1941. Tooze wrote that the huge armament plans in the pre-war period did not indicate any clear-sighted blitzkrieg economy or strategy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The answer to your question lies somewhere between \"no\" and \"we can't know\". \n\nIf the [no-hair conjecture](_URL_0_) holds, there's nothing you can know about a black hole except for its mass, angular momentum and charge. You're not allowed to know anything about the mass distribution within the black hole, and hence if there is a surface in there. In general relativity, the general assumption is that there is no surface, just a spacetime singularity. We don't yet know how this fits with quantum mechanics, but we'll have to wait until a theory of quantum gravity is established. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I hope that [this](_URL_0_) is true. The experiments in the next few years (maybe until 2020) will show whether or not this theory is right.\n\nFor those who don't want to read the paper: \n > A first finding is the deviation of the redshift compared to standard GR. The\ncalculated redshifts are not infinite any more but approach finite values near the\nSchwarzschild radius. \n\n > As a second important result we obtained an anti-gravitational effect for radii\nsmaller than half of the Schwarzschild radius, assuming the particular values\nB = 2m^2 and B = 2.2m^2\n. For other values of B the scenario is similar, i.e., for\nr smaller than a given distance, anti-gravitation appears. As a consequence, heavy\nmass objects can not contract to a point at r = 0. The origin of this effect will be\nfurther discussed in a forthcoming paper.\n\n\nI don't know if you know this, but your question is actually very important for the understanding of gravitation itself. In General Relativity black holes are singularities and you can't get infomation from inside the black hole, because light cannot escape the black hole. What this paper says is: \"black holes\" are no singularities. Black holes must have a mass destribution, because mass can't be compressed into one point due to the \"anti-gravitational\" effect described in the paper. So to answer your question: If this paper is true, black holes do have a surface.\n\nBut if the standard General Relativity is true, then we do not know, because there is no information from radii smaller than the Schwarzschild radius.\n\nPS: I want to point out that this paper isn't proven yet. It will be (dis)proven in the next few years, so thats a very interesting topic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44364", "title": "Black body", "section": "Section::::Idealizations.:Cavity with a hole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 599, "text": "A widely used model of a black surface is a small hole in a cavity with walls that are opaque to radiation. Radiation incident on the hole will pass into the cavity, and is very unlikely to be re-emitted if the cavity is large. The hole is not quite a perfect black surface — in particular, if the wavelength of the incident radiation is longer than the diameter of the hole, part will be reflected. Similarly, even in perfect thermal equilibrium, the radiation inside a finite-sized cavity will not have an ideal Planck spectrum for wavelengths comparable to or larger than the size of the cavity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "206115", "title": "Schwarzschild radius", "section": "Section::::Black hole classification by Schwarzschild radius.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 345, "text": "Any object whose radius is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius is called a black hole. The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body (a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). Neither light nor particles can escape through this surface from the region inside, hence the name \"black hole\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "276734", "title": "Minimal surface", "section": "Section::::Generalisations and links to other fields.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 214, "text": "Minimal surfaces play a role in general relativity. The apparent horizon (marginally outer trapped surface) is a minimal hypersurface, linking the theory of black holes to minimal surfaces and the Plateau problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "264606", "title": "Schwarzschild metric", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 835, "text": "The Schwarzschild black hole is characterized by a surrounding spherical boundary, called the event horizon, which is situated at the Schwarzschild radius, often called the radius of a black hole. The boundary is not a physical surface, and if a person fell through the event horizon (before being torn apart by tidal forces), they would not notice any physical surface at that position; it is a mathematical surface which is significant in determining the black hole's properties. Any non-rotating and non-charged mass that is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius forms a black hole. The solution of the Einstein field equations is valid for any mass , so in principle (according to general relativity theory) a Schwarzschild black hole of any mass could exist if conditions became sufficiently favorable to allow for its formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4650", "title": "Black hole", "section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Accretion of matter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 458, "text": "Due to conservation of angular momentum, gas falling into the gravitational well created by a massive object will typically form a disc-like structure around the object. Artists' impressions such as the accompanying representation of a black hole with corona commonly depict the black hole as if it were a flat-space body hiding the part of the disc just behind it, but in reality gravitational lensing would greatly distort the image of the accretion disk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29320146", "title": "Event horizon", "section": "Section::::Event horizon of a black hole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 849, "text": "The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius (although a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to its mass. Theoretically, any amount of matter will become a black hole if compressed into a space that fits within its corresponding Schwarzschild radius. For the mass of the Sun this radius is approximately 3 kilometers and for the Earth it is about 9 millimeters. In practice, however, neither the Earth nor the Sun has the necessary mass and therefore the necessary gravitational force, to overcome electron and neutron degeneracy pressure. The minimal mass required for a star to be able to collapse beyond these pressures is the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, which is approximately three solar masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44364", "title": "Black body", "section": "Section::::Realizations.:Black holes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 939, "text": "A black hole is a region of spacetime from which nothing escapes. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, making it almost an ideal black body (radiation with a wavelength equal to or larger than the radius of the hole may not be absorbed, so black holes are not perfect black bodies). Physicists believe that to an outside observer, black holes have a non-zero temperature and emit radiation with a nearly perfect black-body spectrum, ultimately evaporating. The mechanism for this emission is related to vacuum fluctuations in which a virtual pair of particles is separated by the gravity of the hole, one member being sucked into the hole, and the other being emitted. The energy distribution of emission is described by Planck's law with a temperature \"T\":\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "As far as Classical Greece goes, much of it was an indigenous development within the confines of that historical period, but it does build upon earlier foundations, which are also Greek, but not considered part of Classical Greece, namely Mycenaean and Kretan architecture. Mycenaen architecture largely seems to have been an indigenous development as well, and appears in such similarity to the very inception of architecture in the neolithic that it is amply clear that it would rather have developed from neolithic precursors than external influence. If I recall correctly, however, there are some theories which trace its origin to the Balkans - I'm not sure about the merit these theories deserve. \nMinoan, that is Kretan, culture was subject to Egyptian influences, which reflected in aesthetics and architecture, although Krete remained very distinct from Egypt in both fields. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21296224", "title": "Architecture", "section": "Section::::History.:Ancient architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 388, "text": "The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural \"style\" developed in the form of the Classical orders. Roman architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37353", "title": "Etruscan civilization", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 951, "text": "Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from the external appearance of Greek architecture. In turn, Ancient Roman architecture began with Etruscan styles, and then accepted still further Greek influence. Roman temples show many of the same differences in form to Greek ones that Etruscan temples do, but like the Greeks, use stone, in which they closely copy Greek conventions. The houses of the wealthy were evidently often large and comfortable, but the burial chambers of tombs, often filled with grave-goods, are the nearest approach to them to survive. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs have large rock-cut chambers under a tumulus in large necropoleis, and these, together with some city walls, are the only Etruscan constructions to survive. Etruscan architecture is not generally considered as part of the body of Greco-Roman classical architecture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9309233", "title": "Architecture of Italy", "section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 888, "text": "The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture around the 2nd century BC for their own purposes, creating a new architectural style. The two styles that are often considered one body of classical architecture. This approach is considered reproductive, and sometimes it hinders scholars' understanding and ability to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards, particularly when relying solely on external appearances. The Romans absorbed Greek influence, apparent in many aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. The Romans, similarly, were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions, such as hydraulics and in the construction of arches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46352425", "title": "Roman funerary art", "section": "Section::::Mausolea.:History.:\"Mid Republic\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 622, "text": "Also present was an influence from the lands east of Greece. Although the architectural contributions of Asia Minor were very different from those of the Greeks, Asia Minor had previously opened itself to Hellenic styles earlier in the fourth century BC. The Romans borrowed most of their architecture during these years from the Greeks, so most of the Roman styles similar to those of Asia Minor actually came to Rome via Greece. Of course, the Romans borrowed directly from the Greek style as well. Anatolian mausolea are distinct via their tower designs, a notable example being the Harpy Tomb, built circa 480-470 BC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "521555", "title": "Ancient Rome", "section": "Section::::Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 189, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 189, "end_character": 484, "text": "The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into \"Classical architecture\". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49732154", "title": "Etruscan architecture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 452, "text": "From about 630 BC, Etruscan architecture was heavily influenced by Greek architecture, which was itself developing through the same period. In turn it influenced Roman architecture, which in its early centuries can be considered as just a regional variation of Etruscan architecture. But increasingly, from about 200 BC, the Romans looked directly to Greece for their styling, while sometimes retaining Etruscan shapes and purposes in their buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38005076", "title": "History of Western civilization before AD 500", "section": "Section::::The Mediterranean and the Ancient West.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 376, "text": "The ancient Greeks excelled in engineering, science, logic, politics and medicine. Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The two surfaces of a typical cell membrane have very different lipid compositions because they need to have different physical properties. For example the outer surface of a mammalian cell's plasma membrane has mostly charge-neutral lipids, and thus presents am inert surface to the outside world. Good for preventing unwanted interactions, perhaps. The inner surface has many negatively charged lipids which are the site of interaction for proteins that need to interact with the inner cell surface. The proteins that flip lipids across the bilayer are called flipases (seriously).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4817", "title": "Biological membrane", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 508, "text": "The phospholipid bilayer is formed due to the aggregation of membrane lipids in aqueous solutions. Aggregation is caused by the hydrophobic effect, where hydrophobic ends come into contact with each other and are sequestered away from water. This arrangement maximises hydrogen bonding between hydrophilic heads and water while minimising unfavorable contact between hydrophobic tails and water. The increase in available hydrogen bonding increases the entropy of the system, creating a spontaneous process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67158", "title": "Red blood cell", "section": "Section::::Microstructure.:Membrane composition.:Membrane lipids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 694, "text": "This asymmetric phospholipid distribution among the bilayer is the result of the function of several energy-dependent and energy-independent phospholipid transport proteins. Proteins called “Flippases” move phospholipids from the outer to the inner monolayer, while others called “floppases” do the opposite operation, against a concentration gradient in an energy dependent manner. Additionally, there are also “scramblase” proteins that move phospholipids in both directions at the same time, down their concentration gradients in an energy independent manner. There is still considerable debate ongoing regarding the identity of these membrane maintenance proteins in the red cell membrane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24505", "title": "Phospholipid", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 497, "text": "Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes. They can form lipid bilayers because of their amphiphilic characteristic. The structure of the phospholipid molecule generally consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid \"tails\" and a hydrophilic \"head\" consisting of a phosphate group. The two components are usually joined together by a glycerol molecule. The phosphate groups can be modified with simple organic molecules such as choline, ethanolamine or serine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4817", "title": "Biological membrane", "section": "Section::::Composition.:Proteins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 676, "text": "Phospholipid bilayers contain different proteins. These membrane proteins have various functions and characteristics and catalyze different chemical reactions. Integral proteins span the membranes with different domains on either side. Integral proteins hold strong association with the lipid bilayer and cannot easily become detached. They will dissociate only with chemical treatment that breaks the membrane. Peripheral proteins are unlike integral proteins in that they hold weak interactions with the surface of the bilayer and can easily become dissociated from the membrane. Peripheral proteins are located on only one face of a membrane and create membrane asymmetry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "158011", "title": "Lipid bilayer", "section": "Section::::Structure and organization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 791, "text": "When phospholipids are exposed to water, they self-assemble into a two-layered sheet with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the center of the sheet. This arrangement results in two “leaflets” that are each a single molecular layer. The center of this bilayer contains almost no water and excludes molecules like sugars or salts that dissolve in water. The assembly process is driven by interactions between hydrophobic molecules (also called the hydrophobic effect). An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex process includes non-covalent interactions such as van der Waals forces, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4817", "title": "Biological membrane", "section": "Section::::Function.:Fluidity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 420, "text": "The hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer is constantly in motion because of rotations around the bonds of lipid tails. Hydrophobic tails of a bilayer bend and lock together. However, because of hydrogen bonding with water, the hydrophilic head groups exhibit less movement as their rotation and mobility are constrained. This results in increasing viscosity of the lipid bilayer closer to the hydrophilic heads.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36907492", "title": "Fences and pickets model of plasma membrane structure", "section": "Section::::Anchored transmembrane protein picket model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 366, "text": "The movement of phospholipids, even those located in the outer leaflet of the membrane, is regulated by the actin-based membrane skeleton meshwork. Which is surprising, because the membrane skeleton is located on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane, and cannot directly interact with the phospholipids located in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Evolution selects the individuals who are most fit for their environment. This is not always the most physically imposing specimen (ask the T-Rex how that worked out) but rather one who is able to survive under the given circumstances.\n\nSince humans are a highly social species our \"circumstance\" consists largely of other humans and our mental capacity is far more valuable to our survival than pure physical might.\n\nThe average IQ has been increasing over the decades so it would appear we're going in the right direction. Brute strength is no match for human ingenuity.\n\nIf it's any consolation, the *homo* genus has been selecting intelligence over strength for several million years, this isn't a new phenomenon.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1913249", "title": "Trophy hunting", "section": "Section::::Controversy.:Opposition.:Arguments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 859, "text": "Opponents also cite that the genetic health and social behaviors of species is adversely affected because hunters often kill the largest or most significant male of a species. The removal the most significant animals (because of the size of their horns or mane for example) can severely affect the health of a species population. As Dr Rob Knell states 'Because these high-quality males with large secondary sexual traits tend to father a high proportion of the offspring, their 'good genes' can spread rapidly, so populations of strongly sexually selected animals can adapt quickly to new environments. Removing these males reverses this effect and could have serious and unintended consequences. If the population is having to adapt to a new environment and you remove even a small proportion of these high quality males, you could drive it to extinction.'\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25374965", "title": "The Land of Little Rain", "section": "Section::::Themes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 329, "text": "Civilized humans are described in disparaging, condescending, or satiric ways. Their civilization does not better the world, but only disrupts the more divine processes and purposes of nature. Moreover, humans lose touch with their own instinctual knowledge, spirituality, and true purpose because of the disconnect with nature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38680789", "title": "Wild animal suffering", "section": "Section::::Philosophical status.:Ecology as intrinsically valuable.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 657, "text": "Holmes Rolston III argues that only unnatural animal suffering is a morally bad thing and that humans do not have a duty to intervene in natural cases. He celebrates carnivores in nature because of the significant ecological role they play. Others have argued that the reason that humans have a duty to protect other humans from predation is because humans are part of the cultural world rather than the natural world and so different rules apply to them in these situations. Others argue that prey animals are fulfilling their natural function, and thus flourishing, when they are preyed upon or otherwise die, since this allows natural selection to work.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24142855", "title": "Biocentrism (ethics)", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 843, "text": "as natural as the ways in which any other species of animals behaves\". He goes on to suggest that if humans must change their behavior to refrain from disturbing and damaging the natural environment, then that results in setting humans apart from other species and assigning more power to them. This then takes us back to the basic beliefs of anthropocentrism. Watson also claims that the extinction of species is \"Nature's way\" and that if humans were to instigate their own self-destruction by exploiting the rest of nature, then so be it. Therefore, he suggests that the real reason humans should reduce their destructive behavior in relation to other species is not because we are equals but because the destruction of other species will also result in our own destruction. This view also brings us back to an anthropocentric perspective.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531700", "title": "On Aggression", "section": "Section::::Content.:Programming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 273, "text": "According to Lorenz, animals, particularly males, are biologically programmed to fight over resources. This behavior must be considered part of natural selection, as aggression leading to death or serious injury may eventually lead to extinction unless it has such a role.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45603009", "title": "Lynn DeCoite", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 211, "text": "\"These animals will fight with out humans that is there common nature. Humans have altered some many things in the world that we have become our worst enemies. That has been linked to climate change. If we keep\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9703", "title": "Evolutionary psychology", "section": "Section::::Main areas of research.:Strong reciprocity (or \"tribal reciprocity\").\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 684, "text": "Humans may have an evolved set of psychological adaptations that predispose them to be more cooperative than otherwise would be expected with members of their tribal in-group, and, more nasty to members of tribal out groups. These adaptations may have been a consequence of tribal warfare. Humans may also have predispositions for \"altruistic punishment\" – to punish in-group members who violate in-group rules, even when this altruistic behavior cannot be justified in terms of helping those you are related to (kin selection), cooperating with those who you will interact with again (direct reciprocity), or cooperating to better your reputation with others (indirect reciprocity).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "same way it's generated during the rest o the year. big ass diesel generators and wind turbines. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1253269", "title": "United States Antarctic Program", "section": "Section::::Logistics.:Power/water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 348, "text": "Each station uses diesel fuel to generate electricity. At McMurdo Station, wind turbines installed by Antarctic New Zealand in 2010 supply about a third of the station’s electricity in a cooperative agreement with ANZ. Field camps have been increasingly using solar power, taking advantage of the 24 hours of daylight during the Antarctic summer. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14414065", "title": "Polar amplification", "section": "Section::::Amplification.:Ocean circulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 457, "text": "It has been estimated that 70% of global wind energy is transferred to the ocean and takes place within the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). Eventually, upwelling due to wind-stress transports cold Antarctic waters through the Atlantic surface current, while warming them over the equator, and into the Arctic environment. Thus, warming in the Arctic depends on the efficiency of the global ocean transport and plays a role in the polar see-saw effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18959138", "title": "Antarctica", "section": "Section::::Ice mass and global sea level.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 124, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 124, "end_character": 877, "text": "Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation except along the southern summer. This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica is a desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet which covers the land. Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards the edges of the continent. Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year. It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global cooling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1211800", "title": "Esperanza Base", "section": "Section::::Climate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 302, "text": "Like the rest of the Antarctic Peninsula, the base has a polar climate characterized by strong winds that descend downwards from Antarctic ice sheet. These winds can exceed , leading to blowing snow and reduced visibility. The climate is classified as a polar tundra (ET) climate in the Köppen system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1121600", "title": "McMurdo Sound", "section": "Section::::Effects of wind.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 631, "text": "Polar winds are a driving force behind weather systems arising from three surface zones that converge at McMurdo Sound: the polar plateau and Transantarctic Mountains, the Ross Ice Shelf, and the Ross Sea. These surface zones create a range of dynamic weather systems. Cold, heavy air descending rapidly from the polar plateau at elevations of or more spawns fierce katabatic winds. These dry winds can reach hurricane force by the time they reach the Antarctic coast. Wind instruments recorded Antarctica's highest wind velocity at the coastal station Dumont d'Urville in July 1972 at (Australian Government Antarctica Division).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "198139", "title": "Mawson Station", "section": "Section::::Purpose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 308, "text": "Mawson Station houses approximately 20 personnel over winter and up to 60 in summer. It is the only Antarctic station to use wind generators for over 70% of its power needs, saving over of diesel fuel per year. It is accessible by sea for only a short period each austral summer, between February and March.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31010416", "title": "Air-tractor sledge", "section": "Section::::In Antarctica.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 597, "text": "The \"Aurora\" reached the Antarctic mainland on 8 January 1912, after a two-week stop on Macquarie Island to establish a wireless relay station and research base. The expedition's main base was established in Adélie Land, at Cape Denison in Commonwealth Bay. While the \"Aurora\" was unloading, a violent whirlwind lifted the lid off the air-tractor's crate, throwing it . The main hut was erected immediately, but the strong winds meant that work on the air-tractor's hangar was delayed until March. When the winds abated, a by hangar was constructed next to the main hut, from empty packing cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "[Ring Species](_URL_0_) sounds like what you're asking about. From the page:\n\n > a ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can interbreed with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two \"end\" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Likely in the Equus genus (horses, zebras, wild asses, donkeys). A horse-donkey offspring is a mule, and is sterile since the horse has 64 chromosomes and the donkey 62; the mule has 63.\n\nThere are zebra hybrids with others of the Genus Equus, but not sure if they're fertile or sterile.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60528440", "title": "Drosophila quinaria species group", "section": "Section::::Genetics and genomics.:Population genetics and speciation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1267, "text": "The sister species \"Drosophila subquinaria\" and \"Drosophila recens\" overlap in geographic range and are capable of hybridization, meaning they can successfully reproduce with each other; however the offspring are very sickly. Thus, these two species are almost fully reproductively isolated, despite overlapping in geographic range. One reason for this is behavioural, driven by pheromones. \"D. subquinaria\" females readily avoid mating with males from other species, but surprisingly \"D. subquinaria\" females also avoid mating with males from the same species in allopatric populations. However \"D. recens\" females do not distinguish between males from different populations. Pheromones in the cuticle of the males differ between geographic ranges of \"D. subquinaria\", possibly explaining how females distinguish males from different populations. The bacterial symbiont \"Wolbachia\" is common in populations of \"D. recens\", and causes cytoplasmic incompatibility in crosses between \"D. recens\" males and \"D. subquinaria\" females. This has led to \"D. subquinaria\" females in sympatry with \"Wolbachia\"-infected \"D. recens\" to be more choosy when making a mate choice, while \"D. subquinaria\" females that are not sympatric with \"D. recens\" do not make this distinction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24884", "title": "Peppered moth", "section": "Section::::Polymorphism.:Introduction on forms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 389, "text": "By contrast, different subspecies of the same species can theoretically interbreed with one another and will produce fully fertile and healthy offspring, but in practice do not, as they live in different regions or reproduce in different seasons. Full-fledged species are either unable to produce fertile and healthy offspring, or do not recognize each other's courtship signals, or both.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68300", "title": "Dominance (genetics)", "section": "Section::::Background.:Chromosomes, genes, and alleles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 520, "text": "Most animals and some plants have paired chromosomes, and are described as diploid. They have two versions of each chromosome, one contributed by the mother's ovum, and the other by the father's sperm, known as gametes, described as haploid, and created through meiosis. These gametes then fuse during fertilization during sexual reproduction, into a new single cell zygote, which divides multiple times, resulting in a new organism with the same number of pairs of chromosomes in each (non-gamete) cell as its parents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2676271", "title": "Canid hybrid", "section": "Section::::Genetic considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 901, "text": "When the differences in number and arrangement of chromosomes is too great, hybridization becomes less and less likely. The wolf, dingo, dog, coyote, and golden jackal all have 78 chromosomes arranged in 39 pairs. This allows them to hybridize freely (barring size or behavioral constraints) and produce fertile offspring. There are two exceptions: the side-striped jackal and black-backed jackal. Although these two theoretically could interbreed with each other to produce fertile offspring, it appears they cannot hybridize successfully with the rest of the genus \"Canis\". A study of the maternal mitochondrial DNA of the black-backed jackal could find no evidence of genotypes from the most likely mates - the side-striped jackal nor the golden jackal - indicating that male black-backed jackals had not bred with these. There is no evidence that the African wild dog hybridizes with any of them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42617775", "title": "Dileptus margaritifer", "section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 728, "text": "Like most ciliates, \"Dileptus margaritifer\" reproduces asexually, by transverse division of the cell (fission). Division may be preceded by conjugation, a sexual phenomenon in which two ciliates of compatible mating types exchange genetic material by reciprocal transfer of haploid gametes, derived by meiosis from each cell's micronuclei. The species is known to have three distinct mating types (sexes), conventionally designated I, II, and III. Individuals may cycle through several mating types in the course of their lives. However the final and (usually) stable type is genetically determined by a single genetic locus \"mat\" with three alleles, one for each type, with type I being dominant over type II, and II over III.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "881841", "title": "Bathocyroe fosteri", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 538, "text": "After the fertilized eggs have divided twice, the ctenophore's later body symmetry has already been set. They develop over a free-floating cydippea state, which looks very similar between all ctenophores and sometimes is labeled as a larva, although usually in reality it already represents a miniature version of what the creature will grow up to be. Among some extremely specialized groups, such as platyctenides, the cydippea and adult forms do, however, take separate ecological niches, so that the 'larva' label is more appropriate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62404", "title": "Lovebird", "section": "Section::::Aviculture.:Pets and bird safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 352, "text": "Lovebirds of different species can mate and produce both sterile and fertile hybrid offspring, for example \"Agapornis personatus\" mate with \"Agapornis fischeri\" will produce fertile hybrid offspring. These offspring have behaviors of both parents. It is recommended to only place birds of the same species together, or of the same sex for this reason.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, absolutely. When planning the orbit of a spacecraft, the gravitational fields of the Moon, the Sun and even the other planets can be taken into consideration. For an Earth orbiter, the non-spherical shape of the Earth also significantly affects the orbit. Solar radiation pressure is another major component of the force model.\n\nThe higher the orbit of the spacecraft, the more significantly the Moon (and Sun) will affect the orbit. Similarly, accounting for the non-spherical gravity field of the Earth is more important the lower your spacecraft's orbit.\n\nAs a source, I picked an low Earth orbiter, ICESat, which measured the topography of the ice sheets, oceans, and the globe in general:\n_URL_0_\n\n\"ICESat’s repeat groundtrack orbit was designed using a disturbing force model that includes only the Earth geopotential. Though the third body effect from the Sun and the Moon was neglected in the orbit design, it does in fact disrupt the repeatability condition of the groundtrack and consequently implies orbit correction maneuvers. The perturbations on ICESat orbit due to the third body effect are studied as a preliminary work towards including these forces in the design of the future ICESat-II repeat groundtrack orbit.\"\n\nWhile ICESat's orbit may have been planned without considering the Moon's gravity, for precise orbit determination, an accurate force model-- including the Moon's gravity-- is vital.\n\nedit:\nThe force on a spacecraft can be divided into components: the force due to the Earth's gravity plus the force due to the Moon's gravity plus...\n\nF_total = F_earth + F_moon + F_sun + ...\nIt's a continuum, with the importance of each component depending on where the spacecraft is. On one hand, you have ICESat, whose orbit was planned without even considering the moon...on the other hand, you have spacecraft like Artemis, whose orbit doesn't even exist, can't even be approximated, without considering the Moon's gravity: _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You are correct that theoretically the answer is \"yes.\" Now, the question \"is it noticeable\" is up to the debate of \"noticeable by who?\"\n\nHere is what I can tell you. In my field of Aerospace we have several levels of orbit propagation that we use according to accuracy needs ranging from simple two body propagators to propagators that account for drag, radiation pressure, all of the planets and even some large asteroids. That being said, the simple and mid range propagators only start to noticeably deviate from the super complex ones for orbits run out for days to weeks. The most popular of the mid range propagators are the [SGP4 propagators](_URL_0_), which are two body propagators, and treat the sun and moon as perturbations to that orbit. SGP4 loses about 2 km of accuracy per day or propagation. (this is the propagator wolfram alpha uses when you ask it when the next time you can see the ISS)\n\nIt is more noticeable for high orbit satellites, but not because the force of the Moon's gravity is so much stronger, but because other forces, such as drag, are weaker. \n\nYou are on track when you ask about the effect being accumulation. Yes, the pull from the moon is weak, but it is rhythmic and always the same direction. These effects add up. However, satellites have regular corrective burns, so during their lifetime the effects are not cumulative. However, after the satellite is shut off, if it is left in orbit or pushed up to the \"graveyard belt\" those effects will start to build. \n\nI hope this helps answer. Sorry if I started to ramble at times... it is just a very large and somewhat open ended question. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, absolutely. When planning the orbit of a spacecraft, the gravitational fields of the Moon, the Sun and even the other planets can be taken into consideration. For an Earth orbiter, the non-spherical shape of the Earth also significantly affects the orbit. Solar radiation pressure is another major component of the force model.\n\nThe higher the orbit of the spacecraft, the more significantly the Moon (and Sun) will affect the orbit. Similarly, accounting for the non-spherical gravity field of the Earth is more important the lower your spacecraft's orbit.\n\nAs a source, I picked an low Earth orbiter, ICESat, which measured the topography of the ice sheets, oceans, and the globe in general:\n_URL_0_\n\n\"ICESat’s repeat groundtrack orbit was designed using a disturbing force model that includes only the Earth geopotential. Though the third body effect from the Sun and the Moon was neglected in the orbit design, it does in fact disrupt the repeatability condition of the groundtrack and consequently implies orbit correction maneuvers. The perturbations on ICESat orbit due to the third body effect are studied as a preliminary work towards including these forces in the design of the future ICESat-II repeat groundtrack orbit.\"\n\nWhile ICESat's orbit may have been planned without considering the Moon's gravity, for precise orbit determination, an accurate force model-- including the Moon's gravity-- is vital.\n\nedit:\nThe force on a spacecraft can be divided into components: the force due to the Earth's gravity plus the force due to the Moon's gravity plus...\n\nF_total = F_earth + F_moon + F_sun + ...\nIt's a continuum, with the importance of each component depending on where the spacecraft is. On one hand, you have ICESat, whose orbit was planned without even considering the moon...on the other hand, you have spacecraft like Artemis, whose orbit doesn't even exist, can't even be approximated, without considering the Moon's gravity: _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You are correct that theoretically the answer is \"yes.\" Now, the question \"is it noticeable\" is up to the debate of \"noticeable by who?\"\n\nHere is what I can tell you. In my field of Aerospace we have several levels of orbit propagation that we use according to accuracy needs ranging from simple two body propagators to propagators that account for drag, radiation pressure, all of the planets and even some large asteroids. That being said, the simple and mid range propagators only start to noticeably deviate from the super complex ones for orbits run out for days to weeks. The most popular of the mid range propagators are the [SGP4 propagators](_URL_0_), which are two body propagators, and treat the sun and moon as perturbations to that orbit. SGP4 loses about 2 km of accuracy per day or propagation. (this is the propagator wolfram alpha uses when you ask it when the next time you can see the ISS)\n\nIt is more noticeable for high orbit satellites, but not because the force of the Moon's gravity is so much stronger, but because other forces, such as drag, are weaker. \n\nYou are on track when you ask about the effect being accumulation. Yes, the pull from the moon is weak, but it is rhythmic and always the same direction. These effects add up. However, satellites have regular corrective burns, so during their lifetime the effects are not cumulative. However, after the satellite is shut off, if it is left in orbit or pushed up to the \"graveyard belt\" those effects will start to build. \n\nI hope this helps answer. Sorry if I started to ramble at times... it is just a very large and somewhat open ended question. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "577296", "title": "Mass concentration (astronomy)", "section": "Section::::Effect of lunar mascons on satellite orbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 308, "text": "Lunar mascons alter the local gravity above and around them sufficiently that low and uncorrected satellite orbits around the Moon are unstable on a timescale of months or years. The small perturbations in the orbits accumulate and eventually distort the orbit enough that the satellite impacts the surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31516478", "title": "Frozen orbit", "section": "Section::::Background and motivation.:Lunar frozen orbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 881, "text": "Lunar mascons make most low lunar orbits unstable ... As a satellite passes 50 or 60 miles overhead, the mascons pull it forward, back, left, right, or down, the exact direction and magnitude of the tugging depends on the satellite's trajectory. Absent any periodic boosts from onboard rockets to correct the orbit, most satellites released into low lunar orbits (under about 60 miles or 100 km) will eventually crash into the Moon. ... [There are] a number of 'frozen orbits' where a spacecraft can stay in a low lunar orbit indefinitely. They occur at four inclinations: 27°, 50°, 76°, and 86°\"—the last one being nearly over the lunar poles. The orbit of the relatively long-lived Apollo 15 subsatellite PFS-1 had an inclination of 28°, which turned out to be close to the inclination of one of the frozen orbits—but less fortunate PFS-2 had an orbital inclination of only 11°.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27683", "title": "Satellite", "section": "Section::::End of life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 800, "text": "Instead of being de-orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a graveyard orbit. As of 2002, the FCC requires all geostationary satellites to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life prior to launch. In cases of uncontrolled de-orbiting, the major variable is the solar flux, and the minor variables the components and form factors of the satellite itself, and the gravitational perturbations generated by the Sun and the Moon (as well as those exercised by large mountain ranges, whether above or below sea level). The nominal breakup altitude due to aerodynamic forces and temperatures is 78 km, with a range between 72 and 84 km. Solar panels, however, are destroyed before any other component at altitudes between 90 and 95 km.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56007358", "title": "Martian Moons Exploration", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 443, "text": "The mission architecture uses three modules: propulsion module (1,800 kg), exploration module (150 kg) and the return module (1,050 kg). With the mass of Deimos and Phobos being too small to capture a satellite, it is not possible to orbit the Martian moons in the usual sense. However, orbits of a special kind, referred to as quasi-satellite orbits, can be sufficiently stable to allow many months of operations in the vicinity of the moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53306", "title": "Natural satellite", "section": "Section::::Satellites of satellites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 205, "text": "No \"moons of moons\" or subsatellites (natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet) are currently known . In most cases, the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8453893", "title": "Claimed moons of Earth", "section": "Section::::Temporary satellites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 537, "text": "Computer models by astrophysicists Mikael Granvik, Jeremie Vaubaillon, and Robert Jedicke suggest that these \"temporary satellites\" should be quite common; and that \"At any given time, there should be at least one natural Earth satellite of 1 meter diameter orbiting the Earth.\" Such objects would remain in orbit for ten months on average, before returning to solar orbit once more, and so would make relatively easy targets for manned space exploration. \"Mini-moons\" were further examined in a study published in the journal \"Icarus\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30867658", "title": "Orbital perturbation analysis", "section": "Section::::Perturbation of spacecraft orbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 857, "text": "For man-made spacecraft orbiting the Earth at comparatively low altitudes the deviations from a Kepler orbit are much larger than for the Moon. The approximation of the gravitational force of the Earth to be that of a homogeneous sphere gets worse the closer one gets to the Earth surface and the majority of the artificial Earth satellites are in orbits that are only a few hundred kilometers over the Earth surface. Furthermore, they are (as opposed to the Moon) significantly affected by the solar radiation pressure because of their large cross-section-to-mass ratio; this applies in particular to 3-axis stabilized spacecraft with large solar arrays and is allowed for in calculation of graveyard orbits. In addition they are significantly affected by rarefied air below 800–1000 km. The air drag at high altitudes is also dependent on solar activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm not sure, but I think it's either with a green screen or a custom built movie set\n\nEdit: here's an example of what amazing things you can achieve with a chroma key (green or blue screen) and some talented artists: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Movie sets and animation. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They build sets and in the case of larger outdoor scenes, supplement those sets with green screen elements. The West Wing, for instance, was shot in a fairly accurate recreation of The West Wing...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As someone who has worked in a government building and done film work, I can say you dont want to film in a government building. They are largely boring and hard to light.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They filled two movies ever in the UN and it was a big deal - the Alfred Hitchcock one and the movie with Naomi Watts", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1656189", "title": "Location shooting", "section": "Section::::Practicalities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 519, "text": "In many cases a second unit is dispatched to film on location, with a second unit director and sometimes with stand-in actors. These shots can then be edited into the final film or TV program alongside studio-shot sequences, to give an authentic flavor, without the expense or trouble of a full-scale location shoot. \"NYPD Blue\", for example, was filmed primarily in Los Angeles, but used second unit footage of New York City for color, as well as featuring a small number of episodes filmed on location with the cast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1870198", "title": "Dailies", "section": "Section::::Contents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 423, "text": "Many films have one main film unit which does all primary filming and one or more smaller film units shooting additional \"pickup\" shots, stunts, or shots involving special effects. These shots are included with the main unit footage on the dailies reels. A typical pickup shot might be a simple shot of the exterior of a building which does not involve any actors, and is filmed with a smaller crew to save time and money.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11672299", "title": "Behind the Movies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 214, "text": "Behind the Movies is a Canadian television series, airing weekly on Citytv. The series goes behind the scenes of the movie industry, interviewing actors, directors and crew involved in the making of classic films.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25734098", "title": "Waking Sleeping Beauty", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 279, "text": "The film uses no new on-camera interviews, instead relying primarily on archival interviews, press kit footage, in-progress and completed footage from the films being covered, and personal film/videos shot (often against company policy) by the employees of the animation studio.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26065992", "title": "Mayor's Office of Film, Theatre & Broadcasting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 763, "text": "The Mayor's Office of Film, Theatre & Broadcasting (MOFTB) is the oldest film commission in the United States. It is New York City’s agency responsible for coordinating municipal support for film and television production, including approving film shoots and liaising with government agencies and promoting the industry. The office provides free permits, free public locations, and free police escorts. It also provides shooting guidelines, insurance information, and other useful information for local film and media production. Built upon mayoral initiatives dating back to Mayor John V. Lindsay in 1966 and Mayor Abraham Beame in 1974, the Mayor’s Office today supports an industry that generates over $5 billion annually and employs over 100,000 New Yorkers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20803357", "title": "Parks and Recreation", "section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 1032, "text": "Like \"The Office\", \"Parks and Recreation\" is filmed with a single-camera setup in a cinéma vérité style simulating the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track. Within the context of the show, the characters are being filmed by a documentary crew, the members of which are never seen or heard from on-screen. The actors occasionally look at and directly address the cameras, and in some scenes directly engage the cameras in one-on-one interviews with the documentary crew members. The episodes were scripted, but the production encouraged the cast to improvise, and dialogue or performances the actors made up during filming often made the final cut of the episodes. Schur said he believes the mockumentary style is particularly fitting for a show about city government because, \"It's a device for showing the ways people act and behave differently when they're in public and private [and] the difference between what goes on behind closed doors and what people present to the public is a huge issue.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53152463", "title": "White House Family Theater", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 500, "text": "Traditionally, American studios have made their films available to the White House on request, either directly or through the Motion Picture Association of America. Landing a screening in the White House Family Theater is considered a valuable marketing tool by studios and, during the 1980s, the motion picture industry financed renovation of the facility, which added terraced seating and other amenities. During the presidency of George W. Bush the facility was redecorated in \"movie palace red\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hate to be needy, but Ill ping some of the relevantly flaired users:\n\n/u/JoelWiklund /u/BeondTheGrave /u/British-Empire", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1678525", "title": "Egyptian Army", "section": "Section::::History.:Under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 703, "text": "In 1914 the Egyptian Army was a largely native home-defence force. It comprised 17 battalions of infantry (8 Sudanese and 9 Egyptian), 3 companies of mounted infantry, a Camel Corps, support services and various local militia groups. It was organised, expanded and equipped by the British during the prewar years, and led by British officers. Although a few field artillery units participated voluntarily in the defence of the Suez Canal in early 1915, the Egyptian Army was primarily employed to maintain order in the troubled Sudan. It has been estimated that a million Egyptian soldiers participated in the First World War during the reign of Hussein Kamel of Egypt, of whom half a million perished.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1678525", "title": "Egyptian Army", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 868, "text": "The Egyptian Army or Egyptian Ground Forces ( \"al-Quwwāt al-Barriyya al-Miṣriyya\") is the largest service branch within the Egyptian Armed Forces. The modern army was established during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1849), widely considered to be the \"founder of modern Egypt\". Its most significant engagements in the 20th century were in Egypt's five wars with the State of Israel (in 1948, 1956, 1967, 1967–1970, and 1973), one of which, the Suez Crisis of 1956, also saw it do combat with the armies of Britain, and France. The Egyptian army was also engaged heavily in the protracted North Yemen Civil War, and the brief Libyan-Egyptian War in July 1977. Its last major engagement was Operation Desert Storm, the liberation of Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1991, in which the Egyptian army constituted the second-largest contingent of the allied forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "475895", "title": "Indian Army during World War II", "section": "Section::::South-East Asia.:Malaya.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 302, "text": "As in Egypt, the Indian Army dispatched one infantry brigade to Malaya just before the start of the war. By 1941, all training and equipment was geared to fight in North Africa and the Middle East and the forces in Burma and Malaya had been depleted to supply reinforcements to the forces in the west.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9354", "title": "Egyptian Armed Forces", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 443, "text": "The modern Egyptian armed forces have been involved in numerous crises and wars since independence, from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egyptian Revolution of 1952, Suez Crisis, North Yemen Civil War, Six-Day War, Nigerian Civil War, War of Attrition, Yom Kippur War, Egyptian bread riots, 1986 Egyptian conscripts riot, Libyan–Egyptian War, Gulf War, War on Terror, Egyptian Crisis, Second Libyan Civil War, War on ISIL and the Sinai insurgency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "362909", "title": "Operation Badr (1973)", "section": "Section::::Prelude: 1967–1970.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1034, "text": "The 1967 war had severely depleted Egypt's military strength, as most of their air force and a large quantity of equipment was destroyed. Soviet assistance helped the Egyptian military to start the rebuilding of their armed forces shortly after the war, and by September 1968 Egyptian ground forces had sufficiently recovered to challenge the Israeli presence east of the Suez canal. The War of Attrition began with Egyptian artillery barrages and commando raids into the Sinai, which were countered by deep-striking Israeli airstrikes and heli-borne raids into Egypt. Egypt's inability to challenge Israeli air superiority led to the deployment of Soviet-operated air-defense assets to protect parts of Egypt's interior, deterring the Israelis from launching their deep penetration raids and allowing the Egyptians to rebuild their air defenses. The defensive upgrades incurred increasing Israeli air losses, leading to an August 1970 ceasefire that lasted until 1973. Nasser died in September 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3573264", "title": "Military industry of Egypt", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1120, "text": "As early as 1949, Egypt unveiled plans to develop an armaments industry with the industrial base that emerged during World War II when British and American forces placed orders for equipment. Additionally, as WWII had come to a close, Egypt found itself in possession of a large quantity and assortment of weaponry left behind by Nazi Germany and others. In particular, Egypt possessed large stockpiles of 8mm Mauser ammunition that had been manufactured by a number of countries (Germany, Turkey, Greece, etc.) Egypt decided to manufacture a semi-automatic main battle rifle, and so purchased the tooling and plans for the Swedish Ag m/42 rifle. They reengineered this rifle to use the 8mm Mauser cartridge and added a gas adjustment valve. This rifle was called the Hakim, and Egypt manufactured and fielded it from the early 1950s until about 1961. They also briefly manufactured another reengineered Ag m/42, this time chambered for the 7.62×39mm Soviet cartridge, called the Rasheed. These guns were replaced in the 1960s by the Maadi AK-47 a licensed copy of the widely distributed Soviet automatic assault rifle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9555087", "title": "Kingdom of Egypt", "section": "Section::::World War II and after.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 912, "text": "The government of Egypt, and the Egyptian population, played a minor role in the Second World War. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It did not declare war on Germany, but the Prime Minister associated Egypt with the British war effort. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. King Farouk took practically a neutral position, which accorded with elite opinion among the Egyptians. The Egyptian army did no fighting. It was apathetic about the war, with the leading officers looking on the British as occupiers and sometimes holding some private sympathy with the Axis. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as Prime Minister.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From Wiki:\n\nThe first hints of a subsurface ocean came from theoretical considerations of tidal heating (a consequence of Europa's slightly eccentric orbit and orbital resonance with the other Galilean moons). Galileo imaging team members argue for the existence of a subsurface ocean from analysis of Voyager and Galileo images. The most dramatic example is \"chaos terrain\", a common feature on Europa's surface that some interpret as a region where the subsurface ocean has melted through the icy crust. This interpretation is extremely controversial. Most geologists who have studied Europa favor what is commonly called the \"thick ice\" model, in which the ocean has rarely, if ever, directly interacted with the present surface.\n\nThe best evidence for the thick-ice model is a study of Europa's large craters. The largest impact structures are surrounded by concentric rings and appear to be filled with relatively flat, fresh ice; based on this and on the calculated amount of heat generated by Europan tides, it is predicted that the outer crust of solid ice is approximately 10–30 km (6–19 mi) thick, including a ductile \"warm ice\" layer, which could mean that the liquid ocean underneath may be about 100 km (60 mi) deep. This leads to a volume of Europa's oceans of 3 × 1018 m3, slightly more than two times the volume of Earth's oceans.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here is what I found on NASA's website: \n\n > Why do we think that Europa has a subsurface ocean?\nThere are several strong pieces of evidence that suggest an ocean exists on Europa:\n\n > The magnetometer aboard the Galileo spacecraft detected signs of an induced magnetic field near Europa's surface, clear evidence for a conductive substance less than about 30 kilometers (about 20 miles) or so below. This is strong evidence for some amount of salty liquid below the surface. But the Galileo spacecraft was not designed specifically to test the hypothesis of a subsurface ocean on Europa. To know for sure whether Europa has an ocean, a spacecraft would need to carefully measure the tidal fluctuations of Europa's surface as it orbits Jupiter. This would require a spacecraft to either to go into orbit around the moon or make repeated flybys with the right geometries.\n\n > Europa's surface features (including bands, ridges, chaos terrain, and multi-ringed impact structures) suggest that there is warm, mobile, glacier-like ice at relatively shallow depths that sometimes has reached the surface. The presence of an ocean would make Europa's frozen surface flex more under its daily tides, cracking and warming the ice, to help explain its strange surface geology. For example, Europa's bizarre curved fractures (called cycloids) probably owe their origin to cracking in response to the flexing of Europa's icy shell on the very rapid time scale of its 3.55-day rotation. Creating large fractures in this way this requires large tides, best facilitated by liquid water. Also, Europa's multi-ringed impact structures suggest that Europa's largest impact scars punched all the way through the ice shell into an ocean.\n\n > Judging by the pattern of the satellite's large-scale fractures, the surface of Europa may have \"slipped\" relative to its interior (processes called \"nonsynchronous rotation\" and \"polar wander\"). A subsurface ocean would greatly facilitate this slipping, allowing the ice shell to slide over the fluid ocean. Such slipping would be much more difficult if the ice shell was in direct contact with rock.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the beginning it was closeup photographs by the voyagers, or possibly pioneer 11 I don't remember if it came close enough to europa to take pictures, that showed surface features that suggested the ice moved and reacted to tides. they wern't sure at that point but it seems likely there was a liquid layer beneath the surface.\n\nIT's worth noting that even today it's not proven that there is a liquid ocean beneath the ice, but all our observations thus far including some high resolution photographs are consistent with a liquid layer beneath the ice. There is also evidence, from the interaction of europa with jupiter's magnetic field, that there is a conductive layer beneath the ice, and it is surmised that this is most likely to be a salty liquid ocean. \n\nNot sure what the calculations you're referring to are...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Forgive me, I may not give the best answer but I will do my best.\n\nWe don't have any actual proof that there is liquid water on Europa, although we are pretty sure that it is there. This is based on a few different observations. One being our observation through the Hubble Telescope of enormous water vapor plumes. If I remember correctly they think they are made from regular volcanic like plumes like those in our oceans. There were also tests performed with the Galileo orbiter that had something to do with the magnetic field on Europa and Jupiter which suggests that there might be a salty (and therefore conductive) ocean under the crust. There is also something called tidal acceleration (if i remember correctly) that would heat up the water closer to the rocky surface of Europa. \n\nI hope I answered your question, and sorry it couldn't be more specific. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The short answer is that geologists sat down and created models to show how the surface features could be created by tidal movement. \n\nA person I've had the pleasure of working with over the years is, quite literally, the top authority in the world on this specific subject. He was the one who discovered this. I was just chatting with him, and he provided this insight as well: \n\n\"The real smoking gun was that the magnetometer on Galileo measured a dipole during close flybys of Europa. If Europa has an ocean (with salts) then an induced magnetic field should be detectable. And it was\" \n\nI'm trying to see if he can create an account and provide a more detailed answer. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How could there not be liquid oceans underneath miles of ice?\n\nWater is most dense as a liquid, therefore with that much ice creating enormous pressures underneath, the water would necessarily turn into a liquid, no?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43127", "title": "Europa (moon)", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Internal structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 642, "text": "It is estimated that Europa has an outer layer of water around thick; a part frozen as its crust, and a part as a liquid ocean underneath the ice. Recent magnetic-field data from the \"Galileo\" orbiter showed that Europa has an induced magnetic field through interaction with Jupiter's, which suggests the presence of a subsurface conductive layer. This layer is likely a salty liquid-water ocean. Portions of the crust are estimated to have undergone a rotation of nearly 80°, nearly flipping over (see true polar wander), which would be unlikely if the ice were solidly attached to the mantle. Europa probably contains a metallic iron core.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11322595", "title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water", "section": "Section::::Liquid water in the Solar System.:Europa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 513, "text": "Scientists' consensus is that a layer of liquid water exists beneath Europa's (moon of Jupiter) surface, and that heat from tidal flexing allows the subsurface ocean to remain liquid. It is estimated that the outer crust of solid ice is approximately 10–30 km (6–19 mi) thick, including a ductile \"warm ice\" layer, which could mean that the liquid ocean underneath may be about 100 km (60 mi) deep. This leads to a volume of Europa's oceans of 3 × 10 m, slightly more than two times the volume of Earth's oceans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31028310", "title": "Interplanetary contamination", "section": "Section::::Evidence for possible habitats outside Earth.:Europa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 917, "text": "Europa has much indirect evidence for its sub-surface ocean. Models of how Europa is affected by tidal heating require a subsurface layer of liquid water in order to accurately reproduce the linear fracturing of the surface. Indeed, observations by the \"Galileo\" spacecraft of how Europa's magnetic field interacts with Jupiter's field strengthens the case for a liquid, rather than solid, layer; an electrically conductive fluid deep within Europa would explain these results. Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope in December 2012 appear to show an ice plume spouting from Europa's surface, which would immensely strengthen the case for a liquid subsurface ocean. As was the case for Enceladus, vapour geysers would allow for easy sampling of the liquid layer. Unfortunately, there appears to be little evidence that geysering is a frequent event on Europa due to the lack of water in the space near Europa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43127", "title": "Europa (moon)", "section": "Section::::Exploration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 407, "text": "Exploration of Europa began with the Jupiter flybys of \"Pioneer 10\" and \"11\" in 1973 and 1974 respectively. The first closeup photos were of low resolution compared to later missions. The two Voyager probes traveled through the Jovian system in 1979, providing more-detailed images of Europa's icy surface. The images caused many scientists to speculate about the possibility of a liquid ocean underneath. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43127", "title": "Europa (moon)", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Subsurface ocean.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1605, "text": "Scientists' consensus is that a layer of liquid water exists beneath Europa's surface, and that heat from tidal flexing allows the subsurface ocean to remain liquid. Europa's surface temperature averages about at the equator and only at the poles, keeping Europa's icy crust as hard as granite. The first hints of a subsurface ocean came from theoretical considerations of tidal heating (a consequence of Europa's slightly eccentric orbit and orbital resonance with the other Galilean moons). \"Galileo\" imaging team members argue for the existence of a subsurface ocean from analysis of \"Voyager\" and \"Galileo\" images. The most dramatic example is \"chaos terrain\", a common feature on Europa's surface that some interpret as a region where the subsurface ocean has melted through the icy crust. This interpretation is controversial. Most geologists who have studied Europa favor what is commonly called the \"thick ice\" model, in which the ocean has rarely, if ever, directly interacted with the present surface. The best evidence for the thick-ice model is a study of Europa's large craters. The largest impact structures are surrounded by concentric rings and appear to be filled with relatively flat, fresh ice; based on this and on the calculated amount of heat generated by Europan tides, it is estimated that the outer crust of solid ice is approximately 10–30 km (6–19 mi) thick, including a ductile \"warm ice\" layer, which could mean that the liquid ocean underneath may be about deep. This leads to a volume of Europa's oceans of 3 × 10 m, between two or three times the volume of Earth's oceans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11322595", "title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water", "section": "Section::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Gravitational evidence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 371, "text": "Scientists' consensus is that a layer of liquid water exists beneath Europa's surface, and that heat energy from tidal flexing allows the subsurface ocean to remain liquid. The first hints of a subsurface ocean came from theoretical considerations of tidal heating (a consequence of Europa's slightly eccentric orbit and orbital resonance with the other Galilean moons).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6747424", "title": "Jupiter's moons in fiction", "section": "Section::::Europa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 363, "text": "Europa is the smallest of the four Galilean satellites and the second closest to Jupiter. It is theorized to have an ocean of liquid water underneath its icy surface; the thickness of the ice is much debated. The probable presence of the water ocean has made it a favored location for modern fictional speculation about extraterrestrial life in the Solar System.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Romans wrote a lot of BS about 'the Germanic tribes', mostly because they defined 'Germans' as 'those who are not like us and who live outside the borders of the empire'. This definition lumps quite a lot of people together, while still throwing in loads of cultural bias as well.\n\nIt is much more interesting to look at 'people who lived outside the Empire' outside of their classification as 'Germanics'. We then see that settlements change over this time period. In the centuries BC (and up to 200 or so), the regular person would live on his own farmstead, within viewing distance (or walking distance) of his neighbours. A farmstead would have its own fences, wells, and outbuildings and would generally be mostly self-sufficient, though some regional specialisation (some areas focused on cattle raising, some on cereal cultivation etc.) did take place. Some areas that were particularly suitable for resource exploitation (close to forest for suitable timber, or close to iron ores for iron mining, or near the sea for salt extraction, or near a peat bog for peat digging) did have this 'industry' as a household activity 'on the side', but this is secondary to the main function of the household as a farm.\n\nAround the 2nd century or so, the village (collection of farmsteads) becomes more popular. While villages did exist in the earlier period as well (but were not the norm), the village of the late roman period becomes more common and more formalised. We now see a collection of these farmsteads. Archaeologists have tried to make statements about elite dominance within these farms on the basis of the size of the stable (and hence the capacity for cattle, and hence wealth), but this is very difficult. Generally, it seems that farms within a village were 'equal'. This does not mean that everyone within the village was equal, just that everyone lived in the same kind of house. It is also later, in the Migration period, that the size differences between households within a village gets more expression, and the larger farmstead collects also more small outbuildings, including a temple and more craft workshops. The first of these is Gudme in Denmark around the year 200, but by 400 these kind of places exist in many regions.\n\nParallel to this, you should also keep in mind that in the south of 'Germania', in modern Southern Germany and Austria, village organisation had already taken place in much earlier periods, including task differentiation between households.\n\nWe can see no traces of nomadism in Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark in this period. They did travel to cattle grazing grounds in the summer, but this type of seasonal movement, called transhumance, is restricted to cattle herders, and not common within society in general. It is also highly regulated and occurs within fixed 'grazing areas', relatively close to the stationary 'home base', and not at all 'migratory'.\n\nFarms (and hamlets) also did move around within a landscape, so a field that in one decade might have been used for grain, might become a building plot a decade later, and grazing lands 30 years after. However, this cycle of rebuilding the farm (related to pest control) also happens within a local area.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "103155", "title": "Migration Period", "section": "Section::::Discussions.:Viewpoints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 234, "text": "Ultimately, the Germanic groups in the Western Roman Empire were accommodated without \"dispossessing or overturning indigenous society\", and they maintained a structured and hierarchical (but attenuated) form of Roman administration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4257", "title": "Burgundians", "section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1009, "text": "Early Roman sources, such as Tacitus and Pliny the Elder, knew little concerning the Germanic peoples east of the Elbe river, or on the Baltic Sea. Pliny (IV.28) however mentions them among the Vandalic or Eastern Germanic Germani peoples, including also the Goths. Claudius Ptolemy lists them as living between the Suevus (probably the Oder) and Vistula rivers, north of the Lugii, and south of the coast dwelling tribes. Around the mid 2nd century AD, there was a significant migration by Germanic tribes of Scandinavian origin (Rugii, Goths, Gepidae, Vandals, Burgundians, and others) towards the south-east, creating turmoil along the entire Roman frontier. These migrations culminated in the Marcomannic Wars, which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period. Jordanes reports that during the 3rd century, the Burgundians living in the Vistula basin were almost annihilated by Fastida, king of the Gepids, whose kingdom was at the mouth of the Vistula.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3001244", "title": "Military history of Germany", "section": "Section::::Ancient times.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 893, "text": "Germanic tribes are thought to have originated during the Nordic Bronze Age in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia. The tribes spread south, possibly motivated by the deteriorating climate of that area. They crossed the River Elbe, probably overrunning the territories of the Celtic Volcae in the Weser Basin. The Romans recorded one of these early migrations when the Cimbri and the Teutons tribes threatened the Republic itself around the late 2nd century BC. In the East, other tribes, such as Goths, Rugii and Vandals, settled along the shores of the Baltic Sea pushing southward and eventually settling as far away as Ukraine. The Angles and Saxons migrated to England. The Germanic peoples often had a fraught relationship with their neighbours, leading to a period of over two millennia of military conflict over various territorial, religious, ideological and economic concerns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "402344", "title": "Galicia (Eastern Europe)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 590, "text": "In Roman times, the region was populated by various tribes of Celto-Germanic admixture, including Celtic-based tribes – like the \"Galice\" or \"Gaulics\" and \"Bolihinii\" or \"Volhynians\" – the Lugians and Cotini of Celtic, Vandals and Goths of Germanic origins (the Przeworsk and Púchov cultures). During the Great Migration period of Europe (coinciding with the fall of the Roman Empire), a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area, but overall, the East Slavic tribes White Croats and Tivertsi dominated the area since the 6th century until were annexed to Kievan Rus' in the 10th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12446", "title": "Germanic peoples", "section": "Section::::History.:Role in the Fall of Rome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 895, "text": "Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently credited in popular depictions of the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century. Many historians and archaeologists have since the 1950s shifted their interpretations in such a way that the Germanic peoples are no longer seen as \"invading\" a decaying empire but as being \"co-opted\" into helping defend territory the central government could no longer adequately administer. Germanic tribes nonetheless fought against Roman dominance when necessary. When the Roman Empire refused to allow the Visigoths to settle in Noricum for instance, they responded by sacking Rome in CE 410 under the leadership of Alaric I. Oddly enough, Alaric I did not see his imposition in Rome as an attack against the Roman Empire per se but as an attempt to gain a favorable position within its borders, particularly since the Visigoths held the Empire in high regard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12446", "title": "Germanic peoples", "section": "Section::::History.:Roman Empire period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 712, "text": "In the absence of large-scale political unification, such as that imposed forcibly by the Romans upon the peoples of Italy, the various tribes remained free, led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders. Once Rome faced significant threats on its borders, some of the Germanic tribes who once guarded its periphery chose solace within the Roman empire itself, implying that enough assimilation and cross-cultural pollination had occurred for their societies not only to cooperate, but to live together in some cases. The 4th century Gothic Tervingi are most famous among scholars of classical Rome and pre-modern Europe because the majority of them sought asylum inside the heart of the Roman Empire in 376 CE.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4602123", "title": "Military history of the Netherlands", "section": "Section::::Ancient times.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 751, "text": "Germanic tribes are thought to have originated during the Nordic Bronze Age in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia. The tribes spread south, possibly motivated by the deteriorating climate of that area. They crossed the River Elbe, most likely overrunning territories formerly occupied by Celtic people. In the East, other tribes, such as Goths, Rugians and Vandals, settled along the shores of the Baltic Sea pushing southward and eventually settling as far away as Ukraine. The Angles and Saxons migrated to England. The Germanic peoples often had unsettled relationships with their neighbours and each other, leading to a period of over two millennia of military conflict over various territorial, religious, ideological and economic issues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Miniaturizing the fancy lenses on SLR cameras would be a lot of work—they require extremely precise optical glasswork and tons of fiddly mechanical gizmos for focusing and such.\n\nThe really insurmountable difference between big cameras and small ones, though, is sensor size. The sensors used in digital cameras have tiny electronic \"photosites\" which convert photons into electrons. Making these smaller has a serious adverse effect on the quality of the images you can produce, for physics reasons.\n\nThere's nothing magical about the 35mm size, of course. That just happens to be the size of the imaging region of standard photographic film, so lots of equipment was made to that standard for a very long time. When digital SLR cameras hit the scene, photographers and manufacturers wanted to keep using their old lenses, so they kept the same physical layout and just replaced the film with a digital sensor of comparable size.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The physical size of a lens is dictated by the diameter of the image circle it has to produce to completely cover the sensor. SLR sensors are fairly large and so the lenses also have to be large. Full-frame SLR sensor has dimensions of 36x24 mm, and most lenses (esp. professional ones) tend to be compatible with this standard. There are some more subtle reasons for large lenses, but this is the basic one.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You want high performance? You better use a large sensor. Or, rather, the size of each individual pixel needs to be large.\n\nSmall pixel sizes have poor performance. They are more vulnerable to noise and other issues.\n\nWhen you want all the performance you could get, there's no choice but to use large sensors. With that come large lenses. That's all.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Super simplistic analogy:\n\nDon't forget that when you take a photo, you are building something using light (photons) and the more photons that you can collect, the greater the detail (quality).\n\nA lens with a large diameter, like an SLR lens, allows much more light to be collected simultaneously as opposed to the tiny diameters of those lenses used in mobile devices.\n\nThe software & hardware of a mobile device really does a great job of compensating, but that's just it though, it's still compensating at best. Even if the SLR designs were scaled down to mobile device sizes, it seems doubtful that they would be able to truly replicate the efficacy of full sized lenses.\n\nSource: decade of photographic sales, development, and processing\n\n*Edits for clarity*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Looking at the comments there has been a lot of focus on the sensor size, but another important consideration is the optical properties of the lenses themselves. The most basic characteristics of lenses are the Focal Length and the Aperture Diameter. The ratio of focal length to aperture diameter is called the f-number (f-number = FL/AD). \n\nThe f number in turn determines the optical resolution of the light focused by the lens, a higher f number results in less light hitting the sensor, lower resolution but high \"depth of focus\" and a smaller f-number results in more light hitting the sensor, higher resolution and smaller depth of focus.\n\nThe ratios involved here have real physical constraints that determine lens size. A telephoto lens by definition has a high focal length, so to have a high focal length lens for a high resolution camera you need a low f-number. To get a low f-number you need a large aperture diameter! \n\nAn example of why everything is so big:\nSay you have a 135mm telephoto lens on your sweet SLR so you can take pictures of giraffes humping in the Serengeti. Your high resolution camera wants an f-number of something like 2.2 to get piercingly clear images of giraffe coitus. Some quick math gives you an aperture diameter of 61.36mm which for the American giraffe enthusiasts out there, is 2.42in. There's just no getting around physics when you need shockingly clear photos of even-toed ungulate mammal reproduction.\n\n\n ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As others noted before me, larger lens apertures and larger sensors (with bigger pixel sites) physically let more light into the system and more easily differentiate (sharply focus) light, respectively. At some point you also run into the **[diffraction limit](_URL_0_)**, where angular resolution is limited by the diameter of the lens opening (bigger lens = sharper limit), so tiny cameras' theoretical image granularity get hit by CMOS/CCD and fundamental optical limits.\n\nThat being said, why can't you have a really broad lense and sensor that were really thin? Refractive optics just aren't fundamentally there. Professional-grade lenses often use 10-20 different layered lens elements internally to provide minimal distortion and best frame-wide focus at a range of focal depths and optionally focal lengths (i.e., zoom). Using more exotic glass types for minimized color-dependent focal lengths (**chromatic distortion**) or aspheric lens surfaces (more expensive to grind) get lenses that are closest to their best in a wider range of conditions/settings, but perfection isn't even theoretically possible.\n\nWhat's on the horizon that could change this? Well, **[metamaterials with negative refractive indexes](_URL_2_)** allow some theoretically better and flatter lenses, but real examples of these tend to work better at sub-visible light frequencies and only for certain narrow 'color' ranges. Something I would bet might be closer is **[light field processing](_URL_1_)**, whereby an array of small lenses can have their input computationally processed to simulate a larger aperture lens at multiple focal depths *simultaneously*. Think of small lenses tiling a surface like the compound eyes of an insect. There have been large-scale (~1 m^2 arrays of webcams) demonstrations of this being used to do fancy things like see through foliage, but I am unaware of someone seriously proposing something like a thin, 1\" square lens array and data processor that could realistically replace a normal 'fat' lens/sensor combo.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm willing to bet smaller sensors are the way to go in the future. Using the human eye as an analogy we have pretty small lenses compared to most cameras but we have millions of light sensitive nerves that can work very well with the amount of light that is captured.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Lots of people talking about sensors, not enough about the lenses themselves. The scientific reasoning for this relies heavily on some knowledge of the [fourier transform](_URL_0_). \n\nThe image at the lens is focused toward the sensor. Physically what happens is a specific phase correction (read: time delay) is applied to the inbound light rays based on the material of the lens, the curvature of the lens, and the thickness of the lens. However, due to the finite aperture size, some of the information of the image is truncated (IE, only some of the generated light rays are captured by the camera.) Mathematically, this means the frequency domain information of the light is being *convolved* at the lens with the fourier transform of the geometrical shape. For a circular lens, this is the sombrero function (circular sinc.) In laymans terms, this means that the image itself is being smeared in the frequency domain, and the degree of this smearing is dependent on the size of the sombrero function. By fourier transform intuition, a broader lens collects more light, loses less information and causes less smearing of the image at the lens' focal distance (where the detector is placed.) \n\nThis is why huge lenses take stunning photos, it's why mobile cameras (small apertures) take crappy photos. You can improve the sensor all you want - at the end of the day, the lens size is mathematically limiting how crisp the sharp edges (the high frequency components) of the image will be.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It has to do with the diffraction limit, which defines how small of a bright circle each point of light makes. The smaller the diffraction limit, the tighter the circle, and the sharper details that you get. \n\nThe formula for calculating the diffraction limit as an angle is \n\nLimit Angle ~= 1.22 * (wavelength) / (diameter of aperture)\n\nFor visible light which we'll ballpark around 409nm wavelength, the diffraction limit of an aperture of 5mm (roughly a cell phone camera lens size) has a diffraction limit of 1x10^-4 degrees. This seems pretty good, but for the sensor a few millimeters behind the lens, for a field of view of 20 degrees this only gives you about 200000 distinguishable points of detail in each dimension, assuming your optics are perfect (which they're not going to be).\n\nLet's up the lens, then, to a 5cm aperture (roughly DSLR size). Doing the calculations, the diffraction limit is decreased tenfold, to 1x10^-5 degrees. For that same 20 degree field of view, you can now fit in 2 *million* distinguishable points. This is why digital SLR cameras with their larger lenses are theoretically able to capture more detail in a scene. As far as the fancy depth-of-field effect, where a digital SLR camera can kind of isolate a subject in its own focus plane and everything else seems out of focus, that has to do with the change in focal length of the target object creating details larger than the diffraction limit, which makes them blurry. I'm sure someone else could explain the math of that better than I could though, but in general the larger your aperture the more tight your depth of field will be.\n\nWhy stop with digital SLRs though? Let's go for Hubble, with its giant 2.4m aperture. If the optics were perfect and there were no atmospheric distortion, doing the calculations again we get 2x10^-7 as the smallest resolvable angle. That means that if Hubble were pointed at the earth and we're in our perfect physics world with no atmospheric distortion, it could theoretically see details as small as 11cm from its orbital height of 569km.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Plus - Isn't 35mm the focal length and not necessarily the physical size?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "35mm isn't necessarily the standard for lenses. 50mm lenses are cheap and common which are the closest to the human eye. Cheap dslrs typically are bundled with lenses with a range of 18-135mm. 35mm sensors are considered \"full-frame\" for dslrs, but the majority of DSLRs normal people will buy are actually cropped, and the frames are much smaller than 35mm. If you shrunk the size of the frame, you'd shrink the size of the depth of field. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "81429", "title": "Rangefinder camera", "section": "Section::::Pros and cons.:Large lenses block viewfinder.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 348, "text": "Larger lenses may block a portion of the view seen through the viewfinder, potentially a significant proportion. A side effect of this is that lens designers are forced to use smaller designs. Lens hoods used for rangefinder camera may have a different shape to those with other cameras, with openings cut out of them to increase the visible area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52797", "title": "Digital camera", "section": "Section::::Image sensors.:Sensor size and angle of view.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 269, "text": "Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35mm film size have a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244732", "title": "Subminiature photography", "section": "Section::::Subminiature photography technique.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 379, "text": "Few subminiature cameras have interchangeable lenses, which reduce the advantages of a small size system. Telephoto lenses for such small formats essentially do not exist, except for Steky and Gami. There have been attachments to allow cameras (generally Minox) to attach to telescopes or binoculars, but these give results of lower quality than the camera's optics can achieve.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195698", "title": "Wide-angle lens", "section": "Section::::Digital camera considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1613, "text": ", many interchangeable-lens digital cameras have image sensors that are smaller than the film format of full-frame 35 mm cameras. For the most part, the dimensions of these image sensors are similar to the APS-C image frame size, i.e., approximately 24 mm x 16 mm. Therefore, the angle of view for any given focal-length lens will be narrower than it would be in a full-frame camera because the smaller sensor \"sees\" less of the image projected by the lens. The camera manufacturers provide a crop factor (sometimes called a field-of-view factor or a focal-length multiplier) to show how much smaller the sensor is than a full 35 mm film frame. For example, one common factor is 1.5 (Nikon DX format and some others), although many cameras have crop factors of 1.6 (most Canon DSLRs), 1.7 (the early Sigma DSLRs) and 2 (the Four Thirds and Micro Four Thirds cameras). The 1.5 indicates that the angle of view of a lens on the camera is the same as that of a 1.5 times longer focal length on a 35 mm full-frame camera, which explains why the crop factor is also known as a focal-length multiplier. As example, a 28 mm lens on the DSLR (given a crop factor of 1.5) would produce the angle of view of a 42 mm lens on a full-frame camera. So, to determine the focal length of a lens for a digital camera that will give the equivalent angle of view as one on a full-frame camera, the full-frame lens focal length must be divided by the crop factor. For example, to get the equivalent angle of view of a 30 mm lens on a full-frame 35 mm camera, from a digital camera with a 1.5 crop factor, one would use a 20 mm lens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3096851", "title": "Flange focal distance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 221, "text": "If the difference is small, other factors, such as the diameters of the mounting flanges of the two systems, come into play as well. Lens adapters are generally easier to make when the camera body has a large lens mount.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "887357", "title": "Canon EF lens mount", "section": "Section::::Related technologies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 719, "text": "There are a couple of benefits to EF-S lenses, both related to the smaller (1.6× or APS-C) sensor size. One is that since a lens designed for a smaller sensor need only project an image circle large enough to cover the small sensor, the lens itself can be smaller; it can therefore also be lighter and have lower materials costs, since the lens elements, made of relatively heavy and expensive optical glass, will be smaller than in a comparable full-frame lens. Such a lens, if used on a body with a larger sensor, would leave the outer portions of the sensor outside its image circle, and therefore they would be black, but since EF-S lenses will not physically mount on incompatible bodies, this problem is avoided.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "470685", "title": "Four Thirds system", "section": "Section::::Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations.:Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 297, "text": "BULLET::::- The smaller sensor size makes possible smaller and lighter camera bodies and lenses. In particular, the Four-Thirds system allows the development of compact, large aperture lenses. Corresponding lenses become larger, heavier and more expensive when designed for larger sensor formats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Rewriting any code that's locked to a particular system to work for the other ones. The OS has 'toolboxes' for things, but each OS's is a different. You have to rewrite to use the other tools. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They rewrite code that is designed specifically for Windows. For example, if they port Portal 2 to Mac and Linux (they actually have done this; this is hypthetical), they will have to rewrite the sound playing files to use Mac/Linux methods, and create the window to be for Mac and Linux. Some things, though, are universal, such as image files and in most cases the base code (like what will happen when the player attempts to walk into a portal and how fast the player moves, etc.).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2652533", "title": "GP2X", "section": "Section::::Software.:Games.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 416, "text": "However, there are many ports of games from other platforms, mostly Linux, to the GP2X. Popular ports include \"SuperTux\" and \"Frozen Bubble\" as well as the \"Duke Nukem 3D\", \"Quake\", and \"Doom\" engines (which can run the original games if the user owns a copy with the correct data files). There are also hundreds of original freeware games such as Tilematch and Beat2X, made by GP2X programmers in their spare time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9914431", "title": "Linux gaming", "section": "Section::::Adoption by video games.:Game porters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 223, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 223, "end_character": 205, "text": "Having ported games to Mac OS X since 1996, video game publisher Feral Interactive released \"\", its first game for Linux, in June 2014. Feral Interactive stated they port games to Linux thanks to SteamOS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9914431", "title": "Linux gaming", "section": "Section::::Adoption by video games.:Source ports.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 234, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 234, "end_character": 956, "text": "Certain game titles were even able to be ported due to availability of shared engine code even though the game's code itself remains proprietary or otherwise unavailable, such as the video game \"\" or the multiplayer component of \"\". Some games have even been ported entirely or partially by reverse engineering and game engine recreation such as \"WarCraft II\" through \"Wargus\" or \"Commander Keen\". Another trick is to attempt hacking the game to work as a mod on another native title, such as with the original \"Unreal\". Additionally, some games can be run through the use of Linux specific runtime environments, such as the case of certain games made with Adventure Game Studio such as the \"Chzo Mythos\" or certain titles made with the RPG Maker tool. Games derived from released code, with both free and proprietary media, that are released for Linux include \"Urban Terror\", \"OpenArena\", \"FreeDoom\", \"World of Padman\", \"Nexuiz/Xonotic\", \"War§ow\" and \"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50410255", "title": "Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War III", "section": "Section::::Development and release.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 413, "text": "The macOS and Linux ports of the game, developed by Feral Interactive, while able to play in their own network, aren't able to communicate with the original Windows version, which resulted in a divide in the small playerbase shortly after release. Similarly, other games by Relic, also running on the Essence Engine and ported to other platforms by Feral, have featured a separate network for Unix-based systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45174564", "title": "List of Wii games on Wii U eShop", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 736, "text": "This is a list of Wii games that are available on Wii U for download from the Nintendo eShop. These games utilize the backward compatibility of Wii U with Wii games in order to run, albeit without needing to explicitly access the Wii Menu. Games that can be played with the Classic Controller can also be played using the Wii U GamePad as a controller instead. The download variants can also support any save files created on or transferred to the Wii U from any respective disc variant of the same title. Although similar to Virtual Console titles in some ways, these games are not technically part of Virtual Console as they run on native hardware rather than by emulation, and are not branded as such, except by Nintendo of America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9914431", "title": "Linux gaming", "section": "Section::::Software architecture.:Linux homebrew on consoles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 279, "text": "Linux has been ported to several game consoles, including the Xbox, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, GameCube, and Wii which allows game developers without an expensive game development kit to access console hardware. Several gaming peripherals also work with Linux.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4705441", "title": "Mac gaming", "section": "Section::::Original Mac games.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 738, "text": "Although currently most big-name Mac games are ports, this has not always been the case. Perhaps the most popular game which was originally developed for the Macintosh was 1993's \"Myst\", by Cyan. It was ported to Windows the next year, and Cyan's later games were released simultaneously for both platforms with the exception of \"\", which was Windows-only until a Mac-compatible re-release (currently in beta) by GameTap in 2007, with the help of TransGaming's Cider virtualization software. From the 1980s an atmospheric air hockey game Shufflepuck Café (Brøderbund, 1989) and a graphical adventure game Shadowgate (Mindscape, 1987) were among the most prominent games developed first for Macintosh and later ported for other platforms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "By the Archimedes' principle, a buoyant body (that is, stationary without expending energy to remain that way) submerged in water, is equal in mass to water of equal volume to the part of the body submerged underwater. For fully submerged bodies, that means it's mass is equal to the mass of the water of equivalent volume.\n\nSince a blue whale can remain stationary underwater, it follows this principle. By approximating the volume of the whale, we can calculate it's mass by calculating how massive is water of equivalent volume. In open ocean, exact volume calculation could be difficult, but a reasonable estimation is possible with visual means.\n\nFor more controlled environments such as a large swimming pool (not applicable to a blue whale, but applicable to orcas or dolphins), a more precise volume approximation may be done using another law attributed to Archimedes, the Equal Displacement rule, stating that a body submerged in water displaces an equivalent volume to its own. By measuring the height of the water with and without the animal, we can calculate the animal's volume, and then proceed with the Archimedes' principle above to calculate it's mass.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38739806", "title": "Cosmos CE2F series", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1166, "text": "The craft weights 2,100 kilograms out of water and is 7 or 8 meters long according to type. It resembles a torpedo but has two cockpits for the crew. Many some models have a roof with sliding doors for the cockpits. In some models the rear cockpit is long and can seat two divers for a total crew of three. Its battery-electric motors gives it a submerged range of 50 nautical miles (95 km) at four knots, the maximum speed being five knots. For long distance it generally reaches the operating area either attached to or towed by another vessel. A belly-pan beneath its hull can carry special equipment, or 230 kg of heavy explosive charges, or 150 kg of limpet mines, or small 'micro-torpedoes' stated to be for use against divers or small underwater vehicles. They were made in various variants and supplied to various countries. Models were designated according to maximum operating depth in meters - /X30 = 30m etc. X30, X60 and X100 versions were sold. The /X100T version was the most advanced type marketed showing the final evolution of the design. It has digital control module, displaying navigation and platform details, and a fully integrated autopilot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30910900", "title": "Mafuta (ship)", "section": "Section::::Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 277, "text": "The ship's gross tonnage, a measure of the volume of all its enclosed spaces, is 14,793. Its net tonnage, which measures the volume of the cargo spaces, is 4,437. Its total carrying capacity in terms of weight, is , the equivalent of approximately 300 adult male sperm whales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38029832", "title": "Rodney (clipper)", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 517, "text": "\"Rodney\" could accommodate sixty passengers in first class. Rodney's registered measurements were: \"length, 235 feet 6 inches; breadth, 38 feet 4 inches; depth, 22 feet 6 inches; tonnage @ 1,447 tons.\" Her cabins were unique as they had fitted lavatory basins, and chests that contained draws. She also had bathrooms that provided not and cold water, all of these things were considered a luxury at the time. As for speed, her owners boasted that she was the fastest in the fleet with records to confirm the opinion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13963095", "title": "Stingray catamaran", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 366, "text": "Built out of plywood or a fiberglass/foam composition the Stingray has an 18 (5.5m) foot hull that weighs 88.5 kg, which is light for a boat of its size. The boat has both a mainsail and a jib totaling 225 square feet (20.9m2) of sail surface area. Due to its simplicity of design and efficient rig system even sailors with little experience can navigate it easily.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11553912", "title": "Deep-sea exploration", "section": "Section::::Oceanographic instrumentation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 286, "text": "The sounding weight, one of the first instruments used for the sea bottom investigation, was designed as a tube on the base which forced the seabed in when it hit the bottom of the ocean. British explorer Sir James Clark Ross fully employed this instrument to reach a depth of in 1840.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4166054", "title": "International 14", "section": "Section::::History.:Double-trapeze.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 357, "text": "Contemporary boats weigh as little as 165 lb, and have as typical equipment a retractable spinnaker pole, unlimited asymmetric spinnaker size, 200sq ft mainsail and jib area, a fully battened mainsail, an adjustable carbon rig, and a hydrofoil rudder that allows the boat to be trimmed fore and aft for different conditions, and as a drag reduction device.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "88284", "title": "Challenger expedition", "section": "Section::::Scientific objectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 693, "text": "At each of the 360 stations the crew measured the bottom depth, temperature at different depths, observed weather and surface ocean conditions, and collected seafloor, water, and biota samples. \"Challenger's\" crew used methods that were developed in prior small-scale expeditions to make observations. To measure depth, they would lower a line with a weight attached to it until it reached the sea floor. The line was marked in intervals with flags denoting depth. Because of this, the depth measurements from \"Challenger\" were, at best, accurate to the nearest demarcation. The sinker often had a small container attached to it that would allow for the collection of bottom sediment samples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hi there! I use this at work. I'll give it a super ELI5 shot:\n\nImagine your friend wrote a paper in Swahili and gave it to you. Cool, but you don't speak Swahili. So what he did was also send you the phone number to a guy who *does* speak Swahili. You call him up, he comes over, and he reads the paper aloud to you. That's how TrueCrypt works.\n\nPaper in Swahili - HDD with encrypted data **written down**. This is the important part, that it's only written down in encrypted format.\n\nGuy who speaks Swahili - TrueCrypt. For the purposes of this analogy, we'll say that lots of people speak Swahili, but only if you call them up using that exact phone number will any of them actually talk to you. He can turn the Swahili into data you can use. This is TC turning encrypted data into useful data 'on-the-fly' as it says in that document.\n\nPhone number - Code that you use to \"mount\" the TrueCrypt volume.\n\nGuy reading it aloud - Loading the encrypted data into RAM. Notice that the guy is reading it aloud to you and it's going into your head. This means that there is **no** decrypted copy in long-term storage anywhere. This is important. It's not like the guy copies the paper into a language you do understand and leaves it for you. With this, you *have* to have a Swahili-speaker to use it, and there is no decrypted copy anywhere but in your head (and his, but his memory sucks).\n\nNow, what about the other way? Sure. When you write to a TrueCrypt encrypted volume, you're dictating in English to a guy who writes it down in Swahili. Only if you have the phone number to get this guy again can you get it back out. Same deal, there is no unencrypted copy anywhere.\n\nBasically, TC is a magic door that makes everything passing through one-way gibberish, and turns everything passing through the other way from gibberish to useful data.\n\nDid that help at all?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi there! I use this at work. I'll give it a super ELI5 shot:\n\nImagine your friend wrote a paper in Swahili and gave it to you. Cool, but you don't speak Swahili. So what he did was also send you the phone number to a guy who *does* speak Swahili. You call him up, he comes over, and he reads the paper aloud to you. That's how TrueCrypt works.\n\nPaper in Swahili - HDD with encrypted data **written down**. This is the important part, that it's only written down in encrypted format.\n\nGuy who speaks Swahili - TrueCrypt. For the purposes of this analogy, we'll say that lots of people speak Swahili, but only if you call them up using that exact phone number will any of them actually talk to you. He can turn the Swahili into data you can use. This is TC turning encrypted data into useful data 'on-the-fly' as it says in that document.\n\nPhone number - Code that you use to \"mount\" the TrueCrypt volume.\n\nGuy reading it aloud - Loading the encrypted data into RAM. Notice that the guy is reading it aloud to you and it's going into your head. This means that there is **no** decrypted copy in long-term storage anywhere. This is important. It's not like the guy copies the paper into a language you do understand and leaves it for you. With this, you *have* to have a Swahili-speaker to use it, and there is no decrypted copy anywhere but in your head (and his, but his memory sucks).\n\nNow, what about the other way? Sure. When you write to a TrueCrypt encrypted volume, you're dictating in English to a guy who writes it down in Swahili. Only if you have the phone number to get this guy again can you get it back out. Same deal, there is no unencrypted copy anywhere.\n\nBasically, TC is a magic door that makes everything passing through one-way gibberish, and turns everything passing through the other way from gibberish to useful data.\n\nDid that help at all?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7066791", "title": "Disk encryption", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 370, "text": "Expressions \"full disk encryption (FDE)\" or \"whole disk encryption\" signify that everything on disk is encrypted, but the master boot record (MBR), or similar area of a bootable disk, with code that starts the operating system loading sequence, is not encrypted. Some hardware-based full disk encryption systems can truly encrypt an entire boot disk, including the MBR.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3395256", "title": "Disk encryption theory", "section": "Section::::Problem definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 454, "text": "The second property requires dividing the disk into several \"sectors\", usually 512 bytes ( bits) long, which are encrypted and decrypted independently of each other. In turn, if the data is to stay confidential, the encryption method must be \"tweakable\"; no two sectors should be processed in exactly the same way. Otherwise, the adversary could decrypt any sector of the disk by copying it to an unused sector of the disk and requesting its decryption.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10782256", "title": "Dm-crypt", "section": "Section::::Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 618, "text": "The fact that disk encryption (volume encryption) software like dm-crypt only deals with transparent encryption of abstract block devices gives it a lot of flexibility. This means that it can be used for encrypting any disk-backed file systems supported by the operating system, as well as swap space; write barriers implemented by file systems are preserved. Encrypted volumes can be stored on disk partitions, logical volumes, whole disks as well as file-backed disk images (through the use of loop devices with the losetup utility). dm-crypt can also be configured to encrypt RAID volumes and LVM physical volumes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1845155", "title": "Disk encryption software", "section": "Section::::Methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 411, "text": "Some disk encryption software (e.g., TrueCrypt or BestCrypt) provide features that generally cannot be accomplished with disk hardware encryption: the ability to mount \"container\" files as encrypted logical disks with their own file system; and encrypted logical \"inner\" volumes which are secretly hidden within the free space of the more obvious \"outer\" volumes. Such strategies provide plausible deniability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17794294", "title": "DiskCryptor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 259, "text": "DiskCryptor is a free and open-source full disk encryption system for Microsoft Windows. It allows for the encryption of a PC's entire hard drive or individual partitions – including the ability to encrypt the partition and disk on which the OS is installed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1845155", "title": "Disk encryption software", "section": "Section::::Other Features.:Plausible deniability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 293, "text": "Some disk encryption systems, such as VeraCrypt, CipherShed (active open source forks of the discontinued TrueCrypt project), BestCrypt (proprietary trialware), offers levels of plausible deniability, which might be useful if a user is compelled to reveal the password of an encrypted volume.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17794294", "title": "DiskCryptor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 261, "text": "DiskCryptor was originally designed to replace commercial disk encryption systems such as DriveCrypt Plus Pack and PGP Whole Disk Encryption, and uses either AES-256, Twofish, Serpent or a combination of cascaded algorithms in XTS mode to carry out encryption.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "For microwave you will have an increased time. \n\nThe food will have to absorb twice the energy. \nSome energy will be lost in the oven itself. Also microwaves are not good at penetrating water and will only be good at heating the top layers. So that can case some water to evaporate. (Lost heat)\n\nBut in general you will need to supply twice the energy to heat twice the mass of food. \n\nSome exceptions apply like tiny food stuff that only gets hit by very few waves and causes the loss to occur inside the over mostly. \n\nP.s.: I have no clue what a hot pocket is ;)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Microwaves have a specific power output, like 1000w. How fast your food heats up depends on the total power output of the magnetron, and the percent of power absorbed by the hot pocket. The percent power absorbed is a function of average cross-sectional area in relation to the average orientation to the wave emitter. \n\nIf you double the amount of things, general rule of thumb is add 75% of the original time. If you double the volume of 1 thing it's more like add 150% of the time. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4985830", "title": "Critical control point", "section": "Section::::Food in cooking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 360, "text": "In addition, hot food must be held at a minimum interval of 135°F (57°C) if it is not immediately consumed. The temperature must be checked every 4 hours or else labeled with a discard time. Although monitored hot food can be held indefinitely in this way without a food safety concern, the nutritional value, flavor, and quality can suffer over long periods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "811086", "title": "Sonya Thomas", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 348, "text": "On July 4, 2005 she ate 37 hot dogs in 12 minutes at Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, setting a then-record for American competitors (which was also the female record). On August 8, 2005, she consumed 35 bratwursts in 10 minutes, beating the previous 10-minute record of 19.5 bratwursts, although her record was beaten in 2006 by Takeru Kobayashi.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "811086", "title": "Sonya Thomas", "section": "Section::::Training and competition notes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 223, "text": "BULLET::::- She had difficulty eating a hot dog in less than a minute when she first started training for her first contest, the 2003 Nathan's qualifier. After practicing, she was able to consume 18 hot dogs in 12 minutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "365195", "title": "The Big Texan Steak Ranch", "section": "Section::::72oz Steak Challenge.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 990, "text": "The record for the shortest time to finish the entire 72oz steak challenge had been held by competitive eating champion Joey Chestnut (at 8 minutes and 52 seconds), breaking Frank Pastore's 1987 record (of 9 minutes 30 seconds, which stood for 21 years) on his March 24, 2008 visit. On May 26, 2014, he was bested by 125-pound competitive eater Molly Schuyler, who polished off the meal in just 4 minutes 58 seconds, and came back for seconds (14 minutes and 57 seconds for two meals). She did not, however, eat a third steak meal in the same hour. Schuyler returned on April 19, 2015 and would finish her first meal in 4 minutes 18 seconds, beating her own record by 40 seconds. She had defeated four other teams of competitors in the challenge, devouring two more meals in twenty minutes. The unofficial record (for all animals, including humans) was held by a 500-pound Siberian tiger who ate the steak in 90 seconds in 1999, until bested by a lioness in 2012 clocking in at 80 seconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::Heating characteristics.:Safety benefits and features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 375, "text": "Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, unless it is an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1728409", "title": "Sous-vide", "section": "Section::::Temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 693, "text": "Non-sous-vide cooking times are determined by when the center of the cooked item reaches a few degrees below the targeted temperature. Then heating should be stopped immediately. While the food rests, residual heat will continue to cook it for a while. If the heating continues, the food will be overcooked. Sous-vide cooking continues until the center of the food has reached its target temperature. If it continues after this, the food will not be overcooked, and it will not cook more after it stops being heated. The time taken for the center of food to reach the target temperature depends on the initial temperature, the thickness and shape of the food, and the temperature of the bath.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26616007", "title": "Connichi", "section": "Section::::Agenda.:Contests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 203, "text": "A cup of instant ramen noodles, usually sponsored by Nissin Foods, is freshly prepared, quickly cooled to prevent scalding, and to be eaten in the shortest time possible. Current record (2010) is 8.7 s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You can not. There is no substance that exists that can bounce all light off of it. No matter what some photons are absorbed, and eventually all will be absorbed.\n\nYou can bounce light into a mirror sphere, but mirrors are not 100% reflective, so all light will be absorbed by the mirror fairly quickly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Optical cavities exist but you have to keep in mind that no mirror is perfect and even if, say, a mirror reflected 99.9% of light, given a 1 meter cubed box, light would reflect 300 million times a second. So that means that after 10 microseconds there'll only be about 1% of that light left.\n\nHowever, generally when we build an optical cavity we are continuously GENERATING new light within it and an optical cavity is a big part of, for example, the design of a laser. In this case it is by design that the light get out, rather than be reabsorbed and you don't want perfect reflection (though you do want really good reflection) but rather higher transmission than absorption", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "248234", "title": "Booby trap", "section": "Section::::Military booby traps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 579, "text": "Almost any item can be booby-trapped in some way. For example, booby trapping a flashlight is a classic tactic: a flashlight already contains most of the required components. First of all, the flashlight acts as bait, tempting the victim to pick it up. More importantly, it is easy to conceal a detonator, some explosives, and batteries inside the flashlight casing. A simple electrical circuit is connected to the on/off switch. When the victim attempts to turn the flashlight on to see if it works, the resulting explosion blows their hand or arm off and possibly blinds them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4550348", "title": "Nanophotonics", "section": "Section::::Motivations.:Optoelectronics and microelectronics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 227, "text": "If light can be squeezed into a small volume, it can be absorbed and detected by a small detector. Small photodetectors tend to have a variety of desirable properties including low noise, high speed, and low voltage and power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1543761", "title": "Softbox", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 354, "text": "A soft box can be used with either flash or continuous light sources such as fluorescent lamps or \"hot lights\" such as quartz halogen bulbs or tungsten bulbs. If soft box lights are used with \"hot\" light sources, the photographer must be sure the soft box is heat rated for the wattage of the light to which it is attached in order to avoid fire hazard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "243718", "title": "Flashlight", "section": "Section::::Accessories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 305, "text": "Detachable light guides, consisting of rigid bent plastic rods or semi-rigid or flexible tubes containing optical fibers, are available for some flashlights for inspection inside tanks, or within walls or structures; when not required the light guide can be removed and the light used for other purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1543761", "title": "Softbox", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 474, "text": "A soft box is a type of photographic lighting device, one of a number of photographic soft light devices. All the various soft light types create even and diffused light by transmitting light through some scattering material, or by reflecting light off a second surface to diffuse the light. The best known form of reflective source is the umbrella light, where the light from the bulb is \"bounced\" off the inside of a metalized umbrella to create an indirect \"soft\" light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7964642", "title": "Czechoslovak border fortifications", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 519, "text": "The \"light objects\" were simple hollow boxes with one or two machine gun positions, a retractable observation periscope, grenade tubes, hand operated air blower, and a solid inner door at 90 degrees to a steel bar outer door. The machine gun was mounted near the end of the barrel, so that the port hole was only large enough for the bullets and a scope to see through, unlike most other designs where a large opening is used. A heavy steel plate could be slid down to quickly close the tiny hole for added protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18290", "title": "Light-emitting diode", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Data communication and other signalling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 155, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 155, "end_character": 201, "text": "Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or objects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]