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b28rfs
|
Why do heavier patients need higher doses of medication?
|
[
{
"answer": "It relates to body fat content and how lipophilic drugs are. Things like general anaesthetics and ethanol are highly lipophilic, and readily distribute into fat. This basically gives the drug a much larger volume to distribute into, thus the concentration of drug in the blood plasma/at it's target site will be lower, so a higher dose would be needed to reach therapeutic concentrations. Partitioning of drugs into fat can do some complicated things to the pharmacokinetics of drugs. As fat also has a relatively poor blood supply/rate of blood flow, it can take a while for drugs to distribute into fat (which can also lead to higher peak plasma concentrations of drug when a larger dose is used, but isn't yet distributed into fat), but fat later acts as a reservoir, maintaining the plasma concentration of a drug as it is being cleared from the body. This can contribute to effects such as the \"anaesthetic hangover\" after GA\n\nSource: currently studying pharm on a veterinary medicine course ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's very simple. The activity of any chemical is proportional to its concentration when as diluted, as most medicines are. Pain medicine and insulin work that way for instance.\n\nThe exception are that the drug acts as a catalyst to start reactions between the body's own chemicals, then its concentration does not matter much except for the speed of its effects. Vaccines that trigger an immune response are example of this. They just need to be strong enough to start an effective reaction, and it does not matter much if it takes 5 or 15 days.\n\nSo, you have drugs for which dose don't matter, and you have drugs for which concentration determines their effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37708369",
"title": "Broselow tape",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Although some medications are best dosed by actual body weight (e.g., succinylcholine), most resuscitation medications are distributed in lean body mass (e.g., epinephrine, sodium bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, etc.) so that IBW as accurately predicted by length, not the actual body weight, would appear preferable for dosing. For most resuscitation medications, the optimal dose is not known and doses based on IBW or actual weight are likely equally effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185388",
"title": "Olanzapine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Metabolic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Despite weight gain, a large multi-center randomized National Institute of Mental Health study found that olanzapine was better at controlling symptoms because patients were more likely to remain on olanzapine than the other drugs. One small, open-label, non-randomized study suggests that taking olanzapine by orally dissolving tablets may induce less weight gain, but this has not been substantiated in a blinded experimental setting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3291372",
"title": "Loading dose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "A loading dose is most useful for drugs that are eliminated from the body relatively slowly, i.e. have a long systemic half-life. Such drugs need only a low maintenance dose in order to keep the amount of the drug in the body at the appropriate therapeutic level, but this also means that, without an initial higher dose, it would take a long time for the amount of the drug in the body to reach that level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16698745",
"title": "Maintenance dose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "A loading dose is most useful for drugs that are eliminated from the body relatively slowly. Such drugs need only a low maintenance dose in order to keep the amount of the drug in the body at the appropriate level, but this also means that, without an initial higher dose, it would take a long time for the amount of the drug in the body to reach that level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5372362",
"title": "Desvenlafaxine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Doses of 50-400 mg/day appear effective for major depressive disorder, although no additional benefit was demonstrated at doses greater than 50 mg/day, and adverse events and discontinuations were more frequent at higher doses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253721",
"title": "Anti-diabetic medication",
"section": "Section::::Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "These medications are rarely used in the United States because of the severity of their side-effects (flatulence and bloating). They are more commonly prescribed in Europe. They do have the potential to cause weight loss by lowering the amount of sugar metabolized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56435",
"title": "Obesity",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Other illnesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids, certain anticonvulsants (phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal contraception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4y93pl
|
a presidential pardon decades after death
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically it's just to officially acknowledge that the person was innocent. It brings some justice to the family",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, it officially acknowledges an injustice was done. Otherwise, there will be people out there who will still be insisting that the person is guilty, I guarantee it. For example--HUGE scandal in France in the late 19th/early 20th century. A military officer, Alfred Dreyfuss, was accused of treason. He was tried and imprisoned. He was Jewish and his alleged guilt was used to condemn the whole French Jewish community. All kinds of attacks against Jews were made. The thing was, Dreyfuss was innocent. The guilt was with another guy, not Jewish, who framed Dreyfuss. Those wanting to minimize the scandal thought Dreyfuss would be a great scapegoat. Blame Jews, not corruption in the army! This controversy tore French society apart. Eventually, Dreyfuss was freed. He's pretty much universally considered to be innocent...except that the French army has never exonerated him. It would be an embarrassing admission. It would affirm not only his innocence, but the guilt of all those who attacked him and attacked Jews. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2467744",
"title": "List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Approximately 20,000 pardons and commutations were issued by U.S. presidents in the 20th century alone. Pardons granted by presidents from George Washington until Grover Cleveland's first term (1885–1889) were handwritten by the president; thereafter, pardons were prepared for the president by administrative staff requiring only that the president sign it. The records of these presidential acts were openly available for public inspection until 1934. In 1981 the Office of the Pardon Attorney was created and records from President George H. W. Bush forward are now listed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54636577",
"title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Pardons granted by presidents from George Washington until Grover Cleveland's first term (1885–1889) were hand written by the president; thereafter, pardons were prepared for the president by administrative staff requiring only that the president sign them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339764",
"title": "Deed",
"section": "Section::::Recording.:Pardon as deed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In the United States, a pardon of the President was once considered to be a deed and thus needed to be accepted by the recipient. This made it impossible to grant a pardon posthumously. However, in the case of Henry Ossian Flipper, this view was altered when President Bill Clinton pardoned him in 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43874373",
"title": "List of United States Presidential firsts",
"section": "Section::::Richard Nixon (1969–1974).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 463,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 463,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "BULLET::::- First president to be pardoned by another president (Gerald Ford). The pardon of Richard Nixon in 1974, gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54636577",
"title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Modern process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "A federal pardon can be issued prior to the start of a legal case or inquiry, prior to any indictments being issued, for unspecified offenses, and prior to or after a conviction for a federal crime. President Gerald Ford's broad federal pardon of former president Richard M. Nixon in 1974 for \"all offenses against the United States which he, Richard Nixon, has committed or may have committed or taken part in during the period from January 20, 1969 through August 9, 1974\" is a notable example of a fixed-period federal pardon that came prior to any indictments being issued and that covered unspecified federal offenses that may or may not have been committed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54636577",
"title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "A pardon can be rejected by the intended recipient and must be affirmatively accepted to be officially recognized by the courts. George Wilson was convicted of robbing the US Mail in Pennsylvania and sentenced to death. Due to his friends' influence, Wilson was pardoned by President Andrew Jackson. Wilson refused the pardon and in 1833, the United States Supreme Court held in \"United States v. Wilson\" that his rejection—and consequently the pardon not being introduced to the court by \"plea, motion, or otherwise\" as a point of fact and evidence—was valid and the court could not force a pardon upon him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52895721",
"title": "Pardons for ex-Confederates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The Presidential pardon given to ex-Confederates was a special power exercised by Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson and was usually extended in cases where the person pardoned had served in the military above the rank of colonel, or a civilian who had exercised political power under the Confederate government. The power to pardon offences to the Federal government was given to the chief executive in the United States Constitution under .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3p8u20
|
Everything else equal, what effect does tire size have on a vehicle's gas mileage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Changing the tire size will essentially change the gearing ratio. If the car is manual you could get essentially identical function and efficiency by shifting gears appropriately. If the car is automatic then the shifting may be suboptimal depending on whether the speedometer is used to control shifting, and whether the speed is correctly measured despite different tire size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First things first it depends on what you mean by tire size. The standard for labeling size is tread footprint/sidewall height/rim size. \n\nChanging any one of the measurements effect weight of the tire, which in turn effects gas mileage by allowing the same amount of power to pull less weight. \n\nThe measurement most likely to change weight is rim size, and composition.\nSo for example an alluminium alloy 15\" rim will weigh less than a steel alloy 15\", or an alluminium alloy 16\". \n\nWhen you increase the tread footprint you increase grip (example: Moving from a 225/50/15 to a 275/50/15) when you increase grip, you decrease mileage because you need more power to break traction, effectively causing more weight. \nSidewall size also has an effect on weight, but not as much. \n\nOne thing of note concerning sidewall size is the larger sidewall, the more room for fluctuation. The more fluctuation in the sidewall, the hotter it gets, which decreases stability, and traction. \n\nTraction(grip) plays a surprising amount into fuel economy because the more traction you have, the higher the rolling resistance, which again means you need more power to move the tire than with a lower resistance.\n\nAs /u/datanaut said, your vehicle is geared specifically for the stock tire size, so changing sizes is equivocal to changing gearing. \n\nIf you don't know anything about gearing, its responsible for dictating speeds at certain RPM. so for example, my motorcycle travels 80mph at 6krpm, in 6th gear. Changing my sprockets would change my speed in respect to my RPM. A smaller gear(tire) will decrease speed at 6krpm in 6th gear, but will increase my rate of acceleration because there is less distance for the gear to travel to complete one cycle.\n\nI hope this answers your question fully.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tire size and gearbox ratio is a trade off between to parameters, **speed and torque**, a larger tyre will give you more speed and less torque, a smaller tyre will give less speed and more torque.\n\nSo you set up tyre size and gearbox ratio such that your car is operating at its most efficient revs for typical driving conditions.\n\nSo if the efficiency curve of your engine peaks at 3000 RPM, the gear ratios and tyre size are set so your speed will be 'typical' when in top gear and at about 3000 rpm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "779651",
"title": "Automobile handling",
"section": "Section::::Factors that affect a car's handling.:Tires and wheels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The amount a tire meets the road is an equation between the weight of the car and the type (and size) of its tire. A 1000 kg car can depress a 185/65/15 tire more than a 215/45/15 tire longitudinally thus having better linear grip and better braking distance not to mention better aquaplaning performance, while the wider tires have better (dry) cornering resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6286739",
"title": "Crawl ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Note that tire size (or dimensions of the road wheels) does not affect the gear ratio of a vehicle, and thus using a different size tire on the same vehicle does not affect the torque on the road wheels or the crawl ratio. However, for a given engine speed and a gear ratio, the output force on the road wheels decreases as the tire size increases. A lower force in turn decreases the acceleration of rotating wheels. Therefore, the smallest tires that are still big enough to drive over obstacles perform better for a given crawl ratio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3578824",
"title": "Lateral force variation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Consider a good tire with LFV of 4 pounds. This tire will induce a 4 pound force sideways into the vehicle every rotation. The frequency of the force will increase in direct proportion to rotating speed. This effect will influence the steering of the vehicle. Tire makers test tires at the point of manufacture to verify that the LFV is within allowable quality limits. Tires that exceed these limits may be scrapped or sold to markets that do not require stringent quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636702",
"title": "Metrication in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current use.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Tire inflation for passenger cars is typically about 30 pounds per square inch (psi) or 207 kilopascals (kPa). This is displayed on tires beside its metric equivalent. Post model year 2006 regulations also mandate an internationally standard \"Tire and Loading Information\" sticker which gives capacities in SI units followed by customary equivalents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1039392",
"title": "Off-roading",
"section": "Section::::Vehicle modification.:Vehicle lifts.:Large tires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Increasing the tire size increases the ground clearance of all parts of vehicle including suspended components, such as the axles. It may be necessary to make modifications to vehicle's suspension or body depending on the size of the tires to be installed and the specific vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8951059",
"title": "Scrub radius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Large positive values of scrub radius, 4 inches/100 mm or so, were used in cars for many years. The advantage of this is that the tire rolls as the wheel is steered, which reduces the effort when parking. This also allows greater width in the engine bay, which is very important in some compact sports cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11567567",
"title": "Energy-efficient driving",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Underinflated tires wear out faster and lose energy to rolling resistance because of tire deformation. The loss for a car is approximately 1.0% for every drop in pressure of all four tires. Improper wheel alignment and high engine oil kinematic viscosity also reduce fuel efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b97ri2
|
when something breaks the sound barrier. what is the visible cone shaped thing behind it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you talking about [this](_URL_0_)? If so, it's called a vapor cone or a shock collar. It's a cone of water vapor that can form when a plane flies at high speeds (transonic but not necessarily supersonic, although some airflow will be supersonic) through moist air. The area behind the shock wave has a low air pressure, and if the pressure drops below the dew point, water will condensate out. It's conical in shape because that's the shape of the shockwave itself.\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4049625",
"title": "Noise barrier",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "The acoustical science of noise barrier design is based upon treating an airway or railway as a line source. The theory is based upon blockage of sound ray travel toward a particular receptor; however, diffraction of sound must be addressed. Sound waves bend (downward) when they pass an edge, such as the apex of a noise barrier. Barriers that block line of sight of a highway or other source will therefore block more sound. Further complicating matters is the phenomenon of refraction, the bending of sound rays in the presence of an inhomogeneous atmosphere. Wind shear and thermocline produce such inhomogeneities. The sound sources modeled must include engine noise, tire noise, and aerodynamic noise, all of which vary by vehicle type and speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:Post-war and the late 1940s (1946–1949).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In aerodynamics, the sound barrier usually refers to the point at which an aircraft moves from transonic to supersonic speed. On October 14, 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, tests culminated in the first manned supersonic flight where the sound barrier was broken, piloted by Air Force Captain Chuck Yeager in the Bell X-1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2072768",
"title": "The Sound Barrier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The Sound Barrier (known in the United States, as Breaking Through the Sound Barrier and Breaking the Sound Barrier) is a 1952 British aviation film directed by David Lean. It is a fictional story about attempts by aircraft designers and test pilots to break the sound barrier. It was David Lean's third and final film with his wife Ann Todd, but it was his first for Alexander Korda's London Films, following the break-up of Cineguild. \"The Sound Barrier\" stars Ralph Richardson, Ann Todd, and Nigel Patrick.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14132438",
"title": "Acoustic quieting",
"section": "Section::::Methods of quieting.:Mechanical acoustic quieting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sound isolation: Noise isolation is isolating noise to prevent it from transferring out of one area, using barriers like deadening materials to trap sound and vibrational energy. Example: In home and office construction, many builders place sound-control barriers (such as fiberglass batting) in walls to deaden the transmission of noise through them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54784938",
"title": "Physics of whistles",
"section": "Section::::Types.:The dipole whistle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Whistles that generate sound through fluctuations of momentum or a force exerted on the surrounding medium are called dipole-like sources. The figure on the right is example of a small \"rigid\" sphere that is moving back and forth in a given direction. If the sphere is small with respect to the wavelength of the sound emitted, it can be called a point dipole. A force must be applied to the sphere in a specific direction to move it. The surrounding medium in the direction of motion is compressed to radiate sound, but the medium at right angles slides past the sphere and is not compressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4049625",
"title": "Noise barrier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "A noise barrier (also called a soundwall, noise wall, sound berm, sound barrier, or acoustical barrier) is an exterior structure designed to protect inhabitants of sensitive land use areas from noise pollution. Noise barriers are the most effective method of mitigating roadway, railway, and industrial noise sources – \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4049625",
"title": "Noise barrier",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Several different materials may be used for sound barriers. These materials can include masonry, earthwork (such as earth berm), steel, concrete, wood, plastics, insulating wool, or composites. Walls that are made of absorptive material mitigate sound differently than hard surfaces. It is now also possible to make noise barriers with active materials such as solar photovoltaic panels to generate electricity while also reducing traffic noise. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bodfxl
|
how does oxygen reach the brain?
|
[
{
"answer": "The red cells in your blood pick up oxygen in your lungs, then the heart pumps the blood around your body, including to the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "546712",
"title": "Neurotoxicity",
"section": "Section::::Neurotoxic agents.:Oxygen radicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1390,
"text": "The formation of oxygen radicals in the brain is achieved through the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) pathway. This reaction occurs as a response to an increase in the Ca concentration inside a brain cell. This interaction between the Ca and NOS results in the formation of the cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), which then moves from the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm. As a final step, NOS is dephosphorylated yielding nitric oxide (NO), which accumulates in the brain, increasing its oxidative stress. There are several ROS, including superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl, all of which lead to neurotoxicity. Naturally, the body utilizes a defensive mechanism to diminish the fatal effects of the reactive species by employing certain enzymes to break down the ROS into small, benign molecules of simple oxygen and water. However, this breakdown of the ROS is not completely efficient; some reactive residues are left in the brain to accumulate, contributing to neurotoxicity and cell death. The brain is more vulnerable to oxidative stress than other organs, due to its low oxidative capacity. Because neurons are characterized as postmitotic cells, meaning that they live with accumulated damage over the years, accumulation of ROS is fatal. Thus, increased levels of ROS age neurons, which leads to accelerated neurodegenerative processes and ultimately the advancement of AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92524",
"title": "Hemeprotein",
"section": "Section::::Hemoglobin and myoglobin.:Hemoglobin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In vertebrates, oxygen is taken into the body by the tissues of the lungs, and passed to the red blood cells in the bloodstream. Oxygen is then distributed to all of the tissues in the body and offloaded from the red blood cells to respiring cells. Hemoglobin then picks up carbon dioxide to be returned to the lungs. Thus, hemoglobin binds and offloads both oxygen and carbon dioxide at the appropriate tissues, serving to deliver the oxygen needed for cellular metabolism and removing the resulting waste product, CO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43198",
"title": "Onychophora",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Respiration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1160,
"text": "Oxygen uptake occurs to an extent via simple diffusion through the entire body surface, with the coxal vesicles on the legs possibly being involved in some species. However, of most importance is gas exchange via fine unbranched tubes, the tracheae, which draw oxygen from the surface deep into the various organs, particularly the heart. The walls of these structures, which are less than three micrometers thick in their entirety, consist only of an extremely thin membrane through which oxygen can easily diffuse. The tracheae originate at tiny openings, the spiracles, which themselves are clustered together in dent-like recesses of the outer skin, the atria. The number of \"tracheae bundles\" thus formed is on average around 75 per body segment; they accumulate most densely on the back of the organism. Unlike the arthropods, the velvet worms are unable to control the openings of their tracheae; the tracheae are always open, entailing considerable water loss in arid conditions. Water is lost twice as fast as in earthworms and forty times faster than in caterpillars. For this reason, velvet worms are dependent upon habitats with high air humidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13292",
"title": "Hypoxia (medical)",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "In peripheral tissues, oxygen again diffuses down a pressure gradient into cells and their mitochondria, where it is used to produce energy in conjunction with the breakdown of glucose, fats, and some amino acids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1745619",
"title": "Cerebral hypoxia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The brain requires approximately 3.3 ml of oxygen per 100 g of brain tissue per minute. Initially the body responds to lowered blood oxygen by redirecting blood to the brain and increasing cerebral blood flow. Blood flow may increase up to twice the normal flow but no more. If the increased blood flow is sufficient to supply the brain's oxygen needs then no symptoms will result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378787",
"title": "Helix (gastropod)",
"section": "Section::::Respiration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Oxygen is carried by the blood pigment hemocyanin. Both oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse in and out of blood through the capillaries. A muscular valve regulates the process of opening and closing the entrance of the lung. When the valve opens, the air can either leave or come into the lung. The valve plays an important role in reducing water loss and preventing drowning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59627302",
"title": "Symmorphosis",
"section": "Section::::Within the respiratory system.:V.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The oxygen cascade is one way that can put a limit and can help determine the V by components such as oxygen supply to the skeletal muscle mitochondria and the demand of oxygen by these skeletal muscle mitochondria. If oxygen is not transferred via skeletal muscle mitochondria, it can them be transferred across muscle capillaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zs7kn
|
what is mb/s and how is it related to mb/s
|
[
{
"answer": "Mb/s is Megabits per second. MB/s is MegaBytes per second. A Byte is 8 bits, so MB/s is faster by a factor of 8x.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what others have said. Mb/s is typically used when referring to network speeds, where as MB/s is referring to file transfer speeds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24782330",
"title": "Master boot record",
"section": "Section::::Programming considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The MBR originated in the PC XT. IBM PC-compatible computers are little-endian, which means the processor stores numeric values spanning two or more bytes in memory least significant byte first. The format of the MBR on media reflects this convention. Thus, the MBR signature will appear in a disk editor as the sequence codice_6.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9829181",
"title": "MBM (file format)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "MBM is shortened from MultiBitMap which, as the name suggests, is a container for a set of bitmap images. The contained bitmaps are not stored verbatim. Rather, each one is stored with a modified bitmap header with no data compression or with 8-, 12-, 16-, or 24-bit RLE compression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40547030",
"title": "Multibody simulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1670,
"text": "The MBS process often can be divided in 5 main activities. The first activity of the MBS process chain is the” 3D CAD master model”, in which product developers, designers and engineers are using the CAD system to generate a CAD model and its assembly structure related to given specifications. This 3D CAD master model is converted during the activity “Data transfer” to the MBS input data formats i.e. STEP. The “MBS Modeling” is the most complex activity in the process chain. Following rules and experiences, the 3D model in MBS format, multiple boundaries, kinematics, forces, moments or degrees of freedom are used as input to generate the MBS model. Engineers have to use MBS software and their knowledge and skills in the field of engineering mechanics and machine dynamics to build the MBS model including joints and links. The generated MBS model is used during the next activity “Simulation”. Simulations, which are specified by time increments and boundaries like starting conditions are run by MBS Software i.e. MSC ADAMS or RecurDyn. The last activity is the “Analysis and evaluation”. Engineers use case-dependent directives to analyze and evaluate moving paths, speeds, accelerations, forces or moments. The results are used to enable releases or to improve the MBS model, in case the results are insufficient. One of the most important benefits of the MBS process chain is the usability of the results to optimize the 3D CAD master model components. Due to the fact that the process chain enables the optimization of component design, the resulting loops can be used to achieve a high level of design and MBS model optimization in an iterative process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205672",
"title": "Maslach Burnout Inventory",
"section": "Section::::Forms of the Maslach Burnout Inventory.:Maslach Burnout Inventory - Educators Survey (MBI-ES).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The MBI-ES consists of 22 items and is a version of the original MBI for use with educators. It was designed for teachers, administrators, other staff members, and volunteers working in any educational setting. This form was formerly known as MBI-Form Ed. The MBI-ES scales are Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24782330",
"title": "Master boot record",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The MBR holds the information on how the logical partitions, containing file systems, are organized on that medium. The MBR also contains executable code to function as a loader for the installed operating system—usually by passing control over to the loader's second stage, or in conjunction with each partition's volume boot record (VBR). This MBR code is usually referred to as a boot loader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20096164",
"title": "Master of Business and Management",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The MBM is open to graduates in all fields of the humanities, arts, engineering, science and business. It is designed to equip students with generalist managerial and leadership skills that will improve their practice and help them start a successful career in business management. The curriculum is therefore often very similar to that of an MBA, though the teaching and learning styles may be different in order to account for the variations in prior work experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9778170",
"title": "Master's degree in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "A Master of Business Studies (MBS) refers to a qualification in the degree of master that can be obtained by students of recognized universities and colleges who complete the relevant approved programmes of study, pass the prescribed examinations, and fulfil all other prescribed conditions. An MBS can be studied in the following areas: Electronic Business, Finance, Human Resource Management, International Business, Management Information System, Management & Organisation Studies, Management Consultancy, Marketing, Project Management, Strategic Management & Planning and can be obtained from many universities in Ireland including University College Dublin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17gsp7
|
How is it that if Earth exerts a force of gravity on you of 600N, then you also exert a force of gravity on Earth of 600N?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't really know what you're asking. If you're wondering why the Earth doesn't move because of the 600 N you're exerting on it, it's because the earth is very big. A force of 600 N on an object the size of the earth causes it to accelerate by 1 x 10^-22 m/s^2 which is VERY small. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could you elaborate on your question? That is, the question of \"how is this fact a fact\" is very difficult to answer with anything except \"well... that's the fact.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The gravitational force is proportional to the product of the two masses involved. So the larger the mass that's pulling on you is, the stronger you are attracted because there is more stuff to pull. But also the more mass you have, the stronger you are pulled because there is more mass to be pulled on.\n\nSo the Earth pulling on you is a whole lot of mass pulling on a little mass, but you pulling on the Earth is a little mass pulling on a whole lot of mass. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think what's confusing you here is a misinterpretation of the underlying meaning of Newton's third law. From a deep perspective, there aren't actually two independent forces involved. It isn't you pulling on the earth *and* the earth pulling back. Rather, there is a single attractive force of 600N *between* you and the earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5: Because forces act *between* things. You can't compress a spring just by pushing on one end only. You have to push on both ends. Now imagine putting a spring between you and the Earth. The force between you and Earth is what compresses the spring.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Specifics.:Earth's gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The force of gravity on Earth is the resultant (vector sum) of two forces: (a) The gravitational attraction in accordance with Newton's universal law of gravitation, and (b) the centrifugal force, which results from the choice of an earthbound, rotating frame of reference. The force of gravity is the weakest at the equator because of the centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation and because points on the equator are furthest from the center of the Earth. The force of gravity varies with latitude and increases from about 9.780 m/s at the Equator to about 9.832 m/s at the poles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4387132",
"title": "Gravity of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The gravity of Earth, denoted by , is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect of gravitation (from distribution of mass within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's rotation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Gravitational field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within the Earth. Near the Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately . Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in the Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "389836",
"title": "G-force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Gravitation acting alone does not produce a g-force, even though g-forces are expressed in multiples of the free-fall acceleration of standard gravity. Thus, the standard gravitational force at the Earth's surface produces g-force only indirectly, as a result of resistance to it by mechanical forces. It is these mechanical forces that actually produce the g-force on a mass. For example, a force of 1 g on an object sitting on the Earth's surface is caused by the mechanical force exerted in the upward direction by the ground, keeping the object from going into free fall. The upward contact force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earth's surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition. (Freefall is the path that the object would follow when falling freely toward the Earth's center). Stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2532789",
"title": "Standard gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The standard acceleration due to gravity (or standard acceleration of free fall), sometimes abbreviated as standard gravity, usually denoted by or , is the nominal gravitational acceleration of an object in a vacuum near the surface of the Earth. It is defined by standard as (about ). This value was established by the 3rd CGPM (1901, CR 70) and used to define the standard weight of an object as the product of its mass and this nominal acceleration. The acceleration of a body near the surface of the Earth is due to the combined effects of gravity and centrifugal acceleration from the rotation of the Earth (but which is small enough to be neglected for most purposes); the total (the apparent gravity) is about 0.5% greater at the poles than at the Equator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51897037",
"title": "Normal gravity formula",
"section": "Section::::Normal gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The acceleration due to gravity depends on the gravity of the mass, which rests inside of the object. The gravity decreases at longer distance between centers of mass. The acceleration due to gravity furthermore is influenced by the rotation of the earth. As centrifugal force increases at longer earth's axis distance, thus centrifugal force is highest at the equator and lowest the poles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516838",
"title": "Micro-g environment",
"section": "Section::::Tidal and inertial acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "BULLET::::- Because the force of gravity decreases with distance, objects with non-zero size will be subjected to a tidal force, or a differential pull, between the ends of the object nearest and furthest from the Earth. (An extreme version of this effect is spaghettification.) In a spacecraft in low Earth orbit (LEO), the centrifugal force is also greater on the side of the spacecraft furthest from the Earth. At a 400 km LEO altitude, the overall differential in g-force is approximately 0.384 μ\"g\"/m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
v5v6g
|
Question regarding Wasps/stinging insects: How did the biology of a stinging insect evolve correctly to produce a formula that would effectively hurt or "sting" its victim?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its a series of steps and adaptations. They evolve a more potent venom and a stronger stinger when its main prey or attacker devolps to have a natural resistance or thick exoskeleton. Its essentialy a very long process of one-uping the other species. Oh and mods can go ahead and delete this if they want im at work on my phone and dont have time to pull up sources this is just what i have been taught.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not the best person to answer this but I googled the evolution of bee stings and found this. Perhaps someone else could run with this or elaborate on it: \n\n\"The bee's stinger evolved originally for inter-bee combat between members of different hives, and the barbs evolved later as an anti-mammal defense: a barbed stinger can still penetrate the chitinous plates of another bee's exoskeleton and retract safely.\"\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "635484",
"title": "Stinger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Stinging insects produce a painful swelling of the skin, the severity of the lesion varying according to the location of the sting, the identity of the insect and the sensitivity of the subject. Many species of bees and wasps have two poison glands, one gland secreting a toxin in which formic acid is one recognized constituent, and the other secreting an alkaline neurotoxin; acting independently, each toxin is rather mild, but when they combine through the sting, the combination has strong irritating properties. In a small number of cases the second occasion of a bee or wasp sting causes a severe allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805814",
"title": "Exploding animal",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Ants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Some insects explode altruistically, at the expense of the individual in defense of its colony; the process is called autothysis. Several species of ants, such as \"Camponotus saundersi\" in southeast Asia, can explode at will to protect their nests from intruders. \"C. saundersi\", a species of carpenter ant, can self-destruct by autothysis. Two oversized, poison-filled mandibular glands run the entire length of the ant's body. When combat takes a turn for the worse, the ant violently contracts its abdominal muscles to rupture its body and spray poison in all directions. Likewise, many species of termites, such as \"Globitermes sulphureus\", have members, deemed the soldier class, who can split their bodies open emitting a noxious and sticky chemical for the same reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3094284",
"title": "Bee sting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Bee stings differ from insect bites, and the venom or toxin of stinging insects is quite different. Therefore, the body's reaction to a bee sting may differ significantly from one species to another. In particular, bee stings are acidic, whereas wasp stings are alkaline, so the body's reaction to a bee sting may be very different from that of a wasp sting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44134539",
"title": "Polistes dorsalis",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with other species.:Sting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1279,
"text": "Many wasps are known to use their stinging abilities as a means of tactic defense against diverse predators. The physical stinger is distinguished as the part of the wasp that physically injects venom into offenders. The sting, on the other hand, refers to the actual event. The effectiveness of stings tends to be dependent on the level of pain inflicted over the toxicity or paralyzing ability of certain types of venom. On a pain scale developed by Christopher K. Starr in this cited article, \"Polistes dorsalis\" ranks in the 2 range on a 5-point scale (from no pain to traumatically painful) which is pretty consistent in comparison to other \"Polistes\" species. A number of factors play into the intensity of sting from each individual wasp. The size of the colony, or the size of the aggregation, effects how easily they are to attack when disturbed or feel threatened. It seems that with larger groups of wasps, less provocation is needed for them to attack. Also, the size of the predator and their pain tolerance would also affect this relative pain scale. Smaller animals typically have smaller thresholds for pain than do larger ones. Toxicity, while not the key determinant of effectiveness also play a role, in that venom of higher toxicity tends to be more painful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1054394",
"title": "Autothysis",
"section": "Section::::Ants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "Early ants used mechanical means of stinging to defend themselves, but the stings showed to be more useful against large vertebrate predators and not as successful against other arthropods. So selection for autothysis in ants evolved as a way to more effectively kill arthropod enemies. The products of autothysis in ants are sticky and corrosive substances, released by the ants' contraction of their gasters, leading to a burst at an intersegmental fold, as well as the mandibular glands. The ants use this self-sacrifice to kill one or more enemies which entangle themselves in this sticky substance. The worker ant has been observed to wrap itself around an opponent, placing its dorsal gaster onto the opponent's head before expelling sticky corrosive material from its mouth and gaster, permanently sticking to the opponent while killing itself and the enemy, as well as any other enemies that become stuck to the products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23900362",
"title": "Acanthoplus discoidalis",
"section": "Section::::Defence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "After autohaemorrhaging the insects clean themselves meticulously. This is thought to reduce the probability that other members of the species will attack them cannibalistically. Research on the species suggests that autohaemorrhage is a precisely regulated defence response rather than an accidental consequence of being attacked. Another defensive response is to regurgitate their stomach contents when attacked, which happens most often when the insect has already been attacked repeatedly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32771",
"title": "Venom",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomic range.:Arthropods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Bees synthesize and employ an acidic venom (apitoxin) to cause pain in those that they sting to defend their hives and food stores, whereas wasps use a chemically different alkaline venom designed to paralyze prey, so it can be stored alive in the food chambers of their young. The use of venom is much more widespread than just these examples. Other insects, such as true bugs and many ants, also produce venom. At least one ant species (\"Polyrhachis dives\") has been shown to use venom topically for the sterilisation of pathogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z7chd
|
Why did Christianity (Nestorianism) fail to create a significant and lasting Chinese Christian population, while Islam did?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't comment on Islam, but I can explain why Chinese christianity did not last to the modern day (of course, there are plenty of Christians now, but they only date back to European missionary activity).\n\nFirst, about its origins. My source for the first part of this is a tablet in a museum in Xian (or rather, the internet translation of this: I couldn't actually read it, it's too decayed and in ancient Chinese, which I can't read anyway). \nThe tablet was written by Persian (Nestorian*) missionaries. It described the last 200 years of Chinese Christian activity, setting up churches, evangelising, etc. However, from what it said, they don't seem to have made a huge number of converts.\n\nAccording to a Chinese Christians I've discussed this with, the mainstream view of Chinese Christian scholars** is that the early churches were \"very Buddhistic\". What this means is, they became more and more similar to Buddhist practices, and eventually faded away as a strongly defined entity. In a German museum, there is a piece of art of Tang-dynasty Christians celebrating palm Sunday; other than the palms, they do not seem very different from Buddhist worshippers.\nA number of modern Chinese Christian leaders (read about the recent issues in Wenzhou and this will come up) have expressed reluctance to the Chinese governments aims of sinicising Christianity, because they believe that this could cause Christianity to lose any unique characteristics and thus fade away, as it did before.\n\nNow, Nestorian Christianity returned to China in the Yuan dynasty, as it was the religion of certain Mongol tribes. However, it wasn't given government support, and being associated with foreign conquerers, again didn't make many converts. When the Mongols were expelled by the Ming, as with Tengrism, it was seen as a foreign Mongol religion, that should be expelled from China.\n\nAs I said, I don't know why Islam managed to create a strong community (I assume you are referring to Huizi; with the Uighers it's the same way it spread to central Asia generally, though the silk road), only why Christianity didn't.\nI'd be curious if anyone knows the history of the Huizi?\n\n*Bear in mind that the \"Nestorian Church\" probably wasn't actually Nestorian in doctrine, they just tolerated Nestorians while the European churches didn't.\n\n**As I said, this is (I believe) the mainstream view of Chinese Christian scholars. I feel it's important to point out that it is used as a narrative of resisting the government; it's possible therefore that this view is unreliable. I don't know of any non-Christian, Chinese historians who study the history of Christianity in China, to compare it to. It seems like a reasonable hypothesis, but I feel I should point this out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, I've done a bit more looking around on this topic, and discovered something I did not know (and I find it very interesting that no Chinese Christians have ever told me this).\nWhen Emperor Wuzong made Buddhism illegal in the great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of 845AD, he also banished all Zorastrians and Christians. \"As for the Tai-Ch’in and Muh-hu forms of worship, since Buddhism has already been cast out, these heresies alone must not be allowed to survive. People belonging to these also are to be compelled to return to the world, belong again to their own districts, and become tax payers. As for foreigners, let them be returned to their own countries, there to suffer restraint.\"\nTai-Ch'in (or Da Qin as modern Pinyin would say it) means Roman, and Christians were generally referred to as Romans (well, actually by this time it generally referred to Syria specifically).\nYou can read the pronouncement here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1650511",
"title": "Christianity in China",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-modern history.:Medieval period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "It was also reported that competition with the Roman Catholic Church and Islam were also factors in causing Nestorian Christianity to disappear in China; the Roman Catholics also considered the Nestorians as heretical,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1714754",
"title": "Catholic Church in China",
"section": "Section::::Yuan (1271–1368) Dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "It was reported that competition with the Catholic Church and Islam were also factors in causing Nestorian Christianity to disappear in China – see Nestorianism in China – since \"controversies with the emissaries of ... Rome, and the progress of Mohammedanism, sapped the foundations of their ancient churches.\" The Catholics considered Nestorianism as heretical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14560480",
"title": "Christianity in Asia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "After the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Nestorian Schism, the Nestorian Christianity developed. Nestorians began converting Mongols around the 7th century, and Nestorian Christianity was probably introduced into China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Mongols tended to be tolerant of multiple religions, with several Mongol tribes being primarily Christian, and under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson, the great khan Möngke, Christianity was a small religious influence of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26176567",
"title": "Church of the East",
"section": "Section::::Expansion.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Nestorian Christianity thrived in China for approximately 200 years, but then faced persecution from Emperor Wuzong of Tang (reigned 840–846). He suppressed all foreign religions, including Buddhism and Christianity, causing it to decline sharply in China. A Syrian monk visiting China a few decades later described many churches in ruin. The Church disappeared from China in the early 10th century, coinciding with the collapse of the Tang dynasty and the tumult of the next years (the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26176567",
"title": "Church of the East",
"section": "Section::::Summary of history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "From its peak of geographical extent, the church entered a period of rapid decline that began in the 14th century, due largely to outside influences. The Chinese Ming dynasty overthrew the Mongols (1368) and ejected Christians and other foreign influences from China, and many Mongols in Central Asia converted to Islam. The Muslim Turco-Mongol leader Timur (1336–1405) nearly eradicated the remaining Christians in the Middle East. Nestorian Christianity remained largely confined to communities in Upper Mesopotamia and the Malabar Coast of the Indian subcontinent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2203791",
"title": "Freedom of religion in China",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Christianity has had a presence in China dating as far back as the Tang dynasty, and accumulated a following in China with the arrival of large numbers of missionaries during the Qing dynasty. Missionaries were expelled from China in 1949 when the Communist Party came to power, and the religion was associated with Western imperialism. However, Christianity experienced a resurgence of popularity since the reforms under Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s and 1980s. By 2011, approximately 60 million Chinese citizens were estimated to be practicing Protestantism or Catholicism. The majority of these do not belong to the state-sanctioned churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15445108",
"title": "Basmyl",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "There is controversy regarding the spread and decline of Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia. Bishops were reported in Merv and Herat from the 5th century onwards. Christian and Jewish merchants were active in trade at the time between China and Provence. While the ideological and political doctrines of the Turkic Kaganate did not tolerate foreign religions and the spread of Christianity in the Kaganate was limited, some Dzungaria Türks, closely connected with caravan roads and trading cities, absorbed these ideas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5npdnp
|
why are us troops being deployed to poland?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because Russia. Like it or not, NATO is primarily the Club of Countries the US Promises To Protect. Its ludicrously massive military is what everyone wants on their side.\n\nAfter Russia's adventures in the Crimea and Eastern Ukraine, there are suspicions within NATO that either Poland or the Baltics might suddenly find an [oppressed Russian minority](_URL_0_) within their borders, joined by \"vacationing\" Russian officers, and suddenly Russia's border will shift westwards. While Ukraine isn't NATO, those other states are, hence NATO (i.e. US) troops are pooling into there.\n\nRussia of course denies ties to the rebels in Eastern Ukraine and claims that it's Crimea's democratic choice, while blaming the West for the \"Nazi junta\" in Ukraine and the thoughtless Kosovo precedent allowing such democratic choices. Hence Poland has nothing to fear... for now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12266597",
"title": "Cauldron (Bond novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia stand up against EurCon, which gradually deploys combat troops to their borders. France also negotiates with Russia to stop natural-gas shipments to Poland. The United States comes in to support Poland by sending an LNG tanker to Gdańsk; French covert operatives, however, blow it up in the harbor. The U.S. Navy starts sending armed convoys to force a breakthrough of the Baltic Sea and keep the supply lines open.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50777069",
"title": "2017 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:January.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "BULLET::::- As an act of reassurance to NATO allies, the Obama administration deploys over 3,000 American troops to Poland to ensure protection from any possible future aggression from Russia, who subsequently call the act a threat to their national security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10858944",
"title": "Poland–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Third Polish Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In 2018, Poland proposed that the United States open a permanent military base within its country. The Polish government would finance around $2 Billion of the cost of hosting American forces, if the proposal was accepted by the United States. Poland has proposed either Bydgoszcz, or Toruń, as potential base locations. Since 1999, Poland has sought closer military ties with the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2726354",
"title": "1st Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "About 600 soldiers from the US Army’s 1st Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division are to deploy to Poland and the Baltic States in October 2014 to help reassure the European allies of the United States who feel threatened by Russian military moves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217342",
"title": "Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "On March 17, 2003, then Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski announced that Poland would send about 2,000 troops to the Persian Gulf to take part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Polish soldiers had been present in the region since July 2002 and combat was first confirmed on March 24. These formed the fourth of the larger military contributions to the forces arrayed against Iraq (with the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40153898",
"title": "Polish Armed Forces",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Polish forces also took part in the Iraq War. From 2003 to 2008, Polish military forces commanded the Multinational Division (MND-CS) located in the South-Central Occupation Zone of Iraq. The division was made up of troops from 23 nations and totaled as many as 8,500 soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40153898",
"title": "Polish Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Third Polish Republic (1989–today).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "In March 2003 the Polish Armed Forces took part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, deploying special forces and a support ship. Following the destruction of Saddam's regime the Polish Land Forces supplied a brigade and a division headquarters for the 17-nation Multinational Division Central-South, part of the U.S.-led Multi-National Force – Iraq. At its peak Poland had 2,500 soldiers in the south of the country. Other completed operations include 2005 'Swift Relief' in Pakistan, in which NATO Response Force-allocated personnel were despatched. Polish Land Forces personnel sent to Pakistan included a military engineers company, a platoon of the 1st Special Commando Regiment, and a logistics component from the 10th Logistics Brigade. Elsewhere, Polish forces were sent to MINURCAT in Chad and the Central African Republic (2007–2010). As of 2008, Poland had deployed 985 personnel in eight separarate UN peacekeeping operations (the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force, MINURSO, MONUC, UNOCI, UNIFIL, UNMEE, UNMIK, UNMIL, and UNOMIG).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1h8c12
|
Did civilizations like Rome and Greece participate in espionage?
|
[
{
"answer": "A contemporary source would be Historia Augusta, but dont expect to find that many details. Chapter 11, part 3-4 in [Historia Augusta](_URL_1_) (Hadrian) ; *He removed from office Septicius Clarus, the prefect of the guard, and Suetonius Tranquillus, the imperial secretary, and many others besides, because without his consent they had been conducting themselves toward his wife, Sabina, in a more informal fashion than the etiquette of the court demanded. And, as he was himself wont to say, he would have sent away his wife too, on the ground of ill-temper and irritability, had he been merely a private citizen. Moreover, his vigilance was not confined to his own household but extended to those of his friends, and by means of his private agents he even pried into all their secrets, and so skilfully that they were never aware that the Emperor was acquainted with their private lives until he revealed it himself.*\n\nI have read a description of [Ammian](_URL_0_) that describes him as an roman agent or spy.. cant find it now but he did write a [Res Gestae](_URL_2_) which is available online. Happy reading!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Trojan War records espionage in ancient cultures. From WP, \"Sinon, an Achaean spy, signaled the fleet stationed at Tenedos when 'it was midnight and the clear moon was rising'\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may find the answers in this thread fruitful:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have no clue about the extent/organisation of espionage in those civilizations, but I *do* know that Julius Caesar often coded his messages to his generals. One of those encryption techniques is named after him, and is called the \"Caesar cipher\". You can read more about this [here](_URL_0_) , although I can't vouch for its accuracy.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, quite extensively. Rose Mary Sheldon, professor of history at Virginia Military Institute, has written [a number of publications](_URL_8_) on Roman intelligence (broadly construed, and thus not always including what we would think of as espionage). [Here](_URL_10_)'s an article of hers that cites many examples, including: \n\n* a list of conspirators delivered to Julius Caesar shortly before his death^1\n* the use of disguise by Roman soldiers investigating the fearsome Ciminian Forest, under Etruscan control at the time ([cited in Livy](_URL_6_))\n* Hannibal's extensive use of spies against Rome during the Punic Wars (for example at the [Battle of the Trebia](_URL_9_)\\), and Scipio Africanus's eventual use of retaliatory espionage (for example at the [Battle of Utica](_URL_4_)\\)^2\n* the [frumentarii](_URL_7_) (domestic spies).\n\nSheldon argues that Rome had no state intelligence service because of the predominance of private intelligence networks employed by senators to carry out personal intrigues in the midst of complex senatorial politics; few records survive of these machinations. \"Every Roman aristocrat had his private network of business associates, informers, clansmen, slaves, or agents (male or female) who could keep him informed on the latest happenings in the Senate or his own home,\" she writes.\n\n[Here](_URL_3_) (PDF warning) is an article by Sheldon on the Byzantine intelligence service, and [here](_URL_0_) is the Google Books preview of her book *Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome.* \n\nedit: formatting\n\n---- \n\n^1 Curiously, her first example seems to have the least historical evidence, at least that I can find. I think she's confusing the Shakespeare character [Artemidorus](_URL_5_) with a real person? Nicolaus of Damascus's [account](_URL_1_) mentions that \"[Caesar's] friends were alarmed at certain rumors and tried to stop him going to the Senate-house,\" but Brutus successfully dismissed these as \"the idle gossip of stupid men.\" \n^2 See also Terry Crowdy's *[The Enemy Within](_URL_2_)*, chapter 2.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Absolutely, in fact, the Caesar cipher is among the best known substitution codes in the world and we have surviving literary records detailing its use by Julius Caesar in his military campaigns.\n\nEncryption is a great indicator of a need to keep secrets not just physically secure but informationally secure to boot. In other words; only exists if you think someone else is able to capture your correspondence and make use of it. It's a form of counter-espionage in its own right and proof positive of at least a rudimentary awareness of the same in the opposing force. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55247353",
"title": "Prometheus II",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background and establishment of Prometheus I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1314,
"text": "Following the Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940, Section D of British intelligence began recruiting Greeks for clandestine espionage and sabotage activity for the event that Greece might succumb to the Axis Powers in mind. Given its purpose, this activity was kept secret from the Greek government—the dictatorial 4th of August Regime led by General Ioannis Metaxas—and the Greek military; instead, the British agents turned to elements traditionally hostile to the ruling regime, chiefly former Republicans, pro-Liberal or left-wing elements, and even Communists. The Republicans and Liberals were historically hostile to Germany and friendly to Britain dating back to the National Schism of World War I, and furthermore eager to fight in their own way since the regime had refused many Venizelist officers who had been dismissed from the military following the Republican coup attempt of March 1935 the opportunity to fight on the front. Likewise the leftists were more accustomed to clandestine and conspiratorial activity, while the British understood early on that \"effective sabotage or guerrillas can only thrive if a revolutionary atmosphere has been created previously\", and were thus disposed to use the anti-monarchical elements in Greece, whether Republican or Communist, for their own ends. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39274469",
"title": "History of espionage",
"section": "Section::::19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies were developed over the course of the late 19th century. A key background to this development was the Great Game, a period denoting the strategic rivalry and conflict that existed between the British Empire and the Russian Empire throughout Central Asia. To counter Russian ambitions in the region and the potential threat it posed to the British position in India, a system of surveillance, intelligence and counterintelligence was built up in the Indian Civil Service. The existence of this shadowy conflict was popularised in Rudyard Kipling's famous spy book, \"Kim\", where he portrayed the Great Game (a phrase he popularised) as an espionage and intelligence conflict that 'never ceases, day or night'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238030",
"title": "Counterintelligence",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies developed over the course of the late-19th century. A key background to this development was The Great Game - the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire throughout Central Asia between 1830 and 1895. To counter Russian ambitions in the region and the potential threat it posed to the British position in India, the Indian Civil Service built up a system of surveillance, intelligence and counterintelligence. The existence of this shadowy conflict was popularised in Rudyard Kipling's famous spy book, \"Kim\" (1901), where he portrayed the Great Game (a phrase Kipling popularised) as an espionage and intelligence conflict that \"never ceases, day or night\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28165911",
"title": "Diplomacy",
"section": "Section::::History.:West Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1393,
"text": "The ancient Greek city-states on some occasions sent envoys to each other in order to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other's territory. However, some of the functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were in Classical Greece filled by a \"proxenos\", who was a citizen of the host city having a particular relations of friendship with another city, often hereditary in a particular family. In times of peace diplomacy was even conducted with rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, though the latter eventually succumbed to the invasions of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great. The latter was also adept at diplomacy, realizing that in order to conquer certain territories it was important for his Macedonian and subject Greek troops to mingle and intermarry with native populations. For instance, Alexander even took a Sogdian woman of Bactria as his wife, Roxana, after the siege of the Sogdian Rock, in order to quell the region (which had been troubled by local rebels such as Spitamenes). Diplomacy was a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic kingdoms that were established, such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire, who fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated a peace treaty through alliances through marriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34761113",
"title": "Civilization V: Gods & Kings",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "Espionage in \"Gods & Kings\" can be used to invade rival civilizations as well as city-states. Spies are capable of stealing technology, rigging elections, performing reconnaissance, as well as various other espionage missions available in previous \"Civilization\" games. Unlike in previous games, however, spies are not trained by a civilization. Instead, they are awarded at certain intervals along the timeline. Additionally, unlike in past games, spies can gain levels by successfully performing a mission, just as combat units gain experience whenever they engage in a battle and succeed. Captured spies can also reveal information to the opposing civilization. The espionage system is designed to take effect just as the religion system begins to taper off. As such, spies are not available until the Renaissance era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39274469",
"title": "History of espionage",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Spies were also prevalent in the Greek and Roman empires. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols relied heavily on espionage in their conquests in Asia and Europe. Feudal Japan often used ninjas to gather intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193686",
"title": "Otto of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Parties, finances and the church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The political machinations of the Great Powers were personified in their three legates in Athens: the French Theobald Piscatory, the Russian Gabriel Catacazy, and the English Edmund Lyons. They informed their home governments on the activities of the Greeks, while serving as advisers to their respective allied parties within Greece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hfedt
|
how do people build programs inside of minecraft?
|
[
{
"answer": "Practically the same question was posted less than an hour ago: \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Early computers were basically a bunch of switches that were either ON or OFF. By arranging some amount of switches ON, you would store that information.\n\nIn MineCraft, you can build circuits using RedStone -- a powder which you can form lines of, that carry power from a RedStone Torch, or some form of trigger (pressure plate, switch, etc) for a certain distance, and can be used to trigger effects like pistons, doors, explosives, etc.\n\nWhat people do to build a computer in MineCraft is, they have a bunch of switches which they can set either ON or OFF, like an early computer. A lot ([a LOT!!!](_URL_0_)) of RedStone goes through a bunch of Logic Gates (I'll explain those in the next comment for formatting) and ends up doing whatever the creator wants them to do, such as turning on a bunch of lights (like pixels on your computer screen) to make an image.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24272469",
"title": "Dragonfire II: The Dungeonmaster's Assistant",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The program is designed to assist a game master in managing table-top role-playing games such as \"Dungeons & Dragons\" and \"Tunnels & Trolls\". A user can enter material into the menu-driven program's tables, including random monster appearances, treasure tables, battle elements, and the creation of new monsters and characters. The software allowed users to customize templates, permitting them to modify the system so that it would generate characters, encounters and other game requirements for a multiple role playing systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40466132",
"title": "StarMade",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Crafting is present in the game, and is known as \"Manufacturing\". Players can craft parts with blocks called \"Factories\". Each factory has its own inventory and specific list of items that only those blocks can manufacture. Factories require power in order to manufacture other parts. Once a factory has been powered, players can put the ingredients in the right factory block, and it will start producing whatever it is programmed to produce with an interval of roughly 5 seconds. Players can collect materials to craft all over the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3729451",
"title": "Nether Earth",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Once the player captures factories, receiving resources begins without any other action required from the player or his/her units. Resource types largely correspond to the module types and consist of: Electronics, Nuclear, Phasers, Missile, Cannon, Chassis and General. Each factory produces only one type of resource, alongside General resources, indicated by a copy of the corresponding module on the top of the building, thus the player can concentrate on conquering only those factories that produce the resources he plans on using.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49390570",
"title": "Minecraft mods",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "\"Minecraft\" mods are credited for being a gateway for children to pick up coding and programming. Several educational projects have been created to further encourage students to learn coding through \"Minecraft\", including LearnToMod, ComputerCraftEdu, and Minecraft: Pi Edition, all of which are offered free to teachers. Programming classes utilizing \"Minecraft\" were also started by the University of California, which aims to teach children aged 8–18 how to program applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51790666",
"title": "Toolbox (software)",
"section": "Section::::Functioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "ToolboX is a didactic resource that teachers can use at the classroom or in the computer room. When the program is launched, it shows a simple development environment, made of a command window, a text editor to write the program, and an optional graphic window. After choosing a problem list, the student must solve each of them by writing a program. It also provides help commands (to be executed in the command window) and other commands for debugging and running the program. When the solution computed by the program is correct, it shows the next problem, until the whole list is completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16398001",
"title": "The Sims Carnival",
"section": "Section::::Online Game Community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Three game creation tools—The Wizard, The Swapper and The Game Creator—were the player's assistants in game design. The Wizard led players through the process of creating a game step-by-step with intuitive options designed to help them create their own game (e.g., make their own Tower Defense game) with a library of game genres to choose from. The Swapper let players customize existing games – or newly made games from The Wizard - with their own selection of images, aiding in game personalization. With The Game Creator, and its library of images, animations and sounds, individuals could create a game from scratch or dive deep into customizing another player's creation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251212",
"title": "RuneScape",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Skills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Some skills, such as woodcutting and fishing, enable the player to collect raw materials that can be processed into usable items for other skills, such as fletching and cooking respectively. The items created can be used by the player or sold to shops and other players. Other skills allow players to kill certain NPCs, build their own houses, move around the map with greater ease, steal from various NPCs, market stalls and chests located in-game, light fires, cook their own food, create their own potions, craft runestones and weapons, plant their own plants, hunt NPC animals, raid dungeons, and summon familiars to assist in combat and training skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ravti
|
Why were smaller penises desirable in classical civilisation?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might enjoy /u/PapiriusCursor's answer to [Ancient Greek men thought the ideal male body possessed a small penis. Do we have any idea what Greek women thought?](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20598355",
"title": "Human penis size",
"section": "Section::::Historical perceptions.:Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "The ancient Greeks believed that small penises were ideal. Scholars believe that most ancient Greeks probably had roughly the same size penises as most other Europeans, but Greek artistic portrayals of handsome youths show them with inordinately small, uncircumcised penises with disproportionately large foreskins, indicating that these were seen as ideal. Large penises in Greek art are reserved exclusively for comically grotesque figures, such as satyrs, a class of hideous, horse-like woodland spirits, who are shown in Greek art with absurdly massive penises. Actors portraying male characters in ancient Greek comedy wore enormous, fake, red penises, which dangled underneath their costumes; these were intended as ridiculous and were meant to be laughed at.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20598355",
"title": "Human penis size",
"section": "Section::::Historical perceptions.:Prehistory and early civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Perceptions of penis size are culture-specific. Some prehistoric sculptures and petroglyphs depict male figures with exaggerated erect penises. Ancient Egyptian cultural and artistic conventions generally prevented large penises from being shown in art, as they were considered obscene, but the scruffy, balding male figures in the Turin Erotic Papyrus are shown with exaggeratedly large genitals. The Egyptian god Geb is sometimes shown with a massive erect penis and the god Min is almost always shown with an erection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20598355",
"title": "Human penis size",
"section": "Section::::Historical perceptions.:Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Nonetheless, there are indications that the Greeks had an open mind about large penises. A statue of the god Hermes with an exaggerated penis stood outside the main gate of Athens and in Alexandria in 275 BC, a procession in honor of Dionysus hauled a 180-foot phallus through the city and people venerated it by singing hymns and reciting poems. The Romans, in contrast to the Greeks, seem to have admired large penises and large numbers of large phalli have been recovered from the ruins of Pompeii. Depictions of Priapus were very popular in Roman erotic art and literature. Over eighty obscene poems dedicated to him have survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1419781",
"title": "I Modi",
"section": "Section::::Later edition.:Differences from antique art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "BULLET::::- The male sexual partners' large penises (though not Priapus's) are the artist's invention rather than a classical borrowing – the idealised penis in classical art was small, not large (large penises were seen as comic or fertility symbols, as for example on Priapus, as discussed above).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20598355",
"title": "Human penis size",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary perceptions.:Male self-perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "Males may quite easily underestimate the size of their own penis relative to those of others. A survey by sexologists showed that many men who believed that their penis was of inadequate size had average-sized penises. Another study found sex education of standard penile measurements to be helpful and relieving for patients concerned about small penis size, most of whom had incorrect beliefs of what is considered medically normal. The perception of having a large penis is often linked to higher self-esteem. Fears of shrinking of the penis in folklore have led to a type of mass hysteria called penis panic, though the penis legitimately can shrink in size due to scar tissue formation in the penis from a medical condition called Peyronie's disease. Marketers of penis enlargement products exploit fears of inadequacy, but there is no consensus in the scientific community of any non-surgical technique that permanently increases either the thickness or length of the erect penis that already falls into the normal range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18885237",
"title": "Sexual selection in humans",
"section": "Section::::Sexual dimorphism.:Sexual anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "\"Homo\" has a thicker penis than the other great apes, though it is on average no longer than the chimpanzee's. It has been suggested the evolution of the human penis towards larger size was the result of female choice rather than sperm competition, which generally favors large testicles. However, penis size may have been subject to natural selection, rather than sexual selection, due to a larger penis' efficiency in displacing the sperm of rival males during sexual intercourse. A model study showed displacement of semen was directly proportional to the depth of pelvic thrusting, as an efficient semen displacement device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4149673",
"title": "The Naked Ape",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Morris said that \"Homo sapiens\" not only have the largest brains of all higher primates, but that sexual selection in human evolution has caused humans to have the highest ratio of penis size to body mass. Morris conjectured that human ear-lobes developed as an additional erogenous zone to facilitate the extended sexuality necessary in the evolution of human monogamous pair bonding. Morris further stated that the more rounded shape of human female breasts means they are mainly a sexual signalling device rather than simply for providing milk for infants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33knqg
|
How devout were ancient people when it came to their religion(s)?
|
[
{
"answer": "My reference point is pre-Christian, which has it's own problems, but can shed some light on your question. Ancient Greek religion is largely understood in the socio-cultural terms that /u/Fireproofspider has already referred to. \"Belief\" isn't a term that really enters the religious equation until Christian times. Also, there were no sacred texts, no clergy or any explicit ten commandment like prohibitions. So, it's a really good context in which to explore your question, it's the ultimate \"practiced\" religion. The question of whether the average Greek person believed in their mythology, like the labours of Hercules or Orpheus' trip to the underworld, is for the most part anachronistic. Individual cities had their own special gods and myths, but could also refer to the pantheon of gods to participate in the wider Hellenic community. These stories, and the ritual sacrifices and burials associated with them, were the language with which people engaged each other and with things beyond their control. Festivals were their weekends, sacrifices their BBQs, festival performances their cinemas and Dionysiac revels their frat parties. Religion was more ingrained in their lives than we can easily imagine.\n\nThis isn't to say that the same social dynamics (Homer vs. Ned) didn't exist. We have great sources from people like Plutarch and Theophrastus who give us each a characterisation of the overly superstitious man. This Ned like figure goes to the temple constantly and consults oracles as to what he should have for lunch, and the audience are clearly having a laugh at his expense. We've also got radicals like Plato who question the very existence of god. So we can imagine some kind of spectrum of religiosity, but the middle is very thick and the extremes are very thin.\n\nSo, my take on your questions is that the two aren't mutually exclusive (in this context at least). Maybe people did begrudge losing their best stuff in burial rites, but at the same time we can't extend that all the way to our modern cynicism.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75839",
"title": "Aquileia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In terms of religion, the populace adopted the Roman pantheon, although the Celtic sungod, Belenus, had a large following. Jews practiced their ancestral religion and it was perhaps some of these Jews who became the first Christians. Meanwhile, soldiers brought the martial cult of Mithras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7491899",
"title": "Hellenistic religion",
"section": "Section::::Classical Greek religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "There is, however, no reason to suppose that there was a decline in the traditional religion. There is plenty of documentary evidence that the Greeks continued to worship the same gods with the same sacrifices, dedications, and festivals as in the classical period. New religions did appear in this period, but not to the exclusion of the local deities, and only a minority of Greeks were attracted to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36545",
"title": "Gaul",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman Gaul.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The religious practices of inhabitants became a combination of Roman and Celtic practice, with Celtic deities such as Cobannus and Epona subjected to interpretatio romana. The imperial cult and Eastern mystery religions also gained a following. Eventually, after it became the official religion of the Empire and paganism became suppressed, Christianity gradually won out in the twilight days of the Empire; a small but notable Jewish presence also became established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63325",
"title": "Dionysus",
"section": "Section::::Worship.:Worship from the Middle Ages to the Modern period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Though the last known worshippers of the Greek and Roman gods were converted before 1000 CE, there were several isolated instances of revived worship of Dionysus during the Medieval and early modern periods. With the rise of modern neopaganism, worship of the god has once again been revived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17633550",
"title": "Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:\"The Death of Ancient Egypt\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire and enforced upon the Egyptians. Greeks and Romans could blend their own pantheons with those of Egypt but Christianity was monotheistic and intolerant regarding old gods as devils. Ancient rituals were appropriated and transformed, including the Ptolomeic idea of monasticism, finally defeating the old gods by the mid-4th century when over half the Egyptian population had converted to Christianity and the rest were persecuted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23747240",
"title": "Religion in South Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Buddhism was influential in ancient times and Christianity had influenced large segments of the population in the 18th and 19th century, yet they grew rapidly in membership only by the mid-20th century, as part of the profound transformations that South Korean society went through in the past century. But they have shown some decline from the year 2000 onwards. Native shamanic religions (i.e. \"Sindo\") remain popular and could represent a large part of the unaffiliated. Indeed, according to a 2012 survey, only 15% of the population declared themselves to be not religious in the sense of \"atheism\". According to the 2015 census, the proportion of the unaffiliated is higher among the youth, about 65% among the 20-years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25793095",
"title": "National god",
"section": "Section::::National gods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "In antiquity (and to some extent continuing today), religion was a characteristic of regional culture, together with language, customs, traditions, etc. Many of these ethnic religions included national god(s) in their pantheons, such as \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
egoo7j
|
how is the videogame skyrim seemingly endless?
|
[
{
"answer": "A small portion of the quests are procedurally generated. This means that there are is technically an infinite amount of meaningless fetch quests that reset every \\~3-ish in-game days. Every gathering node is preset and finite, though, they just respawn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8302621",
"title": "Minigames of Final Fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Minigames.:Chocobo World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The game's screen consists of black and white pixel graphics and is presented in a manner similar to the \"virtual pet\" concept conceived by Bandai's Tamagotchi. To play in conjunction with \"Final Fantasy VIII\", the player must find Boko in the world of \"Final Fantasy VIII\". Once accomplished, the player receives a user interface for communicating with the minigame. At any time, the player may send Boko into \"Chocobo World\" to gain experience and collect special items, which are transferred back for use in \"Final Fantasy VIII\". In addition, Boko may be used as a summon in \"Final Fantasy VIII\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30014712",
"title": "The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "\"Skyrim\" was developed using the Creation Engine, rebuilt specifically for the game. The team opted for a unique and more diverse open world than \"Oblivion\"s Imperial Province of Cyrodiil, which game director and executive producer Todd Howard considered less interesting by comparison. The game was released to critical acclaim, with reviewers particularly mentioning the character advancement and setting, and is considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time. Nonetheless it received some criticism, predominantly for its melee combat and numerous technical issues present at launch. The game shipped over seven million copies to retailers within the first week of its release, and over 30 million copies on all platforms as of November 2016, making it one of the highest selling video games in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314047",
"title": "The 3-D Battles of WorldRunner",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Part of the appeal and selling point of \"WorldRunner\" was its \"3D mode\", and it was the first of three games by Square to feature such an option. When the 3D mode is selected, the game uses computer image processing techniques to combine images from two slightly different viewpoints into a single image, known as anaglyph images. The game was packaged with cardboard anaglyph glasses, which use red and cyan color filters to moderate the light reaching each eye to create the illusion of a three-dimensional image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52757",
"title": "Final Fantasy VIII",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "Like the \"Final Fantasy\" games before it, \"Final Fantasy VIII\" consists of three main modes of play: the world map, the field map, and the battle screen. The world map is a 3D display in which the player may navigate freely across a small-scale rendering of the game world. Characters travel across the world map in a variety of ways, including by foot, car, Chocobo, train, and airship. The field map consists of controllable 3D characters overlaid on one or more 2D pre-rendered backgrounds, which represent environmental locations such as towns or forests. The battle screen is a 3D model of a location such as a street or room, where turn-based fights between playable characters and CPU-controlled enemies take place. The interface is menu-driven, as in previous titles, but with the typical weapon and armor systems removed and new features present, such as the Junction system. Also featured is a collectible card-based minigame called \"Triple Triad\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7796377",
"title": "Skynet (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "\"Skynet\" is driven by Bethsoft's XnGine. While the majority of the game uses textured polygons to display structures and enemies, many of the items, weapons, and level decorations are still shown using older sprite technology. The game went gold on November 11, 1996.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635947",
"title": "The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Hyrulean Adventure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Hyrulean Adventure is the main campaign of \"Four Swords Adventures\", and can be played by one to four players. It consists of eight worlds, each with three stages and a boss battle. The graphics are similar to that of the Game Boy Advance version, but the maps are static rather than randomly generated, the top-down view is taken from \"\", and gameplay includes effects from \"\". The graphics also include enhanced atmospheric effects such as cloud shadows that slowly move across the ground, heat shimmer, dust storms, and fog. Music is based on that of \"\", but is rearranged in places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39235215",
"title": "Iron Man 3: The Official Game",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The game plays as an endless runner, similar to the game \"Temple Run\". Many games of the genre play as a side-scrolling platformer game in 2D space; however, similar to \"Sonic Dash\", the game is played both in 3D space behind the character, and while flying, without platforming elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55h377
|
In terms of anatomy, why are some voices husky and some smooth?
|
[
{
"answer": "It has to do with your vocal cords. [This link](_URL_0_) (Warning, sort of gross) is a video of a camera recording someone's vocal cords while they talk and sing. The white area in the middle is the vocal cords. They're very easy to damage in the long run, through things like excessive yelling or singing. When they get damaged, the voice becomes more husky or scratchy, and it can be hard to reverse the damage. People with smooth voices generally have healthier vocal cords.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you mean husky as in rough (a long-term smoker's voice would be an extreme example of this), the answer is that there are asymmetries along the edges of the vocal cords. So when the vocal cords adduct, the mucosal wave that kind of vibrates between the cords is off and the sound comes out rougher. This kind of asymmetry could be caused by something like a little bit of swelling after a long night of talking in a loud place, by a benign pathology like a polyp or nodules, or by something like a tumor. I've heard from a colleague about one of her clients who is an actress--she spends a few minutes screaming each night before bed to keep her rough voice (not recommended). \n\nIf you mean husky as in breathy (think Marilyn Monroe's voice), the breathiness comes from the vocal cords not achieving full adduction during phonation. This can be physiological if there is some kind of structural or neurological deficit but this is something we also have the ability to control ourselves. \n\nSource--I'm a speech pathologist",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Finally an anatomy question! My final dissertation and dissection for my degree in Human Anatomy was focused on the head and neck, especially the laryngeal and tracheal apparatus - you are in luck!\n\nThe vocal cords are the free edge of muscles (or they are tendinous bands) that connect the thyroid cartilage (the biggest cartilage in your neck) and the arytenoid cartilages (small cartilages that can move and twist when other muscles pull on them). The movement of the arytenoid cartilages there changes the voice pitch by tightening or loosening the vocal cords. This is done by the Vocalis muscle moving the arytenoid cartilages, interestingly a skeletal muscle (it is consciously controlled by the brain, not an automatic response) and so disease affecting skeletal muscles such as motor neuron disease will often result in changes/atrophy of vocalis and changes in, or loss of, the voice.\n\nHowever the vocal folds are mucous membranes that drape over these tight vocal cords, these are what open and close to change the column of air travelling through the vocal apparatus to change the voice. \n\nMucous membranes are easily damaged over time, smoking is a good exmaple of this. Smoking with cause death of the cells in the membranes, especially of the goblet cells (the specialised mucous producing cells) embedded in the membrane. Overtime this destruction of the membranes and the mucous producing cells damages the membranes and makes them drier, they rub together instead of gliding smoothly and produce a huskier voice.\n\nIf you are interested in the anatomy the vocal cords (the sturdier bits that the mucous membranes drape over) are called the vestibular ligament of the quadrangular membrane - this forms the 'false' vocal cords high up in the trachea and are not really involved in sound production but more in the resonance of the voice eg if the voice is a deep bass or squeakier. The 'true' vocal cords are lower down in the trachea and formed from the vocal ligament of the cricothyroid membrane, this is involved directly in sound production. \n\nThe mucous membrane covering the 'true' vocal cords will only just touch (ie wont fully close) during vocalisations, the vibration of the membranes against each other as the column of air travels through the tiny gap forms sounds - damaged mucous membranes will vibrate more (compared to tight, smooth, healthy membranes) and form husky voices.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7676",
"title": "Creaky voice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "In linguistics, creaky voice (sometimes called laryngealisation, pulse phonation, vocal fry, or glottal fry) is a special kind of phonation in which the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together; as a result, the vocal folds are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact. They normally vibrate irregularly at 20–50 pulses per second, about two octaves below the frequency of normal voicing, and the airflow through the glottis is very slow. Although creaky voice may occur with very low pitch, as at the end of a long intonation unit, it can also occur with a higher pitch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188219",
"title": "Reinke's edema",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Reinke's edema is characterized by a \"sac-like\" appearance of the vocal folds. The edema is a white translucent fluid that causes a bulging (distension) of the vocal cord. The most common clinical symptom associated with Reinke's edema is an abnormally low pitched voice with hoarseness. The low pitch voice is a direct result of increased fluid in the Reinke's space, which vibrates at a lower frequency than normal (females <130 Hz; males <110 Hz). Hoarseness is a common problem of many laryngeal diseases, such as laryngitis. It is described as a harsh and breathy tone of voice. Hoarseness is often seen alongside dysphonia, a condition in which the individual has difficulty speaking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185621",
"title": "Vocal cord nodule",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "One of the major perceptual signs of vocal fold nodules is a change in the quality of the voice. The voice may be perceived as hoarse, due to aperiodic vibrations of the vocal folds, and may also be perceived as breathy, due to an incomplete closure of the vocal folds upon phonation. The degree of hoarseness and breathiness perceived may vary in severity. This variability may be due to the size and firmness of the nodules. Other common symptoms include difficulty producing vocal pitches in the higher range, increased phonatory effort, and vocal fatigue. There may be a sensation of soreness or pain in the neck, lateral to the larynx, which generally occurs because of the increased effort needed to produce the voice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25358536",
"title": "Cardiff English",
"section": "Section::::Phonetics and phonology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The tongue also holds a slightly different shape with people speaking in Cardiff English. The front is rigid and close to the alveolar ridge, while the back is relaxed, creating a large pharyngeal cavity. In continuous speech, the soft palate is also lowered, providing a slight nasal quality. Creaky voice is mainly absent and can only found in prestigious middle-class varieties as in RP. The vocal folds are tenser than in Received Pronunciation, giving a husky, breathy sound to articulation, with the overall effect of greater resonance, tension and hoarseness makes the accent often thought of as being \"harsh\" or \"unpleasant\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2715761",
"title": "Arx Fatalis",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Although critics pointed out the visuals not being very appealing and the sound being like a \"mixed bag\" with \"Some of the voice work is very good with particularly the main character's detached and distant voice, which makes more sense when you learn his identity. While some of the races had fairly cheesy voices.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38481",
"title": "Human voice",
"section": "Section::::Physiology and vocal timbre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64966",
"title": "Maria Callas",
"section": "Section::::Voice.:Vocal registers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "In certain areas of her range her voice also possessed a guttural quality. This would occur in the most delicate and troublesome areas of a soprano's voice—for instance where the lower and middle registers merge, between G and A. I would go so far as to say that here her voice had such resonances as to make one think at times of a ventriloquist ... or else the voice could sound as though it were resonating in a rubber tube. There was another troublesome spot ... between the middle and upper registers. Here, too, around the treble F and G, there was often something in the sound itself which was not quite right, as though the voice were not functioning properly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6amq92
|
why is a long one hour walk (4 miles) as tiring as a hard workout, but the walk burns far, far less calories?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unless you're walking over rough terrain or up steep inclines a 4 mile walk should not be tiring on the level of a strenuous workout. In general your perceived exertion is a good guide for how fast you're burning calories ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "309216",
"title": "Jogging",
"section": "Section::::Exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Jogging may also be used as a warm up or cool down for runners, preceding or following a workout or race. It is often used by serious runners as a means of active recovery during interval training. For example, a runner who completes a fast 400 metre repetition at a sub-5-minute mile pace (3 minute km) may drop to an 8-minute mile jogging pace (5 minute km) for a recovery lap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33998077",
"title": "Preferred walking speed",
"section": "Section::::As exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The situation becomes slightly more complex when preferred walking speed is introduced. The faster the pace, the more calories burned if weight loss is a goal. Maximum heart rate for exercise (220 minus age), when compared to charts of \"fat burning goals\" support many of the references that give the average of 1.4 m/s or 3 mph, as within this target range. Pedometers average 100 steps a minute in this range (depending on individual stride), or one and a half to two hours to reach a daily total of 10,000 or more steps (100 minutes at 100 steps per minute would be 10,000 steps).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47744639",
"title": "Shatapawali",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hijikata Y, Yamada S. Walking just after a meal seems to be more effective for weight loss than waiting for one hour to walk after a meal. International Journal of General Medicine 2011;4:447-450. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56039517",
"title": "Ada Anderson",
"section": "Section::::Mozart Garden – US debut.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Walking 2,700 quarter-miles in so many quarter-hours was an accomplishment never attempted by any person before in the US, requiring an ability to endure severe sleep deprivation, leading the champion US pedestrian Daniel O'Leary to claim ‘he would not attempt it’.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9309953",
"title": "John Merrill (marathon walker)",
"section": "Section::::Walking practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Merrill has an idiosyncratic methodology which involves never taking breaks during a day’s walk, carrying no water, travelling unaccompanied and walking thirty miles a day and more at a constant rate of three miles per hour. He has suggested that the limit of endurance is approximately 200 miles per week. He claims on his website that \"you need to walk before you are settled into the task and have comfy feet. After you are really adjusted and by you can push yourself relentlessly. By of continuous walking you are at your peak performance, but after you are physically declining\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9512700",
"title": "Surfside Beach Marathon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Running on sand may result in slower times, approximately 30 seconds per mile more than the your usual pace, but others say the sand is easier than pavement running and great for long runs. In 2007, Stephen Baumgartner was the first runner to break the 3 hour mark finishing in 2 hours, 55 minutes, and 44 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47744639",
"title": "Shatapawali",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Helps in Weight loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Although a 15-minute walk after dinner is a must to lead a healthy life, it plays a key role in weight loss. It is one of the most effective and simple ways to maintain a healthy weight as walking not only burns calories but also improves your overall health\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f6vyhv
|
scars
|
[
{
"answer": "They would and do exfoliate, eventually. The “lifespan” of a scar is dependent on how deep in the skin it is, and the size of the scar. As time passes, all or parts of the scar tissue will be pushed out. This is why some scars disappear over time, especially with proper skin care. However, if a scar is particularly deep, parts of it may take increasingly long amounts of time to ever reach the surface, and some parts never will. This is why some scars made fade in appearance, but will still be present even upon death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "77668",
"title": "Scar",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Hypertrophic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Hypertrophic scars occur when the body overproduces collagen, which causes the scar to be raised above the surrounding skin. Hypertrophic scars take the form of a red raised lump on the skin. They usually occur within 4 to 8 weeks following wound infection or wound closure with excess tension and/or other traumatic skin injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2293275",
"title": "Special Combat Aggressive Reactionary System",
"section": "Section::::Founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "SCARS is based on sciences of psychology, physiology, physical movement as well as research on the nervous system. SCARS was developed by Peterson after serving two tours in the US Army 173rd Airborne Brigade during the Vietnam War. It was debuted in 1987, and began to be taught to various military, law enforcement, and security units, such as the Arizona State police. Currently, SCARS is taught through private seminars, larger scale contracts, online training and DVDs. It contains no defensive actions, as all checks against the enemy's kicks or punches are delivered as strikes to vulnerable nerves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77668",
"title": "Scar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "A scar is an area of fibrous tissue that replaces normal skin after an injury. Scars result from the biological process of wound repair in the skin, as well as in other organs and tissues of the body. Thus, scarring is a natural part of the healing process. With the exception of very minor lesions, every wound (e.g., after accident, disease, or surgery) results in some degree of scarring. An exception to this are animals with complete regeneration, which regrow tissue without scar formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45372101",
"title": "Pathology of multiple sclerosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The scars that give the name to the condition are produced by the astrocyte cells healing old lesions. These glial scars are the remainings of previous demyelinating inflammatory lesions (encephalomyelitis disseminata) which are produced by one or more unknown underlying conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74555",
"title": "Acne",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Scars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Acne scars are caused by inflammation within the dermal layer of skin and are estimated to affect 95% of people with acne vulgaris. The scar is created by abnormal healing following this dermal inflammation. Scarring is most likely to take place with severe acne, but may occur with any form of acne vulgaris. Acne scars are classified based on whether the abnormal healing response following dermal inflammation leads to excess collagen deposition or loss at the site of the acne lesion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74555",
"title": "Acne",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Scars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Hypertrophic scars are uncommon, and are characterized by increased collagen content after the abnormal healing response. They are described as firm and raised from the skin. Hypertrophic scars remain within the original margins of the wound, whereas keloid scars can form scar tissue outside of these borders. Keloid scars from acne occur more often in men and people with darker skin, and usually occur on the trunk of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77668",
"title": "Scar",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "A scar is the product of the body's repair mechanism after tissue injury. If a wound heals quickly within two weeks with new formation of skin, minimal collagen will be deposited and no scar will form. When the extracellular matrix senses elevated mechanical stress loading, tissue will scar, and scars can be limited by stress shielding wounds. Small full thickness wounds under 2mm reepithelize fast and heal scar free. Deep second-degree burns heal with scarring and hair loss. Sweat glands do not form in scar tissue, which impairs the regulation of body temperature. Elastic fibers are generally not detected in scar tissue younger than 3 months old. In scars rete pegs are lost; through a lack of rete pegs scars tend to shear easier than normal tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ixs98
|
If gravity is the weakest fundamental force, how is it able to have a noticeable impact across such greater distances?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because there is no anti gravity. The earth is made of a huge number of particles with different electric charges, but on average they all cancel out so that the earth as a whole has no net charge. Because of this the electrostatic attraction of the earth to other planets/stars is very small. In contrast, all the mass of the particles in the earth add up positively, so that the gravitational attraction of the earth is due to the sum of the effects of all is parts. If the planets were only made of positively charged particles, their electrostatic repulsion would be huge and totally swamp the effect of gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gravity acts on mass (actually energy and momentum, but let's keep it Newtonian), which is always positive, while all other forces act on charges, which cancel out on average.\n\nLet us keep in mind that the gravitational field scales as 1/r^2 for large distance.\n\nAn astronomical object such as a planet, star, galaxy, etc. is electrically neutral, so the electromagnetic force has no strong impact over long distances. An electrically charged object would carry an em. field that goes to far distance as 1/r^2, like gravity, but with an electrically neutral object, the field goes as 1/r^3 at most (these are magnetic fields, or higher multipole electric fields due to inhomogeneous charge distributions).\n\nSince for astronomical scales r, 1/r^2 > > 1/r^3, gravity dominates electromagnetism.\n\nFor the strong force and colour charge, the same basic argument applies, except that due to short-scale confinement, colour-neutral particles appear already at the level of hadrons (protons and neutrons in everyday matter). Therefore, there is no inhomogeneity in the distribution of colour charge above the length scale of a hadron. The resulting force field decays exponentially over the length scale of an atomic nucleus (because the effective interaction is mediated by the massive pions).\n\nSo the strong force is a lot weaker than the EM force still, since it decays as exp(-r / r_nucleus) instead of 1/r^3.\n\nThe weak force inherently decays exponentially with distance (which is equivalent to say that the mediating boson is massive). The length scale over which this exponential decays is about 600 times shorter than that of the strong interaction (because the W and Z bosons are about 600 times heavier than the charged and neutral pions).\n\nTherefore, the weak force must be still a LOT weaker than the strong force on astronomical scales, because it decays over distances about 1/600 the size of an atomic nucleus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33629",
"title": "Weak interaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The effective range of the weak force is limited to subatomic distances, and is less than the diameter of a proton. It is one of the four known force-related fundamental interactions of nature, alongside the strong interaction, electromagnetism, and gravitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of physics, approximately 10 times weaker than the strong interaction, 10 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 10 times weaker than the weak interaction. As a consequence, it has no significant influence at the level of subatomic particles. In contrast, it is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation, shape and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. For example, gravity causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit the Sun, it also causes the Moon to orbit the Earth, and causes the formation of tides, the formation and evolution of the Solar System, stars and galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169552",
"title": "Fifth force",
"section": "Section::::Experimental approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "A new fundamental force might be difficult to test. Gravity, for example, is such a weak force that the gravitational interaction between two objects is only significant when one of them has a great mass. Therefore, it takes very sensitive equipment to measure gravitational interactions between objects that are small compared to the Earth. A new (or \"fifth\") fundamental force might similarly be weak and therefore difficult to detect. Nonetheless, in the late 1980s a fifth force, operating on municipal scales (i.e. with a range of about 100 meters), was reported by researchers (Fischbach \"et al.\") who were reanalyzing results of Loránd Eötvös from earlier in the century. The force was believed to be linked with hypercharge. Over a number of years, other experiments have failed to duplicate this result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.:Weak nuclear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word \"weak\" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 10 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed, which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 10 kelvins. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697155",
"title": "Hierarchy problem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In theoretical physics, the hierarchy problem is the large discrepancy between aspects of the weak force and gravity. There is no scientific consensus on why, for example, the weak force is 10 times stronger than gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183089",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in physics",
"section": "Section::::Unsolved problems by subfield.:High-energy physics/particle physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hierarchy problem: Why is gravity such a weak force? It becomes strong for particles only at the Planck scale, around 10 GeV, much above the electroweak scale (100 GeV, the energy scale dominating physics at low energies). Why are these scales so different from each other? What prevents quantities at the electroweak scale, such as the Higgs boson mass, from getting quantum corrections on the order of the Planck scale? Is the solution supersymmetry, extra dimensions, or just anthropic fine-tuning?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6709072",
"title": "Weakless Universe",
"section": "Section::::Motivation and anthropics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The strength of the weak interaction is an outstanding problem in modern particle physics. A theory should ideally explain why the weak interaction is 32 orders of magnitude stronger than gravity; this is known as the hierarchy problem. There are various models that address the hierarchy problem in a dynamical and natural way, for example, supersymmetry, technicolor, warped extra dimensions, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kqqzl
|
major differences between eastern orthodox and catholicism besides religious leader's authority?
|
[
{
"answer": "Authority is the big one.\n\n* Catholics mostly^1 use the Roman Rite liturgy; Orthodox groups tend to have their own liturgies.\n\n* Catholics still say the Holy Spirit proceeds \"from the Father and the Son\"; Orthodox usually draw more subtle nuances and may say the Holy Spirit proceeds \"from the Father through the Son\". \n\n* Local groups of Catholics and Orthodox have their own saints most likely to be venerated.\n\n* There's a couple books in the Orthodox list of Bible books (canon) that aren't in the Catholic canon. \n\n* Orthodox ordain married men to become priests; Catholics don't^1 . \n\n\n\n^(1. There are \"Eastern Rites\", who are technically Catholic and not Orthodox, because they accept the authority of the pope... but the Eastern Rite Catholics otherwise \"look\" more Orthodox, with their own liturgies and ordaining married men and whatnot. They are Catholic but not \"Roman Rite\".) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4559718",
"title": "Catholicity",
"section": "Section::::Denominational interpretations.:Eastern Orthodox Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the position that it is their communion which actually constitutes the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. Eastern Orthodox Christians consider themselves the heirs of the first-millennium patriarchal structure that developed in the Eastern Church into the model of the pentarchy, recognized by Ecumenical Councils, a theory that \"continues to hold sway in official Greek circles to the present day\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10186",
"title": "Eastern Orthodox Church",
"section": "Section::::Name and characteristics.:Catholicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The Eastern Orthodox Church considers itself to be both orthodox and catholic. The doctrine of the Catholicity of the Church, as derived from the Nicene Creed, is essential to Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology. The term \"Catholicity of the Church\" (Greek ) is used in its original sense, as a designation for the Universality of the Church, centered around Christ. Therefore, the Eastern Orthodox notion of catholicity is not centered around any singular see, unlike Catholicism, that has one earthly center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651997",
"title": "Ecclesiology",
"section": "Section::::Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "From the Eastern Orthodox perspective, the Church is one, even though She is manifested in many places. Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology operates with a plurality in unity and a unity in plurality. For Eastern Orthodoxy there is no 'either / or' between the one and the many. No attempt is made, or should be made, to subordinate the many to the one (the Roman Catholic model), nor the one to the many (the Protestant model). It is both canonically and theologically correct to speak of the Church and the churches, and vice versa. Historically, that ecclesiological concept was applied in practice as patriarchal pentarchy, embodied in ecclesiastical unity of five major patriarchal thrones (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21520745",
"title": "One true church",
"section": "Section::::Teachings by denomination.:Eastern Orthodoxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The Eastern Orthodox Church has identified itself as the \"one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church\" in, for instance, synods held in 1836 and 1838 and in its correspondence with Pope Pius IX and Pope Leo XIII. Some Orthodox hold that there can be a kind of imperfect participation in the Church by those not visibly in communion with it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10186",
"title": "Eastern Orthodox Church",
"section": "Section::::Present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 275,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 275,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The various autocephalous and autonomous synods of the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another. Presently, there are two communions that reject each other and, in addition, some schismatic churches not in any communion, with all three groups identifying as Eastern Orthodox.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146656",
"title": "Ecumenism",
"section": "Section::::Three approaches to Christian unity.:Orthodoxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Many theologians of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxies engage in theological dialogue with each other and with some of the Western churches, though short of full communion. The Eastern Orthodox have participated in the ecumenical movement, with students active in the World Student Christian Federation since the late 19th century. Most Eastern Orthodox and all Oriental Orthodox churches are members of the World Council of Churches. Kallistos of Diokleia, a bishop of the Eastern Orthodox Church has stated that ecumenism \"is important for Orthodoxy: it has helped to force the various Orthodox Churches out of their comparative isolation, making them meet one another and enter into a living contact with non-Orthodox Christians.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211143",
"title": "List of Christian denominations",
"section": "Section::::Eastern Orthodox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of jurisdictions in communion with each other. The church has over 250 million members, making it the second largest church. Some of them have a disputed administrative status (i.e. their autonomy or autocephaly is only partially recognized), but all remain in communion with each other as one church. The Orthodox claim continuity (based upon apostolic succession) with the early Church, and consider themselves pre-denominational, being the original Church of Christ before 1054.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yizor
|
why do so many law enforcers/military personnel support their governments during popular uprising?
|
[
{
"answer": "Paychecks and false security",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The types of people who become cops and military also tend to be OK with authority and think serious disagreement with the government is inappropriate/misguided at best.\n\nSee also: the eternal debate between \"fix the system from the inside\" versus \"it's too broken, it needs to be replaced.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Milgram's experiment:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm 61 years old. I served for six years in the United States Marine Corps. (During the Viet Nam era, but not in country) At no time in my life, under any but the most absolute circumstances (i.e. committing murders) would I fire upon students in my own country. If I were ordered to shoot students for standing in the streets shouting, I'd throw down my rifle. I'd bet that it was actually very few of the police/military who actually pulled triggers in Kiev. It kills me to think otherwise. I've known some really bad hateful racist extremist people in my life, so I can see these atrocities happening, (remember Kent State) but I believe I would die before shooting into a crowd of students.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Ukraine and Venezuela, a large share of the people support the government. It's not like North Korea. \n\n\nFurther, people employed in law enforcement or military are often biased towards stability and order rather than upheavals. Opposite for students/young people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965925",
"title": "Pakistan Army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In violation of its constitutional mandate, it has overthrown elected governments overreaching its constitutional mandate protected by the Constitution to \"act in aid of civilian federal government when called upon to do so\", the army has been involved in enforcing martial law against the elected governments in claiming to restore law and order in the country by dismissing the legislative branch, the Parliament, four times in past decades, and has wider commercial, foreign, and political interests in the country, facing allegations of acting as state within a state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "329906",
"title": "Civil disorder",
"section": "Section::::Crowd.:Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "The goal of demonstrators is to spur law enforcers to take actions that can be exploited as acts of brutality in order to generate sympathy for their cause, and/or to anger and demoralize the opposition. Crowds can use a range of tactics to evade law enforcement or to promote disorder, from verbal assault to distracting law enforcers to building barricades. The more well-planned tactics occur, the more purposeful the disorder. For example, crowds may form human blockades to shut down roads, they may trespass on government property, they may try to force mass arrests, they may handcuff themselves to things or to each other, or they may lock arms, making it more difficult to separate them, or they might create confusion or diversions through the use of rock throwing, arson, or terrorist acts, making law enforcers seems forceful or excessive when trying to remove them. Also, sometimes, terrorist elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9998102",
"title": "Rebellion in Patagonia",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The army is ordered to restore order in such a way as to permanently remove the threat of rebellion due to socialist or anarchist ideas, which they do by using acting in force, opening fire on strikers without warning and carrying out summary executions, especially of the leaders and even of delegations acting under a flag of truce, some of whom are made to dig their own graves. Others are tied naked to fences or made to run the gauntlet. The strikers, to whom the army had previously acted sympathetically, are caught by surprise. Armed landowners participate in the suppression of the strikers, identifying the leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31127943",
"title": "Conflict trap",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Political and legal Institutions play an important role in inhibiting a repeat civil war, hence preventing a country from entering a conflict trap. Strong institutions can put a check on the incumbent’s power, hence ensuring public welfare and therefore rebels have fewer reasons to restart a civil war. Also, this removes the need for the rebels to maintain an army or a threat of war. A strong political and legal system also gives a non-violent platform to rebels to bring about desired changes, so they may not need to adopt violent ways to protest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17240867",
"title": "Libertarian Party of Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::LPPA Platform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "All laws empower the government to use force on people. Some laws deter and punish those who would initiate force, as in murder, robbery or assault, for example. These laws are entirely consistent with the legitimate purpose of government, which is to protect and secure our rights. However, many other laws just restrict or even violate our rights, quite the opposite of protecting and securing them. Thus, our governments, as they grow ever larger, utilize oppressive force on peaceful people through their complex thicket of laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19932325",
"title": "History of labour law",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1452,
"text": "The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being, however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combinations or assemblages of persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers and employees indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2648009",
"title": "Insurrection Act",
"section": "Section::::Amendments.:2006.:Opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "we certainly do not need to make it easier for Presidents to declare martial law. Invoking the Insurrection Act and using the military for law enforcement activities goes against some of the central tenets of our democracy. It creates needless tension among the various levels of government — one can easily envision governors and mayors in charge of an emergency having to constantly look over their shoulders while someone who has never visited their communities gives the orders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s4ezv
|
Why can you lift a bigger weight after warming up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do we know that this is the case? Or is it that you can lift more weight **safely** after warmup?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3821985",
"title": "Complex training",
"section": "Section::::Complex training variations.:Weight lifting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Weight lifting can effectively demonstrate the effects of post-activation potentiation. For example, if a person lifts a light weight, and then lifts a heavy weight, before lifting the light weight again, the light weight will be relatively easier to lift and feel lighter the second time it has been lifted. Because the intense activation of the nervous system and correspondent recruitment of muscle fibres which occurred in conjunction with the heavy lift has allowed the person to perform more powerful movements, and the weight therefore feels relatively lighter. Another resistance based explanation involves the example of heavy suitcase, light suitcase i.e. after lifting a heavy suitcase, a person lifts a similar size, but light suitcase with no idea what is in it; as the person has just been carrying a heavy suitcase, their level of power application is well in excess of what is required to lift the light suitcase and it flies off the floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44574",
"title": "Weight training",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Stretching and warm-up.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Weight trainers commonly spend 5 to 20 minutes warming up their muscles before starting a workout. It is common to stretch the entire body to increase overall flexibility; however, many people stretch just the area being worked that day. The main reason for warming up is injury prevention. Warming up increases blood flow and flexibility, which lessens the chance of a muscle pull or joint pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240348",
"title": "Strength training",
"section": "Section::::Combined techniques.:Contrast loading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Similarly to complex training, contrast loading relies on the intense nervous system activation and enhanced muscle fibre recruitment from the heavy lift to help improve the power with which the subsequent exercise can be performed. This physiological effect is commonly referred to as post-activation potentiation, or the PAP effect. By way of explanation, if a light weight is lifted, and then a heavy weight is lifted, and then the same light weight is lifted again, then the light weight will feel lighter the second time it is lifted. This is due to the increased PAP effect from the heavy lift allowing for greater power to be applied and thus making the subsequent lighter lift feel even lighter than before. Explosive power training programmes are frequently designed to specifically utilise the PAP effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240348",
"title": "Strength training",
"section": "Section::::Risks and concerns.:Weight loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Weight loss also depends on the type of strength training used. Weight training is generally used for bulking, but the bulking method will more than likely not increase weight because of the diet involved. However, when resistance or circuit training is used, because they are not geared towards bulking, women tend to lose weight more quickly. Lean muscles require calories to maintain themselves at rest, which will help reduce fat through an increase in the basal metabolic rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2373193",
"title": "Lying triceps extensions",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Vertical French extension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "As with all weight training movements, it is important to keep the weight under smooth control on both the way down and the way up. This exercise can be performed standing, sitting or lying on one's back. As with most weight training exercises, it is recommended to start off with a lighter weight and then to gradually increase the weight as the muscles get stronger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "917355",
"title": "High-intensity training",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Also emphasized when near exhaustion in order to further exhaust the muscle or muscles exercised: doing static holds for periods of time, and negative reps (lowering the weight). This will stimulate further growth and strength because muscles are weakest in positive/contracting movements (sometimes referred to as first stage failure of a muscle). Although you may not be able to lift a weight for another rep you will almost certainly be able to hold it statically for a further period (second stage of failure) and finally lower a weight at a slow controlled speed (third stage of failure). Until all three (lifting, holding and lowering) parts of an exercise can no longer be completed in a controlled manner a muscle cannot be considered thoroughly exhausted/exercised .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "828050",
"title": "Warming up",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Warming up is performed before a performance or practice. Athletes, singers, actors and others warm up before stressing their muscles. It prepares the muscles for vigorous actions. It prevents muscle cramps and injury due to over exertion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32wy16
|
Why are some groups of animals, like rodents, not sexually dimorphic? (or at least as obvious as other mammals) How have social systems pressured changes in sexual dimorphism? How are species that aren't sexually dimorphic able to differentiate sexes before encounters?
|
[
{
"answer": "How are you defining \"dimorphism\"? Are you approaching it with human bias towards visible differences?\n\nRemember that there are other important sensory and behavioral clues to look for. Smell, in particular during estrus, is quite powerful, as are certain innate behaviors associated with mating, such as becoming more accommodating to the approach of a stranger.\n\nAlso, consider that even in dimorphic species there are same-sex encounters that lead to partial (or more) mating behaviors, from courtship up to pair bonding. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sexual dimorphism is usually the result of precopulatory sexual selection via either mate choice of the opposite sex or within-sex competition for mates, resulting in traits like a peacock's tail or a male gorilla's size and strength. In many animals that lay eggs where female size is a strong predictor of the number of eggs they can lay then natural selection on fecundity can make females larger than males. \n\nSpecies with low-levels of sexual dimorphism have mating systems that don't require males to fight over access to females any more than females fight over males (or access to resources), or where females aren't choosy about who they mate with in visibly obvious ways any more than males are. Though, remember that males and females have to build different phenotypes with mostly the same genome - it's rarely possible for the sexes to evolve their phenotypes completely independently, so there might be a genetic correlation that constrains dimorphism.\n\nThis isn't an exhaustive list of reasons but hopefully you get the idea.\n\nAs /u/jxj24 says, there will always be some level of sexual dimorphism (even aside from primary reproductive structures), and critically enough sexual dimorphism for members of the same species to tell the two sexes apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337310",
"title": "Rodent",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species. In some rodents, males are larger than females, while in others the reverse is true. Male-bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels, kangaroo rats, solitary mole rats and pocket gophers; it likely developed due to sexual selection and greater male-male combat. Female-bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice. It is not understood why this pattern occurs, but in the case of yellow-pine chipmunks, males may have selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success. In some species, such as voles, sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population. In bank voles, females are typically larger than males, but male-bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations, possibly because of the lack of predators and greater competition between males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26805",
"title": "Sex",
"section": "Section::::Sexual dimorphism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Sexual dimorphisms in animals are often associated with sexual selection—the competition between individuals of one sex to mate with the opposite sex. Antlers in male deer, for example, are used in combat between males to win reproductive access to female deer. In many cases the male of a species is larger than the female. Mammal species with extreme sexual size dimorphism tend to have highly polygynous mating systems—presumably due to selection for success in competition with other males—such as the elephant seals. Other examples demonstrate that it is the preference of females that drive sexual dimorphism, such as in the case of the stalk-eyed fly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "689764",
"title": "Onuf's nucleus",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "In addition to differences among location of the motoneurons responsible or sphincter function, it is important to mention the differences in sexual dimorphism between species. Although sexual dimorphism of Onuf's nucleus is present in all species, the extent of the sexual dimorphism varies. For example, sexual dimorphism in the number of perineal motoneurons is less obvious in dogs and humans than it is in rats. This is to be expected because female dogs retain perineal muscles whereas female rats do not have perineal muscles. As in humans, prenatal androgen plays an important role in establishing the sex differences in Onuf's nucleus of these species. If a female is exposed to excess androgen during the prenatal period, the sexual dimorphism does not occur in Onuf's nucleus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25348242",
"title": "Sex differences in sensory systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1362,
"text": "An organism is said to be sexually dimorphic when male and female conspecifics have anatomical differences in features such as body size, coloration, or ornamentation, but disregarding differences of reproductive organs. Sexual dimorphism is usually a product of sexual selection, with female choice leading to elaborate male ornamentation (e.g., tails of male peacocks) and male-male competition leading to the development of competitive weaponry (e.g., antlers on male moose). However, evolutionary selection also acts on the sensory systems that receivers use to perceive external stimuli. If the benefits of perception to one sex or the other are different, sex differences in sensory systems can arise. For example, female production of signals used to attract mates can put selective pressure on males to improve their ability to detect those signals. As a result, only males of this species will evolve specialized mechanisms to aid in detection of the female signal. This article uses examples of sex differences in the olfactory, visual, and auditory systems of various organisms to show how sex differences in sensory systems arise when it benefits one sex and not the other to have enhanced perception of certain external stimuli. In each case, the form of the sex difference reflects the function it serves in terms of enhanced reproductive success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5424051",
"title": "Monogamy in animals",
"section": "Section::::Sexual dimorphism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1413,
"text": "Sexual dimorphism denotes the differences in males and females of the same species. Even in animals with seemingly no morphological sexual dimorphism visible there is still dimorphism in the gametes. Males have the smaller gametes and females have the larger gametes. As soon as the two sexes emerge the dimorphism in the gamete structures and sizes may lead to further dimorphism in the species. Sexual dimorphism is often caused through evolution in response to male male competition and female choice. In polygamous species there is a noted sexual dimorphism. The sexual dimorphism is seen typically in sexual signaling aspects of morphology. Males typically exhibit these dimorphic traits and they are typically traits which help in signaling to females or male male competition. In monogamous species sexual conflict is thought to be lessened, and typically little to no sexual dimorphism is noted as there is less ornamentation and armor. This is because there is a relaxation of sexual selection. This may have something to do with a feedback loop caused by a low population density. If sexual selection is too strenuous in a population where there is a low density the population will shrink. In the continuing generations sexual selection will become less and less relevant as mating becomes more random. A similar feedback loop is thought to occur for the sperm quality in genetically monogamous pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6027945",
"title": "Sexual dimorphism measures",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "It is widely known that sexual dimorphism is an important component of the morphological variation in biological populations (see, e.g., Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1983; Oxnard, 1987; Kelley, 1993). In higher Primates, sexual dimorphism is also related to some aspects of the social organization and behavior (Alexander \"et al.\", 1979; Clutton-Brock, 1985). Thus, it has been observed that the most dimorphic species tend to polygyny and a social organization based on male dominance, whereas in the less dimorphic species, monogamy and family groups are more common. Fleagle \"et al.\" (1980) and Kay (1982), on the other hand, have suggested that the behavior of extinct species can be inferred on the basis of sexual dimorphism and, e.g. Plavcan and van Schaick (1992) think that sex differences in size among primate species reflect processes of an ecological and social nature. Some references on sexual dimorphism regarding human populations can be seen in Lovejoy (1981), Borgognini Tarli and Repetto (1986) and Kappelman (1996).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197179",
"title": "Sexual dimorphism",
"section": "Section::::Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "In some species, there is evidence of male dimorphism, but it appears to be for the purpose of distinctions of roles. This is seen in the bee species \"Macrotera portalis\" in which there is a small-headed morph, capable of flight, and large-headed morph, incapable of flight, for males. \"Anthidium manicatum\" also displays male-biased sexual dimorphism. The selection for larger size in males rather than females in this species may have resulted due to their aggressive territorial behavior and subsequent differential mating success. Another example is \"Lasioglossum hemichalceum\", which is a species of sweat bee that shows drastic physical dimorphisms between male offpsring. Not all dimorphism has to have a drastic difference between the sexes. \"Andrena agilissima\" is a mining bee where the females only have a slightly larger head than the males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s76gj
|
free radicals, oxidative stress, and anti oxidants.
|
[
{
"answer": "Oxygen is a corrosive gas. It literally steals electrons from other atoms (ie oxidizes them). Our body uses oxygen this way to forcefully pull electrons through several chemical reactions, such as breaking down digested carbohydrates into biochemical energy. This is why you breathe.\n\nUnfortunately, oxygen doesn't care which atoms it steals electrons from. It may steal from a protein or chunk of DNA that causes the victim molecule to no longer function correctly. Worse, the victim molecule is now unstable - it wants to either gain an electron back, or it needs to lose a second electron to become stable again. So now the victim molecule has become the predator, looking to prey on yet another molecule, and this cycle of electron violence continues. Sooner or later, molecules will become so \"broken\" that they can't function... proteins can't do their job, DNA becomes corrupted, etc. Then the cell's functioning starts to break down. If you're lucky (and healthy), your body will recognize the disruption and safely dispose of the cell. If you're not lucky, the faltering cell may become cancerous.\n\nAntioxidants are various chemicals that can neutralize this effect to some extent, thereby preventing damage.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11103166",
"title": "Pro-oxidant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Pro-oxidants are chemicals that induce oxidative stress, either by generating reactive oxygen species or by inhibiting antioxidant systems. The oxidative stress produced by these chemicals can damage cells and tissues, for example an overdose of the analgesic paracetamol (acetaminophen) can fatally damage the liver, partly through its production of reactive oxygen species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3277",
"title": "Antioxidant",
"section": "Section::::Pro-oxidant activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Antioxidants that are reducing agents can also act as pro-oxidants. For example, vitamin C has antioxidant activity when it reduces oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide; however, it will also reduce metal ions that generate free radicals through the Fenton reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3277",
"title": "Antioxidant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals, thereby leading to chain reactions that may damage the cells of organisms. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid (vitamin C) terminate these chain reactions. To balance the oxidative stress, plants and animals maintain complex systems of overlapping antioxidants, such as glutathione and enzymes (e.g., catalase and superoxide dismutase), produced internally, or the dietary antioxidants vitamin C and vitamin E.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "605501",
"title": "Free-radical theory of aging",
"section": "Section::::Processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Antioxidants are helpful in reducing and preventing damage from free radical reactions because of their ability to donate electrons which neutralize the radical without forming another. Ascorbic acid, for example, can lose an electron to a free radical and remain stable itself by passing its unstable electron around the antioxidant molecule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2597506",
"title": "Neuroprotection",
"section": "Section::::Oxidative stress.:Antioxidants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Antioxidants are the primary treatment used to control oxidative stress levels. Antioxidants work to eliminate reactive oxygen species, which are the prime cause of neurodegradation. The effectiveness of antioxidants in preventing further neurodegradation is not only disease dependent but can also depend on gender, ethnicity, and age. Listed below are common antioxidants shown to be effective in reducing oxidative stress in at least one neurodegenerative disease:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19916613",
"title": "Radical (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence of radicals.:In biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Because radicals are necessary for life, the body has a number of mechanisms to minimize radical-induced damage and to repair damage that occurs, such as the enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. In addition, antioxidants play a key role in these defense mechanisms. These are often the three vitamins, vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E and polyphenol antioxidants. Furthermore, there is good evidence indicating that bilirubin and uric acid can act as antioxidants to help neutralize certain radicals. Bilirubin comes from the breakdown of red blood cells' contents, while uric acid is a breakdown product of purines. Too much bilirubin, though, can lead to jaundice, which could eventually damage the central nervous system, while too much uric acid causes gout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2630110",
"title": "Ferulic acid",
"section": "Section::::Bio-medical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Ferulic acid, like many natural phenols, is an antioxidant in vitro in the sense that it is reactive toward free radicals such as reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS and free radicals are implicated in DNA damage, cancer, and accelerated cell aging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1szzhg
|
how do other websites use reddit's content without backlash?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on what kind of content you are talking about.\n\nFirst there is the question about what is and what isn't covered by copyright, and also who would own said copyright. Take something like memes. It could be argued that most memes do not reach the level of originality needed, and therefor is not covered by copyright. \n\nIn addition to that, it could be argued that the copyright actually belongs to the creator of the actual image (the producer of the movie, game or whatever it is taken from), and not the person who adds the text.\n\nWhen it comes to content that definitely is copyrighted (such as original images and stories) it largely comes down to the very small risk they take. Most people will not ask Buzzfeed for example to take down content. The few times that someone do send copyright claims to these websites, they simply remove the infringing content and everything tend to be fine. \n\nIt's generally not worth it for a copyright holder to pursue any kind of compensation, due to it taking more time, money and effort then you would actually receive in compensation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called \"subreddits\", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site's front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit's administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "The website generally lets moderators on individual subreddits make editorial decisions about what content to allow, and has a history of permitting some subreddits dedicated to controversial content. Many of the default pages are highly moderated, with the \"science\" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the \"news\" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has had a history of giving a platform to objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban \"suggestive or sexual content featuring minors\". Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the publication of non-public personally-identifying information via the site (colloquially known as doxxing). Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, and their posts and even entire communities may be removed for breaking the rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn \"karma\" for their posts and comments, which reflects the user's standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51203509",
"title": "R/The Donald",
"section": "Section::::Prominence on Reddit website.:Algorithm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1306,
"text": "Through the use of \"sticky posts,\" a moderation function of Reddit that allows selected posts to be artificially placed at the top of a subreddit, the moderators of the forum were \"gaming\" the algorithms in order to dominate the content on the r/all page, which is a representation of the most popular content on the website. Additionally, users are often apt to flood the website with waves of identical images or posts, a direct violation of site-wide policies regarding spam. In response, Huffman rolled out a change to the r/all algorithm; he noted that r/The_Donald was among several Reddit communities over the years that \"attempt to dominate the conversation on Reddit at the expense of everyone else.\" Ongoing problems with members of the subreddit brigading and harassing other subreddits forced Reddit staff to modify the site's software algorithms to limit the offending posts to the subreddit. The Reddit team introduced r/popular to replace r/all, which included most popular subreddits except for The_Donald, and as a result the subreddit could no longer reach the front page. In February 2017, Reddit overhauled their algorithms even further to prevent content from the subreddit (among other communities) from ever being seen by logged out users or people who do not have a Reddit account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Community and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as \"offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment\". Also known as the \"Slashdot effect\", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit \"hug of death\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8252065",
"title": "Social news website",
"section": "Section::::Websites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "Reddit, started in June 2005, is a social news website where users can submit articles and comments and vote on these submissions. The submissions are organized into categories called \"subreddits\". Unlike Digg, with Reddit, users can directly affect an article's score. An \"upvote\" will increase the score and a \"downvote\" will decrease it. Articles with the highest scores are displayed on the front page. There is also a page for \"controversial\" articles, that have an almost equal number of upvotes and downvotes. Free speech debates have arisen due to the shutting down of obscene or potentially illegal \"subreddits\" (including /r/jailbait, a collection of sexually suggestive underage pictures. Reddit introduced a system of user-created communities called \"subreddits\", which are essentially categories for a specific type of news. Comments on the featured posts are shown in a hierarchical fashion also based on votes. Users have the ability to earn \"karma\" for their participation and time on the website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Reddit is a website comprising user-generated content—including photos, videos, links, and text-based posts—and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name \"Reddit\" is a play-on-words with the phrase \"read it\", i.e., \"I read it on Reddit.\" , there are approximately 330 million Reddit users, called \"redditors\". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as \"subreddits\", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
123r7i
|
What would happen if you could get rid of the Higgs bosons in an object?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Higgs boson does not give particles mass. There are not Higgs bosons inside ordinary matter.\n\nThe Higgs mechanism is associated with the default value that the Higgs field takes throughout space. The Higgs boson arises as a sort of deviation of the Higgs field from its default value.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There aren't Higgs bosons *in* an object. The mass of matter is related to the extent to which the matter interacts with the Higgs bosons/field.\n\nThe vacuum of space is essentially filled with something known as the Higgs field, named after the eponymous physicist Peter Higgs, one of the people who developed this idea in 1964. This field interacts with the particles passing through it. They begin to slow down and bind together, forming complex structures such as protons, nuclei, atoms, and molecules. \n\nYou can think of the particles of the Higgs field as a line of defenders in a football game. Without them, all the matter in the universe would freely travel at the speed of light, just as the ball carrier would easily score touchdown after touchdown. But *with* the Higgs defenders present, the ball carrier is slowed down significantly. In the same way the defenders slow down the running back, the Higgs field slows down particles as they travel through it. \n\n[ ^^ damn near direct quotes from a planetarium show I wrote about the LHC/Higgs/dark matter/the Big Bang ^^ ]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::History.:Experimental search.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "To produce Higgs bosons, two beams of particles are accelerated to very high energies and allowed to collide within a particle detector. Occasionally, although rarely, a Higgs boson will be created fleetingly as part of the collision byproducts. Because the Higgs boson decays very quickly, particle detectors cannot detect it directly. Instead the detectors register all the decay products (the \"decay signature\") and from the data the decay process is reconstructed. If the observed decay products match a possible decay process (known as a \"decay channel\") of a Higgs boson, this indicates that a Higgs boson may have been created. In practice, many processes may produce similar decay signatures. Fortunately, the Standard Model precisely predicts the likelihood of each of these, and each known process, occurring. So, if the detector detects more decay signatures consistently matching a Higgs boson than would otherwise be expected if Higgs bosons did not exist, then this would be strong evidence that the Higgs boson exists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Another possibility is for the Higgs to split into a pair of massive gauge bosons. The most likely possibility is for the Higgs to decay into a pair of W bosons (the light blue line in the plot), which happens about 21.5% of the time for a Higgs boson with a mass of . The W bosons can subsequently decay either into a quark and an antiquark or into a charged lepton and a neutrino. The decays of W bosons into quarks are difficult to distinguish from the background, and the decays into leptons cannot be fully reconstructed (because neutrinos are impossible to detect in particle collision experiments). A cleaner signal is given by decay into a pair of Z-bosons (which happens about 2.6% of the time for a Higgs with a mass of ), if each of the bosons subsequently decays into a pair of easy-to-detect charged leptons (electrons or muons).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "One way that the Higgs can decay is by splitting into a fermion–antifermion pair. As general rule, the Higgs is more likely to decay into heavy fermions than light fermions, because the mass of a fermion is proportional to the strength of its interaction with the Higgs. By this logic the most common decay should be into a top–antitop quark pair. However, such a decay would only be possible if the Higgs were heavier than ~, twice the mass of the top quark. For a Higgs mass of the SM predicts that the most common decay is into a bottom–antibottom quark pair, which happens 57.7% of the time. The second most common fermion decay at that mass is a tau–antitau pair, which happens only about 6.3% of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357353",
"title": "Large Hadron Collider",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "BULLET::::- is the mass of elementary particles being generated by the Higgs mechanism via electroweak symmetry breaking? It was expected that the collider experiments will either demonstrate or rule out the existence of the elusive Higgs boson, thereby allowing physicists to consider whether the Standard Model or its Higgsless alternatives are more likely to be correct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697155",
"title": "Hierarchy problem",
"section": "Section::::Examples in particle physics.:The Higgs mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "It should be remarked that the problem cannot even be formulated in the strict context of the Standard Model, for the Higgs mass cannot be calculated. In a sense, the problem amounts to the worry that a future theory of fundamental particles, in which the Higgs boson mass will be calculable, should not have excessive fine-tunings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296036",
"title": "Technicolor (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The simplest mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking introduces a single complex field and predicts the existence of the Higgs boson. Typically, the Higgs boson is \"unnatural\" in the sense that quantum mechanical fluctuations produce corrections to its mass that lift it to such high values that it cannot play the role for which it was introduced. Unless the Standard Model breaks down at energies less than a few TeV, the Higgs mass can be kept small only by a delicate fine-tuning of parameters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Experimental search and discovery of unknown boson.:Large Electron–Positron Collider.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "The fact that no decays of the Z boson to the Higgs were observed at LEP immediately implies that the Higgs boson, if it existed, must be heavier than the Z boson (~). Subsequently, with each successive energy upgrade of the LEP, hope re-emerged that discovery of the Higgs was just around the corner. Just prior to the planned shut down of LEP in 2000, few events that resemble a Higgs boson with a mass of ~ were observed. This led to extension of the final LEP run by a few months. But in the end the data was inconclusive and insufficient to justify another run after the winter break and the difficult decision was made to shut down and dismantle LEP to make room for the new Large Hadron Collider in November 2000. The inconclusive results of the direct search for the Higgs boson at LEP resulted in a final lower bound of the Higgs mass at the 95% confidence level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
232en9
|
why are steel surfaces relatively inhospitable to bacteria and other germs whereas stuff like acrylic are not?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe it has to do with the surface and how porous it is/isn't. Bacteria need tiny holes to hang out in (which also traps stuff they feed on), otherwise they get brushed away easily and there is less available 'food' for them. Also some metals give off ions that apparently kill bacteria. I know silver does, not sure about other metals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's known that certain metals like silver and copper possess metal ions that are toxic to a wide range of organisms. This is called the [Oligodynamic effect](_URL_0_) which Wikipedia further defines as \"a toxic effect of metal ions on living cells, algae, molds, spores, fungi, viruses, prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms, even in relatively low concentrations. This antimicrobial effect is shown by ions of mercury, silver, copper, iron, lead, zinc, bismuth, gold, aluminium, and other metals.\" \n\nAs far as I know the exact nature of this effect is not very well understood. There are some descriptions of specific interactions the ions have on metabolic functions that are disruptive however I'm no biologist so I'm afraid I can't ELI5. Here's another [source](_URL_1_) if you'd like to go into further detail on this phenomenon. \n\nHope this helps.\n\nEDIT: Just saw OP's edit. My bad. I guess you already knew that copper had this property. I guess my revised answer to you would be it appears that several other metals exhibit this antibacterial effect as well including iron and iron alloys like steel but not nearly as well as copper. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1413411",
"title": "Biofouling",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Materials research into superior antifouling surfaces for fluidized bed reactors suggest that low wettability plastics such as Polyvinyl chloride (\"PVC\"), high-density polyethylene and polymethylmethacrylate (\"plexiglas\") demonstrate a high correlation between their resistance to bacterial adhesion and their hydrophobicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155443",
"title": "Corrosion",
"section": "Section::::Protection from corrosion.:Surface treatments.:Biofilm coatings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "A new form of protection has been developed by applying certain species of bacterial films to the surface of metals in highly corrosive environments. This process increases the corrosion resistance substantially. Alternatively, antimicrobial-producing biofilms can be used to inhibit mild steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39322872",
"title": "Superhydrophobic coating",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Due to the extreme repellence and in some cases bacterial resistance of hydrophobic coatings, there is much enthusiasm for their wide potential uses with surgical tools, medical equipment, textiles, and all sorts of surfaces and substrates. However, the current state of the art for this technology is hindered in terms of the weak durability of the coating making it unsuitable for most applications. Newer engineered surface textures on stainless steel are extremely durable and permanently hydrophobic. Optically these surfaces appear as a uniform matte surface but microscopically they consist of rounded depressions one to two microns deep over 25% to 50% of the surface. These surfaces are produced for buildings which will never need cleaning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32006269",
"title": "Antimicrobial surface",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "An antimicrobial surface contains an antimicrobial agent that inhibits the ability of microorganisms to grow on the surface of a material. Such surfaces are becoming more widely investigated for possible use in various settings including clinics, industry, and even the home. The most common and most important use of antimicrobial coatings has been in the healthcare setting for sterilization of medical devices to prevent hospital associated infections, which have accounted for almost 100,000 deaths in the United States. In addition to medical devices, linens and clothing can provide a suitable environment for many bacteria, fungi, and viruses to grow when in contact with the human body which allows for the transmission of infectious disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52997550",
"title": "Hemp hurds",
"section": "Section::::Development of water-repellent coatings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The use of biomaterials for insulation boards in walls is attracting increasing interest, but wider acceptance in the construction industry has so far been slowed-down by adverse material properties. Because such materials consist mainly from cellulose, they are flammable and their hydrophilic surface leads to high water uptake, which can lead to mold or rot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1332341",
"title": "Natural building",
"section": "Section::::Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Other materials are avoided by practitioners of this building approach, due to their major negative environmental or health impacts. These include unsustainably harvested wood, toxic wood-preservatives, portland cement-based mixes and derived products such as Autoclaved aerated concrete, paints and other coatings that off-gas volatile organic compounds (VOCs), steel, waste materials such as rubber tires in regions where they are recycled, and some plastics; particularly polyvinyl chloride (PVC or \"vinyl\") and those containing harmful plasticizers or hormone-mimicking formulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24979028",
"title": "Concrete degradation",
"section": "Section::::Bacterial corrosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Bacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect on concrete. However, sulfate-reducing bacteria in untreated sewage tend to produce hydrogen sulfide, which is then oxidized by aerobic bacteria present in biofilm on the concrete surface above the water level to sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid dissolves the carbonates in the cured cement and causes strength loss, as well as producing sulfates which are harmful to concrete. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89yfpi
|
why does visible heat* have a shadow if it isn’t causing an absence of light?
|
[
{
"answer": "When air gets hot, it changes the density so you have swirling patches of hotter & cooler air.\n\nAir of different densities passes light differently, creating those shadows.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heat wave changes the density of its surrounding medium. Therefore refraction occurs as light passes through a medium going from 1 density into another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like others have said, its because the hot/cold air mixture distorts the image by bending transmitted light. \n\nFun side fact, mirages are also caused because of this phenomenon. Except that in mirages, air gets hotter and hotter as you get closer to the ground so the incoming light from a distance straight in front of you keeps bending as it gets closer to the ground until it becomes parabolic so you get the illusion of a reflection.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nothing is blocking the light, rather the light is just being bent off-course by higher and lower densities of air, and is landing somewhere else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917132",
"title": "Shadowgraph",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "In principle, we cannot directly see a difference in temperature, a different gas, or a shock wave in the transparent air. However, all these disturbances refract light rays, so they can cast shadows. The plume of hot air rising from a fire, for example, can be seen by way of its shadow cast upon a nearby surface by the uniform sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217296",
"title": "Shadow",
"section": "Section::::Point and non-point light sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1996729",
"title": "Johann Heinrich Schulze",
"section": "Section::::Notable discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Schulze is best known for his discovery that the darkening in sunlight of various substances mixed with silver nitrate is due to the light, not the heat as other experimenters believed, and for using the phenomenon to temporarily capture shadows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25948",
"title": "Refraction",
"section": "Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a heat haze when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature during a sunny day when using high magnification telephoto lenses and is often limiting the image quality in these cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202898",
"title": "Atmosphere of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Optical properties.:Scattering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through \"scattering\". If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called \"direct radiation\" and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. \"Indirect radiation\" is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7021",
"title": "Crookes radiometer",
"section": "Section::::General description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "When exposed to sunlight, artificial light, or infrared radiation (even the heat of a hand nearby can be enough), the vanes turn with no apparent motive power, the dark sides retreating from the radiation source and the light sides advancing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22858502",
"title": "Opposition surge",
"section": "Section::::Physical mechanisms.:Shadow hiding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "When the angle of reflection is close to the angle at which the light's rays hit the surface (that is, when the sun and the object are close to opposition from the viewpoint of the observer), this intrinsic brightness is usually close to its maximum. At a phase angle of zero degrees, all shadows disappear and the object is fully illuminated. When phase angles approach zero, there is a sudden increase in apparent brightness, and this sudden increase is referred to as the opposition surge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7lk6yo
|
why do car windows get a grid pattern on them
|
[
{
"answer": "Whenever the glass is rapidly cooled during the tempering process there are these air jets that blow cool air on the glass. This creates distortions in the glass that are almost invisible, until you put on polarized glasses. Different automakers have different (patented) patterns or cooling methods to reduce this distortion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tempered glass has stressors built-in. You can see them with polarized sunglasses. The built-in stress is what causes the window to completely shatter into small pieces when the window is damaged in any way. Even a scratch may cause enough damage to shatter the window.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "826552",
"title": "Rose window",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Romanesque (1000–1150 A.D.).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- The wheel window style refers to when architects started to putting glass within the oculi structure creating an actual window. This was due to when architects tried increasing the diameter of the oculi to let in more light, the problem of wind and rain became very apparent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68345",
"title": "X window manager",
"section": "Section::::Types of window managers.:Stacking window managers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "A stacking window manager renders the windows one-by-one onto the screen at specific co-ordinates. If one window's area overlaps another, then the window \"on top\" overwrites part of the other's visible appearance. This results in the appearance familiar to many users in which windows act a little bit like pieces of paper on a desktop, which can be moved around and allowed to overlap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2652103",
"title": "Tiling window manager",
"section": "Section::::Tiling window managers.:Microsoft Windows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "To tile windows, the user selects them in the taskbar and uses the context menu choice \"Tile Vertically\" or \"Tile Horizontally\". However, the wording of these options is misleading. Choosing \"Tile Vertically\" will cause the windows to tile horizontally but take on a vertical shape, while choosing \"Tile Horizontally\" will cause the windows to tile vertically but take on a horizontal shape. These options were later changed in Windows Vista to \"Show Windows Side by Side\" and \"Show Windows Stacked\", respectively. Windows 7 adds the ability to drag windows to either side of the screen to create a simple side-by-side tiled layout, or to the top of the screen to maximize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304484",
"title": "Chicago school (architecture)",
"section": "Section::::First Chicago School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The \"Chicago window\" originated in this school. It is a three-part window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting out from the facade forming bay windows. The Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows were often deployed in bays, known as \"oriel windows\", that projected out over the street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29725430",
"title": "Tribune Review Publishing Company Building",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "A large T-shaped window is located between each pair of adjacent piers. The horizontal part of each \"T\" fits in the space formed by the beams that support the roof. That is, the top bar of each \"T\" begins at the roof structure, as each beam does, extends downward as far as the bottom of the beams, and then extends horizontally across the entire space between two beams. As a result, the top parts of the T-shaped windows form a horizontal strip of glass just beneath the roof that extends the entire length of the building, interrupted only by the ends of the beams atop the piers. The vertical part of each \"T\" extends to the bottom of the ground floor. On the shorter sides of the building are six windows that could be described as distorted Ts; each has the form a square with a stubby tail descending from it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9823922",
"title": "Lapham–Patterson House",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "During the Spring and Fall Equinoxes the patterns are projected by sunlight onto the floor through the glass. The total effect is that, in the center of the stained glass window's colorful pattern on the floor, the shadow of the cow's head can be seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15616683",
"title": "Emmanuel Episcopal Church (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "This simplicity is relieved, in part, by patterning the brickwork. Of particular note, the repetitive triangular pattern at the roofline is called “mousetooth.” The brick patterning gives the impression of finely woven fabric. The sharply incised windows and doors produce dramatic voids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ney9s
|
How does evolution increase biological complexity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your 'relatively simple' example is actually perhaps the most complex; the jump from single to multiple cell is probably the most significant. Hence why it took so long (something in the order of a couple of billion years). From there on it's just a case of structural specialisation.\n\nEvolution is simply the expression of a small proportion of genetic mutations being favoured. We don't know the exact route for any of the above, as we don't have the vast majority of the intermediary species to analyse. It's like trying to know the precise movement of a person in a 24 hour period when all you have is a dozen photos taken at random intervals.\n\nBut to answer your question as broadly as possible, if you have a single cell, and a single cell which has a mutation which has developed an extra, tougher outer surface, the second cell is more likely to survive hostile environments, and also more complex than the first. Now follow through on tiny changes (most even less significant than that one) trillions of times, over several billion years and hey presto, you have a talking ape sat at a machine it built, leaving a message for a similar talking ape somewhere else on the planet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\\1. Genetically complexity increases by duplication followed by divergence.\n\nThat is parts of the genome get copied and possibly moved at the same time. And then they change from the original.\n\n\\2. From unicellular to multicellular goes via communities that benefit from living together, it's not that unlike the evolution of eusociallity in insects and some other animals.\n\nin social groups like those only the queen (or equivalent) reproduces and is kind of a meta version of only the sex cells in a multicellular organism reproducing.\n\nin these cases (and in multicellular organisms) the others \nactually get *more* of their genes into future generations by *helping* the sex animals/cells reproduce than by trying to do it themselves - ie they form themselves into a more efficient \"reproduction factory\".\n\nedit:\n\nYou could think of it like forming a bucket brigade to fill a pond with some of your genes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your 'relatively simple' example is actually perhaps the most complex; the jump from single to multiple cell is probably the most significant. Hence why it took so long (something in the order of a couple of billion years). From there on it's just a case of structural specialisation.\n\nEvolution is simply the expression of a small proportion of genetic mutations being favoured. We don't know the exact route for any of the above, as we don't have the vast majority of the intermediary species to analyse. It's like trying to know the precise movement of a person in a 24 hour period when all you have is a dozen photos taken at random intervals.\n\nBut to answer your question as broadly as possible, if you have a single cell, and a single cell which has a mutation which has developed an extra, tougher outer surface, the second cell is more likely to survive hostile environments, and also more complex than the first. Now follow through on tiny changes (most even less significant than that one) trillions of times, over several billion years and hey presto, you have a talking ape sat at a machine it built, leaving a message for a similar talking ape somewhere else on the planet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\\1. Genetically complexity increases by duplication followed by divergence.\n\nThat is parts of the genome get copied and possibly moved at the same time. And then they change from the original.\n\n\\2. From unicellular to multicellular goes via communities that benefit from living together, it's not that unlike the evolution of eusociallity in insects and some other animals.\n\nin social groups like those only the queen (or equivalent) reproduces and is kind of a meta version of only the sex cells in a multicellular organism reproducing.\n\nin these cases (and in multicellular organisms) the others \nactually get *more* of their genes into future generations by *helping* the sex animals/cells reproduce than by trying to do it themselves - ie they form themselves into a more efficient \"reproduction factory\".\n\nedit:\n\nYou could think of it like forming a bucket brigade to fill a pond with some of your genes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11508558",
"title": "Evolution of biological complexity",
"section": "Section::::Selection for simplicity and complexity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "More generally, the growth of complexity may be driven by the co-evolution between an organism and the ecosystem of predators, prey and parasites to which it tries to stay adapted: as any of these become more complex in order to cope better with the diversity of threats offered by the ecosystem formed by the others, the others too will have to adapt by becoming more complex, thus triggering an ongoing evolutionary arms race towards more complexity. This trend may be reinforced by the fact that ecosystems themselves tend to become more complex over time, as species diversity increases, together with the linkages or dependencies between species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11508558",
"title": "Evolution of biological complexity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The evolution of biological complexity is one important outcome of the process of evolution. Evolution has produced some remarkably complex organisms - although the actual level of complexity is very hard to define or measure accurately in biology, with properties such as gene content, the number of cell types or morphology all proposed as possible metrics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1428810",
"title": "Complex adaptive system",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of complexity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "However, the idea of a general trend towards complexity in evolution can also be explained through a passive process. This involves an increase in variance but the most common value, the mode, does not change. Thus, the maximum level of complexity increases over time, but only as an indirect product of there being more organisms in total. This type of random process is also called a bounded random walk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11508558",
"title": "Evolution of biological complexity",
"section": "Section::::Types of trends in complexity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "However, an increase in complexity can also be explained through a passive process. Assuming unbiased random changes of complexity and the existence of a minimum complexity leads to an increase over time of the average complexity of the biosphere.This involves an increase in variance, but the mode does not change. The trend towards the creation of some organisms with higher complexity over time exists, but it involves increasingly small percentages of living things. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8787159",
"title": "Objections to evolution",
"section": "Section::::Defining evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Evolution also does not require that organisms become more complex. Although the history of life shows an apparent trend towards the evolution of biological complexity; there is a question if this appearance of increased complexity is real, or if it comes from neglecting the fact that the majority of life on Earth has always consisted of prokaryotes. In this view, complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution, but that specific circumstances of evolution on Earth frequently made greater complexity advantageous and thus naturally selected for. Depending on the situation, organisms' complexity can either increase, decrease, or stay the same, and all three of these trends have been observed in evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15387",
"title": "Irreducible complexity",
"section": "Section::::Response of the scientific community.:Reducibility of \"irreducible\" systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Evolution can act to simplify as well as to complicate. This raises the possibility that seemingly irreducibly complex biological features may have been achieved with a period of increasing complexity, followed by a period of simplification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11508558",
"title": "Evolution of biological complexity",
"section": "Section::::Constructive neutral evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Recently work in evolution theory has proposed that by relaxing selection pressure, which typically acts to streamline genomes, the complexity of an organism increases by a process called constructive neutral evolution. Since the effective population size in eukaryotes (especially multi-cellular organisms) is much smaller than in prokaryotes, they experience lower selection constraints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e3ti4b
|
how does opening new lines of credit *help* your credit score?
|
[
{
"answer": "It increases your cap making it easier to maintain a lower percentage use of your overall credit. Lower overall use increases your score.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your credit score is really, really important. It’s a measure of how worthy of credit you are considered, and you’re going to need a good score for a lot of different things. In order to have a good credit score, you’re going to need a credit history. A lot of people think if they have no credit cards or debt, they automatically have a good score but that’s not true. If there is no record of how you handle credit, no one knows if you deserve a good score or not. So, opening a line of credit—and handling it responsibly—will give you a good credit score. The more lines of credit you have the greater is your overall available credit. For instance, if you have three credit cards with a credit limit of $5,000 each you have $15,000 of available credit. If your total balance over all of these cards is $500.00, you are only utilizing 3% of your available credit. That’s a good percentage and it shows that you don’t overuse your lines of credit. Alternatively, if you have a total balance of $14,000 you are using 90% of your available credit, and that’s not good. It shows you are likely to just run up your balance, and makes you a risk for defaulting on your lines of credit.\n\nSo, the more lines of credit you have the more you have demonstrated how many creditors are willing to extend you credit. That’s good. And the more available credit you have, the greater your opportunity to NOT overuse it, which shows you are responsible. \n\nAlso, a big part of your credit score is the age of your oldest line of credit. That shows you have responsibly handled that available credit for a long time without defaulting or having the account closed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10217900",
"title": "Seasoned tradeline",
"section": "Section::::Proponents' views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Credit scores are already artificially modified; that is, it is a made-up system. There is no difference between adding an authorized user tradeline and opening a new account; they both affect your credit score.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Although all the four credit information companies have developed their individual credit scores, the most popular is CIBIL credit score. The CIBIL credit score is a three-digit number that represents a summary of individuals' credit history and credit rating. This score ranges from 300 to 900, with 900 being the best score. Individuals with no credit history will have a score of -1. If the credit history is less than six months, the score will be 0. CIBIL credit score takes time to build up and usually it takes between 18 and 36 months or more of credit usage to obtain a satisfactory credit score.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9132917",
"title": "Credit reference",
"section": "Section::::How credit references are used.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Whether the credit reference is a good one depends on if the payments have been made on time or not. The credit limit and payment history in the credit references give other potential creditors an idea on whether an individual will make payments on time or default. Credit references also determine if an individual's credit score. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "A credit score is a numerical expression based on a level analysis of a person's credit files, to represent the creditworthiness of an individual. A credit score is primarily based on a credit report, information typically sourced from credit bureaus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Lenders need not reveal their credit score head, nor need they reveal the minimum credit score required for the applicant to be accepted. Owing only to this lack of information to the consumer, it is impossible for him or her to know in advance if they will pass a lender's credit scoring requirements. However, it may still be useful for consumers to gauge their chances of being successful with their credit or loan applications by checking their credit score prior to applying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1476274",
"title": "Credit history",
"section": "Section::::Calculating a credit score.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Search for a New Credit (Credit inquiries) (10% contribution on the FICO scale): An inquiry is noted every time a company requests some information from a consumer's credit file. There are several kinds of inquiries that may or may not affect one's credit score. Inquiries that have no effect on the creditworthiness of a consumer (also known as \"soft inquiries\"), which remain on a consumer's credit reports for 6 months and are never visible to lenders or credit scoring models, are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "It is very difficult for a consumer to know in advance whether they have a high enough credit score to be accepted for credit with a given lender. This situation is due to the complexity and structure of credit scoring, which differs from one lender to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35vjio
|
can a communist economy work with a democratic system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ideally, all communist nations are democratic, since the idea is that everyone works towards a common goal and everyone is equal. Post- Stalin USSR and post- Mao China were/ are democratic, in that you can vote for the leader. There's only one party, however so this winds up being a choice between John Anderson and Anders Johnson. \n\nCommunism ultimately fails because the core idea is a group of people working their hardest for the betterment of all. This can work for a group of 20 people, but when you have 20 million (or even 20 thousand) that's just not going to happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "yes it can, that's functionally what socialism is. Of course, not to extremes that \"communism\" entails, but, yknow.\n\nYou elect representatives democratically, to make the decisions you support, in terms of doling out \"public\" assets, which in many countries includes health care, or controlling banks and insurance, cars, other regulatory things that corporations shouldn't be allowed to control, because these things that are part of our everyday life should be governed by who the people say should govern.\n\nas opposed to capitalism, which results in the idea that that corporations shouldn't be controlled by regulations from the government, thus are \"privatized\", and controlled by themselves and that often results in them doing freely whatever earns them more money nomatter how much it fucks over other people- their interest is getting money, or \"capital\", and that is what drives their decisions. Privatizing things that are vital to everyday functional life in a first-world country, healthcare, insurance, banks etc, shouldn't be privatized. In capitalism, however, they're free to be, and therefore what ends up happening is that they are not controlled by people the citizens elect to represent them... they're controlled by whoever the hell is the CEO.\n\nSome people spin this as being good, because these corporations have 'freedom', or whatever, but I've never heard a good argument for it before... there's always some element missing. \n\nCapitalism can be very, very beneficial to growing economies, specifically third-world countries that need to establish an economy. But when you reach a level where your people aren't in danger of dying or starving and you can drift towards socialism, which is what virtually every superpower in the whole world has... except for the US. I could go into that, but... that's a different question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38443689",
"title": "Communist society",
"section": "Section::::Economic aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "A communist economic system would be characterized by advanced productive technology that enables material abundance, which in turn would enable the free distribution of most or all economic output and the holding of the means of producing this output in common. In this respect communism is differentiated from socialism, which, out of economic necessity, restricts access to articles of consumption and services based on one's contribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292269",
"title": "Third Way",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Democratic and market socialists argue that the major reason for the economic shortcomings of command economies was their authoritarian nature rather than socialism itself, that it was a failure of a specific model and that therefore socialists should support democratic models rather than abandon it. Economists Pranab Bardhan and John Roemer argue that Soviet-type economies and Marxist–Leninist states failed because they did not create rules and operational criteria for the efficient operation of state enterprises in their administrative, command allocation of resources and commodities and the lack of democracy in the political systems that the Soviet-type economies were combined with. According to them, a form of competitive socialism that rejects dictatorship and authoritarian allocation in favor of democracy could work and prove superior to the market economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33526804",
"title": "Authoritarian socialism",
"section": "Section::::Economics.:Centrally planned economies.:Soviet economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "The essence of Soviet economics is that the communist party is the sole authority of the national interest. The party makes all the decisions, but they should take into account the desires of the population and these desires were then to be weighted into the decision making. According to Article 11 of its 1977 Constitution, the main goal of the Soviet Union was to \"raise the material and cultural standards of the working people\". Marxist thought and its interpretation by the Soviet Union dictated that private ownership was to be banned and the nationalization of all aspects of production a necessity, yet some things were not nationalized for the sake of economic efficiency or production targets. There was an emphasis on rapid industrialization, the development of heavy industry, relegation of consumer production as non-essential and collectivization of agriculture. Soviet-type economies also used a larger proportion of their resources on investment than do market economies. The issue with this was that current consumption was undercut because of the over-investment. All these actions supported the purposes of the state, not the people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21554936",
"title": "Redistribution of income and wealth",
"section": "Section::::Role in economic systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Different types of economic systems feature varying degrees of interventionism aimed at redistributing income, depending on how unequal their initial distributions of income are. Free-market capitalist economies tend to feature high degrees of income redistribution. However, Japan's government engages in much less redistribution because its initial wage distribution is much more equal than Western economies. Likewise, the socialist planned economies of the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc featured very little income redistribution because private capital and land income – the major drivers of income inequality in capitalist systems – was virtually nonexistent; and because the wage rates were set by the government in these economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38443689",
"title": "Communist society",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.:Politics, law and governance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Engels noted that in a socialist system the primary function of public institutions will shift from being about the creation of laws and the control of people into a technical role as an administrator of technical production processes, with a decrease in the scope of traditional politics as scientific administration overtakes the role of political decision-making. Communist society is characterized by democratic processes, not merely in the sense of electoral democracy, but in the broader sense of open and collaborative social and workplace environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400546",
"title": "Communist Party of Vietnam",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.:Socialist-oriented market economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1818,
"text": "The socialist-oriented market economy is neither socialist nor capitalist, but it is socialist-oriented. The Communist Party rejects the view that a market economy has to be capitalist. According to the party, \"a socialist market-oriented economy is a multi-sectoral commodity economy, which operates in accordance with market mechanisms and a socialist orientation\". According to Nguyễn Phú Trọng, \"[i]t is a new type of market economy in the history of the market economy’s development. It is a kind of economic organization which abides by market economy rules but is based on, led by, and governed by the principles and nature of socialism reflected in its three aspectsownership, organization, and distributionfor the goal of a prosperous people in a strong nation characterized by democracy, fairness, and civilization\". There are multiple forms of ownership in a socialist-oriented market economy. Economic sectors operate in accordance with the law and are equal under the law in the interest of co-existence, cooperation and healthy competition. Nguyễn Phú Trọng said: The state economy plays a key role; the collective economy is constantly consolidated and developed; the private economy is one of the driving forces of the collective economy; multiple ownership, especially joint-stock enterprises, is encouraged; the state and collective economies provide a firm foundation for the national economy. The relations of distribution ensure fairness, create momentum for growth, and operate a distribution mechanism based on work results, economic efficiency, contributions by other resources, and distribution through the social security and welfare system. The State manages the economy through laws, strategies, plans, policies, and mechanisms to steer, regulate, and stimulate socio-economic development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215623",
"title": "Communist state",
"section": "Section::::State institutions in Communist states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Communist states share similar institutions, which are organized on the premise that the Communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set of principles to be used in the internal affairs of the Communist party, is extended to society at large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zdw6c
|
is there an easy explanation or visual for the organization of the us army?
|
[
{
"answer": "Organisation of ranks? Organisations of armies, corps, divisions, battalions, etc? There's lots of things that fall under this question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*nice try, Russia*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "163540",
"title": "Corps area",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "A Corps area was a geographically-based organizational structure (military district) of the United States Army used to accomplish administrative, training and tactical tasks from 1920 to 1942. Each corps area included divisions of the Regular Army, Organized Reserve and National Guard of the United States. Developed as a result of serious mobilization problems during World War I, this organizational scheme provided a framework to rapidly expand the Army in time of war or national emergency such as the Great Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3597689",
"title": "United States Army Center of Military History",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The United States Army Center of Military History (CMH) is a directorate within TRADOC. The Institute of Heraldry remains within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. The center is responsible for the appropriate use of history and military records throughout the United States Army. Traditionally, this mission has meant recording the official history of the army in both peace and war, while advising the army staff on historical matters. CMH is the flagship organization leading the Army Historical Program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3597689",
"title": "United States Army Center of Military History",
"section": "Section::::Historical activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "In addition, army historians maintain the organizational history of army units, allowing the center to provide units of the Regular Army, the Army National Guard, and the Army Reserve with certificates of their lineage and honors and other historical material concerning their organizations. The center also determines the official designations for army units and works with the army staff during force reorganizations to preserve units with significant histories, as well as unit properties and related historical artifacts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6599290",
"title": "Kentucky in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Order of battle for Union forces in Kentucky.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "BULLET::::- Data is from \"Tabular Statements Showing the Names of Commanders of Army Corps, Divisions and Brigades, United States Army, During the War of 1861 to 1865\", compiled from the data on record in the office of the Quartermaster General of the Army, Gen. C. McKeever, 1887.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5997706",
"title": "Reorganization plan of United States Army",
"section": "Section::::Origin and initial design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In 2004, the United States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM), which commands most active Army and Army Reserve forces based in the Continental United States, was tasked with supervising the modular transformation of its subordinate structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6714405",
"title": "Military organization",
"section": "Section::::Table of organization and equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "A table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E) is a document published by the U.S. Army Force Management Support Agency that prescribes the organization, manning, and equipage of units from divisional size and down, but also including the headquarters of Corps and Armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293722",
"title": "Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Armies and prominent leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted, renamed, and disbanded as needs arose, particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the United States. These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions (in comparison to the U.S. Army's custom of naming armies after rivers). Armies were usually commanded by full generals (there were seven in the C.S. Army) or lieutenant generals. Some of the more important armies and their commanders were:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ol0ov
|
If I smell a strong scent while eating, does it influence how I taste the food?
|
[
{
"answer": "You only have five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami. Everything else is smell, which is why things taste bland when you're congested.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10591",
"title": "Flavor",
"section": "Section::::Flavorants or flavorings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Unlike smelling, which occurs upon inhalation, the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the exhalation phase of breathing and is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37940820",
"title": "Emotion perception",
"section": "Section::::Modes of perception.:Olfactory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Aromas and scents also influence mood, for example through aromatherapy, and humans can extract emotional information from scents just as they can from facial expressions and emotional music. Odors may be able to exert their effects through learning and conscious perception, such that responses typically associated with particular odors are learned through association with their matched emotional experiences. In-depth research has documented that emotion elicited by odors, both pleasant and unpleasant, affects the same physiological correlates of emotion seen with other sensory mechanisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379234",
"title": "Sensory nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Sensory cortex.:Gustatory cortex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent somatosensory information from the tongue, that is, mouthfeel. Scent, in contrast, is not combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions, such as the insula and orbitofrontal cortex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781797",
"title": "Sweetness",
"section": "Section::::The sweetness receptor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Another research has shown that the threshold of sweet taste perception is in direct correlation with the time of day. This is believed to be the consequence of oscillating leptin levels in blood that may impact the overall sweetness of food. Scientists hypothesize that this is an evolutionary relict of diurnal animals like humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36397739",
"title": "Aradhna Krishna",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Smellizing is a term coined by Prof. Krishna (Krishna, Morrin and Sayin 2014) to reflect “imagining smells”. Krishna, Morrin and Sayin (2014) show that smellizing foods can result in similar physiological responses (salivation) as real smells, when a picture of the food is also available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635489",
"title": "Olfactory system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The senses of smell and taste (gustatory system) are often referred to together as the chemosensory system, because they both give the brain information about the chemical composition of objects through a process called transduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21244265",
"title": "Olfaction",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with other senses.:Olfaction and flavor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Flavor perception is an aggregation of auditory, taste, haptic, and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During the process of mastication, the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation. The olfaction of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2glaao
|
French (or Allied) perspective of WWI trenches
|
[
{
"answer": "You could try Charles Carrington's A Subaltern's War or Guy Chapman's A Passionate Prodigality or Robert Graves Goodnight To All That.\n\nI'm afraid these are British (and may be hard to come by), I don't know of any French ones.\n\nAlso, since its the centenary, quite a lot of diaries have been uploaded to sites like this, some of which are quite interesting:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAs to Remarque - Its worth bearing in mind that Remarque was a sapper and only saw a couple of weeks action on the front. \n\nAll is Quiet on the Western Front is by no means a memoir or a biography, it is a novel and an anti-war polemic. \n\nIts worth contrasting Remarque with the books of actual \"front line\" soldiers who served in the German army for most of the war - Rommel's Infantry Attacks and Ernst Junger's Storm of Steel are good examples and quite readily available.\n\nBon Chance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I really enjoyed [this book] (_URL_0_). Read a Dutch translation about 10 years ago but i am reading it again.\n\nLouis Barthas, the writer, was called up in 1914 and survived the entire war. He fought at Verdun, the Somme, Champagne and The Argonne. \n\nAnyway, great read. The reviews on amazon should tell you enough. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[*Under Fire*](_URL_0_) was a novel written by the Frenchman Henri Barbusse, and was actually published *during* the War, in 1916. *Under Fire* is technically not a memoir, but rather, is a work of fiction, with an unnamed narrator. However, it is pretty clearly influenced by Barbusse's time on the frontline. Barbusse's political biases (he was a Communist) also can shine through, but overall it is a rather short read that is definitely quite interesting. Regardless of how true the events in *Under Fire* actually are, the stories in it do lineup with accounts of the Great War that I've read from British and German sources and if nothing else the novel itself is worth reading because it is such an anomaly, being an anti-war novel published as the War was still going on. Basically, it shouldn't be taken as straight history, but it is of historical value.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8105681",
"title": "Trench map",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "For much of the Great War, trench warfare was almost static, giving rise to the need for large scale maps for attack, defence and artillery use. Initially, British trench maps showed the German trench systems in detail, but only the British Front line. Later in the war, more of the British trenches were shown. The only British maps that showed full detail of both sides were the secret editions, usually marked \"Not to be taken beyond Brigade HQ\" for fear of their falling into enemy hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182259",
"title": "Trench warfare",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Field works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Trench warfare has become archetypically associated with the World War I (1914–1918), when the Race to the Sea rapidly expanded trench use on the Western Front starting in September 1914. By the end of October 1914, the whole front in Belgium and France had solidified into lines of trenches, which lasted until the last weeks of the war. Mass infantry assaults were futile in the face of artillery fire, as well as rapid rifle and machine-gun fire. Both sides concentrated on breaking up enemy attacks and on protecting their own troops by digging deep into the ground. Trench warfare also took place on other fronts, including in Italy and at Gallipoli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1310199",
"title": "Battle of Morval",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:German defensive preparations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 982,
"text": "Trenches were still dug but were no longer intended to be fought from, being used for shelter during quiet periods, for the movement of reinforcements and supplies, as rallying points and decoys. Before an attack, the garrison tried to move forwards into shell-holes, to avoid Allied artillery-fire and surprise attacking infantry with machine-gun fire. Opposite the French, the Germans dug new defences on a reverse slope between the Tortille stream at Allaines, to the west end of St Pierre Vaast Wood and from there to Morval, connected to a new fourth position dug from Sailly Saillisel to Morval and Bapaume, along the Péronne–Bapaume road. French agents also reported new construction to the east. Ludendorff had recently created fifteen \"new\" divisions by combing-out troops at depots and by removing regiments from existing divisions, from which the 212th, 213th and 214th divisions were brought in, to replace worn out divisions opposite the French Tenth and Sixth armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19466336",
"title": "British Army during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Life in the trenches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "There were three trenches in a typical front line sector; the fire trench, the support trench and the reserve trench, all joined by communication trenches. The trenches varied in depth, but they were usually about four or five feet deep, or in areas with a high water table a wall of sandbags would be built to allow the defenders to stand upright, fire trenches were provided with a fire step, so the occupants could return fire during an attack (see diagram). Ideally, the bottom of the trench was lined with duckboards to prevent men from sinking into the mud and dugouts were cut into the walls, these gave shelter from the elements and shrapnel, although in the British Army dugouts were usually reserved for the officers and senior NCOs. The men were then expected to sleep wherever they could and in wet weather they lived under groundsheets or in tents at the bottom of the trench on the duckboards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1308994",
"title": "Battle of Guillemont",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:German defensive preparations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "Despite the obliteration of trench lines, by stupendous Allied artillery bombardments, the value of trenches as boundaries and rallying-points remained and as labour became available, new back lines and switch trenches were dug, sited according to the principles used by Loßberg in Champagne in late 1915. An artillery observation line was chosen and then a main line of resistance was dug in front, behind a crest overlooked by the observation line. Outposts were built along the crest, for infantry observers and listening-posts. Another line was built further back near the field artillery, which became known as the (artillery protection line), ready to be occupied by reserves, if the forward area was overrun. Command and supply became more difficult in such dispersed defences, which led to a streamlining of the chain of command, with battalion commanders being given sole authority over an area, as the . Division commanders were given similar control of the forces in the divisional sector, except for aviation units and some heavy artillery being used for special tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182259",
"title": "Trench warfare",
"section": "Section::::World War I: Entrenchment.:Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The small, improvised trenches of the first few months grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works. They resisted both artillery bombardment and mass infantry assault. Shell-proof dugouts became a high priority. The space between the opposing trenches was referred to as \"no man's land\" and varied in width depending on the battlefield. On the Western Front it was typically between , though only on Vimy Ridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28249139",
"title": "Trenches (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "\"Trenches\" is a combination of a Castle Attack and Tower Defense set during World War I. The player is put into the role of a Battlefield Commander for the British Expeditionary Forces in Western Europe during 1914 against the German Army, or vice versa, and the player must accomplish a set of missions to complete the game during the campaign. The game spans throughout the war as the game progresses, allowing the play to unlock more classes and artillery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tkszs
|
Is there a part of the brain that controls the perception of time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Great question, and the simple answer is that many different parts of the brain help you to perceive time... because time is crucially important for many types of behaviors we engage in.\n\nOne area of the brain, the [suprachiasmatic nucleus \\(SCN\\)](_URL_0_) affects circadian rhythms -- tracking day and night cycles. Other areas of the brain,[ like the cerebellum](_URL_2_), help time fine motor movements and may control timing on the order of seconds. The [basal ganglia](_URL_1_) (implicated in motion and some learning processes) and other areas of the cortex may also have some role in keeping time on different scales and relating to different processes.\n\nAnother interesting way of looking at this is how our perception of time is tied to memories, which would implicate the hippocampus and associated cortex. In some cases where people have profound amnesias, their sense of past, present, and future are severely distorted, but they still have the ability to time short-term processes correctly. So, when you think about the different scales of time from milliseconds to decades, there are different processes that rely on different kinds of timing and probably work together to form a coherent \"flow\" of time. \n\nAnyhow, I'm sure I didn't answer your question... but I think there is no one single answer... just like I believe most people would agree there's no single part of the brain that controls our time perception. :)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "Section::::Neuroscientific perspectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Although the perception of time is not associated with a specific sensory system, psychologists and neuroscientists suggest that humans do have a system, or several complementary systems, governing the perception of time. Time perception is handled by a highly distributed system involving the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter (ultradian) timekeeping. There is some evidence that very short (millisecond) durations are processed by dedicated neurons in early sensory parts of the brain\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Time perception.:Biopsychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The brain's judgment of time is known to be a highly distributed system, including at least the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia as its components. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nuclei, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear capable of shorter-range (ultradian) timekeeping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Time perception is a field of study within psychology, cognitive linguistics and neuroscience that refers to the subjective experience, or sense, of time, which is measured by someone's own perception of the duration of the indefinite and unfolding of events. The perceived time interval between two successive events is referred to as perceived duration. Though directly experiencing or understanding another person's perception of time is not possible, such a perception can be objectively studied and inferred through a number of scientific experiments. Time perception is a construction of the sapient brain, but one that is manipulable and distortable under certain circumstances. These temporal illusions help to expose the underlying neural mechanisms of time perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416874",
"title": "Sense",
"section": "Section::::Perception not based on a specific sensory organ.:Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Chronoception refers to how the passage of time is perceived and experienced. Although the sense of time is not associated with a specific sensory system, the work of psychologists and neuroscientists indicates that human brains do have a system governing the perception of time, composed of a highly distributed system involving the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range (ultradian) timekeeping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51231465",
"title": "Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School",
"section": "Section::::Notable Contributions to Neurobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "BULLET::::- Discovery of critical periods, ocular dominance columns, and orientation selectivity: Hubel and Wiesel discovered that experience can shape the brain’s circuitry, but only during early life, a period of time they call the ‘critical period’. This work in the visual cortex earned the duo the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25140",
"title": "Perception",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5664",
"title": "Consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of mind.:Consciousness and David Hume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "In other words, a brain is not necessary for thought and perception to take place. It follows that our five senses are not merely navigational devices. The differences between individual senses indicate that they emanate from different parts of an unexplored universe, the existence of which we do not even suspect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ucg1d
|
why do we not all adopt a race-nationality identification like african-american (ex. asian-australian)?
|
[
{
"answer": "what would be the purpose of this? except to further create race/ethnicity issues. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's too broad. Under that you could say I'm a European-American, but to be honest I don't really see myself as European at all despite my ancestry. I just wish we didn't classify race at all and just went by nationality. If you are a US citizen, you are an American. If you are an Australian citizen, you are Australian, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::Racial and ethnic groups.:Some other race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "According to the 2010 United States Census, 6.2% or 19,107,368 Americans chose to self-identify with the \"some other race\" category, the third most popular option. Also, 36.7% or 18,503,103 Hispanic/Latino Americans chose to identify as some other race as these Hispanic/Latinos may feel the U.S. Census does not describe their European and American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14352046",
"title": "National and ethnic cultures of Utah",
"section": "Section::::Ethnic and national groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "Scholars have never reached stable consensus on the distinction between ethnic and national groups, because their meaning can change according to political opinions. Nationality and ethnicity refer both to a combination of race and customs. However, \"ethnic group\", especially in the United States, is linked more with people of common genetic origin, or race. Therefore, Asians, African Americans, and Native Americans (or American Indians) are typically associated with the ethnic groups because of their evident physical traits. \"National group\", instead, is linked more with the differences in language and customs. Therefore, it usually refers to Caucasians belonging to nation-states with specific cultures, such as Russians, Germans, Turks, and so on. “Hispanic” or “Latino” people are often placed in an intermediate category, because they are mostly (mixed), due to the diffused intermarriage between Caucasians from Spain and Native Americans. The two terms are fairly vague and they can often be interchangeable. In this article current American terminology is mostly adopted, but readers should be aware of the various points of view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2019699",
"title": "Color terminology for race",
"section": "Section::::Symbolism and uses of color terminology.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In the 2000 United States Census, two of the five self-designated races are labeled by a color. In the 2000 US Census, \"White\" refers to \"person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.\" In the 2000 US Census, \"Black or African American\" refers to a \"person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa.\" The other three self-designated races are not labeled by color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29070672",
"title": "Race and health in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "This issue is illustrated with the example of those who identify themselves as Hispanic/Latino, typically a mix of Caucasian, Native American and African ancestry. Although some studies include this as a \"race\", many such as the U.S. Census do not, forcing members of this group to choose between identifying themselves as one of the listed racial categories, even if they do not personally identify with it. Additionally, individuals who identify as biracial or multiracial must choose one category to identify with, limiting the ability of many Americans to select a census category that they actually identify with. The inability of many individuals to fully identify with one census category indicates the necessity of cultural, historical, and socio-economic explanations of health disparities rather than a biological one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963843",
"title": "Indian Americans",
"section": "Section::::Immigration and progression timeline.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "In previous decades, Indian Americans were also variously classified as White American, the \"Hindu race\", and \"other\". Even today, where individual Indian Americans do not racially self-identify, and instead report Muslim, Jewish, and Zoroastrian as their \"race\" in the \"some other race\" section without noting their country of origin, they are automatically tallied as white. This may result in the counting of persons such as Indian Muslims, Indian Jews, and Indian Zoroastrians as white, if they solely report their religious heritage without their national origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4745",
"title": "Black people",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "According to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%). Immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "535777",
"title": "One-drop rule",
"section": "Section::::Other countries of the Americas.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "People in many other countries have tended to treat race less rigidly, both in their self-identification and how they regard others. Just as a person with physically recognizable African ancestry can claim to be black in the United States, someone with recognizable Caucasian ancestry may be considered white in Brazil, even if mixed race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
664iv4
|
why are hand dryers in public restrooms considered more hygienic than paper towels? having forced air blowing germs all over the place doesn't seem very hygienic at all.
|
[
{
"answer": "It turns out that you are correct. Not only do they blow germs from outside the blower... What happens when someplace is dark, warm, and moist? Mold grows. So you're getting mold spores and waste from INSIDE the dryer on your hands, too.\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I feel like they might do it because it's less of a hassle than switching out paper towels constantly. \nI'm probably wrong but, my first thought. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4459336",
"title": "Hand dryer",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Research conducted in 2008 indicated that European consumers much prefer hand towels over hand dryers in public washrooms. 63% of respondents said paper towels were their preferred drying method, while just 28% preferred a hand dryer. Respondents overwhelmingly considered paper towels to offer faster hand drying than electric hand dryers (68% vs 14%). On the whole they also considered paper towels to be the most hygienic form of hand drying in public washrooms (53% vs 44%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331179",
"title": "Infection control",
"section": "Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Hand hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Drying is an essential part of the hand hygiene process. In November 2008, a non-peer-reviewed study was presented to the European Tissue Symposium by the University of Westminster, London, comparing the bacteria levels present after the use of paper towels, warm air hand dryers, and modern jet-air hand dryers. Of those three methods, only paper towels reduced the total number of bacteria on hands, with \"through-air dried\" towels the most effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Drying with towels or hand driers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Effective drying of the hands is an essential part of the hand hygiene process, but there is some debate over the most effective form of drying in public washrooms. A growing volume of research suggests paper towels are much more hygienic than the electric hand dryers found in many washrooms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15063531",
"title": "Dyson Airblade",
"section": "Section::::Hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Hygiene associated with the product has been questioned in research by the University of Westminster Trade Group, London and sponsored by the paper towel industry the European Tissue Symposium, which suggests that use increases the amount of bacteria on the fingertips by about 42%; paper towels reduced the number of bacteria by 50 to 75%, while warm air dryers increased bacteria by 194%. The report found that \"the manufacturer’s claim that the tested JAD [Airblade] is 'the most hygienic hand dryer' is confirmed ... assuming that the term 'hand dryer' refers to electric devices only because its performance in terms of the numbers of all types of bacteria remaining on the hands of users compared to paper towels was significantly worse.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Drying with towels or hand driers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "In 2008, a study was conducted by the University of Westminster, London, and sponsored by the paper-towel industry the European Tissue Symposium, to compare the levels of hygiene offered by paper towels, warm-air hand dryers and the more modern jet-air hand dryers. The key findings were:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165767",
"title": "Towel",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "BULLET::::- A \"cloth towel dispenser\" or \"continuous cloth towel\" is a towel manipulated by a series of rollers, used as an alternative to paper towels and hand dryers in public washrooms. These may have a lower environmental impact than paper towels, though concerns over hygiene mean they are not used by some organisations and have greatly declined in popularity. They can also be used in dangerous \"choking games\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4459435",
"title": "Paper-towel dispenser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Such dispensers are common in North America and other western countries. They are either used to replace hand dryers or used in tandem to offer users alternatives to drying their hands. Some areas opt not to use them as towels create litter and are less environmentally friendly. Replacing hand dryers with towels is seen as a way to reduce the further dispersal of toilet aerosols in public washrooms known as toilet plume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
smlbo
|
the different divisions of the nervous system.
|
[
{
"answer": "The Nervous System(NS) is composed of 2 major divisions which are: \n\n(1) **The Central NS**; which is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. They are *both enclosed in bony structure* (skull and vertebra) because of their importance. They control either voluntarily or involuntarily almost all body functions and interpret all sensory inputs of the body. That includes moving a single muscle or telling the difference between red or blue. The difference between the 2 is that the brain commands and monitors while the spinal cord is a \"brain tail\" which clumps all of the tracts(big bundled nerves) for the rest of the nervous system to connect to.\n\nThe brain can be likened to a central computer in a modern house, which controls and monitors everything from a single area. While the spinal cord is the main cable in which most cords are connected to. In this house every gadget or security monitors are linked to a single computer.\n\n(2)**The Peripheral NS**; this meanwhile *connects the rest of the body to the brain and spinal cord*. Unlike the CNS, they are made up mostly of **tracts of nerves** bundled together and so has no bony structure protecting it. They send signal both ways from the brain to an organ **or** from an sensory/organ up to the brain. This can be compared to the cables that connects all the gadgets, appliances, or monitors to the central computer of the house.\n\nThe nerves of the PNS has 2 types: \na. *the cranial nerves*, a nerve which connects the brain directly to an organ. An example would be the optic nerve, which sends visual signals directly to the brain. We all have 12 pairs of these. All our special senses (smell, hearing, taste) muscles of face are connected by cranial nerves.\nb. *the spinal nerve*, long nerve which connects the muscles of our arms to the spinal cord which relays the signal to the brain. We have 31 pairs of these, a pair sprouting from the junction of two vertebra(spinal bone). The rest of our body is connected to the brain this way.\n\nThe PNS also has 2 major types of Autonomous(NS) or involuntary body control, they are:\n1. Sympathetic NS; \"fight or flight\" response, responsible for taking over body functions during stressful situations. Makes your pupils bigger, to see better. Makes your heart pump faster, to cope with increase energy usage. Or slows digestion.\n2. Parasympathetic NS; \"rest and repair\", does the complete opposite of sympathetic NS. Increases rate of digestion, slows heartrate etc. \n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43200",
"title": "Nemertea",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Nervous system and senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "The central nervous system consists of a brain and paired ventral nerve cords that connect to the brain and run along the length of the body. The brain is a ring of four ganglia, masses of nerve cells, positioned round the rhynchocoel near its front end – while the brains of most protostome invertebrates encircle the foregut. Most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords, many species have additional paired cords, and some species also have a dorsal cord. In some species the cords lie within the skin, but in most they are deeper, inside the muscle layers. The central nervous system is often red or pink because it contains hemoglobin. This stores oxygen for peak activity or when the animal experiences anoxia, for example while burrowing in oxygen-free sediments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43136",
"title": "Sipuncula",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The nervous system consists of a dorsal cerebral ganglion or brain above the oesophagus and a nerve ring around the oesophagus, which links the brain with the single ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body. Lateral nerves lead off this to innervate the muscles of the body wall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36856",
"title": "Vertebrate",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and morphology.:Central nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single hollow nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. All invertebrates with well-developed brains, such as insects, spiders and squids, have a ventral rather than dorsal system of ganglions, with a split brain stem running on each side of the mouth or gut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4942572",
"title": "Lateral grey column",
"section": "Section::::Background information.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (everything else). The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary processes) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary processes). The autonomic nervous system is divided into the parasympathetic nervous system (normal functioning) and the sympathetic nervous system (emergency functioning). The lateral grey column mediates the functions of the sympathetic nervous system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21245",
"title": "Neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::Modern neuroscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43209",
"title": "Priapulida",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The nervous system consists of a nerve ring around the pharynx and a prominent cord running the length of the body with ganglia and longitudinal and transversal neurites consistent with an orthogonal organisation. The nervous system retains a basiepidermal configuration with a connection with the ectoderm, forming part of the body wall. There are no specialized sense organs, but there are sensory nerve endings in the body, especially on the proboscis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1043298",
"title": "Neuromere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "The central nervous system can be divided into three classes of neuromeres: prosomeres, mesomeres, and rhombomeres. The forebrain forms the six prosomers, p1 to p6, which are then divided into two more categories, dorsal and ventral. The telencephalon forms from the dorsal parts of p6 and p5, where p6 becomes the olfactory system and p5 will coincide with the visual system. Mesomeres, m1 and m2, become the midbrain, which contains the superior and inferior colliculi. The 12 rhombomeres, which are numbered from r0 to r11, construct the hindbrain. The myelencephalon is made from rhombomeres r2 to r11, which also form the medulla. These rhombomeres are also associated with the neural crest that supplies the pharyngeal arches, a set of visible tissues that are in line with the developing brain and give rise to the head and neck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e5i60m
|
How do mitochondria change their internal proton count to initiate electron chain transfer ?
|
[
{
"answer": "By that, I assume you’re talking about the proton gradient? In which case the ions cross the complexes that are in the inner membrane, and move into the inter membrane space. Those ions of course come from the NADH that oxidate into NAD+ when the come in contact with the complexes, passing their electrons and their hydrogen ions into the complexes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what you mean by this. Mitochondria are the site of [oxidative phosphorylation](_URL_2_), which uses the oxidising power of oxygen to extract chemical potential energy from food, primarily in the form of glucose. The two main processes that metabolise glucose are [glycolysis](_URL_3_) and the [citric acid cycle](_URL_0_). Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm, consuming 2 NAD^(+) \\+ 2 ADP + 2 phosphate while producing 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP as key metabolic products:\n\nC₆H₁₂O₆ + 2 NAD^(+) \\+ 2 ADP^(3–) \\+ 2 HPO₄^(2–) ⟶ 2 CH₃C(O)COO^(–) \\+ 2 NADH + 2 ATP^(4–) \\+ 2 H^(+) \\+ 2 H₂O\n\nPyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by [pyruvate dehydrogenase](_URL_1_) to give acetyl-CoA, consuming NAD^(+) and generating NADH in the process:\n\nCH₃C(O)COO^(–) \\+ HS–CoA + NAD^(+) ⟶ CH₃COS–CoA + CO₂ + NADH\n\nAcetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where the acetate bit is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide through a series of reactions. The net reaction is as follows:\n\nCH₃COS–CoA + 3 NAD^(+) \\+ UQ + GDP^(3–) \\+ HPO₄^(2–) \\+ 2 H₂O ⟶ HS–CoA + 3 NADH + UQH₂ + GTP^(4–) \\+ 2 H^(+) \\+ 2 CO₂\n\nUQ is ubiquinone, which plays a role in the electron transport chain (we'll get to that later). The overall reaction so far can be summarised as follows:\n\nC₆H₁₂O₆ + 10 NAD^(+) \\+ 2 UQ + 2 ADP^(3–) \\+ 2 GDP^(3–) \\+ 4 HPO₄^(2–) \\+ 2 H₂O ⟶ HS–CoA + 10 NADH + 2 UQH₂ + 2 ATP^(4–) \\+ 2 GTP^(4–) \\+ 6 H^(+) \\+ 2 CO₂\n\nThat's all well and good, but we know the overall reaction for glucose metabolism should be much simpler:\n\nC₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ ⟶ 6 H₂O + 6 CO₂\n\nSo far we have said nothing about oxygen. This is where the electron transport chain comes in: it provides a biochemical pathway to harness the energy released when oxygen is reduced to water. Through a series of electron transfer reactions involving several enzymes, this reduction is coupled to the oxidation of NADH and UQH₂, which regenerates NAD^(+) and UQ.^(1) The energy released by these reactions is used to transport H^(+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating a pH gradient across the inner membrane. I am not sure of the exact mechanism each enzyme uses to transport H^(+), but broadly speaking conformational changes in the protein throughout the reaction are what drive translocation of H^(+). Some electron transfers are additionally proton-coupled, and the enzymes involved are arranged such that the matrix is depleted of H^(+) and vice versa for the intermembrane space. The difference in chemical potential created by this pH gradient is harvested by ATP synthase as H^(+) diffuses back across the membrane, driving the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate.\n\nIn short, to answer what I think is your question, the electron transport chain *creates* the pH gradient, not the other way around.\n\n^(1) This isn't quite the whole picture as UQ/UQH₂ is part of the electron transport chain itself, and the enzyme that reduces UQ to UQH₂ is itself part of the citric acid cycle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20374",
"title": "Metabolism",
"section": "Section::::Energy transformations.:Oxidative phosphorylation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1049596",
"title": "Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The newly formed protons permeate through the polymer electrolyte membrane to the cathode side. The electrons travel along an external load circuit to the cathode side of the MEA, thus creating the current output of the fuel cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2821615",
"title": "Electrochemical gradient",
"section": "Section::::Biological context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Electrochemical gradients also play a role in establishing proton gradients in oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. The final step of cellular respiration is the electron transport chain. Four complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion make up the electron transport chain. However, only complexes I, III, and IV pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space (IMS). In total, there are ten protons translocated from the matrix to the IMS which generates an electrochemical potential of more than 200mV. This drives the flux of protons back into the matrix through ATP synthase which produces ATP by adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP. Thus, generation of a proton electrochemical gradient is crucial for energy production in mitochondria. The total equation for the electron transport chain is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1329361",
"title": "Mitochondrial matrix",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Inner membrane control over matrix composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The electron transport chain is responsible for establishing a pH and electrochemical gradient that facilitates the production of ATP through the pumping of protons. The gradient also provides control of the concentration of ions such as Ca driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential. The membrane only allows nonpolar molecules such as CO and O and small non charged polar molecules such as HO to enter the matrix. Molecules enter and exit the mitochondrial matrix through transport proteins and ion transporters. Molecules are then able to leave the mitochondria through porin. These attributed characteristics allow for control over concentrations of ions and metabolites necessary for regulation and determines the rate of ATP production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864490",
"title": "Chemiosmosis",
"section": "Section::::The proton-motive force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1225,
"text": "In most cases the proton-motive force is generated by an electron transport chain which acts as a proton pump, using the Gibbs free energy of redox reactions to pump protons (hydrogen ions) out across the membrane, separating the charge across the membrane. In mitochondria, energy released by the electron transport chain is used to move protons from the mitochondrial matrix (N side) to the intermembrane space (P side). Moving the protons out of the mitochondrion creates a lower concentration of positively charged protons inside it, resulting in excess negative charge on the inside of the membrane. The electrical potential gradient is about -170 mV , negative inside (N). These gradients - charge difference and the proton concentration difference both create a combined electrochemical gradient across the membrane, often expressed as the proton-motive force (PMF). In mitochondria, the PMF is almost entirely made up of the electrical component but in chloroplasts the PMF is made up mostly of the pH gradient because the charge of protons H is neutralized by the movement of Cl and other anions. In either case, the PMF needs to be greater than about 460 mV (45 kJ/mol) for the ATP synthase to be able to make ATP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61072683",
"title": "Horizontal transfer of mitochondria",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Horizontal transfer of mitochondria is mediated by actin-rich membrane protrusions named tunneling nanotubes (TNTs). The establishment of a nanotube begins with the formation of a filopodium-like membrane protrusion that retracts after reaching the recipient cell, leaving an ultrafine structure that is separated from the substrate. Chemical inhibitors or mechanical stress impairs the formation of TNTs and reduces mitochondrial exchange. On the other hand, certain types of stress agents such as doxorubicin or ethidium bromide increase TNT formation. Other proposed mechanisms of transfer include membrane microvesicles, cell fusion or mitochondrial extrusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92441",
"title": "Proton pump",
"section": "Section::::ATP driven proton pumps.:F-type proton ATPase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "In mitochondria, reducing equivalents provided by electron transfer or photosynthesis power this translocation of protons. For example, the translocation of protons by cytochrome c oxidase is powered by reducing equivalents provided by reduced cytochrome c. ATP itself powers this transport in the plasma membrane proton ATPase and in the ATPase proton pumps of other cellular membranes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wrtwd
|
why couldn't giant mirrors (like the entire industrialized world focusing on producing giant mirrors) eradicate global warming by reflecting the suns rays for a while?
|
[
{
"answer": "How would you make those mirrors?\n\nIn some kind of industrial plant, right?\n\nAnd to smelt all that glass you'll need some big natural gas burners.\n\nAnd you'll burn a lot of it which will produce an extraordinary amount of carbon in the atmosphere.\n\nWhen you're all done you'll have some great mirrors. But mirrors reflect light, not heat. In fact, those mirrors are going to get really hot because they are receiving all the radiation from the sun.\n\nSo, unfortunately, your solution compounds the problem. It would be far less difficult to simply conserve energy and reduce fossil fuel use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27271259",
"title": "Space mirror (climate engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight. It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27271259",
"title": "Space mirror (climate engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering: deliberately modifying the earth's climate. At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007, the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost, the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror, and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6757017",
"title": "Space-based solar power",
"section": "Section::::Non-typical configurations and architectural considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "BULLET::::- Direct Mirrors: Early concepts for direct mirror re-direction of light to planet Earth suffered from the problem that rays coming from the sun are not parallel but are expanding from a disk and so the size of the spot on the Earth is quite large. Dr. Lewis Fraas has explored an array of parabolic mirrors to augment existing solar arrays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53010729",
"title": "Mirror life",
"section": "Section::::The concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Mirror life presents potential dangers. For example, a chiral-mirror version of cyanobacteria, which only needs achiral nutrients and light for photosynthesis, could take over Earth's ecosystem due to lack of natural enemies, disturbing the bottom of the food chain by producing mirror versions of the required sugars. Some bacteria can digest L-glucose; exceptions like this would give some rare lifeforms an unanticipated advantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38527",
"title": "Gregory Benford",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to science and speculative science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "In 2004, Benford proposed that the harmful effects of global warming could be reduced by the construction of a rotating Fresnel lens 1,000 kilometres across, floating in space at the Lagrangian point L1. According to Benford, this lens would diffuse the light from the Sun and reduce the solar energy reaching the Earth by approximately 0.5% to 1%. He estimated that this would cost around US$10 billion. His plan has been commented on in a variety of forums. A similar space sunshade was proposed in 1989 by J. T. Early, and again in 1997 by Edward Teller, Lowell Wood, and Roderick Hyde. In 2006, Benford pointed out one possible danger in this approach: if this lens were built and global warming were avoided, there would be less incentive to reduce greenhouse gases, and humans might continue to produce too much carbon dioxide until it caused some other environmental catastrophe, such as a chemical change in ocean water that could be disastrous to ocean life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2410005",
"title": "BTA-6",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "For a variety of reasons, BTA-6 has never been able to operate near its theoretical limits. Early problems with poorly fabricated mirror glass were addressed in 1978, improving but not eliminating the most serious issue. But due to its location down-wind of numerous large mountain peaks, astronomical seeing is rarely good. The telescope also suffers from serious thermal expansion problems due to the large thermal mass of the mirror, and the dome as a whole which is much larger than necessary. Upgrades have taken place throughout the system's history and are ongoing to this day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "581799",
"title": "Environmental design",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Along with the solar orientation of buildings and the use of glass as a solar heat collector, the ancients knew other ways of harnessing solar energy. The Greeks, Romans and Chinese developed curved mirrors that could concentrate the sun's rays on an object with enough intensity to make it burn in seconds. The solar reflectors were often made of polished silver, copper or brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
187w20
|
How did powerful families come by their power in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't talk about the Rothschilds or the like, but I certainly can talk about [the Tudors](_URL_5_) and [the Plantagenets](_URL_1_) and the like. \n\nHenry Tudor, who became King Henry VII of England, of the House of Tudor, was the victor of the [the Wars of the Roses](_URL_3_) between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, who both claimed to be legitimate heirs to the throne. He was *already* in a powerful family - he was just in one branch of it (Lancaster), and defeated the other branch (York). He then married a York woman, combining the two families, and ended the conflict that way.\n\nAnd, the Houses of Lancaster and York were both descendants of the Plantagenets. And, the Plantagenets were just descendants of William the Conqueror, who defeated the King of England in 1066, and declared himself King. \n\nBut, even then, William was already in a powerful family - he was Duke of Normandy, which was a [noble role created by King Charles III of France](_URL_4_). And, the kings of France trace their power back to [the Merovingian kings](_URL_0_), who started out by [conquering some tribes around them](_URL_2_).\n\nMost monarchs trace their origins of power back to an original warrior or chieftain who simply overpowered the people around him and took charge. They became leaders by force. All subsequent conflicts and transfers of power were traceable back to that original chief who took charge. There have been very few monarchs who didn't get their power either by conquest, or by being descended from (or *claiming* to be descended from) conquerors.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35753557",
"title": "House of Lasso de la Vega",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The family reached the height of its power in the 15th Century when facing off against the monarchy. They were able to set up a system of Mayordomazgos independent of the crown and based in the Castillo de Pedraja which belonged to the family. During this time, there were a great many power struggles going on in the area of Cantabria, creating a number of social conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32249276",
"title": "Lords of Rosental",
"section": "Section::::Family history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Greatest power has the family in the 16th century. In the days of King George of Podebrady, of King Vladislas II of Hungary and his successor King Louis II of Hungary, they was one of the most influential family in the Kingdom of Bohemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427715",
"title": "List of political families in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Certain families, such as the Cecils, owe their long-standing political influence to the composition and role of the House of Lords, which was still mainly composed of hereditary legislators until the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999. Other families, such as the Longs, have had a long tradition of standing for elected office, usually in the House of Commons. Many such families were part of the landed gentry, who often exerted political control in a certain locality over many generations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1331630",
"title": "Bhimsen Thapa",
"section": "Section::::Infighting.:Actors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Five leading families or factions contended for power during this period—the Shahs, Thapas, Basnyats, Pandes, and the Chautariyas, who were of Shah dynasty but acted as counselors for the King. Working for these families and their factions were hill Brahmans, who acted as religious preceptors or astrologers, and Newars, who occupied secondary administrative positions. No one else in the country had any influence on the central government. When a family or faction achieved power, it killed, exiled, or demoted members of opposing alliances. Under these circumstances, there was little opportunity for either public political life or coordinated economic development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439364",
"title": "Nobility of Italy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-unification.:Papal nobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "During this period, throughout Italy, various influential families came to positions of power through the election of a family member as Pope or were elevated into the ranks of nobility through ecclesiastic promotion. These families freely intermarried with aristocratic nobility. Like other noble families, those with both papal power and money were able to purchase comunes or other tracts of land and elevate family patriarchs and other relatives to noble titles. Hereditary patriarchs were appointed \"Duke\", \"Marquis\" and even \"Prince\" of various 16th- and 17th-century \"principalities\". According to Ranke:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32093488",
"title": "Château de la Motte",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Fortified farm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "A noble household consisted of an extended family including many illegitimate half brothers and sisters, along with descendants from previous mixed offspring. A mother's status determined the roles in the family, with many positions as administrators and servants. Strategic marriages with other families were sought to defend the family's power and prestige, but a lord's daughter by other than his wife could marry a high servant. Sons were expected to leave the family for service in other lords’ homes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12521667",
"title": "Ashanti Empire",
"section": "Section::::Culture and society.:Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Standing among families was largely political. The royal family typically topped the hierarchy, followed by the families of the chiefs of territorial divisions. In each chiefdom, a particular female line provides the chief. A committee of several men eligible for the post elects the chief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ptsiv
|
Sibling birth order: does it affect anything?
|
[
{
"answer": "The only thing I know of is the potential link between fraternal birth order and male sexual orientation.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > In several studies, the observation is that the more older brothers a man has, the greater the probability is that he will have a homosexual orientation.[1] It has sometimes been called the older brother effect. It has been estimated that 15% of the homosexual demographic is associated with fraternal birth order.\n\nThe article also cites some contrary evidence, so it seems the theory may be rather controversial.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other than sexual orientation, I can't recall anything it influences. It doesn't influence IQ, once you use the proper methodology. [(Wichman, et al., 2006).] (_URL_0_) \n\nIn general, I would be very skeptical of any claims that relate to birth order. In general, claims like that are the product of extrapolation. In the case of IQ and birth order, researchers used cross-sectional studies, where they compared IQ and birthorder between families, instead of using longitudinal studies where they could examine the effect within families across time. \n\nSource: Wichman, A. L., Rodgers, J. L., & MacCallum, R. C. (2006). A multilevel approach to the relationship between birth order and intelligence. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 32(1), 117-127.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "352169",
"title": "Sibling",
"section": "Section::::Birth order.:Contemporary findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1280,
"text": "The social interaction that occurs as a result of birth order however is the most notable. Older siblings often become role models of behaviour, and younger siblings become learners and supervisees. Older siblings are at a developmental advantage both cognitively and socially. The role of birth order also depends greatly and varies greatly on family context. Family size, sibling identification, age gap, modeling, parenting techniques, gender, class, race, and temperament are all confounding variables that can influence behaviour and therefore perceived behaviour of specific birth categories. The research on birth order does have stronger correlations, however, in areas such as intelligence and physical features, but are likely caused by other factors other than the actual position of birth. Some research has found that firstborn children have slightly higher IQs on average than later born children. However, other research finds no such effect. It has been found that first-borns score three points higher compared to second borns and that children born earlier in a family are on average, taller and weigh more than those born later. However, it is impossible to generalize birth order characteristics and apply them universally to all individuals in that subgroup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3730967",
"title": "Sibling rivalry",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Other psychological approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Alfred Adler saw siblings as \"striving for significance\" within the family and felt that birth order was an important aspect of personality development. In fact, psychologists and researchers today endorse the influence of birth order, as well as age and gender constellations, on sibling relationships. However, parents are seen as capable of having an important influence on whether they are competitive or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352169",
"title": "Sibling",
"section": "Section::::Birth order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Birth order is a person's rank by age among his or her siblings. Typically, researchers classify siblings as \"eldest\", \"middle child\", and \"youngest\" or simply distinguish between \"firstborn\" and \"later-born\" children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22409572",
"title": "Sibling relationship",
"section": "Section::::Sibling rivalry.:Causes.:Other psychological approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Alfred Adler saw siblings as \"striving for significance\" within the family and felt that birth order was an important aspect of personality development. The feeling of being replaced or supplanted is often the cause of jealousy on the part of the older sibling. In fact, psychologists and researchers today endorse the influence of birth order, as well as age and gender constellations, on sibling relationships. A child’s personality can also have an effect on how much sibling rivalry will occur in a home. Some kids seem to naturally accept changes, while others may be naturally competitive, and exhibit this nature long before a sibling enters the home. However, parents are seen as capable of having an important influence on whether they are competitive or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "614534",
"title": "Birth order",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "In their book \"Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance across the Lifespan\", Michael E. Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith argue that as individuals continually adjust to competing demands of socialization agents and biological tendencies, any effects of birth order may be eliminated, reinforced, or altered by later experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "614534",
"title": "Birth order",
"section": "Section::::Personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "In her review of the research, Judith Rich Harris suggests that birth order effects may exist within the context of the family of origin, but that they are not enduring aspects of personality. When people are with their parents and siblings, firstborns behave differently from laterborns, even during adulthood. However, most people don't spend their adult lives in their childhood home. Harris provides evidence that the patterns of behavior acquired in the childhood home don't affect the way people behave outside the home, even during childhood. Harris concludes that birth order effects keep turning up because people keep looking for them, and keep analyzing and reanalyzing their data until they find them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "614534",
"title": "Birth order",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Birth order refers to the order a child is born in their family; first-born and second-born are examples. Birth order is often believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development. This assertion has been repeatedly challenged. Recent research has consistently found that earlier born children score slightly higher on average on measures of intelligence, but has found zero, or almost zero, robust effect of birth order on personality. Nevertheless, the notion that birth-order significantly influences personality continues to have a strong presence in pop psychology and popular culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4y1uyc
|
what's going on in milwaukee ?
|
[
{
"answer": "A young African American man was being pursued by the Police. He displayed and aimed a weapon at the Officer. He was promptly shot. He passed away. The community rioted since their perspective is that any shooting under any condition is unlawful. As it turns out the young man has a record and the gun was stolen.\n\nThat's the facts. But there are many more opinions to go with those facts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Copied from myself in another thread:\n\nThere is a lot of racial tension going on in America right now. This isn't a riot just because one guy got shot, it's the result of a lot of history of discrimination. Let me be perfectly clear: **I am not trying to justify or apologize for the rioters**. Everyone has a responsibility to search for the facts before reacting, especially before reacting violently. They didn't do that. I am not trying to justify the behavior, nor am I taking their side - I'm not trying to take any \"side\". I'm only trying to give insight into the mentality so that even if you disagree with their actions you can be aware of why it happened (and hopefully work to prevent it in the future).\n\nWhile this one instance, by all accounts, appears as though the officer was completely justified, that has not always been the case. Even with Mike Brown, although witnesses eventually demonstrated that there was a fight and that Brown was moving towards the officer, the whole thing was handled poorly. Police weren't very cooperative with the community to find the truth. And there have been a number of incidents where it's pretty clear that the police were out of line. There are also some disturbing statistics, like the fact that minorities are more likely to get jail time, and more likely to get *more* jail time for the same offense. Minorities are also overrepresented in fatal police interactions.\n\nThe overall picture is that racial discrimination absolutely happens, a lot. Some argue that the reason you hear so much about black kids fighting the police is that they don't have any particular reason to believe it'll work out any better for them if they don't. The logic (whether or not it's accurate) is that you'll get shot if you do nothing anyway, so why let them?\n\nThat creates a lot of fear and distrust between police and their communities. The police are afraid that they'll get attacked, so they're more aggressive. The people in the community are afraid they'll get attacked (because, yeah, they will, it keeps happening) so they get aggressive. Which of course confirms the fears of the police, and there's a vicious cycle.\n\nIn Milwaukee, the tension has built up a lot. It's been described as the country's most segregated city, and there's a lot of poverty that is largely along racial divides. The people there don't have a lot of good reasons to trust the police. So when the police shoot someone in that community, their immediate reaction is going to be contrary to law enforcement. They are not inclined to believe that he deserved to get shot because too often that's not the case. All the little interactions that have not been positive from either side finally came to a head and exploded because of the shooting.\n\nTL;DR: the riot isn't really over the shooting, that's just the excuse for the community there to vent decades of racial tension in a destructive way. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Black officer shot black suspect after suspect pointed a gun at the officer. Riots ensue due to racial tension being pushed largely by the media and false ideas, as well as groups who want to use skin color as a reason to be able to commit violence without repercussion. Rioters are from both the area as well as from other communities. Some are even paid to cause disturbances. They burn down businesses having nothing to do with the shooting. Some groups are even targeting white people to attack. It's essentially collectivist tribalism, and racism, all rolled together with no real actual comprehensive change or goal in mind to address the REAL problems. And they are gaining ground because politicians and policies in government are starting to pander to such monsters. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31788902",
"title": "Milwaukee (Greenamyer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "\"Milwaukee\" is a public artwork by Cleveland, Ohio artist George Mossman Greenamyer (b. 1939), located at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Golda Meir Library, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1360494",
"title": "Milwaukee River",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The Milwaukee River is a river in the state of Wisconsin. It is about long. Once a locus of industry, the river is now the center of a housing boom. New condos now crowd the downtown and harbor districts of Milwaukee attracting young professionals to the area. The river is also ribboned with parks as it winds through various neighborhoods. Kayaks and fishing boats share the river with party boats. An extensive Riverwalk featuring art displays, boat launches and restaurants lines its banks in downtown Milwaukee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "512185",
"title": "University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee",
"section": "Section::::History.:University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "In 2006, UW–Milwaukee was ranked as the ninth best \"Saviors of Our Cities\" by the New England Board of Higher Education (NEBHE), because of its strong positive contribution of careful strategic planning and thoughtful use of resources that have dramatically strengthened the economy and quality of life of Milwaukee, and was voted by the public as one of the top ten \"Gems of Milwaukee\" .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4369681",
"title": "Milwaukee Magazine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Milwaukee Magazine is a monthly city magazine serving the Milwaukee metropolitan area in Wisconsin, United States. It bills itself as \"Southeastern Wisconsin's most authoritative source for Events and Dining,\" and reports a readership of 200,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9993503",
"title": "Milwaukee Intermodal Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Milwaukee Intermodal Station is the main intercity bus and train station in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, located downtown. The station is served by Amtrak's \"Empire Builder\" and \"Hiawatha Service\" as well as bus companies Coach USA - Wisconsin Coach Lines (regional and intercity services), Greyhound Lines, Jefferson Lines, Indian Trails, Lamers, Badger Bus, Tornado Bus Company, and Megabus. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35840451",
"title": "Housing Authority of the City of Milwaukee",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The Housing Authority of the City of Milwaukee (HACM) is a municipal agency of Milwaukee, Wisconsin dedicated to providing public housing and services for residents of the city of Milwaukee. The agency was established in 1944 and is responsible to a board of commissioners appointed by the mayor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23424530",
"title": "Milwaukee at Last!!!",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Milwaukee at Last!!! is the seventh album (and second live album) by Canadian-American singer-songwriter Rufus Wainwright, released in the United States on September 22, 2009. The album consists of live recordings from his August 27, 2007 performance at the Pabst Theater in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in support of his previous studio album, \"Release the Stars\" (2007). Documentary film director Albert Maysles recorded a film of the same name for DVD, also released on September 22 in the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1n93hn
|
Maximum rotation of a pulsar
|
[
{
"answer": "Speed of light is always a limit, but not here. Here, the limiting factor is the fact that at ~1500 rotations per second, gravitational radiation would release more energy than accretion could compensate. For an average 12km pulsar, that's less than half the speed of light, and even that's pushing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11965603",
"title": "Stellar rotation",
"section": "Section::::Degenerate stars.:Neutron star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Pulsars are rotating neutron stars that have a magnetic field. A narrow beam of electromagnetic radiation is emitted from the poles of rotating pulsars. If the beam sweeps past the direction of the Solar System then the pulsar will produce a periodic pulse that can be detected from the Earth. The energy radiated by the magnetic field gradually slows down the rotation rate, so that older pulsars can require as long as several seconds between each pulse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32867902",
"title": "PSR J1719−1438",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "PSR J1719-1438 is a millisecond pulsar with a spin period of 5.8 ms located about 4,000 ly from Earth in the direction of Serpens Cauda, one minute from the border with Ophiuchus. Millisecond pulsars are generally thought to begin as normal pulsars and then spin up by accreting matter from a binary companion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22841263",
"title": "PSR B1937+21",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "It is the first discovered millisecond pulsar, with a rotational period of 1.557708 milliseconds, meaning it completes almost 642 rotations per second. This period was far shorter than astronomers considered pulsars capable of reaching, and led to the suggestion that pulsars can be spun-up by accreting mass from a companion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1227284",
"title": "Pulsar",
"section": "Section::::Formation, mechanism, turn off.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "In rotation-powered pulsars, the beam originates from the rotational energy of the neutron star, which generates an electrical field from the movement of the very strong magnetic field, resulting in the acceleration of protons and electrons on the star surface and the creation of an electromagnetic beam emanating from the poles of the magnetic field. This rotation slows down over time as electromagnetic power is emitted. When a pulsar's spin period slows down sufficiently, the radio pulsar mechanism is believed to turn off (the so-called \"death line\"). This turn-off seems to take place after about 10–100 million years, which means of all the neutron stars born in the 13.6 billion year age of the universe, around 99% no longer pulsate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7290120",
"title": "Methods of detecting exoplanets",
"section": "Section::::Established detection methods.:Pulsar timing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "A pulsar is a neutron star: the small, ultradense remnant of a star that has exploded as a supernova. Pulsars emit radio waves extremely regularly as they rotate. Because the intrinsic rotation of a pulsar is so regular, slight anomalies in the timing of its observed radio pulses can be used to track the pulsar's motion. Like an ordinary star, a pulsar will move in its own small orbit if it has a planet. Calculations based on pulse-timing observations can then reveal the parameters of that orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1232763",
"title": "Crab Pulsar",
"section": "Section::::History of observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1307,
"text": "The Crab Pulsar was the first pulsar for which the \"spin-down limit\" was broken using several months of data of the LIGO observatory. Most pulsars do not rotate at constant rotation frequency, but can be observed to slow down at a very slow rate (3.7e-10 Hz/s in case of the Crab). This spin-down can be explained as a loss of rotation energy due to various mechanisms. The spin-down limit is a theoretical upper limit of the amplitude of gravitational waves that a pulsar can emit, assuming that all the losses in energy are converted to gravitational waves. No gravitational waves being observed at the expected amplitude and frequency (after correcting for the expected Doppler shift) is therefore a proof that other mechanisms must be responsible for the loss in energy. The non-observation so far is not totally unexpected, since physical models of the rotational symmetry of pulsars puts a more realistic upper limit on the amplitude of gravitational waves several orders of magnitude below the spin-down limit. It is hoped that with the improvement of the sensitivity of gravitational wave instruments and the use of longer stretches of data, gravitational waves emitted by pulsars will be observed in future. The only other pulsar for which the spin-down limit was broken so far is the Vela Pulsar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46884197",
"title": "Chaotic rotation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Examples of chaotic rotation include Hyperion, a moon of Saturn, which rotates so unpredictably that the Cassini probe could not be reliably scheduled to pass by unexplored regions, and Pluto's Nix, Hydra, and possibly Styx and Kerberos, and also Neptune's Nereid. According to Mark R. Showalter, author of a recent study, \"Nix can flip its entire pole. It could actually be possible to spend a day on Nix in which the sun rises in the east and sets in the north. It is almost random-looking in the way it rotates.\" Another example is that of galaxies; from careful observation by the Keck and Hubble telescopes of hundreds of galaxies, a trend was discovered that suggests galaxies such as our own Milky Way used to have a very chaotic rotation, with planetary bodies and stars rotating randomly. New evidence suggests that our galaxy and other have settled into an orderly, disk-like rotation over the past 8 billion years and that other galaxies are slowly following suit over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e8xe9
|
Are animals immune to poison ivy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans are generally allergic to an oil in poison ivy called urushiol. Other animals are not affected, and many actually eat poison ivy. Sources: [1](_URL_1_), [2](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3255767",
"title": "Phytolacca americana",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity, poisoning and mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Birds are apparently immune to this poison. The plant is not palatable to animals and is avoided unless little else is available, or if it is in contaminated hay, but horses, sheep and cattle have been poisoned by eating fresh leaves or green fodder, and pigs have been poisoned by eating the roots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36155744",
"title": "Ethoprophos",
"section": "Section::::Toxicology.:Effects on animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Ethoprophos is considered to pose a low risk to mammals exposed to contaminated water as well as mammals feeding on contaminated fish. It is, however, extremely toxic to bees under direct exposure and also to birds which are exposed to the toxin through dietary routes. These involve ingestion of seeds or worms including residues of contaminated soil. Finally, a study showed that ethoprophos, along with 4 other active substances, was responsible for 40% of the utilized pesticides in Costa Rica, yet they contributed to more than three quarters of the aquatic toxicity. Thus, it has also been concluded to be highly toxic to aquatic species. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4162016",
"title": "Margie Profet",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Likewise, injecting mice with a small dose of bee venom conferred immunity to a much larger, fatal dose, Stanford researchers Stephen Galli, Thomas Marichal, and Philipp Starkl found. \"Our findings support the hypothesis that this kind of venom-specific, IgE-associated, adaptive immune response developed, at least in evolutionary terms, to protect the host against potentially toxic amounts of venom, such as would happen if the animal encountered a whole nest of bees, or in the event of a snakebite,\" Galli explained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3003027",
"title": "Allethrins",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The compounds have low toxicity for humans and birds. It is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates. At normal application rates, allethrin is slightly toxic to bees. Insects subject to exposure become paralyzed (nervous system effect) before dying. Allethrins are toxic to cats because they either do not produce, or produce less of certain isoforms of glucuronosyltransferase, which serve in hepatic detoxifying metabolism pathways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5453206",
"title": "Golden poison frog",
"section": "Section::::Poison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The poisonous frogs and birds themselves are perhaps the only creatures to be immune to this poison. Batrachotoxin attacks the sodium channels of nerve cells, but the frog has special sodium channels the poison cannot harm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17050846",
"title": "Philodendron hederaceum",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Parts of the plant are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals in varying concentrations. Although the plant is known to be toxic to mice and rats, the current literature is conflicting with regards to its toxicity in cats. Its possible toxic effects on humans are currently unknown although likely very mild if not harmless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "471385",
"title": "Impatiens",
"section": "Section::::Medicinal uses and phytochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "North American impatiens have been used as herbal remedies for the treatment of bee stings, insect bites, and stinging nettle (\"Urtica dioica\") rashes. They are also used after poison ivy (\"Toxicodendron radicans\") contact to prevent a rash from developing. The efficacy of orange jewelweed (\"I. capensis\") and yellow jewelweed (\"I. pallida\") in preventing poison ivy contact dermatitis has been studied, with conflicting results. A study in 1958 found that \"Impatiens biflora\" was an effective alternative to standard treatment for dermatitis caused by contact with sumac, while later studies found that the species had no antipruritic effects after the rash has developed. Researchers reviewing these contradictions state that potential reason for these conflicts include the method of preparation and timing of application. A 2012 study found that while an extract of orange jewelweed and garden jewelweed (\"I. balsamina\") was not effective in reducing contact dermatitis, a mash of the plants applied topically decreased it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mhd6y
|
What rate would glaciers be growing or melting without human intervention?
|
[
{
"answer": "Before I start, I'm no glaciologist, but I can address some of your points and maybe hope that someone more knowledgeable can come along and set me straight if I get anything wrong, and maybe add some sources...\n\nIt's important to realise that *all* glaciers are melting. Due to the huge pressures of the ice, temperature fluctuations and incoming liquid water (from runoff or rain or whatever), there will always be melt from a glacier. Obviously this melt can be increased, and higher temperatures will tend to do that, but the system is very complex.\n\nWhat you're really asking about is glacial retreat. All glaciers accumulate mass and ablate mass (those are technical terms for gaining and losing), but 'want' to be in a state where the rate that these happen at is equivalent.\n\nIf accumulation rate > ablation rate, the glacier will advance. \nIf ablation rate > accumulation rate, the glacier will retreat.\n\nYou can see from this diagram _URL_0_ that *most* glaciers are currently retreating, but that some are actually advancing. This fact alone immediately suggests that the situation is not as simple as \"temperatures are getting hotter therefore glaciers are retreating\".\n\nThe rate of glacial retreat depends on a lot of factors, not just the temperature, but the *general trend* of global glacial retreat is used as evidence of increasing temperatures. However, the real drivers may not be that simple - clearly in some areas the rate of accumulation has increased (i.e. more snowfall). In fact, retreat can be caused either by an increase in ablation (i.e. increased temperatures) or a decrease in accumulation (i.e. lower snowfall (which of course might be caused by increased temperatures, but not necessarily)).\n\nYour point about increased melting as the glacier retreats is not really valid - comparing it to a melting ice cube is not really a valid analogy. For a start, the ice cube's surface area to volume ratio quickly decreases as it melts, which will not really happen with a glacier. Also the bulk temperature of the ice cube will be increasing as a whole so that the internal temperature will be increasing even as the outside melts.\n\nAnd yes, people are worried about glacier's melting, for several reasons. For one, they cover around 10% of the Earth's surface and have a strong albedo effect (though this is not necessarily true for all, e.g. icelandic glaciers which are often covered in volcanic ash) and therefore their loss would cause a temperature feedback effect. But there's also the more direct problems - glacial melt causing flash-floods, loss of drinking water, and many others. We had a talk recently by someone looking at glaciers in the Andes, and they're really worried there. But the loss is not necessarily inevitable. We don't understand how Ice Ages work (and the idea that we are 'due' an Ice Age is fairly regularly trotted out), what causes them or how they cycle, but it's also true that glacial retreat could be an entirely natural process. Evidence suggests that climate change is having an effect though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the absence of anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases, we would expect over thousands of years for glaciers generally to advance as Milankovitch-driven cooling pushed us towards a new glacial maximum. Exactly how long that would take and at what rate the glaciers would be advancing is a tricky subject, because it's incredibly difficult to suss out what part of the early increase in CO2 and CH4 many thousands of years ago is due to human activity like deforestation and deliberate creation of wetlands for agriculture ([Ruddiman, 2003](_URL_3_); [Ruddiman et al., 2011](_URL_5_)). This is important because the threshold for glacial advance is very sensitive to the background levels of GHGs, and the \"cut off\" falls within the range that is debatably human caused/not definitively 'pre-human'. \n\nWe can look to past interglacial to glacial maxima transitions, make some assumptions about what the background GHG levels should be absent humans, and try to model the climate forward (e.g. [Tzedakis et al., 2012a](_URL_4_); [Tzedakis et al., 2012b](_URL_0_). Readvance towards a new glacial maximum occurs within ~1500 years if background CO2 levels are ~240 ppm or lower, longer if they're higher. \n\nThis tendency towards gradual cooling in the absence of man-made warming, especially in the Northern Hemisphere higher latitudes, is evident in proxy reconstructions for the past several thousand years (e.g. [Kaufman et al., 2009](_URL_2_); [Marcott et al., 2013](_URL_1_)). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37063005",
"title": "Effects of global warming on human health",
"section": "Section::::Extreme weather events.:Glacial melting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 1289,
"text": "“Glacier mass-balances show consistent decreases over the last century in most regions of the world and retreat may be accelerating in many locations\" with an average loss of ten meters per year, nearly twice as fast as ten years ago. Glaciers currently cover ~10% of the Earth's surface, or ~15 million km² and holds ~75% of Earth's fresh water supply. Glacial retreat first gained the attention of alpinists and the tourist industry shortly after 1940 – when the globe warmed ~0.5 °C. Even with 62 years of awareness, climate change is just becoming an issue for some parts of society. Over this time period the cirque and steep alpine glaciers were able to acclimatize to the new temperatures posed by climate change; large valley glaciers have not yet made this adjustment. This means the large valley glaciers are rapidly retreating, as their mass is attempting to achieve equilibrium with the current climate. If regional snow lines stay constant, then the glaciers remain constant. Today this is clearly not the case as global warming is causing mountain snow lines to rapidly retreat. Even the United States’ famous Glacier National Park is receding. More than two-thirds of its glaciers have disappeared and it is expected for them to be nonexistent in the park by the year 2030.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37966",
"title": "Himalayas",
"section": "Section::::Hydrology.:Glaciers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of climate change. For example, glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers during the dry seasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12463",
"title": "Glacier",
"section": "Section::::Motion.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called surges. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities far greater than normal speed. These surges may be caused by failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier — perhaps delivered from a supraglacial lake — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical \"tipping point\". Temporary rates up to per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15380061",
"title": "Water scarcity",
"section": "Section::::Depletion of freshwater resources.:Glaciers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Glaciers are noted as a vital water source due to their contribution to stream flow. Rising global temperatures have noticeable effects on the rate at which glaciers melt, causing glaciers in general to shrink worldwide. Although the meltwater from these glaciers are increasing the total water supply for the present, the disappearance of glaciers in the long term will diminish available water resources. Increased meltwater due to rising global temperatures can also have negative effects such as flooding of lakes and dams and catastrophic results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61910",
"title": "Climate change and agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.:Glacier retreat and disappearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The continued retreat of glaciers will have a number of different quantitative impacts. In the areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26406489",
"title": "Physical impacts of climate change",
"section": "Section::::Geophysical systems.:Cryosphere.:Glacier retreat and disappearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The loss of glaciers not only directly causes landslides, flash floods and [[glacial lake]] overflow, but also increases annual variation in water flows in rivers. Glacier runoff declines in the summer as glaciers decrease in size, this decline is already observable in several regions. Glaciers retain water on mountains in high precipitation years, since the snow cover accumulating on glaciers protects the ice from melting. In warmer and drier years, glaciers offset the lower precipitation amounts with a higher meltwater input.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16063421",
"title": "2007 in Antarctica",
"section": "Section::::Events.:June.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- June 5: The British Antarctic Survey announces that the flow-rate of 300 previously unmeasured glaciers increased by 12% between 1993 and 2003, adding to concerns over glacier retreat and the rise in sea levels caused by global warming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6j4c3
|
why is a p/e ratio called price to earnings and not just price to profit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Profit can vary wildly from one reporting period to another. So many aspects of business can impact it both positively and negatively. In addition some things might lower profits during only one quarter, which if you only tracked profits might make it seem the company had begun performing poorly. \n\nEarnings are simpler to track, much less subject to manipulation and a more consistent indicator of the direction of a company. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "163066",
"title": "Price–earnings ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The price-earnings ratio, also known as P/E ratio, P/E, or PER, is the ratio of a company's share (stock) price to the company's earnings per share. The ratio is used for valuing companies and to find out whether they are overvalued or undervalued. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63121",
"title": "Investment",
"section": "Section::::Investment strategies.:Value investment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The price to earnings ratio (P/E), or earnings multiple, is a particularly significant and recognized fundamental ratio, with a function of dividing the share price of stock, by its earnings per share. This will provide the value representing the sum investors are prepared to expend for each dollar of company earnings. This ratio is an important aspect, due to its capacity as measurement for the comparison of valuations of various companies. A stock with a lower P/E ratio will cost less per share than one with a higher P/E, taking into account the same level of financial performance; therefore, it essentially means a low P/E is the preferred option.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1661038",
"title": "Price–sales ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Price–sales ratio, P/S ratio, or PSR, is a valuation metric for stocks. It is calculated by dividing the company's market capitalization by the revenue in the most recent year; or, equivalently, divide the per-share stock price by the per-share revenue. Also, justified p/s is calculated as (profit margin × payout × (1 + g)/(r − g)).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247120",
"title": "Revenue",
"section": "Section::::Business revenue.:Financial statement analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Price / Sales is sometimes used as a substitute for a Price to earnings ratio when earnings are negative and the P/E is meaningless. Though a company may have negative earnings, it almost always has positive revenue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32266803",
"title": "Customer cost",
"section": "Section::::Total consumer cost in contrast to price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The term price usually refers to the amount of money charged for a product or service. It represents the payment made by the consumer and received by the producer when the ownership of the product or service is transferred from the seller to the buyer. The price of a product has different functions: for the producer, the most important one is to produce revenues and to cover the costs of production, distribution and sale of a product. Price also signals quality and reflects existing supply and demand. It can promote competitive advantages by helping to achieve various marketing objectives and allowing for market segmentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163066",
"title": "Price–earnings ratio",
"section": "Section::::In business culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The P/E ratio of a company is a major focus for many managers. They are usually paid in company stock or options on their company's stock (a form of payment that is supposed to align the interests of management with the interests of other stock holders). The stock price can increase in one of two ways: either through improved earnings or through an improved multiple that the market assigns to those earnings. In turn, the primary drivers for multiples such as the P/E ratio is through higher and more sustained earnings growth rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241629",
"title": "Marketing mix",
"section": "Section::::McCarthy's 4 Ps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Price refers to decisions surrounding \"list pricing, discount pricing, special offer pricing, credit payment or credit terms\". Price refers to the total cost to customer to acquire the product, and may involve both monetary and psychological costs such as the time and effort spent in acquisition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
939pt1
|
how does the internet’s wayback machine work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Correct me if I'm wrong, but this is how previous projects that were similar worked. They have bots (automated software) that crawl the web looking at different webpages and archiving them. Every time it takes a snapshot of a webpage (usually including its source code and, if I remember right, copies of images as well), it stores it and you can view it later.\n\nMore trafficked websites will have visits from those boots quite a lot more often.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The wayback machine is absolute proof: The internet doesn't erase anything. \u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010\u0010Ever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To answer the second part of your question it's currently about 9.6 petabytes, (a petabyte is 1000 terabytes which is 1000 gigabytes) and in 2009 was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538754",
"title": "Wayback Machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web and other information on the Internet. It was launched in 2001 by the Internet Archive, a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California, United States. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176931",
"title": "Internet Archive",
"section": "Section::::Web archiving.:Wayback Machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The use of the term \"Wayback Machine\" in the context of the Internet Archive has become common in popular culture; e.g., in the television show \"\" (\"Legacy\", first run August 3, 2008), a computer tech uses the \"Wayback Machine\" to find an archive of a student's Facebook-style web site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538754",
"title": "Wayback Machine",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Despite its capabilities, the Wayback Machine also has some limitations. In 2014 there was a six-month lag time between when a website is crawled and when it is available for viewing in the Wayback Machine. Currently, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours. The Wayback Machine is not \"historical Google\"; users must know the URL of the websites they want to see. It does have a \"Site Search\" feature that allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538754",
"title": "Wayback Machine",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Website exclusion policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "Historically, Wayback Machine has respected the robots exclusion standard (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled or not; or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. Website owners had the option to opt-out of Wayback Machine through the use of robots.txt. It applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocked the Internet Archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. In addition, the Internet Archive stated that \"Sometimes a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests.\" In addition, the website says: \"The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other Internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538754",
"title": "Wayback Machine",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "The Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript, because those functions require interaction with the host website. The Wayback Machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML (or one of its variants) which often results in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive \"orphan pages\" that contain no links to other pages. Specific rules governing the Wayback Machine's crawler can only follow a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538754",
"title": "Wayback Machine",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "From its public launch in 2001, the Wayback Machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data as well as for the actual pages contained in its archive. As of 2013, scholars had written about 350 articles on the Wayback Machine, mostly from the information technology, library science, and social science fields. Social science scholars have used the Wayback Machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid-1990s to the present has affected the company's growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176931",
"title": "Internet Archive",
"section": "Section::::Web archiving.:Wayback Machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1225,
"text": "The Internet Archive capitalized on the popular use of the term \"WABAC Machine\" from a segment of \"The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle\" cartoon (specifically \"Peabody's Improbable History\"), and uses the name \"Wayback Machine\" for its service that allows archives of the World Wide Web to be searched and accessed. This service allows users to view some of the archived web pages. The Wayback Machine was created as a joint effort between Alexa Internet and the Internet Archive when a three-dimensional index was built to allow for the browsing of archived web content. Millions of web sites and their associated data (images, source code, documents, etc.) are saved in a database. The service can be used to see what previous versions of web sites used to look like, to grab original source code from web sites that may no longer be directly available, or to visit web sites that no longer even exist. Not all web sites are available because many web site owners choose to exclude their sites. As with all sites based on data from web crawlers, the Internet Archive misses large areas of the web for a variety of other reasons. A 2004 paper found international biases in the coverage, but deemed them \"not intentional\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
198fu1
|
what is "sequestration" in the context of current events?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically its been decided that the US has too much debt, were spending too much money. To fix the economy, many think that the US Government has to start paying off some of the debt that it has been racking up. There are two ways to do this, either increase the amount of money that it makes or cut money that it spends. Now there are many ways of making money, but the easiest is raising taxes. Many people dont like this because then they would loose more money from their paychecks (and as a person who is doing his taxes currently, even more once a year). Whichever party is currently in power, if they raised taxes a bunch, would not be in power again for a while come next election. \n\nSo that leaves spending. But what does the government cut? At every point in time somebody said \"This program were paying for? Its super important for X,Y, and Z reasons. Plus it helps employ people who voted for me!\". So its hard to cut some programs, and other programs (like Social Security) have become critical issues for some people. Imagine if you were 64, the minimum retirement age was 65 but then it went up to 72. That make you really mad right? So its hard to mess with that type of stuff. \n\nLastly there is a political reason that makes spending hard. See, Democrats like to have all these programs that help people from falling on bad times. But Republicans feel that people should fend for themselves, and shouldn't be the government's responsibility. So they want to cut all these social (welfare) programs that the Democrats like. BUT the Republicans want to spend money on defense, to make more tanks or whatever and they dont want the Democrats to cut that. So each side really wants to cut the thing that the other likes, but nobody is willing to cut a little out of both or come up with some other strategy. \n\nSo what happened last year was that the US's \"credit card\" hit it's limit (almost). We were about to run out of loaned cash, and Congress had to call up the debt company and ask for more. But some, like many Republicans, wanted to make a stink about it and demand that some money be cut from the budget. Then they would raise the cap. But for the above reasons, nobody could decide what to cut (even though the cap already went up) so it went into sudden death overtime. Basically a group of Republicans and Democrats made a deal and said \"We are going to cut all this stuff, stuff that neither side wants cut, if nobody makes a better deal. Further, we are going to cut deeply and really trim down the budget.\" The idea was that the cuts would be so deep, and cut things that nobody wanted cut (and also raise taxes and a bunch of other stuff), that both sides would finally make a deal. The problem was, it was an election year so nobody did **SHIT** to fix the problem. It was funner to just complain about how it was a problem somebody needed to fix. So the deadline has come and gone and nobody agreed on a better plan, so now these cuts will be applied unless some 11th hour drama gets a new deal passed. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37566400",
"title": "Budget sequestration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "The term \"budget sequestration\" was first used to describe a section of Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Deficit Reduction Act of 1985 (GRHDRA). The hard caps were abandoned and replaced with a PAYGO system by the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990, which was in effect until 2002. Sequestration was later included as part of the Budget Control Act of 2011, which resolved the debt-ceiling crisis; the bill set up a Congressional debt-reduction committee and included the sequestration as a disincentive to be activated only if Congress did not pass deficit reduction legislation. However, the committee did not come to agreement on any plan, activating the sequestration plan. The sequestration was to come into force on January 1, 2013 and was considered part of the fiscal cliff, but the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 delayed it until March 1 of that year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37566400",
"title": "Budget sequestration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Budget sequestration is a procedure in United States law that limits the size of the federal budget. Sequestration involves setting a hard cap on the amount of government spending within broadly defined categories; if Congress enacts annual appropriations legislation that exceeds these caps, an across-the-board spending cut is automatically imposed on these categories, affecting all departments and programs by an equal percentage. The amount exceeding the budget limit is held back by the Treasury and not transferred to the agencies specified in the appropriation bills. The word sequestration was derived from a legal term referring to the seizing of property by an agent of the court, to prevent destruction or harm, while any dispute over said property is resolved in court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38648190",
"title": "United States budget sequestration in 2013",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The budget sequestration in 2013 refers to the automatic spending cuts to United States federal government spending in particular categories of outlays that were initially set to begin on January 1, 2013, as a fiscal policy as a result of Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA), and were postponed by two months by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 until March 1 when this law went into effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6057975",
"title": "Depletion (accounting)",
"section": "Section::::Types of depletion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Depletion, for both accounting purposes and United States tax purposes, is a method of recording the gradual expense or use of natural resources over time. Depletion is the using up of natural resources by mining, quarrying, drilling, or felling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5152411",
"title": "Debellatio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The term \"debellatio\" or \"debellation\" (Latin \"defeating, or the act of conquering or subduing\", literally, \"warring (the enemy) down\", from Latin \"bellum\" \"war\") designates the end of war caused by complete destruction of a hostile state. Israeli law-school professor Eyal Benvenisti defines it as \"a situation in which a party to a conflict has been totally defeated in war, its national institutions have disintegrated, and none of its allies continue to challenge the enemy militarily on its behalf\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11424306",
"title": "Sequestration (law)",
"section": "Section::::England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In law, the term \"sequestration\" has many applications; thus it is applied to the act of a belligerent power which seizes the debts due from its own subject to the enemy power; to a writ directed to persons, \"sequestrators,\" to enter on the property of the defendant and seize the goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20665599",
"title": "Bernanke doctrine",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In 2002, when the word \"deflation\" began appearing in the business news, Bernanke, then a governor on the Board of the Federal Reserve, gave a speech about deflation entitled \"Deflation: Making Sure \"It\" Doesn't Happen Here.\" In that speech, he assessed the causes and effects of deflation in the modern economy. Bernanke states: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4z0c0q
|
Did Alexander the Great really fight in every battle and siege he waged?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman is a good read. It's directed at laymen and thus is less dry than most strictly academic works. I can only answer for what Freeman's work says, so if he was wrong, I hope someone can post a correction. \n\n1. Yes, according to the sources we have he fought in all the major engagements of his army during his famous campaign eastward. \n\n2. It wasn't *common*, for example Darius (leader of Persian Empire) did not fight with his troops. However among smaller, more tribal states such as the Scythians, the leader would fight with the rest of the troops. According to Freeman Alexander's participation was often crucial to morale. Alexander's army won battles in which they were outnumbered by absurd margins (such as at Gaugamela), as well as won offensive sieges by force on cities that seemed basically unconquerable (Tyre and Gaza). Freeman says that Alexanders gusto and personal participation was what kept morale from breaking when his army stood up against immensely larger forces or extremely impressive/legendary fortresses. Overall though it's certain that it was seen as an act worthy of respect, honor, and greatness. The sources (likely) exaggerate some of the stories in an attempt to embellish Alexander, so it was certainly seen as a positive thing to have bravery and battle prowess in a leader, as opposed to someone like Darius who watched comfortably from the rear. There is something innate in people, especially soldiers, to want to follow the leader charging the enemy king instead of the helpless leader running away.\n\n3. He was trained extensively in horsemanship and fighting, as well as general education, from a young age by his father Philip. His father had access to excellent teachers from the kingdom he had built around Macedon during his life and Alexander is said to have had a host of tutors, Aristotle among them. It's reasonable to assume that he would have been an excellent fighter, and surviving sources of course wouldn't say otherwise. \n\n4. Don't know more about this than the average person. \n\n5. Besides Freeman there are countless academic works. However I would recommend just reading A Life of Alexander by Plutarch, a prominent ancient source, or [this](_URL_0_) compilation of ancient sources. \n",
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"answer": " > Was it expected of generals of the time? What did other commanders and soldiers think of him throwing himself into the gray time and time again? What was he trying to prove by doing it?\n\nAlexander was the product of a tradition - both Greek and Macedonian - of leading warriors by example. In Greek city-states, this was the only recourse for citizens elected to the generalship to prove that they were worthy of the position; among the Macedonians, rather, it fit into older notions of leisure-class competitive display, in which the man who claimed the right to lead had to prove that he had what it took to deserve the leadership. The outcome was the same. All generals were obliged to lead from the front. It was the best way to inspire the men and to get them to do what they had to do. Indeed, Alexander's alleged obsession with Achilles would have encouraged him to behave in the fashion of Homeric heroes, who were constantly trying to outdo one another in acts of bravery and feats of arms in order to justify and secure their high social status.\n\nEven though the Greeks were aware that the loss of a general could be fatal for an army, even military thinkers still recommended that generals lead from the front, aware that a general who was perceived as cowardly would not be able to get anything done. Greek warriors' preference for the \"soldier's general\", who shared in the hardships of the men and led by example, resulted in a staggering casualty rate for Greek commanders. It's often been remarked that Alexander's survival despite mutliple wounds received in close combat was little short of miraculous. Only in the later Hellenistic period do we see generals (starting with Pyrrhos of Epiros) taking a more managerial approach to battle command.\n\n > Since his time, have generals attempted to emulate his style of 'heroic' leadership by leading from the front?\n\nAs noted above, his style wasn't new; it was the norm for all generals in the Greek world, from elected Boiotians to Spartan kings. However, if anything, Alexander's example made the trend worse. Since the men who filled the power vaccuum after his death derived their status primarily from their military prowess, and the chief way to prove one's military credentials was to emulate the greatest commander ever - Alexander - a lot of the so-called *diadochoi* (Successors) shared the same reckless habit of leading from the front.\n\nPlutarch discusses the matter in detail in the introduction to his *Life of Pelopidas*, a fourth-century Greek general who died in battle:\n\n > For if, as Iphikrates analyzed the matter, the light-armed troops are like the hands, the cavalry like the feet, the hoplites like chest and cuirass, and the general like the head, then he, in taking undue risks and being over bold, would seem to neglect not himself, but everyone, inasmuch as their safety depends on him, and their destruction too. \n\n > Therefore Kallikratidas, although otherwise he was a great man, did not make a good answer to the seer who begged him to be careful, since the sacrificial omens foretold his death; ‘Sparta,’ said he, ‘does not depend upon one man.’ For when fighting, or sailing, or marching under orders, Kallikratidas was ‘one man’; but as general, he comprised in himself the strength and power of all, so that he was not ‘one man,’ when such numbers perished with him. \n\n > Better was the speech of old Antigonos as he was about to fight a sea-fight off Andros, and someone told him that the enemy's ships were far more numerous than his: ‘But what of myself,’ said he, ‘how many ships will you count me?’ implying that the worth of the commander is a great thing, as it is in fact, when allied with experience and valour, and his first duty is to save the one who saves everything else.\n\n > Therefore Timotheos was right when Chares was once showing the Athenians some wounds he had received, and his shield pierced by a spear, in saying: ‘But I, how greatly ashamed I was, at the siege of Samos, because a catapult bolt fell near me; I thought I was behaving more like an impetuous youth than like a general in command of so large a force.’\n\n > For where the whole issue is greatly furthered by the general's exposing himself to danger, there he must employ hand and body unsparingly, ignoring those who say that a good general should die, if not of old age, at least in old age; but where the advantage to be derived from his success is small, and the whole cause perishes with him if he fails, no one demands that a general should risk his life in fighting like a common soldier. \n\nOne of the most interesting works on Greek command is E.L. Wheeler's 'The General as Hoplite', in V.D. Hanson (ed.) *Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience* (1991).\n\nEdit: added Plutarch quoting me",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "335028",
"title": "Wars of Alexander the Great",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The wars of Alexander the Great were fought by King Alexander III of Macedon (\"The Great\"), first against the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Darius III, and then against local chieftains and warlords as far east as Punjab, India. Due to the sheer scale of these wars, and the fact that Alexander was generally undefeated in battle, he has been regarded as one of the most successful military commanders of all time. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks. Although being successful as a military commander, he failed to provide any stable alternative to the Achaemenid Empire—his untimely death threw the vast territories he conquered into civil war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "26905",
"title": "Siege",
"section": "Section::::Classical antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Alexander the Great's army successfully besieged many powerful cities during his conquests. Two of his most impressive achievements in siegecraft took place in the Siege of Tyre and the Siege of the Sogdian Rock. His engineers built a causeway that was originally wide and reached the range of his torsion-powered artillery, while his soldiers pushed siege towers housing stone throwers and light catapults to bombard the city walls.\n",
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"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24605823",
"title": "The Battle of Alexander at Issus",
"section": "Section::::Subject matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"end_character": 608,
"text": "Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BC), best known as Alexander the Great, was an Ancient Greek king of Macedon who reigned from 336 BC until his death. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest military tacticians and strategists in history, and is presumed undefeated in battle. Renowned for his military leadership and charisma, he always led his armies personally and took to the front ranks of battle. By conquering the Persian Empire and unifying Greece, Egypt and Babylon, he forged the largest empire of the ancient world and effected the spread of Hellenism throughout Europe and Northern Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42012",
"title": "Macedonia (ancient kingdom)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1384,
"text": "Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded. His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus in 334BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a cavalry charge from his companion cavalry. Alexander led the cavalry charge at the Battle of Issus in 333BC, forcing the Persian king Darius III and his army to flee. DariusIII, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the Battle of Gaugamela in 331BC. The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of Bactria and kinsman, Bessus, in 330BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now Afghanistan, securing the region of Sogdia in the process. At the 326BC Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Punjab), when the war elephants of King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their \"sarissa\" pikes. When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny in 324BC at Opis, Babylonia (near modern Baghdad, Iraq), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "783",
"title": "Alexander the Great",
"section": "Section::::Character.:Generalship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Alexander earned the epithet \"the Great\" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66602",
"title": "330 BC",
"section": "Section::::Events.:By place.:Macedonian Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "BULLET::::- January 20 – Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, led by satrap Ariobarzanes, at the Persian Gates. In this battle, Ariobarzan, supported by only 700 Persian Immortals, holds the vast Macedonian army of 17,000 men at bay for 30 days. At the end, his troops are surrounded by Alexander's army, because of a Persian shepherd, who leads it around the Persian defenses. However, instead of surrendering, Ariobarzan and his 700 Immortals fight to the last man. Some historians consider him to be the \"Leonidas of Persia\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53563729",
"title": "History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)",
"section": "Section::::Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1538,
"text": "Throughout his military career and kingship, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded. His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC utilized a small cavalry contingent that successfully distracted the Persians, allowed his infantry to cross the river, and his Companions to drive them from the battle with a cavalry charge. Following the tradition of Macedonian warrior kings, Alexander personally led the cavalry charge at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king Darius III and his army to flee. Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of Bactria and kinsman, Bessus, in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now Afghanistan, securing the region of Sogdia in the process. At the 326 BC Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Punjab), when the war elephants of King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their \"sarissa\" pikes. When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny at Opis, Babylonia (near modern Baghdad, Iraq) in 324 BC, Alexander III offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness, which the king offered at a banquet urging reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
7n4nn8
|
how is the criterion collection able to restore movies that are 50 plus years old to blu ray quality?
|
[
{
"answer": "35mm film still has more detail contained on it than any digital camera can capture. It captures far more texture and nuance, this is why some directors (Tarantino being a popular example) still use \"real\" film. This is comparable to the old records vs. digital format debate in audio recordings. \n\nCelluloid film does have a tendency to break down and degrade over time, but it can be \"remastered\" and digitized, often to considerably better quality than it would have been originally (as seen through an analogue projector). \n\nFor example, I was watching reruns of the original Star Trek run on the BBC yesterday. These episodes never looked better! Not just the remastered \"cgi,\" but every shot was crisper, cleaner, and better colored than I remember them being originally.\n\nEdit: 32-35mm (I was a projectionist for Pete's sake, I should know this!) ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Boils down to: \nHow many megapixels does film have? \nInfinitely many! \nIt’s because the image isn’t divided up into tiny squares (the pixels) and is perfectly smooth. \nFilm is far more detailed than digital as it’s analogue so it’s a good source for making better and better versions. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3158567",
"title": "The Grateful Dead Movie",
"section": "Section::::Home Video Releases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "On November 1, 2011, the restored movie was released on Blu-ray, with lossless audio. Extras include a commentary on the Blu-ray disc production, plus a DVD with 95 minutes of extra songs and featurettes on the making of the movie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19701",
"title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "A limited-edition DVD release additionally included a copy of the screenplay, a limited-edition film cell/senitype, and limited-edition art cards; however, a few of the bonus features from the 'Extraordinarily Deluxe Edition' were omitted. A 35th-anniversary edition on Blu-ray was released in the US on 6 March 2012. Special features include \"The Holy Book of Days,\" a second-screen experience that can be downloaded as an app on an iOS device and played with the Blu-ray to enhance its viewing, lost animation sequences with a new intro from animator Terry Gilliam, outtakes and extended scenes with Python member and the movie's co-director Terry Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31371",
"title": "Seven Samurai",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "A Criterion Collection DVD version of the film was released containing the complete original version of the film (207 minutes) on one disc and a second Criterion DVD released in 2006 also contains the digitally remastered, complete film on two discs, as well as an additional disc of extra material. A region 4 DVD of the full 207 minute cut was released in 2004 by Madman Entertainment under its Eastern Eye label. A Blu-ray edition of the full length edition was released by the Criterion Collection on October 19, 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247709",
"title": "Dreams (1990 film)",
"section": "Section::::Home media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The Criterion Collection released special editions of the film on Blu-Ray and DVD on November 15, 2016 in the US. Both editions feature a new 4K restoration, headed by Lee Kline, technical director of The Criterion Collection, and supervised by one of the film's cinematographers, Shoji Ueda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27070",
"title": "Star Trek: The Next Generation",
"section": "Section::::Home media.:Blu-ray.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The entire re-mastered series is available on Blu-ray as individual seasons, and as a 41-disc box set titled \"The Full Journey\". Eventually, all remastered episodes will also be available for television syndication and digital distribution. Mike Okuda believes this is the largest film restoration project ever attempted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447139",
"title": "Sorcerer (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Theatrical and home releases.:Home media.:2014 home video re-release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "In September 2013, Friedkin announced that new, remastered home video releases on Blu-ray and DVD were supposed to be released on April 14, 2014, however, both ended up being pushed to April 22. While the 2014 Blu-ray release contains a new, digitally remastered version of the movie, its DVD counterpart is simply a reissued version of the previous DVD release, and has not been authorized by Friedkin, who himself disowned it, and advised to avoid purchasing it. Furthermore, the director announced that he would supervise the remastering process for its proper DVD re-release, which hit stores on August. The Blu-Ray had no extra features, but was accompanied by a booklet with production stills and an excerpt of Friedkin's memoir \"The Friedkin Connection\", and was well-received upon release, with good reviews praising the quality of the transfer and reaching #1 in Drama and # 2 in Action/Adventure on Amazon.com.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8655156",
"title": "R5 (bootleg)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The image quality of an R5 release is generally comparable to a DVD Screener release, except without the added scrolling text and black and white scenes that serve to distinguish screeners from commercial DVD releases. R5 quality can be somewhat better than transfers produced by movie bootleggers because the transfer is performed using professional-grade film scanning equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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] | null |
2gnxl5
|
Has there been any research into the origin of viruses that cause the cold?
|
[
{
"answer": "Human Rhinoviruses are so different from any other kind of rhinovirus that it gets really difficult to work out which animals we got it from. The truth is, it probably evolved from human enteroviruses that live in the gut, and merely adapted itself to a new niche.\n[Here is an article for you]( _URL_0_)",
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"answer": "The common cold is a disease classified by its symptoms rather than the specific pathogen which causes it. There are thought to be over 200 different viruses which can cause a cold, so I would have to ask which one you are referring to. However, even if you told me, I wouldn't know the answer to that question. ;-) I am pretty much only going to answer your third question.\n\nCold symptoms are thought to be caused primarily by our immune system's reaction to these viruses rather than direct damage by the virus itself ([discussed here in great detail](_URL_0_)). The reason the symptoms are so similar for such distinct viral infections is essentially because we have a limited number of immune defenses which can be triggered by a wide variety of stimuli and mechanisms. \n\nIn essence, this means that our bodies are not reacting in the same way to THESE SPECIFIC viruses, it's more that this is a common way our bodies respond to infection on a symptomatic level. On a molecular level, however, it's actually quite diverse.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Rhinoviruses are indeed thought to come from enteroviruses, as /u/JJBang points out, but have basically forgotten how to survive the high acidity conditions of the stomach, and prefer slightly cooler temperatures. They are part of a family of viruses called the \"picornavirus\" (pronounced pi-COR-nah-virus, which comes from pico RNA virus, because it's small (about 35nm diameter), and contains RNA instead of DNA) which all share several similar characteristics (eg. they all have icosahedral symmetry, they all have a single positive strand of RNA).\n\nThere are several unanswered questions about why we can't get an effective vaccine against rhinoviruses, while we do have vaccines against the closely related poliovirus, which is probably the next best candidate for eradication. One reason seems to be that the surface of the virus is pretty variable between serotypes, and it lacks any large distinguishing features (it's basically a round protein marble, unlike other viruses that have turrets or spikes). Another reason is the lack of error-checking during replication of the RNA genome. There are between 7 and 9 thousand bases in the genome, but because the polymerase has an error rate of about 1 in 10000, during a typical infection, where many many billions of viruses are produced, you'll see every possible mutation. Of course, only the ones that eventually lead to a productive infection will continue to proliferate, so there's selection, but it means that the outside surface of the marble can freely change (provided the receptor binding site remains in tact) so that our immune system can't recognize them.\n\nI don't know enough about where they came from at the dawn of human illness, but we do know they exist in other species. The larger family, picornaviruses, are found in many different types of animals, and even plants.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32772",
"title": "Virology",
"section": "Section::::Viral diseases and host defenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "One main motivation for the study of viruses is the fact that they cause many important infectious diseases, among them the common cold, influenza, rabies, measles, many forms of diarrhea, hepatitis, Dengue fever, yellow fever, polio, smallpox and AIDS. Herpes simplex causes cold sores and genital herpes and is under investigation as a possible factor in Alzheimer's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The common cold is a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract. The most commonly implicated virus is a rhinovirus (30–80%), a type of picornavirus with 99 known serotypes. Other commonly implicated viruses include human coronavirus (≈ 15%), influenza viruses (10–15%), adenoviruses (5%), human respiratory syncytial virus, enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses, human parainfluenza viruses, and metapneumovirus. Frequently more than one virus is present. In total over 200 viral types are associated with colds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636243",
"title": "Common Cold Unit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Human coronaviruses, which are responsible for about 10% of common colds, were first isolated from volunteers at the unit in 1965. The CCU continually recruited volunteers for research into the common cold until its closure in 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1359034",
"title": "Robert Huebner",
"section": "Section::::Adenovirus and oncogenes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "While trying to grow common cold viruses, he and his colleague Dr. Wallace Rowe first tried to use adenoid and tonsil tissue, before using a culture based on tumor cells. From that culture they isolated cytomegalovirus, as well as the first of a large family of adenoviruses. Dr. Robert M. Chanock said the discovery \"put him up there with Sabin\" (creator of the oral polio vaccine) as one of the \"great moments in virology\". Based on their observations, Huebner and Rowe hypothesized that these viruses could trigger an unknown gene that would cause cells to grow out of control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39603827",
"title": "Human coronavirus OC43",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Along with HCoV-229E, a species in the Alphacoronavirus genus, HCoV-OC43 are among the known viruses that cause the common cold. Both viruses can cause severe lower respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals such as those undergoing chemotherapy and those with HIV-AIDS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6976188",
"title": "Parechovirus B",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "\"Parechovirus B\" belongs to the genus \"Parechovirus\" of the family \"Picornaviridae\". Other members of this viral family include poliovirus, \"Hepatovirus A\", and the viruses causing the common cold (rhinovirus). One of the earliest scientific discoveries regarding \"Parechovirus B\" was that infected wild rodents developed diabetes if they were exposed to stress. This has led to speculation that this disease may be the underlying cause of fluctuating rodent populations in Scandinavia; when rodents increase to high densities, they find it difficult to defend territory and obtain food, and then become more susceptible to predation. This stressful situation results in disease, death and population decline, leading to a pattern of cyclic variation in population size over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49197",
"title": "Antiviral drug",
"section": "Section::::Approaches by life cycle stage.:Before cell entry.:Uncoating inhibitor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Rhinoviruses are the most common cause of the common cold; other viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus and adenoviruses can cause them too. Rhinoviruses also exacerbate asthma attacks. Although rhinoviruses come in many varieties, they do not drift to the same degree that influenza viruses do. A mixture of 50 inactivated rhinovirus types should be able to stimulate neutralizing antibodies against all of them to some degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g8exs
|
how can a judge make a decision without letting his own beliefs and opinions interfere with his decision?
|
[
{
"answer": "A judge is allowed to use the wisdom picked up from her life. There is no bar against it. \n\nA judge is often called on to judge things like credibility--out of the two witnesses with conflicting testimony, which witness does the judge believe more? Usually, at the end of an evidentiary proceeding, the judge will give the reasoning for the decision (I found witness A's testimony more credible than witness B's testimony because . . . \"). As long as the reasoning is not completely arbitrary or based off an improper or prejudicial belief (i.e. men should always get the children in a custody dispute), the decision will typically stand because the judge is in the best position to observe and decide on these things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've been in front of some shitty judges. One example: Some jerk picked up undocumented day-laborers and worked them to the bone for a month, deliberately paying them in worthless checks. When they found out they were being used for free labor, they demanded pay and the dude threatened to call immigration. This was a crime. Many crimes actually. but the judge found him not guilty because the victims were \"illegals\", and in her stupid little racist mind, it was perfectly okay to use them as slaves. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24985414",
"title": "2009 Judgments of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Because every judge in the court is entitled to hand down a judgment, it is not uncommon for groups of judges to reach the same conclusion (i.e. whether to allow or dismiss the appeal) in materially different ways, for example if a panel of 9 judges heard a case with 4 judges dismissing the appeal, 3 finding for the appellant on one point and 2 on another - the table should show 5 judges as the majority and the 4 judges who actually held the more mainstream view as dissenting. The table also does not reflect how significantly judges differed, or how much of a contribution a paticualar judge made to the overall judgment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55605629",
"title": "Glossary of policy debate terms",
"section": "Section::::Drop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Some judges will not evaluate some arguments, even when they are dropped, such as arguments labeled \"voting issues\" but which are unsupported by warrants. For example, \"the sky is blue, vote affirmative\" is an argument that most judges would believe does not need to be answered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40856782",
"title": "Judiciary of Luxembourg",
"section": "Section::::Functioning.:Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Judges are to remain impartial and independent, and the organisation of the courts must provide the necessary guarantees that so that there can be no doubt about the impartiality and independence (for example, a judge from the first instance may not sit in the second instance; the judge may not adjudicate a case if he or she knows the parties, may not exercise certain additional occupations or incompatible functions, and may not ask the executive about the interpretation of a law).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42622",
"title": "European Court of Human Rights",
"section": "Section::::Judges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Judges perform their duties in an individual capacity and are prohibited from having any institutional or other type of ties with the contracting state in respect of whom they were elected. To ensure the independence of the Court, judges are not allowed to participate in activity that may compromise the Court's independence. Judges cannot hear or decide a case if they have a family or professional relationship with a party. A judge can be dismissed from office only if the other judges decide, by a two-thirds majority, that the judge has ceased to fulfil the required conditions. Judges enjoy, during their term as judges, the privileges and immunities provided for in Article 40 of the Statute of the Council of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161977",
"title": "Judgment (law)",
"section": "Section::::Judgments by legal system.:Religious law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "A court's duties regarding judgments are outlined in \"The Law of the Judiciary\". Judgments must be pronounced in a public hearing and must \"include the grounds on which they were based and the legal authority thereof.\" A judgment may be rendered unanimously or by a majority vote. If the judgment contains a dissent, the majority decision in the judgment must address the dissenting opinion, and any dissenting judges must explain why they are dissenting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59595282",
"title": "Judicial independence in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Impartial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "The underlying principle is that a judge is an impartial decision maker, whether the parties are individuals, government or other corporate bodies, such that it is the \"judge sitting on a case, who has heard the evidence and arguments, who makes the decision on the basis of an application of the law to the evidence and arguments presented\". This carries with it the requirement that the judge is free from improper influences, whether from the parliament, executive or other powerful interest groups such as the media. The need for impartiality is reflected in the judicial oath “to do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favour, affection or ill will”. The need for public confidence in the impartiality of the judiciary, that \"justice must be done and be seen to be done\", gives rise to the rule disqualifying a judge where \"a fair-minded lay observer might reasonably apprehend that the judge might not bring an impartial and unprejudiced mind to the resolution of the question the judge is required to decide\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14272030",
"title": "Judicial Commission of New South Wales",
"section": "Section::::Historical monitoring of judicial conduct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "In other words, the public expects that a judge should be free to decide a case in accordance with the law of land even if that is contrary to the government's wishes of the day without fear of retribution to the judge. As a result, there is an expectation that judges should only be removed from office when they have misbehaved in some manner, and that a single judge should not be targeted without due cause. Prior to the establishment of the commission, when a judge misbehaved, there was no established procedures for determining his or her guilt in the matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9jxrts
|
Why is there an EpiPen (and generic alternatives) shortage?
|
[
{
"answer": "EpiPens are a medical device. Medical devices don't really have a \"generic\" regulatory option so any company that decides to sell a EpiPen knock-off needs to do all the testing over again except less testing for the drug. \n\nMoreover, some companies decide to file patents around the device component, so you might not be legally able to make copies. This is what happened to all the asthma inhalers since as soon as the law went into effect banning CFCs in medical devices, Teva Medical filed a patent on propellants other than CFC's in inhalers so a $20 inhaler in the 90's is now $200+ for the same drug and same delivery mechanism. \n\n*Edit: It looks like I forgot to respond directly to the OP's question. Being a medical device, you can't just build another manufacturing line and say everything is ok. You have to build the line, re-test the line to see if it still makes everything correctly at the extreme tolerances (process validations), and make sure your raw material suppliers don't change their materials on their side and still meet your increased capacity. What usually ends up happening in my industry (medical devices) on shortages are usually due to: (1) One of the key raw material suppliers cannot make enough of a component, (2) Your new or existing line fails process validations/in-process checks, (3) FDA/notified body audit findings triggering shutting down the line, or (4) A massive product recall that is currently in-progress.\n\nWith (3), I've seen the FDA at times try to negotiate with companies not trying to shut down a key product-line, but companies usually end up shutting the line down out of spite and have the physicians & patients file complaints to the FDA. I am personally unsure of which of the reasons are causing EpiPens to be in short supply, but I wouldn't be surprised if it is one of the above causes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51562646",
"title": "Scott Gottlieb",
"section": "Section::::Career.:FDA commissioner (2017–2019).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Gottlieb pursued policies to address barriers to the approval of complex generic drugs, including generic, functionally equivalent alternatives to EpiPen. Under his leadership, in August 2018 the FDA approved the first generic competitor of EpiPen, and later, in January 2019, the agency approved a generic competitor to the asthma drug Advair. Of the agency's more than 1,000 generic approvals in 2018, about 14 percent were for “complex generic drugs,” or drugs that are particularly difficult to “genericize.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285897",
"title": "Epinephrine autoinjector",
"section": "Section::::History.:Market development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "In 2009, Teva Pharmaceuticals filed an ANDA to market a generic EpiPen in collaboration with Antares Pharma Inc, a maker of injection systems; Pfizer and King sued them for infringing US Patent 7,449,012 that was due to expire in 2025; Pfizer, Mylan, and Teva settled in April 2012 in a deal that allowed Teva to start selling the device in mid-2015, pending FDA approval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3326160",
"title": "Dipipanone",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Dipipanone is now unavailable in most countries of the world either by laws prohibiting its medicinal use as in the United States or by falling out of production as more modern analgesics took its market share. Great Britain, Northern Ireland and South Africa are known to continue to use the substance but it is infrequently prescribed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285897",
"title": "Epinephrine autoinjector",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Price.:US.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The EpiPen, manufactured by King, a subsidiary of Pfizer, and marketed by Mylan, has dominated the market. In 2007 when Mylan acquired the rights to market the product, annual sales of all epinephrine autoinjectors were about $200M and EpiPen had around 90% of the market; in 2015 the market size was around $1.5B and Mylan still had about 90% of the market. Mylan raised the price from around $100 for a package of two EpiPens in 2007 to around $600 in 2016. In the United Kingdom, an EpiPen costs £26.45 as of 2015. In Canada they are about 120 CAD each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51562646",
"title": "Scott Gottlieb",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Private sector (2007–2017).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "In 2016, Gottlieb testified before committees of the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate on issues related to FDA regulation of drug prices, healthcare reform and medical innovation. During congressional investigations of the rise of the price of EpiPen, Gottlieb presented testimony arguing that generic drug companies set prices according to market demand, and that the generic drug industry is burdened by regulation that slows the development and review of new generic drug applications. These regulations, he argued, made it especially hard to bring forward generic equivalents of complex drugs, including drugs coupled to a device delivery system—a category of medicines that includes EpiPen. He argued that such excessive regulations \"undermine the competitive opportunities that could help inspire more choice and competition, and help lower costs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254790",
"title": "Allopurinol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Allopurinol was approved for medical use in the United States in 1966. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Allopurinol is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$0.81–3.42 per month. In the United States a month of treatment costs less than $25. In 2016 it was the 52nd most prescribed medication in the United States with more than 15 million prescriptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17096085",
"title": "Heather Bresch",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Mylan executive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1651,
"text": "In 2016 Mylan's pricing of the EpiPen, used to treat anaphylaxis (severe allergic reactions), became a focus of public anger. Mylan had secured the rights to the nearly 50-year old EpiPen as part of the Merck KGaA deal in 2007. At that time annual sales were around $200M. Bresch saw an opportunity to increase both the sales volume and the profit margin. The company launched a marketing campaign to increase awareness of the dangers of anaphylaxis for people with severe allergies that made the brand \"EpiPen\" as identified with its product as \"Kleenex\" is with facial tissue; the company also successfully lobbied the FDA to broaden the label to include risk of anaphylaxis and in parallel, successfully lobbied Congress to generate legislation making EpiPens available in schools and in public places like defibrillators are, and hired the same people that Medtronic had worked with on defibrillator legislation to do so. From 2007 to 2016, Mylan also increased the price of EpiPens by 461 percent, from around $100 for a package of two pens to around $600. By the first half of 2015, Mylan had an 85% market share of such devices in the U.S., and in that year sales reached around $1.5B and accounted for 40% of Mylan's profit. The price increase in 2016 was met with widespread, sometimes vitriolic, criticism of Bresch and Mylan. Bresch explained at the 2016 Forbes Healthcare Summit that Mylan’s price increases were justified by the many improvements that the company made to the product. As a response to the controversy, Bresch led Mylan to introduce a generic version of the device which sells for half the price of the brand-name device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5f8lp1
|
why do we sometimes, out of the blue, have the urge to breath deeply?
|
[
{
"answer": "When at long periods of rest your body can start to breath less and less l. After a time your brain goes fuck I need air and tells your lungs to reset themselve l. This can also be the cause of yawning sometimes (not the only cause thow)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe it's something akin to \"stretching\" your diaphragm, much like you occasionally have the urge to strech random muscles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24130492",
"title": "Suicide bag",
"section": "Section::::Physiological mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The urge to breathe in normal humans is mainly controlled by blood carbon dioxide concentration and the acidity that it causes. A rise in carbon dioxide concentration caused by the inability to inhale fresh gas will cause a strong reflex to breathe, accompanied by increasing distress as the level rises, culminating in panic and desperate struggle for air. However, if the supplied breathing gas is free of carbon dioxide, the blood carbon dioxide levels will remain low while breathing occurs, and there will be no distress or urge to increase breathing rate, as the sensitivity in normal people to blood oxygen level as a breathing stimulus is very low. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366663",
"title": "Body language",
"section": "Section::::Physical expressions.:Breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations. Generally, deeper breathing which uses the diaphragm and abdomen more is interpreted as conveying a relaxed and confident impression; by contrast, shallow, excessively rapid breathing is often interpreted as conveying a more nervous or anxious impression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2461238",
"title": "Breathe (Kylie Minogue song)",
"section": "Section::::Background and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "\"Breathe\" is about contemplation and holding back emotions. The lyrics were written by Minogue in Tokyo during her trips with her boyfriend, Stéphane Sednaoui, in late 1995. She explained the idea came to mind when her friends were worried about her being silent: \"My girlfriend told me 'You don't realize how loud you are when you are quiet'.\" She felt that it was \"typical\" of her to be thinking and \"deciding what was wrong\" because she felt that things in her head \"were not clear.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414280",
"title": "Bad breath",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Mouth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The intensity of bad breath may differ during the day, due to eating certain foods (such as garlic, onions, meat, fish, and cheese), smoking, and alcohol consumption. Since the mouth is exposed to less oxygen and is inactive during the night, the odor is usually worse upon awakening (\"morning breath\"). Bad breath may be transient, often disappearing following eating, drinking, tooth brushing, flossing, or rinsing with specialized mouthwash. Bad breath may also be persistent (chronic bad breath), which affects some 25% of the population in varying degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321567",
"title": "Thoracic diaphragm",
"section": "Section::::Significance in strength training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Therefore, if a person's diaphragm position is lower in general, through deep breathing, then this assists the strengthening of their core during that period. This can be an aid in strength training and other forms of athletic endeavour. For this reason, taking a deep breath or adopting a deeper breathing pattern is typically recommended when lifting heavy weights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5951096",
"title": "Genesis (Heroes)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Narration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Where does it come from? This quest... this need to solve life's mysteries for the simplest of questions can never be answered. Why are we here? What is the soul? Why do we dream? Perhaps we would be better off not looking at all. Not delving, not yearning. That's not human nature, not the human heart. That is not why we are here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51751300",
"title": "Power training",
"section": "Section::::Related physiological processes.:Deep breathing and intra-abdominal pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "During exercise a person breathes deeper in order to meet higher oxygen requirements. This adoption of a deeper breathing pattern also serves a secondary function of strengthening the core of the body. This strengthening effect occurs because the thoracic diaphragm adopts a lower position than it does than when at rest; this generates increased intra-abdominal pressure which helps to strengthen the lumbar spine and the core of the body overall. For this reason, taking a deep breath, or adopting a deeper breathing pattern, is a fundamental requirement when lifting heavy weights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1f1alj
|
How did American politics move so far to the right?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depending on how you define left/right American politics really aren't that far right. In America the far right is usually classified as being small government. Reagan's quote, \"Government isn't the solution to the problem. Government **IS** the problem.\" encapsulates this well. If that is an accepted definition the far right isn't fascism as many people claim, splitting the left and right extremes as Communism and Fascism. The far right would be the exact opposite of these, Anarchism, which is the complete lack of a state or government.\n\nThe Democratic Party and Republican Party are in fact both left wing parties. They both support government re-distribution of wealth through taxation and welfare, the central control of the economy through money control and centralized banking, and the growth of the power of the central government. They both also support expanding international wars to justify much of their control assumption. To someone on the actual far right both of these parties fit very well on the American Left political spectrum. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would say that a lot of it comes down to the First Red Scare. In the early 20th century, the Industrial Workers of the World (an anarcho-syndicalist revolutionary labor union) was growing large and the Socialist Party of Eugene Debs was getting around 7% in U.S. elections, with hundreds of mayors, state representatives, and a few congressmen. During the First Red Scare, during and following World War I, the IWW was repressed, and socialist and anarchist leaders like Eugene Debs and Ricardo Flores Magón (a Mexican anarchist revolutionary and IWW member who had been in exile in the U.S.) were imprisoned, where many would die. Thousands of striking workers would be repressed, with public justifications citing socialism, communism, and anarchism.\n\nI know less about the Second Red Scare in the 1950s, but it's my understanding that there were a number of socialists and communists in the leadership of the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations) that were purged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "221220",
"title": "Far-right politics",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "From the mid-1950s to the 1970s, the so-called \"populist protest phase\" emerged with sporadic electoral success. During this period, far-right parties drew to them charismatic leaders whose profound mistrust of the political establishment led to an \"us-versus-them\" mind set: \"us\" being the nation's citizenry, \"them\" being the politicians and bureaucrats who were then in office.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2298740",
"title": "Conservatism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "All major American political parties support republicanism and the basic classical liberal ideals on which the country was founded in 1776, emphasizing liberty, the rule of law, the consent of the governed, and that all men were created equal. Political divisions inside the United States often seemed minor or trivial to Europeans, where the divide between the Left and the Right led to violent polarization, starting with the French Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34829719",
"title": "Nationalist Clubs",
"section": "Section::::Organizational history.:Politicization (1890–1892).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "First steps were taken into politics in the fall of 1890, with a Nationalist state ticket put forward in the state of Rhode Island and at least one candidate running for office under the Nationalist banner in California. The possible emergency of a Nationalist Party was undercut by the birth of a new political organization in the field, however, with the People's Party (\"Populists\") immediately gaining the support of a broad segment of American farmers across the Midwest, South, and West. The violent Homestead Strike of 1892 also served as a catalyst for oppositional politics in the United States. These events served to politicize not only the Nationalist Clubs but Bellamy himself and he entered the political fray.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48192582",
"title": "New Nation (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.:Demise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The early 1890s saw the emergence of a new political party, the People's Party, commonly known as \"The Populists,\" which put forward a radical reform agenda against monopoly and advancing an agenda appealing to the practical needs of American farmers. Discouraged by the \"old parties\" of the nation, the Nationalists were strongly supportive of those pushing forward the idea of such a new political organization and lent them support in the pages of \"The New Nation\" from 1890. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18776573",
"title": "Pink tide",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rise of the left: 1990s and 2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Following the third wave of democratization in the 1980s, the institutionalization of electoral competition in Latin America opened up the possibility for the left to ascend to power. For much of the region's history, formal electoral contestation excluded leftist movements, first through limited suffrage and later through military intervention and repression during the second half of the 20th century. The collapse of the Soviet Union changed the geopolitical environment as many revolutionary movements vanished and the left embraced the core tenets of capitalism. As a result, the United States no longer perceived leftist governments as a security threat, creating a political opening for the left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44615774",
"title": "History of conservatism in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Except briefly in the 1860s-1870s, in the United States there has never been a national political party called the Conservative Party. All major American political parties support republicanism and the basic classical liberal ideals on which the country was founded in 1776, emphasizing liberty, the pursuit of happiness, the rule of law, the consent of the governed, opposition to aristocracy, and fear of corruption, coupled with equal rights. Political divisions inside the United States often seemed minor or trivial to Europeans, where the divide between the Left and the Right led to violent polarization, starting with the French Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047294",
"title": "United We Stand America",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "In the early 1990s, many people were talking about forming a new political party. These discussions centered around populist themes. The eventual result of the movement that followed was \"United We Stand America\", followed by the Reform Party, and in some states the Independence Party. The early history of UWSA revolved around establishment of chapters in all 50 states and citizen activism against the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The organization also supported Ross Perot's fiscally conservative and socially liberal platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7wb8u7
|
How exactly does fluticasone nasal spray work?
|
[
{
"answer": "[From the package insert:](_URL_0_)\n\nFluticasone propionate is a synthetic trifluorinated corticosteroid with anti-inflammatory activity. Fluticasone propionate has been shown in vitro to exhibit a binding affinity for the human glucocorticoid receptor that is 18 times that of dexamethasone, almost twice that of beclomethasone-17- monopropionate (BMP), the active metabolite of beclomethasone dipropionate, and over 3 times that of budesonide. Data from the McKenzie vasoconstrictor assay in man are consistent with these results. The clinical significance of these findings is unknown.\n\nThe precise mechanism through which fluticasone propionate affects rhinitis symptoms is not known. Corticosteroids have been shown to have a wide range of effects on multiple cell types (e.g., mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes) and mediators (e.g., histamine, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, cytokines) involved in inflammation. In 7 trials in adults, Fluticasone Propionate Nasal Spray has decreased nasal mucosal eosinophils in 66% of patients (35% for placebo) and basophils in 39% of patients (28% for placebo). The direct relationship of these findings to long-term symptom relief is not known.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2445447",
"title": "Flunisolide",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Flunisolide nasal spray is absorbed into the circulatory system (blood). Corticosteroid nasal sprays may affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in humans. After the desired clinical effect is obtained, the maintenance dose should be reduced to the smallest amount necessary to control symptoms, which can be as low as 1 spray in each nostril a day. Utilizing the minimum effective dose will reduce possibility of side effects.Recommended amounts of intranasal corticosteroids are generally not associated with systemic side effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243042",
"title": "Nasal spray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Nasal sprays, are used to deliver medications locally in the nasal cavities or systemically. They are used locally for conditions such as nasal congestion and allergic rhinitis. In some situations, the nasal delivery route is preferred for systemic therapy because it provides an agreeable alternative to injection or pills. Substances can be assimilated extremely quickly and directly through the nose. Many pharmaceutical drugs exist as nasal sprays for systemic administration (e.g. treatments for pain, migraine, osteoporosis and nausea). Other applications include hormone replacement therapy, treatment of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Nasal sprays are seen as a more efficient way of transporting drugs with potential use in crossing the blood–brain barrier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22034247",
"title": "Nasal administration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Nasal administration is a route of administration in which drugs are insufflated through the nose. It can be a form of either topical administration or systemic administration, as the drugs thus locally delivered can go on to have either purely local or systemic effects. Nasal sprays are locally acting drugs such as decongestants for cold and allergy treatment, whose systemic effects are usually minimal. Examples of systemically active drugs available as nasal sprays are migraine drugs, nicotine replacement, and hormone treatments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243042",
"title": "Nasal spray",
"section": "Section::::Corticosteroid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Corticosteroid nasal sprays can be used to relieve the symptoms of sinusitis, hay fever, allergic rhinitis and non-allergic (perennial) rhinitis. They can reduce inflammation and histamine production in the nasal passages, and have been shown to relieve nasal congestion, runny nose, itchy nose and sneezing. Side effects may include headaches, nausea and nose bleeds. Corticosteroid nasal sprays include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1243042",
"title": "Nasal spray",
"section": "Section::::Topical decongestant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Decongestant nasal sprays are available over-the-counter in many countries. They work to very quickly open up nasal passages by constricting blood vessels in the lining of the nose. Prolonged use of these types of sprays can damage the delicate mucous membranes in the nose. This causes increased inflammation, an effect known as rhinitis medicamentosa or the rebound effect. Decongestant nasal sprays are advised for short-term use only, preferably 5 to 7 days at maximum. Some doctors advise to use them 3 days at maximum. A recent clinical trial has shown that a corticosteroid nasal spray may be useful in reversing this condition. Topical nasal decongestants include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2013448",
"title": "Scrubber",
"section": "Section::::Dry scrubbing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "In spray dryer absorbers, the flue gases are introduced into an absorbing tower (dryer) where the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry. Acid gases are absorbed by the slurry mixture and react to form solid salts which are removed by the particulate control device. The heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets, leaving a non-saturated flue gas to exit the absorber tower. Spray dryers are capable of achieving high (80+%) acid gas removal efficiencies. These devices have been used on industrial and utility boilers and municipal waste incinerators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21086625",
"title": "Fluticasone furoate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Fluticasone furoate is a corticosteroid for the treatment of non-allergic and allergic rhinitis administered by a nasal spray. It is also available as an inhaled corticosteroid to help prevent and control symptoms of asthma. It is derived from cortisol. Unlike fluticasone propionate, which is only approved for children 4 years and older, fluticasone furoate is approved in children as young as 2 years of age when used for allergies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14ewe6
|
If a human had to live on only one food (eating as much as necessary, but all the same thing), what would the best to live off? (Assume otherwise healthy adult).
|
[
{
"answer": "I may be mistaken, but I read an article that said a human could live off baked potatoes and butter indefinitely as it provides all the necessary nutrients",
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},
{
"answer": "There are several existing threads about this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51267644",
"title": "Meal",
"section": "Section::::Eating the meal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In the 21st century, an increasing number of adults in developed countries eat most or all of their meals alone. It is unclear whether people eating alone eat more, less, or the same amount of food compared to people eating in groups, partly because of differences in whether they are eating alone at home or eating alone in restaurants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an \"obesity epidemic.\" Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855904",
"title": "Evolutionary models of food sharing",
"section": "Section::::Reciprocal models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 2179,
"text": "With these assumptions, Moore proposed that human ancestors would have learned to hunt and share food if they faced punitive action from other group members if an individual did not share food with the group. An individual who finds a scarce, defensible resource would have faced begging behavior from other group members. Costs and benefits of sharing in this scenario can be sorted into status, fight risk, and nutritional value. Nutritional value is determined by the size of the food portion relative to the nutritional needs of the individuals. The nutritional value remains constant throughout this scenario, or declines in value as portions of it are consumed by the obtaining individual. As another individual begs with increasing intensity, the beggar's social cost increases, until the beggar's social costs exceed that of fighting; this is paralleled by the benefits to the food-obtainer. If the benefits to the food-obtainer exceed the beggar's cost of fighting, then the beggar should attack. At or before this time, the food-obtainer should decide to share or not. This decision is made depending on the expected reaction from the beggar. It is expected that they will decide to share at a time that would maximize benefits and minimize loss in nutritional value. If the beggar was initially dominant, it may follow up the first sharing interaction with further begging or fighting, reciprocation of sharing, or let the incident pass. Further begging and fighting impose risk onto the beggar as the food-obtainer might feel and behave dominantly and become dominant if the beggar loses. Inaction allows the food-obtainer to remain slightly dominant. If other group members witnessed this change in dominance position, then the beggar may demonstrate redirected aggression and attack a lower-rank bystander. Later, when the beggar obtains food, it may choose to reciprocate after getting the initial food-obtainer to beg, but this only occurs if the benefits offered exceed the status cost of the initial food-obtainer's begging. Thus, Moore's model predicted that natural selection would favor aggressive sharing and assertive reciprocation to re-establish status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16077444",
"title": "Animal source foods",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition of animal source foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "Most humans eat an omnivorous diet (comprising animal source foods and plant source foods) though some civilisations have eaten only animal foods. Although a healthy diet containing all essential macro and micronutrients may be possible by only consuming a plant based diet (with vitamin B obtained from supplements if no animal sourced foods are consumed), some populations are unable to consume an adequate quantity or variety of these plant based items to obtain appropriate amounts of nutrients, particularly those that are found in high concentrations in ASF. Frequently, the most vulnerable populations to these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant women, infants, and children in developing countries. In the 1980s the Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (NCRSP) found that six micronutrients were low in the mostly vegetarian diets of children in malnourished areas of Egypt, Mexico, and Kenya. These six micronutrients are vitamin A, vitamin B, riboflavin, calcium, iron and zinc. ASF are the only food source of Vitamin B. ASF also provide high biological value protein, energy, fat compared with plant food sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602960",
"title": "Food processing",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labor gives the modern eater easy access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1229233",
"title": "Child neglect",
"section": "Section::::Experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Also, young children may not be provided with a suitable amount of decent food to eat, which is another form of neglect. Children have reported being provided with moldy food, or not having any food in the house, or they were given an insufficient amount of food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11102649",
"title": "Foodways",
"section": "Section::::Social science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Anthropologist Mary Douglas, explains: “A very modest life of subsistence contrasts with our own use of goods, in for example, the use of food. How would we be able to say all of the things we want to say, even just to the members of our families, about different kinds of events and occasions and possibilities if we did not make any difference between breakfast and lunch and dinner and if we made no difference between Sunday and weekends, and never had a different kind of meal when friends came in, and if Christmas Day had also to be celebrated with the same kind of food?” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
94f7me
|
WW2 buffs, were there any instances of any bombers doing gunships runs like a AC-130 would?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer to this is \"No\". There wasn't a comparable weapon - an aircraft designed for heavy, air-to-ground fire over long durations - to the AC-130 gunship during World War II. The AC-130's predecessor, the AC-47 \"Spooky\", or more popularly, \"Puff the Magic Dragon\", while using the C-47 as its platform - an aircraft available in WWII - was a product of the 1960s. *Now*, that said, the AC-47 was not born out of thin air, and does exist in a long line of ideas and prototypes that were in existence during World War II, and even before.\n\nWhile putting a bunch of machine guns in a plane for strafing predated WWII - way back in the '20s the US Army's first designated 'Attack\" aircraft, the A-2, carried 2 .30 cals and 4 more in the wings - bigger guns started rolling out during the conflict. The brainchild of Maj. Paul I. “Pappy” Gunn, testing of heavily armed B-25s with 8 .50 cals replacing in the nose, principally in the Pacific against Japanese shipping, proved to be quite successful. Further testing with even bigger guns resulted several interesting variants which were designed to bring massive amounts of firepower to bear during their strafing runs. The B-25G and B-25H included a number of .50 cal machine guns and a massive 75mm cannon which could tear into just about anything - mainly envisioned for ships, tanks, and fortifications - while the B-25J ditched the cannon to just rely on the firepower of the machine guns. With 8 in the nose, 4 'blisters' on the side, and the top turret facing forward with 2 more, even without a cannon, 14 .50s were nothing to laugh at, being the most 'forward firepower' of any Allied attack plane . The 'gunship' models still carried a conventional bomb-load of several thousand pounds for additional 'umph' (lacking the cannon, the 'J' could of course carry more than the 'G' and 'H'). Some would also see service with the Marines, designated the PBJ-1H. \n\nSimilarly, the A-26B was built to mount 6, 8, or even 10 .50 cals in the nose depending on the sub-model, and later modifications, some which only saw action in Vietnam, also allowed 8 rockets or 6 more .30 cals on the wing, or replacement of the .50s with 4 20mm cannons. A purpose built platform for the 75mm (and early drafts actually envisioned it as a bomber killer, not an attack aircraft), the XA-38 Grizzly, was also built mounting a 75mm cannon and 6 .50 cals. The first model rolled out in May, 1944, and performed well, but far too late for the war. The second prototype was built, but the war was already seen as nearing an end, and further, as it shared an engine with the B-29 which had priority, production was never ordered.\n\nWith that many guns though, in all cases the emphasis was on only a few overwhelming strafing runs. In the case of the cannon, the obvious slow rate of fire required a fairly stressful low, slow, and steady approach to line up a shot. As for the massive banks of machine guns, well, ammunition ain't light, and even with 400+ rounds per gun, it meant only a few seconds of actual firing. Depending on the mission too, guns might be stripped to allow more bomb load, which further illustrates that these were still, in the end, not quite the gunship you have in mind.\n\nTo be sure, all of these configurations were based on the idea that the planes would be performing CAS duties or shipping interdiction, coming in low for strafing runs of the target, not circling far up in the sky keeping fire pinpointed, but they do fit into the broader idea of gunship support. The US Army had toyed with the idea in the interwar years, even running a successful test in 1926 by 1LT Fred Nelson of side-firing machine guns on a DH-4, but nothing ever came out of that during peacetime. During the war, it wasn't really revisited, as there was really just one guy who was beating the drum for this, 1LT G.C. MacDonald, and he was mostly ignored. He submitted a proposal in 1942 for side-firing machine guns, and in 1945, upped the ante with a proposal for bazookas mounted on spotter planes, but was ignored. 'On the ground' modifications did result in a handful of C-47s being fitted with waist-mounted .50 cals to provide support in Burma but this was an entirely off-the limited addition that was not imitated elsewhere, nor even particularly known about.\n\nAs a Lt. Col. in 1961, MacDonald would again submit his proposal to a Tactical Air Command panel looking at solutions for defending the 'Strategic Hamlets' in Vietnam, but was ignored again. It was only a chance meeting that MacDonald had later that year with Ralph Flexman, an engineer with Bell doing active reserve duty who had also been pondering a similar idea, that would see the project gain wings, eventually resulting in the AC-47.\n\n**Further Reading**\n\n Development and Employment of Fixed-Wing Gunships 1962-1972 by Jack S. Ballard\n American Attack Aircraft since 1926 by E.R. Johnson.\n Beech Aircraft and their Predecessors by AJ Pelletier\n Gunships: A Pictorial History of Spooky by Larry Davis\n B-25 Mitchell Units of the MTO by Steve Pace\n A-26 Invader Units of World War II by Jim Roeder\n The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Combat Air by Bill Gunston\n PBJ Mitchell Units of the Pacific War by Jerry Scutts\n\nEdit: Oh! I almost forgot one other thing to mention. Obviously, this is just the US. I'm familiar with several of the CAS aircraft they used in this mold, so that is what I focused on. *But* there is the Soviet Tupolev Tu-2Sh. I can't say much about it as, well, I don't have too much on it, but it is touched on briefly in \"Twin-Engined Fighters Attack Aircraft and Bombers\" by Yefiim Gordon and Tupolev Aircraft Since 1922 by Bill Gunston, which I'm drawing on here.\n\nBasically, the Soviets made several test versions of this, but never went into production with any of them. One was not unlike the American planes above. A big 75mm gun in the nose for taking down big targets. A similar version, tried post-war, went a bit more varied with two 45mm cannons, two 37mm cannons, and the usual two 20mm cannons on the wings, plus a 12.7mm turret on top. A version with a 57mm cannon mounted from the bomb bay and the two 20mms also was tested. However, these were all, well, the *practical* tests. The original test was quite the monster, with 88 PPSh-41 submachine guns crammed into the fuselage, angled downwards to fire at infantry as it flew above them. Technically it worked but reloading in the air was such a problem that they didn't continue with the project. Even with the big 72-round drum magazine, it was just too short a firing window to be worth bothering, I guess, and they instead went with the more conventional tests above. Still though, it is possibly the closest thing to the Spooky or AC-130 built in World War II.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1845208",
"title": "Type 3 12 cm AA gun",
"section": "Section::::Combat record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Coming into service towards the end of the war, most the Type 3s were retained on the home islands as part of the bolstering of Japan's defenses against Allied air raids and against the perceived thread of Allied invasion. These guns were deployed to cover military targets around Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe and the Yawata Steel Works in Kitakyushu. Overseas, they were deployed to guard the oil fields at Palembang in the Netherlands East Indies Units in Tokyo were credited with downing at least ten B-29 bombers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12304385",
"title": "List of displayed Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The B-52D models have the distinction of being the last bombers in aviation history to have shot down enemy aircraft during wartime with machine guns (tail gunners); two Vietnam War MiG \"killer\" bombers are currently preserved and on display at Fairchild AFB and the United States Air Force Academy. ()\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1845222",
"title": "Type 5 15 cm AA gun",
"section": "Section::::Combat record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Coming into service at the end of the war, the two Type 5s completed were retained on the home islands as part of the bolstering of Japan's defenses against Allied air raids and against the perceived threat of Allied invasion. These two guns were deployed to Kugayama, Suginami ward in the outskirts of Tokyo. In a single engagement on 1 August 1945, they brought down two B-29 Superfortress bombers. American bombing raids, however, avoided Kugayama after the incident and as a result the guns had no subsequent chance to fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3155",
"title": "Lockheed AC-130",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "By December 1968, most AC-130s flew under F-4 Phantom II escort (to protect the gunship against heavy and concentrated AA fire) from the 497th Tactical Fighter Squadron, normally three Phantoms per Gunship. On 24 May 1969, the first Spectre gunship was lost to enemy fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "550647",
"title": "Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Other fronts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "While the majority of operational B.E.2s served on the Western Front, the type also saw limited use in other overseas theatres. At least one pair of B.E.2s were among the aircraft dispatched with No 3 Squadron for use in the Gallipoli Campaign. They were used to spot in support of naval bombardments, as well as being occasionally used to directly bomb ships and other targets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236466",
"title": "Airborne early warning and control",
"section": "Section::::History of development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The Lockheed WV and EC-121 Warning Star, which first flew in 1949 served widely with both the US Air Force and US Navy and provided the main AEW coverage for US forces during the Vietnam war. It was to remain operational until replaced with the E-3 AWACS, its intended successor. Developed roughly in parallel, N-class blimps were also used as AEW aircraft, filling in gaps in radar coverage for the continental US, their tremendous endurance of over 200 hours being a major asset in an AEW aircraft, although lighter than air operations were discontinued in 1962 following a crash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "940151",
"title": "Barksdale Air Force Base",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cold War.:2d Bombardment Wing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "During the Vietnam War, the 2d Bomb Wing deployed to Southeast Asia for \"Arc Light\" and \"Young Tiger\", including use B-52G in Linebacker I and Linebacker II raids of 1972 – 73 at the end of the Vietnam war. In addition to the Motorola SST-181 X Band Beacon Transponder for Combat Skyspot, the B-52G had onboard electronic countermeasures for protection against enemy Surface-to-air missiles. In the latter stages of Linebacker II, some of the B-52Gs were diverted in-flight to targets deemed to be less dangerous. All aircraft and crews returned to Barksdale in January and October 1973.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21dur8
|
When (or how) does a religion become mythology?
|
[
{
"answer": "Technically speaking, every religion have mythology (a set of myths and stories), but in common use, the word *mythology* is typically used for the myths of religions which have no more active followers. So in short, Norse religion became mythology when the Norse became Christianized.\n\nA living religion consists of much more that the myths and stories - it may have traditions, rituals, festivals, institutions, perhaps some kind of priesthood. But when a religion dies out, the rituals and institutions cease to exist. What remains is the mythology, at least if it was written down and preserved. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "25824",
"title": "Religion and mythology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Mythology is the main component of Religion. It refers to systems of concepts that are of high importance to a certain community, making statements concerning the supernatural or sacred. Religion is the broader term, besides mythological system, it includes ritual. A given mythology is almost always associated with a certain religion such as Greek mythology with Ancient Greek religion. Disconnected from its religious system, a myth may lose its immediate relevance to the community and evolve—away from sacred importance—into a legend or folktale. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "145957",
"title": "Chinese mythology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25414",
"title": "Religion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacred things, faith, a supernatural being or supernatural beings or \"some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life\". Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are sometimes said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life, the universe, and other things. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has been considered a source of religious beliefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25414",
"title": "Religion",
"section": "Section::::Aspects.:Beliefs.:Mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Ancient polytheistic religions, such as those of Greece, Rome, and Scandinavia, are usually categorized under the heading of mythology. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or cultures in development, are similarly called myths in the anthropology of religion. The term myth can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people. By defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as mythology, one implies that they are less real or true than one's own religious stories and beliefs. Joseph Campbell remarked, \"Mythology is often thought of as \"other people's\" religions, and religion can be defined as mis-interpreted mythology.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Religion and spirituality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 1349,
"text": "Religion is generally defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have recently become areas of active scientific investigation. However, in the course of its development, religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective. Some of the chief questions and issues religions are concerned with include life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life, the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A common source for answers to these questions are beliefs in transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are theistic. Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the soul or spirit, is one of the many different approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental questions about humankind's place in the universe, the meaning of life, and the ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been addressed by philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it focuses on mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma and God.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16349122",
"title": "Theories about religions",
"section": "Section::::Functional theories.:Rational choice theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Normal revelations: religions are founded when the founder interprets ordinary natural phenomena as supernatural; for instance, ascribing his or her own creativity in inventing the religion to that of the deity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8999824",
"title": "Hierophany",
"section": "Section::::In Mircea Eliade's writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Eliade argues that religion is based on a sharp distinction between the sacred (God, gods, mythical ancestors, etc.) and the profane. According to Eliade, for traditional man, myths describe \"breakthroughs of the sacred (or the 'supernatural') into the World\"—that is, hierophanies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qyblt
|
what would have happened in china if you got pregnant with a second child?
|
[
{
"answer": "The one child policy wasn't as rigidly enforced as people may think.\n\nI don't know the exact number, but I think the average family size in China since the policy started is something like 1.5 children.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You would pay a one time fine at the birth of your child (or when it was discovered) and you would pay extra taxes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have noted, you had to pay a large but typically not impossible fine.\n\nThe large number of Chinese adoptees were more often first children who turned out to be girls. Under China's traditional culture, boys are expected to sustain their parents in old age, while girls marry and become part of the new family. Because China doesn't have much retirement security, it was very important to have a boy, and if you could on,y have one child, it became a matter of economic necessity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on where you lived and what your status was.\n\nLiving in rural areas, the enforcement was lax. But it ranged from forced abortions and sterilizations to paying fines (to corrupt officials). \n\nLiving in urban areas, the social enforcement with peer pressure was more than legal enforcement. Enforcement ranged from fines to limitations warnings. Well connected folks, like my parents, would get thru back channels to have a second child like myself. I only know of one other family growing up with 2 kids.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29042",
"title": "Superfetation",
"section": "Section::::Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In 2017, it was reported that an American woman who had agreed to act as a surrogate for a Chinese couple birthed two babies initially believed to be twins. Before the adoptive parents could return home to China, however, it was discovered that one of the babies was in fact the biological son of the surrogate. Doctors confirmed that the birth-mother had become pregnant with her and her partner's child roughly three weeks after becoming pregnant with the Chinese couple's child.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168885",
"title": "Child abandonment",
"section": "Section::::National laws and effects on child abandonment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "In 1979 China introduced its one-child policy which set up penalties for families that chose to have more than one child. Women were compelled to undergo a surgical implantation of an IUD following the birth of their first child and tubal ligation if they were to have another child. Families that disobeyed the law were levied a fine and lost their right to many government services, including access to health and educational services. Nevertheless, transgressions of the law most certainly occurred. Consequently, over the course of over three decades, hundreds of thousands of children, the majority of which were girls, were abandoned and required caretaking. Non-governmental organizations stepped in to assist with the re-housing of these girls, leading to the international adoption of over 120,000 Chinese children. Today, China's fertility rate has not quite returned to the rate of replacement. In fact, in the years since the relinquishing of the policy, China's fertility rate has only risen .04 per family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44664",
"title": "One-child policy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Abolition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The Chinese government had expected the abolishing of the one-child rule would lead to an increase in births to about 21.9 million births in 2018. The actual number of births was 15.2 million - the lowest birth rate since 1961.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34181378",
"title": "Chai Jing",
"section": "Section::::Career at CCTV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Some controversy arose surrounding Chai in 2013. After marrying famous photographer Zhao Jia she became pregnant, but she chose not to deliver her child in a hospital in China. Instead, she travelled to the United States before it was time for her to give birth. Some people pointed out that Chai had once declared that if she were to have a baby in the future that she would let her baby belong to China. Due to this issue, many people think that Chai directly contradicted herself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727199",
"title": "The Midwich Cuckoos",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "After one day the effect vanishes, along with the unidentified object, and the villagers wake with no apparent ill effects. Some months later they realise that every woman of child-bearing age is pregnant – even those who are single or not otherwise in relationships with men – with all indications that the pregnancies were caused by xenogenesis during the period of unconsciousness that has come to be referred to as the \"Dayout\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46500214",
"title": "Zhang Changpu",
"section": "Section::::Conflict with Lady Sun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1560,
"text": "As Zhang Changpu predicted, Lady Sun told Zhong Yao: \"I wanted her (Zhang Changpu) to have a male child, so I gave her a drug that would increase her chances of becoming pregnant with a male child, yet she accused me of poisoning her!\" Zhong Yao said: \"It doesn't make sense for you to secretly put into someone's food a drug that would increase a woman's chances of becoming pregnant with a male child\" He then summoned the servants, questioned them, and found out the truth. He then asked Zhang Changpu why she did not let him know about Lady Sun's deed, and her reply was the same as her earlier response to the servant. Zhong Yao was greatly surprised and very impressed with Zhang Changpu's virtuous behaviour. Zhang Changpu gave birth to Zhong Hui in 225 and became even more favoured by her husband. Zhong Yao also divorced Lady Sun and made another of his concubines, Lady Jia (賈氏), his formal spouse. Pei Songzhi remarked that Zhong Yao's decision to designate one of his concubines as his formal spouse (even though he was already very old) was in accordance with Confucius's teachings in the \"Book of Rites\". The \"Wei Shi Chunqiu\" mentioned that there was a rumour that Zhong Yao divorced Lady Sun because he favoured Zhang Changpu. Empress Dowager Bian heard the rumour and wanted to know if it was true, so the Wei emperor, Cao Pi, summoned Zhong Yao to ask him. Zhong Yao turned furious and tried to commit suicide by consuming poison but failed, so he consumed spices until his teeth started chattering. Cao Pi then stopped asking him about it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13000871",
"title": "Wok of Life",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Haolian was initially smitten with Wang Xia, but accidentally shares a night with a drunk Xiaodong who was smitten with Daixiang. Haolian, thinking she was pregnant due to a misunderstanding, marries into Xiaodong's family. It is later found out by the family that she wasn't pregnant but the situation was brushed off by Dadi. Haolian eventually manages to win Xiaodong's heart and gets pregnant after three years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x3l6e
|
Did professional assassins exist in medieval Europe? If so, where would they be trained? How would one become an assassin?
|
[
{
"answer": "If I may ask a question in this thread relevant to the main question -\n\nDid any of the holy orders have people trained to fulfill the roles of assassins/spys during the medieval period?\n",
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"answer": "I think I can probably answer the question by answering a slightly different question. It hedges on vioating the 20 year rule, but this is really just illustrative. \n\nSuppose you were to ask the question, \"Do professional assassins exist in the present day?\" \n\nThe answer to this question depends on how you mean \"assassin.\" In the terms that you seem to be asking, the answer is almost certainly no. There are certainly soldiers trained to a high level of skill etc. and while I have little doubt there are some people who kill for criminal organizations, these are by and large people that do not keep records of the sort that a historian might ever find, except for those that get caught. A group of \"professional assassins\" that is known could not openly survive for long. Criminal \"assassins\" are usually far closer to thugs than \"professionals\" in any case. Usually it's find an excuse to get close, then open up with a pistol, going down in the process. \n\nRather, what you find is that when \"assassinations\" happen in the modern world, it's usually a lone gunman or bomber who is not particularly \"professional,\" and dies in the attempt. Sometimes it's a whole team of operatives, but then they're distinctly military or paramilitary rather than some covert group. (see. e.g. Benazir Bhutto's assassination). \n\nEven though the historical context changes dramatically, I think you can compare modern times to historical times in this regard. Most assassinations in the historical record were not performed by someone you would describe as a \"professional.\" \n\nFor proof, take a look at [european assassinations](_URL_4_) \n\n[Louis, Duke of Orleans 1407 ](_URL_5_) - subterfuge lures the duke out into the open where 15 masked thugs stab and beat him. \n\n[Henry III, King of France, 1575](_URL_0_) - A domnican friar, Jaque Clement, gains admittance to the king's presence with documents, saying he has a message for the king. He stabs the king once and is killed on the spot by the guards. the king later dies of the wound. \n\n[Henry IV, King of France, 1610](_URL_1_) A catholic fanatic Francois Revellec waits until the king's carriage is stopped by a traffic blockage (possibly arranged by compatriots) climbs into the carriage and stabs the king. He is immidiately arrested, tried and executed. \n\n[Phillip v Hohenstauffen \"King of the Germans\" and Prince of Swabia 1208 - ](_URL_6_) - the king granted an audience to another noble, Otto VIII v. Wittlesbach, who drew his sword and stabbed the king in the neck. (Apparently over a dispute caused by a broken wedding engagement). Wittlesbach fled and then was tracked down and killed. \n\n[Guliano de'Medici, Duke of Florence, 1478](_URL_2_) was killed in the \"pazzi conspiracy\" - a plot to remove the Medici family as the rulers of Milan, Bernardo Bandi and Francesco de' Pazzi, themselves italian nobility, wait until Guliano d'Medici is attending church, attack him and stab him 19 times. \n\n\n[William I of Orange, 1584](_URL_3_) - After William gained independance for the Netherlands, Philllip II of spain declared him an outlaw and promised a bounty of 25,000 Crowns. Balthasar Gerard, a catholic frenchman, made an appointment with William, gained an audience, shot William in the chest at close range with a wheel lock pistol, then fled. \n\n\nWhile that's not exhaustive, I think that gives a pretty good selection of medieval era assassinations. By and large they're not all that different than you might expect an assassination to be today. It's far more likely to be some crazy with a knife or a gun, dying in the attempt, than some highly trained operative who kills and vanishes. \n\nEdit: fixed various spelling and grammatical errors. Thanks to /u/Sparadise for the correction. ",
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"answer": "In the sense of the blade-wielding master of espionage who could plow through a dozen guard single-handedly? No. That, unfortunately, is something that only exists in the realm of legends and [entertainment media](_URL_7_).\n\nThe word \"assassin,\" as you might already know, entered into many European languages via the Crusades as a bastardization of the Arabic حشاشين (_hashishiyyin_), referring to a sect of Nizari Isma’ilis in present-day northern Iran who orchestrated a series of political assassinations in the 1100s. The name is supposed to be a derogatory term meaning “hashish-consumers,” deriving from the belief that Nizari _fida’is_ (devotees) were worked into a frenzy through the consumption of the drug. However, most scholars recognize that there is no proof of this. The story comes from Marco Polo’s writings, specifically a section entitled “Concerning the Old Man of the Mountain” (Book 1, Chapter 23), where he claimed he heard from some natives that an old man in Mulehet drugged his followers and secluded them in a garden to trick them into believing they could enter Paradise:\n\n > He kept at his Court a number of the youths of the country, from 12 to 20 years of age, such as had a taste for soldiering, and to these he used to tell tales about Paradise, just as Mahommet had been wont to do, and they believed in him just as the Saracens believe in Mahommet. Then he would introduce them into his garden, some four, or six, or ten at a time, having first made them drink a certain potion which cast them into a deep sleep, and then causing them to be lifted and carried in. So when they awoke, they found themselves in the Garden.\n\nThere haven’t been any other sources to substantiate this. Historians even disagree on the etymology of the word _hashishiyyin_. [Farhad Daftary](_URL_4_), for example, claims that the word, though used pejoratively, had no true connection to the drug hashish. It was simply a derogatory word used by Nizaris for other Muslims that the Crusaders picked up in the Levant, and the assassin myths sprang up along with a number of rumors regarding secret practices of the Nizari Isma’ilis (10-11). The word picked up the connotation of professional killer around the mid-14th century. Dante, for example, spoke of \"_Le perfido assassin_\" in the _Inferno_. “Assassin” up to that point was exclusively associated with Muslims, and even after it was often [used in the plural](_URL_13_) by Orientalists.\n\n**So to return to the original question** - whether there were types of trained killers, mythic or otherwise, in the medieval European context - it doesn’t seem likely. The most effective assassins are those who can get close to their targets without arousing suspicion and kill him/her with as little risk to themselves as possible. In other words, you didn’t need to be trained as sword-wielding acrobat with a devil-may-care attitude to be an effective assassin. \n\nInstead of death by cold steel, **the most common method of assassination in medieval Europe by far was poisoning**. Poisons were cheap and relatively easy to obtain, and poisoning is a clever way to conceal assassination as an illness (most poisons wouldn’t cause you to drop dead on the spot - at least not if the perpetrator was doing it right). There were many herbal poisons readily available (e.g. [Nightshade](_URL_5_), [Water Hemlock](_URL_0_), [Laburnum](_URL_9_), or [Black Hellbore](_URL_1_)), but there were also more deadly chemicals such as [arsenic powder](_URL_14_). Deliberate poisoning of food was common enough in Europe that it was often widely believed to be the cause of many royal deaths, whether or not it was true. When King John of England died in 1216 of dysentery, for example, numerous rumors began almost immediately that he had been poisoned by a monk. There were many visual images of this poisoning that circulated for years to come, both in [prints](_URL_6_) and in [illuminated](_URL_11_) [manuscripts](_URL_10_). There were so many rumors about Lucrezia Borgia and her brother Cesare poisoning their enemies that they were said to own [rings with secret compartments](_URL_12_) used to casually slip poison unnoticed into glasses. There isn’t much evidence to link them directly to this, but it shows the extent to which the idea of assassination was linked to poison. And yes, some affluent individuals [did employ food-testers](_URL_8_) as a deterrent against this kind of risk.\n\nAnyone who had extensive knowledge of poisons, then, might be considered a potential assassin (or at least able to aid a potential one). With the printing press, pharmacology manuals detailing poisons became more widely available; Magister Santes de Ardoynis’s _The Book of Venoms_ (1424) was probably the most popular. However, before then most major cities contained apothecary guilds comprising a large number of tradesmen knowledgeable in poisons. Apothecaries, of course, were not simply poison-sellers, but rather served as both pharmacist and general medical practitioner in the Middle Ages. In many ways, [apothecaries were a vital resource](_URL_2_) for medicine in medieval Europe. So this raises a question: why did apothecaries sell poisons at all? Well, in their view they didn’t. It was a long-standing belief in many parts of Europe that certain plant extracts which were poisonous in large doses were beneficial to one’s health in smaller doses. For example, Henbane - the poison Claudius uses to murder the former king in Shakespeare’s [_Hamlet_](_URL_3_) - was sometimes recommended in small doses as a sleeping agent or as a sedative for hysteria. The same items could be used as a form of pest control. Mix Aconite with animal fat and/or honey and you have an effective way to kill a wolf or a fox threatening your livestock.\n\nAll of these concoctions, then, had designated uses other than murdering human beings and were sold as medical remedies. But they could be used to commit murder in large doses. The trick was knowing what the right dose was to induce death without making it obvious that the victim had been poisoned.\n\n**EDIT**: fixed a broken link and a typo.\n\n",
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"answer": "I have a follow-up question of sorts: I know a little (very little; dangerously little) about ninja in medieval Japan and their counterparts in China -- they were basically groups for hire, \"muscle\" if you will, but trained for the job. That's as far as my knowledge goes, and it could be totally wrong. \n\nThe question (other than hoping for any clarification on the above), is, were there any comparable groups in medieval Europe? Mercenary groups that trained independently of militaries for the purpose of hiring services out. I'm hoping this question makes any sense at all. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2920240",
"title": "Assassin (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.:Original \"Dungeons & Dragons\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The assassin first appeared in the \"Blackmoor\" supplement for the original \"Dungeons & Dragons\" game, as a thief sub-class. It had greater weapon options and more hit points than a thief, but fewer followers, and less skill in the thief special abilities. The class also had an ability to create a very convincing disguise. Finally, they were capable of performing \"assassinations,\" often for an additional XP reward, although there was a chance for failure on this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6927334",
"title": "Assassin (character class)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The Assassin is a character class common to many role-playing games, often but not always representing the historical Assassin or Ninja. Such characters typically combine combat ability with strong stealth skills, and specialise in defeating an enemy without becoming involved in a protracted melee. Assassins first appeared in many role-playing games including \"Dungeons & Dragons\" and its rivals, which influenced later appearances in video games. In many of these, the Assassin class is only available to the player after having advanced in another class, such as the Thief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35396486",
"title": "Assassins in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- The most widespread awareness of the Assassins in modern Europe, and their incorporation into the Romantic tradition, was created by Austrian historian and Orientalist Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall though his 1818 book, \"Die Geschichte der Assassinen aus morgenländischen Quellen\" (translated into English in 1835 as \"The History of the Assassins\"). This work was the standard one on the history of the Assassins in the West until the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46435",
"title": "Order of Assassins",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The most widespread awareness of the Assassins in modern Europe, and their incorporation into the Romantic tradition, was created by Austrian historian and Orientalist Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall though his 1818 book, \"Die Geschichte der Assassinen aus morgenländischen Quellen\" (translated into English in 1835 as \"The History of the Assassins\"). This work was the standard one on the history of the Assassins in the West until the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2920240",
"title": "Assassin (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The assassin is a playable character class in the \"Dungeons & Dragons\" fantasy role-playing game. It first appeared in 1975 in the \"Blackmoor\" supplement, as a thief sub-class. Assassins are killers and spies; the class is modeled on perceptions of real-world historical assassins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2920240",
"title": "Assassin (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.:\"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons\" 1st edition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The assassin was one of the player character classes available in the original \"Player's Handbook\". In 1st Edition D&D, assassin was a sub-class of thief and available to characters starting at 1st level. The class included most class abilities of the thief class with an expanded weapon list and the ability to use shields. Assassins also had the \"assassination\" ability, offering a percentage chance to perform an assassination against a target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1029966",
"title": "Ankh-Morpork Assassins' Guild",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The Assassins' Guild was founded on 27 August AM1512 by Sir Gyles de Munforte as the \"de Munforte School for Gentlemen Assassins\". Sir Gyles was a warrior knight who, during his crusades in Klatch, was intrigued by the Klatchian tradition of professional gentleman assassins, and decided to set up a similar organisation at home, only without the drugs. In AM1576 the school was elevated to the status of a Guild and the name was changed to the \"Royal Guild of Assassins\". The 'Royal' was dropped after the 'events' of AM1688 (i.e. the Ankh-Morpork Civil War, as a result of which the monarchy was overthrown).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mgw1b
|
why is saying hello to people socially so important ?
|
[
{
"answer": "It isn't. But it's the most socially neutral equivalent of a greeting. Greetings or acknowledgement at first meets are important. If you don't acknowledge someone you are sending pretty much the opposite signal of a greeting, and depending on the person that can be a can of worms. There are tons other ways to greet someone through body language only (and more fancy ways through words), but what to use depends on your relationship to said person and social context. If you do not know which choice is appropriate saying \"Hello\" is your best option, and better than doing nothing. And that is why just saying hello is a good suggestion for everyone. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8085483",
"title": "Social conduct in Ghana",
"section": "Section::::Greetings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "When greeting people in a home, it is considered improper if the guest ignores anyone present. Guests are expected to acknowledge and greet every person at a social occasion, including children and babies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19973947",
"title": "Etiquette in Pakistan",
"section": "Section::::Introduction and greeting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "BULLET::::- Guests are honoured delightfully and treated with love and respect. So, relatives, colleagues, friends and people from neighbourhood feel happy and cheerful to meet and stay connected with each other. Usually, in educated families, guests inform the host before their arrival so that someone's routine is not disturbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2372182",
"title": "Yaguine Koita and Fodé Tounkara",
"section": "Section::::English translation of the letter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "But first of all, we present to you life's most delicious, charming and respected greetings. To this effect, be our support and our assistance. You are for us, in Africa, those to whom it is necessary to request relief. We implore you, for the love of your continent, for the feeling that you have towards your people and especially for the affinity and love that you have for your children whom you love for a lifetime. Furthermore, for the love and meekness of our creator God the omnipotent one who gave you all the good experiences, wealth and ability to well construct and well organize your continent to become the most beautiful one and most admirable among the others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2675164",
"title": "Cyberpsychology",
"section": "Section::::Social media and cyberpsychological behavior.:Social isolation and ostracism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, social interaction and belonging are important aspects of psychological and emotional well-being. Although it is relatively common to have hundreds of friends on Facebook, it is unlikely that any one individual has that many solid person to person relationships. This can create social disconnect. Different from meeting friends face to face, chatting with an acquaintance or a total stranger online can increase feelings of loneliness instead of increasing feelings of social connection. This may be because Facebook uses of the \"like\" and \"comment\" button as means of interaction is too brief and does not show lasting concern. In the 2016 University of Pittsburgh study mentioned previously researched found that excessive social media usage increased feelings of social isolation, that is, as authentic social interactions were replaced by virtual relationships. Additionally, a 2011 study conducted at the University College of London examined the fMRI brain scans of 125 frequent Facebook users and found that the size of an individual's online social network is closely linked to brain structure associated with social cognition. This research provides evidence that social media platforms, such as Facebook, are changing the way people socialize, and that it may not be fulfilling social needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17217228",
"title": "Display rules",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "People learn how to greet one another, how to interact with others, what, where, when and how to display emotions through the people they interact with and the place they grow up in. Everything can be traced back to one’s culture. Gestures is an example of how one may express themselves, however these gestures represent different meanings depending on the culture. For example, in Canada, sticking out your tongue is a sign of disgust or disapproval however in Tibet it is a sign of respect when greeting someone. In America, holding your middle finger and index finger up makes the peace sign, in some countries such as the UK and Australia it a sign of disrespect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37628947",
"title": "No problem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Some older people find the expression, particularly when employed in the service industry, to be rude, implying that a reasonable request could have been received as problematic or unwelcome. However, in the culture of younger Americans, \"no problem\" is often used as a more conversational alternative to \"you're welcome\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8085483",
"title": "Social conduct in Ghana",
"section": "Section::::Invitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Asking a person to a social event (e.g. a bar or a restaurant) implies that the person offering the invite will be paying for everything. Inviting a person out and then expecting them to pay for themselves is considered extremely rude. When a foreigner is invited to visit a home or community, the guest is expected to bring a gift, commonly a bottle of Schnapps or Kasapreko gin which is available in any shop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14fomq
|
What percentage of the worlds land mass is used for the production of food?
|
[
{
"answer": "153,335,392,000 Hectares are used for food (arable & permanent crops)\n\n1,300,346,805,000 Is the total land surface\n\nThats 11.79188439%\n\nSource: [FAOSTAT](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7757190",
"title": "Food waste",
"section": "Section::::Impact on the environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The FAO concludes that nearly 30 percent of all available agricultural land in the world - 1.4 billion hectares - is used for produced but uneaten food. The global blue water footprint of food waste is 250 km, that is the amount of water that flows annually through the Volga or 3 times Lake Geneva.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17444515",
"title": "Agriculture in Cameroon",
"section": "Section::::Crops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Estimated 2004 production of food crops was as follows: sugarcane, 1,450,000 tons; cassava, 1,950,000 tons; sorghum, 550,000 tons; corn, 750,000 tons; millet, 50,000 tons; yams, 265,000 tons; sweet potatoes, 175,000 tons; potatoes, 135,000 tons; dry beans, 95,000 tons; and rice, 62,000 tons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27989421",
"title": "Perennial grain",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most agricultural land is devoted to the production of grain crops: cereal, oilseed, and legume crops occupy 75% of US and 69% of global croplands. These grains include such crops as wheat, rice, and maize; together they provide over 70% of human food calories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47492",
"title": "Biomass (ecology)",
"section": "Section::::Global biomass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Humans comprise about 100 million tonnes of the Earth's dry biomass, domesticated animals about 700 million tonnes, earthworms over 1,100 million tonnes, and annual cereal crops about 2.3 billion tonnes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47850038",
"title": "Staple food",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Just 15 plant crops provide 90 percent of the world's food energy intake (exclusive of meat), with rice, maize, and wheat comprising 2/3 of human food consumption. These three are the staples of about 80 percent of the world population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46295033",
"title": "Agriculture in the Republic of the Congo",
"section": "Section::::Crops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Despite 30% of the population being involved in agriculture, productivity is low, and agriculture accounts for under 10% of GDP. In 2010, the country imported about $300 million of food including wheat, rice, poultry meat, palm oil and milk products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53508543",
"title": "Latin American economy",
"section": "Section::::Economic sectors.:Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Global demand for agricultural products is rising due to the world's growing population and income levels. By 2050, the world's population is expected to reach 9 billion people and the demand for food is forecast to be 60% higher than it was in 2014. Distribution of unexploited land in Latin America is very uneven, with Brazil and Argentina having the most access to additional land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dhb9b9
|
What are the most concerning potential shortages in natural resources?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Helium? Lithium? Sand?\n\nNone of those are required for our survival. Compare this to the [loss of insect biomass](_URL_0_) or a [shortage of farmland](_URL_0_) due to climate change. Either of those things would mean that humanity will eventually run out of *food*. That means mass starvation and wars for whatever usable land remains.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9387041",
"title": "The Ultimate Resource",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The overarching thesis on why there is no resource crisis is that as a particular resource becomes more scarce, its price rises. This price rise creates an incentive for people to discover more of the resource, ration and recycle it, and eventually, develop substitutes. The \"ultimate resource\" is not any particular physical object but the capacity for humans to invent and adapt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19080286",
"title": "Natural resource economics",
"section": "Section::::Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility.:Background and introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "Several other kinds of resources need to be introduced. If strategic and critical materials are the worst case for resources, unless mitigated by substitution and/or recycling, one of the best is an abundant resource. An abundant resource is one whose material has so far found little use, such as using high-aluminous clays or anorthosite to produce alumina, and magnesium before it was recovered from seawater. An abundant resource is quite similar to a perpetual resource. The reserve base is the part of an identified resource that has a reasonable potential for becoming economically available at a time beyond when currently proven technology and current economics are in operation. Identified resources are those whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated from specific geologic evidence. Reserves are that part of the reserve base that can be economically extracted at the time of determination; reserves should not be used as a surrogate for resources because they are often distorted by taxation or the owning firm's public relations needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3575201",
"title": "List of paradoxes",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 280,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 280,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- : The paradox of plenty (resource curse) refers to the paradox that countries and regions with an abundance of natural resources, specifically point-source non-renewable resources like minerals and fuels, tend to have less economic growth and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer natural resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1531457",
"title": "Resource curse",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Natural resources are a source of economic rent which can generate large revenues for those controlling them even in the absence of political stability and wider economic growth. Their existence is a potential source of conflict between factions fighting for a share of the revenue, which may take the form of armed separatist conflicts in regions where the resources are produced or internal conflict between different government ministries or departments for access to budgetary allocations. This tends to erode governments' abilities to function effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1531457",
"title": "Resource curse",
"section": "Section::::Resource curse thesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Scholarship on the resource curse has increasingly shifted towards explaining why some resource-rich countries succeed and why others do not, as opposed to just investigating the average economic effects of resources. Research suggests that the manner in which resource income is spent, system of government, institutional quality, type of resources, and early vs. late industrialization all have been used to explain successes and failures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258979",
"title": "Malnutrition",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Agricultural productivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Local food shortages can be caused by a lack of arable land, adverse weather, lower farming skills such as crop rotation, or by a lack of technology or resources needed for the higher yields found in modern agriculture, such as fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, machinery and storage facilities. As a result of widespread poverty, farmers cannot afford or governments cannot provide the resources necessary to improve local yields. The World Bank and some wealthy donor countries also press nations that depend on aid to cut or eliminate subsidized agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, in the name of free market policies even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers. Many, if not most, farmers cannot afford fertilizer at market prices, leading to low agricultural production and wages and high, unaffordable food prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69415",
"title": "Economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Importance of long-run growth.:Resource constraint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Many earlier predictions of resource depletion, such as Thomas Malthus' 1798 predictions about approaching famines in Europe, \"The Population Bomb\" (1968), and the Simon–Ehrlich wager (1980) have not materialized. Diminished production of most resources has not occurred so far, one reason being that advancements in technology and science have allowed some previously unavailable resources to be produced. In some cases, substitution of more abundant materials, such as plastics for cast metals, lowered growth of usage for some metals. In the case of the limited resource of land, famine was relieved firstly by the revolution in transportation caused by railroads and steam ships, and later by the Green Revolution and chemical fertilizers, especially the Haber process for ammonia synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lr1nm
|
how does the binary options scam work?
|
[
{
"answer": "After sifting through a few pages, it's just gambling, plain and simple.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Binary options are often considered a form of gambling rather than investment because of their negative cumulative payout (the brokers have an edge over the investor) and because they are advertised as requiring little or no knowledge of the markets. Gordon Pape, writing in \"Forbes\".com in 2010, called binary options websites \"gambling sites, pure and simple\", and said \"this sort of thing can quickly become addictive... no one, no matter how knowledgeable, can consistently predict what a stock or commodity will do within a short time frame\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "Section::::Regulation and fraud.:Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "In 2016 \"The Times of Israel\" ran several articles on binary options fraud. \"The wolves of Tel Aviv: Israel's vast, amoral binary options scam exposed\" revealed that the industry is a scam. A second article describes in detail how a binary options salesman fleeced clients. \"According to one ex-employee of a firm that employs over 1,000 people in a high-rise office building in Tel Aviv, losses are guaranteed because the 'dealing room' at the binary options firm controls the trading platform — like the crooked ownership of a rigged casino manipulating the roulette wheel\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "While binary options may be used in theoretical asset pricing, they are prone to fraud in their applications and hence banned by regulators in many jurisdictions as a form of gambling. Many binary option outlets have been exposed as fraudulent. The U.S. FBI is investigating binary option scams throughout the world, and the Israeli police have tied the industry to criminal syndicates. The European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) have banned retail binary options trading. ASIC considers binary options as a “high-risk” and “unpredictable” investment option.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "A binary option is a financial exotic option in which the payoff is either some fixed monetary amount or nothing at all. The two main types of binary options are the cash-or-nothing binary option and the asset-or-nothing binary option. The former pays some fixed amount of cash if the option expires in-the-money while the latter pays the value of the underlying security. They are also called all-or-nothing options, digital options (more common in forex/interest rate markets), and fixed return options (FROs) (on the American Stock Exchange). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "Section::::Regulation and fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Many binary option \"brokers\" have been exposed as fraudulent operations. In those cases, there is no real brokerage; the customer is betting against the broker, who is acting as a bucket shop. Manipulation of price data to cause customers to lose is common. Withdrawals are regularly stalled or refused by such operations; if a client has good reason to expect a payment, the operator will simply stop taking their phone calls. Though binary options sometimes trade on regulated exchange, they are generally unregulated, trading on the Internet, and prone to fraud. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Binary options \"are based on a simple 'yes' or 'no' proposition: Will an underlying asset be above a certain price at a certain time?\" Traders place wagers as to whether that will or will not happen. If a customer believes the price of an underlying asset will be above a certain price at a set time, the trader buys the binary option, but if he or she believes it will be below that price, they sell the option. In the U.S. exchanges, the price of a binary is always under $100.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "502104",
"title": "Binary option",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "In the online binary options industry, where the contracts are sold by a broker to a customer in an OTC manner, a different option pricing model is used. Brokers sell binary options at a fixed price (e.g., $100) and offer some fixed percentage return in case of in-the-money settlement. Some brokers, also offer a sort of out-of-money reward to a losing customer. For example, with a win reward of 80%, out-of-money reward of 5%, and the option price of $100, two scenarios are possible. In-the-money settlement pays back the option price of $100 and the reward of $80. In case of loss, the option price is not returned but the out-of-money reward of $5 is granted to the customer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a5h2dz
|
Need help with advanced ceramics(?)
|
[
{
"answer": "Manufacturing methods are pretty broad, depending on material. Many are made in similar, but more carefully controlled, ways to pottery: a slurry that is formed or cast, etc., and then fired, often under even higher temp and possibly under controlled atmosphere.\n\nA more unique route, which is also worth looking into, would be for instance \"precursor-derived ceramics\" or \"polymer-derived ceramics\". Basically using small silicone-based molecules (silanes, siloxanes, etc. or polymers of them) that are sintered to produce ceramics.\n\nAs far as applications for advanced ceramics, there are many. High temperature refractories, corrosion resistant or heat resistant coatings... Those are for instance important for some types of power plants, including nuclear plants. Also used for aircraft sometimes as coatings for engine parts that see high temp, or famously on the underside of the space shuttle got heat abatement on reentry.\n\nThere are also low-friction ceramic parts, for instance in high-end bearings and moving parts like bicycle wheels.\n\nThere are also electronic applications of ceramics, such as piezoelectric systems, or ceramic superconductors (no longer as relevant as once was hoped, as they need to be super-cooled to conduct, though).\n\nOptical applications exist as well, with a big focus these days on conductive transparent materials like indium tin oxide.\n\nThere's even more, but I hope this gives you a good start, good luck with your work! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* /r/AskScience is not the correct forum for users to look for help on their homework, craft or personal projects, research projects, essays, etc. A more suitable subreddit would be /r/HomeworkHelp. Please see our [guidelines.](_URL_0_.) Depending on the exact subject, there may be more suitable subreddits like /r/AskMath, /r/AskPhysics, /r/PhysicsHelp, or /r/chemhelp.\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4286922",
"title": "Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "\"Glass-ceramics\" are polycrystalline ceramic materials prepared by the controlled crystallization of suitable glasses, normally silicates. Depending on the starting glass composition and the heat-treatment schedule adopted, glass-ceramics can be prepared with tailored thermal expansion characteristics. This makes them ideal for sealing to a variety of different metals, ranging from low expansion tungsten (W) or molybdenum (Mo) to high expansion stainless steels and nickel-based superalloys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53581459",
"title": "Porzellanikon",
"section": "Section::::Selb locations.:European Museum of Technical Ceramics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Today, technical ceramics can also be found in everyday objects such as lighters, mobile phones, espresso machines or cars, since the material is heat-resistant, durable and hard. Ceramic blades cut diamonds, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6458",
"title": "Ceramic",
"section": "Section::::Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries and body armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4480666",
"title": "Ceramic engineering",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Ceramics can be used in many technological industries. One application is the ceramic tiles on NASA's Space Shuttle, used to protect it and the future supersonic space planes from the searing heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. They are also used widely in electronics and optics. In addition to the applications listed here, ceramics are also used as a coating in various engineering cases. An example would be a ceramic bearing coating over a titanium frame used for an aircraft. Recently the field has come to include the studies of single crystals or glass fibres, in addition to traditional polycrystalline materials, and the applications of these have been overlapping and changing rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1023548",
"title": "Diopside",
"section": "Section::::Potential uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Diopside based ceramics and glass-ceramics have potential applications in various technological areas. A diopside based glass-ceramic named 'silceram' was produced by scientists from Imperial College, UK during the 1980s from blast furnace slag and other waste products. They also produced glass-ceramic is a potential structural material. Similarly, diopside based ceramics and glass-ceramics have potential applications in the field of biomaterials, nuclear waste immobilization and sealing materials in solid oxide fuel cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993816",
"title": "Solid",
"section": "Section::::Classes of solids.:Ceramics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "For an example of applications of ceramics, the extreme hardness of zirconia is utilized in the manufacture of knife blades, as well as other industrial cutting tools. Ceramics such as alumina, boron carbide and silicon carbide have been used in bulletproof vests to repel large-caliber rifle fire. Silicon nitride parts are used in ceramic ball bearings, where their high hardness makes them wear resistant. In general, ceramics are also chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would be susceptible to oxidation (or rust).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993816",
"title": "Solid",
"section": "Section::::Classes of solids.:Ceramics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, more recent materials include aluminium oxide (alumina). The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in such applications as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2e0jod
|
Were there many historically significant battlefields in WWI and WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was quite a sizeable battle in Verdun in 1792. \nA better example might be Metz where there was a big battle in both the Franco Prussian war and the second world war. \nBesides that, it wouldn't be too hard to find battlefields in Belgium or northern France whereseveral battles could have taken places. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Ardennes forest in France saw substantial battles in both world wars. \n\n[WWI](_URL_2_)\n\n[WWII](_URL_0_)\n\nAs did the city of [Amiens](_URL_1_)\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps the battle of Thermopylae in April 1941 would be of interest, when the ANZACs tried to hold the pass against the German forces. There were five Australian and three New Zealand battalions involved. The ANZAC forces took up their position on 15 April, but the battle didn't begin in earnest until the 21st. The Germans had complete air superiority, and could easily have used artillery on Euboia to blow the defenders to shreds. But late on the same day, the Allied forces decided to withdraw from Greece altogether, so the battle was short-lived. The ANZACs were evacuated by the end of the 24th.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43477562",
"title": "Battle of Camp Wildcat",
"section": "Section::::Battlefield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Much of the battlefield, almost , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Another area, embracing two sections of the battlefield that had been designated historical archaeological sites, was added to the original designation in 2006. The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 264 acres of the battlefield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9633002",
"title": "Battlefield (American TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Battlefield is an American documentary series that debuted in 1994 on PBS that explores the most important battles fought primarily during the Second World War and the Vietnam War. The series employs a novel approach in which history is described by detailed accounts of major battles together with background and contextual information. The sixth and final series of the program was broadcast in 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7619255",
"title": "Ar-pi-uck-i",
"section": "Section::::Second Seminole War, 1835–1842.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The battlefield was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in the 1960s, later became a National Historic Landmark, and is recognized by the National Trust for Historic Preservation as one of the top endangered historical sites in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "356155",
"title": "List of American Civil War battles",
"section": "Section::::Battles rated by CWSAC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP) was established within the United States National Park Service to classify the preservation status of historic battlefield land. In 1993, the Civil War Sites Advisory Commission (CWSAC) reported to Congress and the ABPP on their extensive analysis of significant battles and battlefields. Of the estimated 8,000 occasions in which hostilities occurred in the American Civil War, this table and related articles describe the 384 battles that were classified in CWSAC's \"Report on the Nation's Civil War Battlefields\". In addition to the status of battlefield land preservation (not included in this table) CWSAC rated the military significance of the battles into four classes, as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53032678",
"title": "World War I Eastern Front Cemetery No. 123",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Wartime cemetery No 123, established in 1918, is the location of one of the largest battles on the World War I Eastern front between the Austro-Hungarian and German armies and the Russian Army: the battle of Gorlice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1095689",
"title": "Aleutian Islands campaign",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Many of the United States locations involved in the campaign, either directly or indirectly, have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and several have been designated National Historic Landmarks. The battlefield on Attu and the Japanese occupation site on Kiska are both National Historic Landmarks and are included in the World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument. Surviving elements of the military bases at Adak, Umnak, and Dutch Harbor are National Historic Landmarks. The shipwrecked SS \"Northwestern\", badly damaged during the attack on Dutch Harbor, is listed on the National Register, as is a crash-landed B-24D Liberator on Atka Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863",
"title": "American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Memory and historiography.:Battlefield preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 264,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 264,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River. In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p1igy
|
There are obvious reasons behind human beauty (fertility, child raising) but why do we perceive non-human things (natural vistas, cute animals) as beautiful?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nDespite not being human, \"cute\" things still display neoteny, which as mammals we have a vested evolutionary interest in, given the importance we place on raising offspring. \n\nOne could \"layman speculate\" that this is exacerbated in humans, which care for their young much longer than other mammals, and human infants are relatively much more helpless and dependent during infancy.\n\nThe wikipedia article has research with corroborates all of that.\n\nAs someone with a degree in the humanities, I can \"non-layman speculate\" that a breathtaking vista in the Alps would be much less breathtaking if you were fighting for your survival in the harsh environment of the Alps for any extended period.\n\nThe urban alleyway is \"trashy\" and \"run down\" because it has elements which you associate with the negative connotations of \"trashy\" and \"run down.\"\n\nA better way to say this is that a large degree of our aesthetics are culturally conditioned, both in our language, and our ideology. An alleyway is \"common\" \"dirty\" and not of value. These are not things we associate with beauty. Thus, the alleyway is not beautiful.\nBut this is boarder-line linguistics and social psychology now, running into the territory of philosophy (yuck). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a brilliant [Ted Talk](_URL_0_) on this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8411",
"title": "Darwinism",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In evolutionary aesthetics theory, there is evidence that perceptions of beauty are determined by natural selection and therefore Darwinian; that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced survival of the perceiving human's genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12551994",
"title": "The Human Face",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Part Three: Beauty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "This episode studies whether human physical attractiveness is a matter of personal taste, looking at standards of beauty that are shared worldwide: a pretty face suggests fertility, while ugliness suggests poor health. Big eyes, smooth skin and symmetrical features are valued, and can lead to a better job, more money, and better sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4431",
"title": "Beauty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The experience of \"beauty\" often involves an interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. Because this can be a subjective experience, it is often said that \"beauty is in the eye of the beholder.\" Often, given the observation that empirical observations of things that are considered beautiful often align among groups in consensus, beauty has been stated to have levels of objectivity and partial subjectivity which are not fully subjective in their aesthetic judgement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4431",
"title": "Beauty",
"section": "Section::::The 20th century and after.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure. Correlational findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing. Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex. This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23469405",
"title": "Awe",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Emotional experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "In the same set of experiments by Shiota, Keltner, and Mossman (2007), the researchers had participants write about a time they recently experienced natural beauty (awe condition) or accomplishment (pride condition). When describing the experience of natural beauty, participants were more likely to report that they felt unaware of day-to-day concerns, felt the presence of something greater, didn't want the experience to end, felt connected with the world, and felt small or insignificant. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189429",
"title": "Biophilia hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Product of biological evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Human preferences toward things in nature, while refined through experience and culture, are hypothetically the product of biological evolution. For example, adult mammals (especially humans) are generally attracted to baby mammal faces and find them appealing across species. The large eyes and small features of any young mammal face are far more appealing than those of the mature adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36283978",
"title": "Lookism",
"section": "Section::::Empirical support.:Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Nancy Etcoff, author of Survival of the Prettiest, argues that human preference for attractiveness is rooted in evolutionary instinct and that trying to prevent it from influencing people would be \"telling them to stop enjoying food or sex or novelty or love\" and thus argues that \"being beautiful and being prized for it is not a social evil.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fzl6g
|
What was the Jazz scene in 1920s/30s Shanghai like?
|
[
{
"answer": "Jazz at this time was *the* thing to do for nightlife, and Shanghai was the centre of jazz in China.\n\nJazz was introduced to the city through the foreign concessions in the 19-teens. The International Settlement and the French Concession both regularly had jazz musicians, often coming from the United States. The interest in jazz spread to the Chinese population shortly after. It survived well into the 1940s there. It stopped primarily as a result of being banned by the Communists around 1949.\n\nPrior to that, big bands and jazz orchestras were quite common at the jazz cabarets throughout the foreign concessions. The reception among members of Chinese society was also generally positive toward the style. Shanghai in the 1920s was a place you went to experience something new, usually directly a result from the mix of cultures to be found there. Modernising and urbanising means adopting the latest trends, and Shanghai at this time was right in line with the trends found in bigger cities in the West.\n\nThese were also some of the few places that foreign residents of the concessions and native Chinese could actually co-mingle. They not only offered an outlet for the residents of the city, but were also a profitable front for the various gangs that managed much of the city at the time. One of the larger gangs, the [Green Gang](_URL_1_), even put together the first jazz band made entirely of Chinese musicians in 1934. Called the Breeze Dance Band, also translated as Clear Wind Jazz Band (清风舞乐队), it was originally pushed for by [Dù Yuèshēng 杜月笙](_URL_2_), one of the most prominent mobsters of the period, and led by [Lí Jǐnhuī 黎錦暉](_URL_0_). Lí became a hugely important person in 20th century Chinese music, and was an active proponent of the modern development of Chinese culture.\n\nAdditionally as part of the cabarets, gambling and prostitution adapted to the cabarets and it was not uncommon to find \"dance hostesses\", women who, for a price, would dance and drink with clients for the night. This obviously also resulted in prostitution, but not always.\n\nEven government officials were in on the craze, and Chiang Kai Shek himself had a jazz orchestra playing at his wedding to Soong May-ling.\n\nYou can actually find a lot of archival footage of [jazz clubs](_URL_3_) if you dig around a bit. \n\nIf you're interested in the topic I highly recommend Andrew Field's work, below.\n\n**References**\n\n* Andrew Field's *Shanghai's Dancing World: Cabaret Culture and Urban Politics, 1919-1954*\n\n* James Farrer & Andrew Field. *Shanghai Nightscapes: A Nocturnal Biography of a Global City*\n\n**See also**\n\n* This [audio interview](_URL_4_) with Andrew Field where he talks about some of the above/\n\n---\n\nSomeone asked a similar question some months back. This answer is based largely on my answer from then.\n\nalso cc /u/origamitiger, because RemindMe won't work in /r/AskHistorians",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9658750",
"title": "Shidaiqu",
"section": "Section::::History.:Mainstream.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Shidaiqu reached peak popularity during 1940s. Famous jazz musicians from both the US and China played to packed dance halls. Chinese women singers grew in celebrity. Additionally, nightclubs such as the Paramount Dance Hall became a meeting point for businessmen from Western countries and China would meet. The western jazz influences were shaped predominately by American jazz musician Buck Clayton. Nowadays, shidaiqu has inspired Gary Lucas for his album \"The Edge of Heaven\" and DJs such as Ian Widgery and his \"Shanghai Lounge Divas\" project. On the other hand, if cinema was the origin of many songs, Wong Kar-wai used them again for illustrating his movie \"In the Mood for Love\"; Rebecca Pan, one of the actresses in this film, was also one of those famous shidaiqu singers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "948694",
"title": "Australian jazz",
"section": "Section::::Early 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The biggest musical influence in the period 1923–1928 was a succession of visiting white American jazz (or dance) orchestras, mainly from the West Coast. Frank Ellis and his Californians, who arrived in 1923. Thousands of dance fans regularly flocked to see them at Sydney's largest dance hall, the Palais Royale (the Royal Hall of Industries at Moore Park, which still stands today). American bands and individual imported 'jazz specialists'continued to be imported by Australian theatrical entrepreneurs until the end of the 1920s. Australians could study the performance and presentation style of these bands first-hand and talented local musicians were soon offered places in some of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48754461",
"title": "History of music in Paris",
"section": "Section::::The \"Années Folles\" (1919-1939).:The arrival of jazz—the Hot Club de Paris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "By 1930, Parisians were listening to recordings of American jazz; Duke Ellington brought his orchestra to Paris in 1932, Louis Armstrong and Cab Calloway in 1934, Bill Coleman, Coleman Hawkins and Benny Carter in 1935. The first famous Paris jazz club, the Hot Club de Paris, was founded in 1932. The first famous French jazz group, the \"Quintette de Hot Club\". was formed in 1934; its members were Django Reinhardt, his brother Joseph, Stephane Grapelli, Louis Vola and Roger Chaput. They became the most famous jazz ensemble in France, touring Europe and eventually to the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29854656",
"title": "1920 in jazz",
"section": "Section::::Jazz scene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "In Chicago, the jazz scene was developing rapidly, aided by the migration of over 40 prominent New Orleans jazzmen to the city, continuous throughout much of the 1920s, including the New Orleans Rhythm Kings who began playing at Friar's Inn. However, in 1920, the cabaret business began in New York City and the growing number of speakeasies developing in the cellars of New York City provided many aspiring jazz musicians with new venues which gradually saw many musicians who had moved to Chicago ending up in on the east coast. It is important to note that Classic Blues became very prominent from 1920 after Mamie Smith recorded \"Crazy Blues\" and grew in popularity along with jazz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29790369",
"title": "1920s in jazz",
"section": "Section::::1920.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "In 1920, the jazz age was underway and was indirectly fueled by prohibition of alcohol. In Chicago, the jazz scene was developing rapidly, aided by the immigration of over 40 prominent New Orleans jazzmen to the city, continuous throughout much of the 1920s, including The New Orleans Rhythm Kings who began playing at Friar's Inn. However, in 1920, the cabaret business began in New York City and the growing number of speakeasies developing in the cellars of New York City provided many aspiring jazz musicians with new venues which gradually saw many musicians who had moved to Chicago ending up in on the east coast. It is important to note that Classic Blues became very prominent from 1920 after Mamie Smith recorded \"Crazy Blues\" and grew in popularity along with jazz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1706289",
"title": "Fillmore District, San Francisco",
"section": "Section::::Landmarks and features.:Jazz and blues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "In the 1940s and 1950s, it was known as the \"Harlem of the West\" and attracted many leading jazz luminaries including Louis Armstrong, John Coltrane, Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday and the \"Bird\" (Charlie Parker). Fillmore Street was filled with nightclubs. Jimbo's Bop City is reported to be the only venue to host Parker and Armstrong together at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48754461",
"title": "History of music in Paris",
"section": "Section::::Post-war Paris (1946–2000).:Jazz clubs of Saint-Germain-des-Pres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 209,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 209,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Beginning in 1958, the leading figures in American jazz, including Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, Thelonious Monk and John Coltrane came to Paris to perform in a series called Paris Jazz Concert, at the Olympia music hall. The musician/ composer Quincy Jones came to Paris both to perform and to study composition with Nadia Boulanger and Olivier Messiaen. Jazz also played an important part in the French New Wave films of the 1950s; the film \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\" of Roger Vadim, set in Paris in the 1960s. featured music by Thelonious Monk and Art Blakey; \"À bout de soufflé\" (\"Breathless\") by Jean-Luc Godard had a jazz score music by Martial Solal. Most of the clubs closed by the early 1960s, as musical tastes shifted toward rock and roll.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3m87fq
|
why do rock bands often have a carpet on the stage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stages are very hard. The rugs provide a softer surface to stand on. There is usually an additional layer of padding under the rug as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Drummers do it to keep their drums from 'walking' away. Even though all your hardware have little rubber feet on them, if you're banging on the drums hard enough and they're on a smooth surface, they'll start to spread out. Keith Moon from the Who actually had to tie his down to keep them in place.\n\nFor guitarists, bassists, singers, etc, it's more of a comfort thing as far as I know. It's way easier on your knees, feet and legs to be standing up on a thick carpet than on a stage. Especially if you're playing a multi-set multi-hour job, it can really get physically taxing. Having a bit of cushion underneath you makes it that much easier to stay on your feet that long. If you've never done it before, you'd be amazed at how much of an endurance event a long show can be, and, the older you get, the harder it is to get your body through it, so you'll take any help you can get.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10156160",
"title": "Music stand",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Non-folding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Some musicians use non-folding, professional stands for all of their rehearsals and gigs, even though this may require them to take more trips to load their gear into the hall. The reason some musicians choose to use non-folding stands is because they are more stable, even with heavy parts or scores, they are more resistant to falling over during outdoor shows, and they look more professional. As well, some performers like to have access to a shelf underneath their stand, to obtain music accessories that are needed throughout a rehearsal or show (e.g., pencils, rosin for string players, picks for guitar players, reeds for reed players, valve oil for brass players, a tuning key for percussionists, etc.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165403",
"title": "The Old Grey Whistle Test",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "The show's focus on \"serious\" rock music, rather than chart hits covered on BBC1 by \"Top of the Pops\", was emphasised by a lack of showbiz glitter: bands would often perform their songs in front of either the bare studio walls or plain wooden boards (actually the backs of set walls from other programmes filmed in the same studio). As with many BBC productions, this was (initially at least) as much a matter of money as of style; other late night shows of the time, having only 'minority' appeal, also had to be content with spartan sets. Another factor was that the programme was originally produced in a studio at BBC Television Centre in west London known as \"Pres B\", which had been originally designed for shooting little more than in-vision continuity. The studio was only which left little room for a set once the cameras and band were in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10156160",
"title": "Music stand",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Non-folding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Professional orchestras, concert bands and big bands typically use non-portable, non-folding heavy-duty stands. The stands are typically coloured or painted black so that the stands blend in with the black clothing of the musicians and are not distracting. The music holding portion of the stand may be plastic or metal, and in both cases, the music holding portion is supported by a metal column. The part supporting the music often has a shelf below it for pencils, rosin (for string players), and other rehearsal accessories. The metal column can be raised or lowered to put the stand at the desired height. Professional stands can be lowered to be used for a seated performer or raised for standing performers. Some non-folding stands have perforations in the music rack to reduce the weight of the stand, an especially important consideration when a large number of stands are being moved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5770170",
"title": "Open-air concert",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Open-air concerts take great amounts of planning, to make sure that the stage is visible from the entire audience seating area. Frequently, the area directly in front of the stage is kept clear for dancing. In the case of punk concerts and other energetic music, this area becomes a mosh pit filled with a violently moving crowd. Generally, care is taken to keep the dancers off the stage, however at punk concerts, stagediving and other audience interaction are more common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8302530",
"title": "Troubles (band)",
"section": "Section::::Tour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The concerts revealed a much more 'post-rock' sound to the band, quite different from the more ambient soundscapes heard on the demos released beforehand. All the members of the band wear white onstage while similarly-coloured projections play behind them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17194176",
"title": "Knebworth Festival 1979",
"section": "Section::::Audio and video recordings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The two concerts were professionally recorded on the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio (engineered by George Chkiantz) and also filmed, with live images beamed directly onto a giant screen behind the stage. The filming was done by the TV International company under the direction of Chris Bodger. There was a plan for the footage to be used on a television special (this is one of the reasons the band members wore the same clothes on both nights) but this idea was never realised. Only short clips of some of the songs were used by Atlantic Records for promotional purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2443795",
"title": "Rock and Roll (dance)",
"section": "Section::::Clothes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Currently advanced tournament rock and roll dancers don't wear petticoats and jeans - as the original rock and roll dancers did - but rather multi-coloured costumes that are made of elastic artificial fibre and can only be purchased as individual pieces by special tailors. One reason for that is that acrobatic elements have grown more and more dangerous, requiring both freedom of movement and enough durability to avoid tearing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mp9n4
|
why can you hear the voices in the apartment above you so easily, but not the voices in the apartment below you?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because sound travels through the solid medium ( the floor slab). On the floor above, people are directly in contact with the surface; while on the floor below, you're only depending on the noise traveling through air and noise traveling in air is divided into reflected, absorbed and transferred, major percentage of which, is reflected. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555553",
"title": "Unilateral hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Profound unilateral hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lack of sound depth: any background noise (in the room, in the car) is flat and wrongly interpreted by the brain. The effect is similar to what happens when trying to hear someone speaking in a noisy crowd on a mono TV. The effect is also similar to talking on the phone to someone who is in a noisy environment (see also: King-Kopetzky syndrome)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21007560",
"title": "Promise (1986 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "It's like, all the electric wires in the house are plugged into my brain. And every one has a different noise, so I can't think. Some of the wires have voices in them and they tell me things like what to do and that people are watching me. I know there really aren't any voices, but I feel that there are, and that I should listen to them or something will happen. … I can remember what I was like before. I was a class officer, I had friends. I was going to be an aeronautical engineer. Do you remember, Bobby? I've never had a job. I've never owned a car. I've never lived alone. I've never made love to a woman. And I never will. That's what it's like. You should know. That's why I'm a Hindu. Because maybe it's true: Maybe people are born again. And if there is a God, maybe he'll give me another chance. I believe that, because this can't be all I get.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555553",
"title": "Unilateral hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Profound unilateral hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "BULLET::::- Talking loudly or \"broadcasting\": the affected person cannot perceive the volume of his or her voice relative to other people in the same room or close company, resulting in being characterized by others (who may be located beyond normal auditory range) as domineering or boorish\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19819333",
"title": "Foellinger Auditorium",
"section": "Section::::Current uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Directly in front of the building, at the bottom of the stairs, there in a semi-circular forecourt area. Due to the architecture, when standing directly in the center, an echo can be heard by the speaker. This area is known as the \"echo spot\" to most students on the campus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36026592",
"title": "The Hideout (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "As the gruesome voice in the house gets louder and more dreadful, she contacts the priest again, believing there's some entity or ghost. He warns her and tells her to better leave the house at once, but as she has put all her money into the purchase of the house she can not leave. As she starts to check the walls to find out where the voice comes from, she finds an old hidden, big ventilation system with tunnels that seem to run throughout the building. She can now clearly hear something moving through the ventilation-tunnels. She grabs into one of the ventilation gutters and pulls out a decomposed, human foot! As the mysteries about the murders in the house start to unravel, she finally starts to realize in what horrible danger she truly is...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1257591",
"title": "Near–far problem",
"section": "Section::::Analogies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "To place this problem in more common terms, imagine you are talking to someone 6 meters away. If the two of you are in a quiet, empty room then a conversation is quite easy to hold at normal voice levels. In a loud, crowded bar, it would be impossible to hear the same voice level, and the only solution (for that distance) is for both you and your friend to speak louder. Of course, this increases the overall noise level in the bar, and every other patron has to talk louder too (this is equivalent to power control runaway). Eventually, everyone has to shout to make themselves heard by a person standing right beside them, and it is impossible to communicate with anyone more than half a meter away. In general, however, a human is very capable of filtering out loud sounds; similar techniques can be deployed in signal processing where suitable criteria for distinguishing between signals can be established (see signal processing and notably adaptive signal processing.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2604682",
"title": "Unglaublicher Laerm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "\" When you were upstairs, you couldn't hear anything at all, but you could see EN clicking away on laptops (and Blixa screaming in a microphone). The REAL thing was downstairs. You can see the small room on the photos - maybe 20 people could be there at the same time. Because of ear-protection headsets (or your fingers pressed into your ears) it was not about sound. It was about feeling. The massive wave of sound from those speakers (in this small room!) flattened the hairs on the back of my arms and on my head. Sometimes the music came to a DEEP grinding halt. Sometimes Blixa's voice cut through. \"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fozmj
|
if companies already know that most(if not all) people don't read terms of service, whats stopping them from hiding a hidden rule on page 500 of 3000 that makes you sign over all your possessions?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would be considered an unconscionable term and thrown out in any reasonable court.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's actually some precedent on EULA contracts, which are kinda similar to Terms of Service:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nFurthermore, it's not like this kind of legal situation just came about with computers; there have always been cases where a large corporation comes up with a very long contract that most customers sign without reading. There have long been legal protections for the \"small party\" in those cases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Judges can throw out contracts or parts of contracts that they feel are unjust or unfair.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because someone would find it and make it public knowledge. Then that company would be out of business or tied up in court for the rest of its existence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "EULA are contracts of adhesion (it's dictated by one side, not the result of an equal negotiation). Contracts of adhesion will almost always be interpreted in favor of the side that didn't write it, and terms that aren't reasonably expected by the non-writing side are invalid.\n\nThis is partially why they are so long. They have to be VERY clear about the terms, because if something isn't clear, it will be read in favor of the consumer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aussie law student here! In all jurisdictions in Oz we have the Australian Consumer Law which contains provisions which, among other things, invalidate unfair terms in standard form consumer contracts. To determine whether a term is unfair, the court applies a three-pronged test: if the term would create a significant imbalance in the rights and obligations of the parties AND is not reasonably necessary to protect the legitimate interests of the advantaged party AND is detrimental to one of the parties it will be deemed unfair and severed from the contract. In analysing the term the court must consider the transparency of the term and the contract as a whole. It's also worth mentioning that this doesn't apply to terms which set out the subject matter of the transaction, determine an upfront price or are otherwise required under another statute.\n\nTL;DR: in Australia those terms would be invalidated in court per the Unfair Terms Laws, which are a part of the Australian Consumer Law statutory regime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26612723",
"title": "In re Sears Holdings Management Corp.",
"section": "Section::::Significance of the action.:Departure from legal precedent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The FTC has indicated through this case that while this fiction may be adequate to form a contract, it is not adequate to avoid deceptive practices. Unread agreements do not relieve companies of their duty not to deceive consumers by omitting material terms. The ruling suggests that companies have a duty to appropriately set consumer expectations and they cannot rely upon the fiction that users have read license agreements. Rather, if a company's application or website collects information or behaves in ways that consumers would not expect, the company has a duty to inform the consumer of what the application or website does.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228060",
"title": "Internet privacy",
"section": "Section::::Public views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Furthermore, if the user has already done business with a company, or is previously familiar with a product, they have a tendency to not read the privacy policies that the company has posted. As internet companies become more established, their policies may change, but their clients will be less likely to inform themselves of the change. This tendency is interesting because as consumers become more acquainted with the internet they are also more likely to be interested in online privacy. Finally, consumers have been found to avoid reading the privacy policies if the policies are not in a simple format, and even perceive these policies to be irrelevant. The less readily available terms and conditions are, the less likely the public is to inform themselves of their rights regarding the service they are using.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26756364",
"title": "Business writing process prewriting",
"section": "Section::::Adapt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "It is the responsibility of the writer to use language that is ethical for the purpose of avoiding litigation. When writing messages about stocks or financial services, it is important to follow the laws that protect investors. Also, regarding safety information, it is essential to write warnings on dangerous products as clearly and succinctly as possible. Messages that are used in sales and marketing should not have any false or misleading information. The messages should not be written in a way that will deceive customers. The use of proper language is also helpful regarding employee evaluation. In letters of recommendation, it is best to use positive language and stick to information that is related to the job.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337353",
"title": "Safety data sheet",
"section": "Section::::National and international requirements.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Web sites of manufacturers and large suppliers do not always include them even if the information is obtainable from retailers but written or telephone requests for paper copies will usually be responded to favourably.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7483320",
"title": "Marketing ethics",
"section": "Section::::Specific issues in marketing ethics.:Market research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "As companies conduct research they also come into contact with confidential and personal information, which comes with a level of risk for both the business as well as the individual. Now day's consumers are bombarded with mail after using their email address to enter in a competition thus becoming part of a businesses mailing list. Therefore, companies are provided with critical information, which they must not take advantage of but use in an ethical manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59063203",
"title": "Financial privacy laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::State laws.:California.:California Consumer Privacy Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "If a company is unable to comply with provisions regarding the sale of information without disrupting their business, then they must receive consent through the opt-in option from minors under 16 years old or parental consent if the minor is under 13 years old. Companies must also give all other consumers the ability to opt-out of any disclosure of information through a webpage link that clearly and specifically says \"Do Not Sell My Personal Information.\" In the event that a consumer does opt out, the company cannot approach the consumer with the option to opt in again until a year has passed since the consumer opted out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1464132",
"title": "Regulatory compliance",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Compliance in this area is becoming very difficult. Laws like the CAN-SPAM Act and Fair Credit Reporting Act in the U.S. require that businesses give people the right to be forgotten. In other words, they must remove individuals from marketing lists if it is requested, tell them when and why they might share personal information with a third party, or at least ask permission before sharing that data. Now, with new laws coming out that demand longer data retention despite the individual’s desires, it can create some real difficulties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10dhv4
|
What's the average age of a species? What non-human factors determine when a species ends?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I remember reading that sharks as we know them today have remained unevolved for millions of years.\n\nWhat you might have read about were [living fossils](_URL_0_) which is a species that resembles a species from tens of millions of years in the past. For instance, sharks have changed little in form and function since they first evolved hundreds of millions of years ago. However this does not mean that they have stopped \"evolving\", species are always evolving. We know this because the species that were alive then are not the same as the species alive today. So, species come and go but the general body plan of a group of species might remain unchanged over many hundreds of millions of years. This follows the simple tenant \"if it isn't broke, don't fix it\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I remember reading that sharks as we know them today have remained unevolved for millions of years.\n\nNo living thing has remained unevolved for millions of years. Evolution is happening constantly, and it never stops happening.\n\nWhat you really read was probably something like \"sharks have looked pretty much the same for 400 million years\". This does *not* mean they didn't evolve.\n\nAnything that is alive is under constant selection pressure. Food and reproduction are not guaranteed, therefore it must constantly compete with members of its own species as well as other species for the resources available in its niche. In this competition, there are winners and losers, and only the winners get to pass on their traits to the next generation.\n\nThe fact that sharks *look* relatively unchanged simply means that their general body plan is very effective and efficient for their habitats and lifestyles. They retained that body plan not because selection pressure suddenly stopped, but because selection pressure *forced* them to retain that body plan, and any deviations arising from random mutations were culled.\n\nThis does not mean that they retained all their features - only some of them. Internally, sharks of today would be very different from those 400 million years ago. They would probably have significantly different biochemistries as well, since evolution also happens at the level of molecules. Just because sharks *as a group* have retained some similarity of form over hundreds of millions of years does not mean that any individual species of shark has lasted that long. In fact, I doubt that sharks are any more special than other large marine organisms in terms of the longevity of any given species.\n\nAccording to [Wikipedia](_URL_0_), the average timespan of marine vertebrate species is about 4-5 million years. I would expect sharks to fall within that range too.\n\nAccording to the same chart, mammals average about a million years. Pretty much everything falls within that range, from 1 million for mammals at the short end to 13 million for dinoflagelates at the long end.\n\nTo me, the key point would be the *mode* of extinction of the species. Did the species go extinct because it became too specialized for a niche, and then that niche was destroyed (perhaps by climate change, or an asteroid or whatever). Or was it outcompeted by a new species that evolved to occupy the same niche, or invaded its niche? Or perhaps it was neither, perhaps it was just a fast changing environment, and the species kept evolving (changing) to keep up with it, and over the course of a million years, those accumulated changes became so large as to justify calling it a new species?\n\nThe point is that there has to be some *reason* why a species goes extinct. Loss of habitat. Competition from another species. Some calamity that kills a lot of members of that species and reduces genetic diversity. Consequent diseases. Or simply small incremental changes over time that add up and it evolves into a different species. There is no clock running that says \"pandas have lived long enough, now their time is up\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3092077",
"title": "Devils Hole pupfish",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The age of the species is subject to considerable debate. Some scientists argue that vertebrate species with small populations cannot persist for long, and estimate the age of the species to be 360 years. Recent genetic analyses indicate that this species may have first colonized the hole within the past 1,000 years. Another phylogenetic study suggests the species is as old as 60,000 years. These estimates depend heavily on knowledge of the mutation rate in this species, which is unknown, but is predicted to be one of the highest for any vertebrate due to its small population size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5760156",
"title": "Blacktip shark",
"section": "Section::::Biology and ecology.:Life history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The growth rate of this species slows with age: in the first six months, then a year until the second year, then a year until maturation, then a year for adults. The size at maturity varies geographically: males and females mature at and , respectively, in the northeastern Atlantic, and , respectively, in the Gulf of Mexico, respectively off South Africa, and , respectively, off North Africa. The age at maturation is 4–5 years for males and 7–8 years for females. The lifespan is at least 12 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4622751",
"title": "List of longest-living organisms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Ordinarily, this does not consider the age of the species itself, comparing species by the range of age-span of their individuals, or the time between first appearance (speciation) and extinction of the species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4622751",
"title": "List of longest-living organisms",
"section": "Section::::Biological immortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "If the mortality rate of a species does not increase after maturity, the species does not age and is said to be biologically immortal. Many examples exist of plants and animals for which the mortality rate actually decreases with age, for all or part of the lifecycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23003393",
"title": "Negligible senescence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "There are many species where scientists have seen no increase in mortality after maturity. This may mean that the lifespan of the organism is so long that researchers' subjects have not yet lived up to the time when a measure of the species' longevity can be made. Turtles, for example, were once thought to lack senescence, but more extensive observations have found evidence of decreasing fitness with age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7934681",
"title": "Galápagos tortoise",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Early life and maturation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 296,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 296,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Sexual maturity is reached at around 20–25 years in captivity, possibly 40 years in the wild. Life expectancy in the wild is thought to be over 100 years, making it one of the longest-lived species in the animal kingdom. Harriet, a specimen kept in Australia Zoo, was the oldest known Galápagos tortoise, having reached an estimated age of more than 170 years before her death in 2006. Chambers notes that Harriet was probably 169 years old in 2004, although media outlets claimed the greater age of 175 at death based on a less reliable timeline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27fpr9
|
why do people like jesse jackson and al sharpton march for white on black crime but not black on black crime?
|
[
{
"answer": "I recall Bill Cosby speaking out against black on black crime. The media called him racist and some members of the black community accused him of turning his back on the people who got his career started. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the racist tag they put on everything doesn't apply to black on black crime.\n\nIn response to the question \"How do we get rid of racism forever?\" Morgan Freeman simply said \"We stop talking about it.\" Jesse Jackson doesn't want to get rid of racism, he wants to profit from it. Same with all the other blacktivists out there. Its sickening. They don't care about actual, terrible racism that happens everywhere everyday by every color person. They just see a way to make money off of white people's guilt and extorts the shit out of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From the first couple pages of Google results, here's Jesse Jackson and black on black crime in [1984](_URL_2_), [1994](_URL_0_), [2007](_URL_4_), and [2012](_URL_3_)\n\nHere's Al Sharpton---my understanding the more \"radical\" and less generally respected of the two---in [2008](_URL_1_). \n\nIt's a simple fact of life that certain things take on more importance for certain groups and actors then for others. Sharpton and Jackson are primarily civil rights activists and, as such, are more concerned with events that have an element of direct racism, rather than any violence that effects the communities they represent. That doesn't mean they focus on those issues exclusively, naturally, but it shouldn't be a surprise that issues in that vein occupy most of their time. They are not the kings of the black community, nor are they just generally concerned with the community's well being. They are activists for a particular aspect of a particular cause---whether you agree with the cause, how they define it, or how they seek to advance it---and it makes sense that this would lead them to be more focused on issues tied to that cause. \n\nI don't know enough to defend either person, especially Sharpton, but in addition to the more cynical answers already presented here, there's also the above, and the fact that what efforts they do take don't necessarily fit the media narrative, and so don't get reported as widely. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi everyone! Just a quick reminder, top-level comments must **not be jokes** and must contain some sort of explanation, not just a short phrase. Please write as objectively as possible when making an explanation, or at least note your bias in the post. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because talking about black-on-black crime won't sell. I'm black and I've done my homework about this issue.\n\nWhat /u/obliterayte said below is right, although stupid people are downvoting him.\n\nThose two race-baiters, Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton, don't actually care about helping black people. They hurl the \"race card\" incessantly to make money. Most of the black people that support those race-baiters are poor and uneducated people who need to believe that someone actually cares about them, so they hurl money at them. But the thing is that Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton don't actually care.\n\nTake a look at how they exploited the Trayvon Martin case. The way they made so much noise, you'd think that Trayvon was the first black boy to be murdered. Meanwhile, that same day, probably 100 black people were murdered in the state of Florida alone.\n\nThey are self-appointed \"leaders\" of nothing and they are quick to condemn racial injustice aimed at blacks. It doesn’t even matter if the prejudice is not real; those guys are on it. Sharpton is so skilled at ginning up crowds to protest injustice that his ability to pull together a rally of thousands in a matter of hours is called \"rent a demonstration.\" It is no secret that he uses his power as a tool of intimidation to encourage corporations to bend to his will.\n\n > Remarking on the only refuge in town, the New Orleans Superdome \"This looks like the hold of a slave ship\" -- Reverend Jesse Jackson asserted that the devastation inflicted on poor blacks by Hurricane Katrina proves America is a racist society. \"We don't see this kind of destruction in white or Jewish communities,\" said Jackson. \"Why is it always poor blacks who are hurt? It's because our racist society wants it that way.\" Jackson said 120,000 people in New Orleans make less than $8,000 a year. \"This is less than I charge for a single speech,\" Jackson pointed out. Jackson also criticized the role given to former presidents George Bush senior and Bill Clinton as coordinators for a fund raising effort following the disaster.\n\nThey __hardly__ talk about black-on-black crime because __*THEY DON'T CARE!*__\n\nThose two race-baiters have done more to set black people back than any modern non-black person ever could.\n\nThat slime-ball Jesse Jackson even attempted to shake down A & E over the whole Duck Dynasty fiasco by saying they had \"white priviledge\".\n\nThey don't deserve to be called \"civil rights leaders\" because _THEY ARE NOT_. They appointed themselves Judge, Jury, and Executioner; anyone who goes against them is called \"waycist waycist _WAYCIST!!1!!eleven!!!!1!_\".\n\nEDIT: I accidentally a word.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\nWhy do people use ELI5 to ask politically loaded questions?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "two words. **race baiting**\n\nal sharpton and jesse jackson quite literally make money off of fueling hatred and racism between the masses. black on black crime just bring in the tv and book money that white on black crime does. \n\ndespite their previous anti-sematic remarks, tax evasion, and bigotry, many individuals blindly stand behind them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that doesn't include their favorite card to play, the race card. Hard to say its the white man holding you down, when it was someone that looks real similar that did you wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because to extremist and race baiters like Al Sharpton the only civil rights that matters are those of the black community. Funnily enough he's doing absolutely NOTHING to further the black community in any positive ways. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because statistically, the percentage of crimes against black people that is committed by black people is the same as the percentage of crimes against white people committed by white people. \n\n\"Black on black crime\" is misdirection. Given that most violent crime is opportunistic, and that we live in a country that is highly de facto segregated, the racial split in crime makes sense. \"Black on black crime\" is not so much a problem as \"crime in black neighborhoods,\" and while that is a subtle distinction it is an important one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's worth pointing out that \"black on black\" crime is most often a case of crime being committed relatively close to the criminals' home, and not racially based. Due to segregation throughout the USA, if a black person commits a crime, the victim will probably lives nearby, and the odds are the victim will be black as well. Same goes for white people. [Here's one (of many) articles that covers this](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you all remember the racial slur Jesse Jackson said in his presidential campaign when he called New York Haimie-Town. Just saying. They both don't care about black on black crime it will not get their face on t.v. They are just here to stir the pot like fatty Rush Limbaugh and that fucking idiot Glen Beck. All of them serve no purpose other than to further polarize us as a people. Those four names are the face of racism. The way we beat racism is by not recognizing it. We should treat all people equal and hold everyone to the same standard. All violent crimes are crimes of hate therefore they are all hate crimes.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it advances the notion that there's a major race issue in America. And when you're in the \"civil rights\" business, if people don't need your product, you become irrelevant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "this should be fun ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What we need to do is walk together against CRIME. If both communities join to fight racist crimes, then we can begin to see some progress.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They can't think of a way to get money out of white people for black on black crime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because they are racist. I thought this was common knowledge ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they have made their reputation and money being poverty pimps and it's in their interest to ignore black on black crime because then they can't point the racist finger at anyone. They don't give a damn what happens in the hood because they can't use it to benefit themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they both sold their soul to satan for wealth and fame, and now their duty to serve satan requires them to divide the humans with racism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are only 24 hrs in a day. \n\nPlus with white on black, you can take the time to learn the names of perp and victim. With black on black, you'd barely have the names documented before another new crime occurred. \n\n\\source: live in Richmond, VA - the Detroit of the south",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "456066",
"title": "Walter Francis White",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "White passed as white as a NAACP investigator, finding both more safety in hostile environments and gaining freer communication with whites in cases of violations of civil and human rights. He sometimes became involved in Klan groups in the South to expose those involved in lynchings and other murders. In the Little Rock, Arkansas, area he escaped on a train, having been harbored by several prominent black families because of threats that a black man \"passing for white\" was being hunted down to be lynched. The NAACP publicized information about these crimes, but virtually none was ever prosecuted by local or state southern governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12160028",
"title": "Above the Law (website)",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In 2016, Above the Law received criticism from many right-wing publications when its Breaking Media Editor at Large, Elie Mystal, wrote an article suggesting that jury nullification of crimes by African Americans against whites could be used by jurors as a form of protest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456066",
"title": "Walter Francis White",
"section": "Section::::NAACP.:Investigating riots and lynchings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "The NAACP provided legal defense of the black men convicted by the state for the riot and carried the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. Its ruling overturned the Elaine convictions and established important precedent about the conduct of trials. The Supreme Court found that the original trial was held under conditions that adversely affected the defendants' rights. Some of the courtroom audience were armed, as was a mob outside, so there was intimidation of the court and jury. The 79 black defendants had been quickly tried and convicted by an all-white jury: 12 were found guilty of murder and sentenced to death; 67 were condemned to sentences from 20 years to life. No white man was prosecuted for any of the many black deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39351591",
"title": "Birmingham riot of 1963",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Robert Kennedy: The Negro Reverend Walker ... he said that the Negroes, when dark comes tonight, they're going to start going after the policemen - headhunting - trying to shoot to kill policemen. He says it's completely out of hand ... you could trigger off a good deal of violence around the country now, with Negroes saying they've been abused for all these years and they're going to follow the ideas of the Black Muslims now ... If they feel on the other hand that the federal government is their friend, that it's intervening for them, that it's going to work for them, then it will head some of that off. I think that's the strongest argument for doing something ...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1370921",
"title": "Murder One (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Storylines.:Season 2.:Juice of the Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Rickey is acquitted and returns to the basketball season a bigger star than ever, preaching to the media about civil rights and how the racist government can't keep blacks as slaves anymore. As Rickey thanks Wyler & Associates, Aaron says, \"Do you think being black was the reason you were prosecuted for murder?... Then stop talking like it is, because what you say means a lot to our people.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010174",
"title": "Race and crime in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Theories of causation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "As noted above, scholars acknowledge that some racial and ethnic minorities, particularly African Americans, are disproportionately represented in the arrest and victimization reports which are used to compile crime rate statistics in the United States. The data from 2008 reveals that black Americans are over-represented in terms of arrests made in virtually all types of crime, with the exceptions of \"driving under the influence\", \"liquor laws\" and hate crime. Overall, black Americans are arrested at 2.6 times the per-capita rate of all other Americans, and this ratio is even higher for murder (6.3 times) and robbery (8.1 times).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28836530",
"title": "Criminal stereotype of African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.:Statistics and self-reporting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Scholars have argued that these official arrest statistics do not fully reflect actual criminal behavior as the criminal stereotype that African Americans hold influences the decisions to make arrests. Specifically, because the stereotype of African American is pervasive and embedded in society, police officers unconsciously believe that African Americans are dangerous and are therefore more likely to arrest African Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ka5ft
|
elon musk's/tesla's hyperloop...
|
[
{
"answer": "Ooh, I understand it quite well :)\n\n[pdf link](_URL_0_)\n\nMultiple special vehicles ride through the tube. This tube, initially stretching from San Francisco to Los Angeles, has low air pressure so that the vehicles don't have to use so much power to go through it.\n\nThe vehicles have a big electric motor, a turbine and a battery. They use this to keep themselves at speed, but not to accelerate. To accelerate, [Linear induction motors](_URL_1_) are used. To decelerate, you can either hook up the turbine to a generator, slowing it and charging the battery, or use more Linear induction motors.\n\nThe vehicle has its battery pack in the back and a ~450hp electric motor in the front.\n\nThe tube will also be equipped with solar panels on its top, which will produce more power than the system needs.\n\nThe turbine not only sucks air in at the vehicle's front, but this air is pressed to the vehicle's bottom, giving it an air cushion.\n\nI did not go through many of the Hyperloop's safety considerations. Maybe somebody else will...\n\nTL;DR: Air cushioned vehicles go through a low pressure tube. They Accelerate, and maybe decelerate, using linear motors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're familiar with Kerbal Space Program, you probably keep an eye on the atmosphere meter when you're doing a launch. The higher up you go, the thinner the air is. You don't need as much propulsion to change your velocity once you get out into space. But on land, when you're trudging through the thick atmosphere, it takes a lot of energy to accelerate.\n\nThis is the reasoning behind the *edit: near* vacuum tube idea. Less drag. Requires less energy to move a capsule of people. Less energy to keep a vehicle at cruise speed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Passengers ride in capsules inside a tube.\n\nThe tube is kept at a low air pressure, but not nearly a hard vaccuum.\n\nEach capsule has a fan at the front that sucks in what little air there is in the tube.\n\nSome of the air gets pushed out the back as thrust, ~~but most~~ and some gets pushed out pads on the bottom called \"air bearings\". This lets the capsules float inside the tube, the way an air hockey puck floats on an air hockey table.\n\nThe capsules are powered by big onboard batteries like the ones in electric cars.\n\nIn order to travel at hundreds of miles per hour, the capsules basically get shot out of a rail gun. If you've ever ridden a roller coaster that shoots you up the hill quickly (for instance, [DCA's California Screamin](_URL_0_)), it's the same technology.\n\nIn order to power the rail guns, solar panels installed on top of the tube will generate electricity. These will generate more electricity than the system needs to run.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "watch the monorail episode of the simpsons, your welcome",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My question: what's the emergency plan? How do vehicles stop if the tunnel breaks (earthquake, terrorism, whatever)? How do they know they have to stop? How do they evacuate the pods?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cheap tube. Expensive vehicle.\n\nVehicle sucks air from front, uses it to create air-like-skis. Goes fast. Brings people to places.\n\nBeats railway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a supplemental question that I haven't seen answered so far: is the hyperloop comparable at all to traditional rail for movement of freight?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There will need to be a very well thought out Reliability Maintenance strategy. I can't think of an industry including space, nuclear, aviation, maritime, rail, and petro-chem that contains the same maintenance challenges as this project. I have some issues in mind and would like to hear your thoughts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ITT this thread is full of non-engineers with no idea what they are talking about",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1266144",
"title": "California High-Speed Rail",
"section": "Section::::Related projects.:Alternative infrastructure proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "\"Hyperloop\" is an alternative system that Elon Musk has championed. He has criticized the high-speed rail project as too expensive and not technologically advanced enough (trains that are—according to Musk—too slow). On August 12, 2013 he released a high-level alpha design for a Hyperloop transit system concept which he claimed would travel over three times as fast and cost less than a tenth of the rail proposal. The following day he announced a plan to construct a demonstration of the concept. Musk's claims have been subject to significant debate and criticism, in particular that the costs are still unknown and likely understated, the technology is not proven enough for statewide implementation, the route proposed doesn't meet the needs of providing statewide transportation, and it does not meet the legal requirements of Proposition 1A and so would require a whole new legal underpinning. A flaw of the hyperloop is that it can carry far fewer passengers per trip compared to high-speed rail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43436569",
"title": "Hyperloop Transportation Technologies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The concept of the Hyperloop was popularized by Elon Musk, not affiliated with HTT. The project was to develop a high speed, intercity transporter using a low pressure tube train which would reach a top speed of with a yearly capacity of 15 million passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45400612",
"title": "Virgin Hyperloop One",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The idea for Hyperloop One emerged from a conversation between Elon Musk and Iranian American Silicon Valley investor Shervin Pishevar when they were flying together to Cuba on a humanitarian mission in January 2012. Pishevar asked Musk to elaborate on his Hyperloop idea, which the industrialist had been mulling over for some time. Pishevar suggested using it for cargo, an idea Musk hadn’t considered, but he did say he was considering open-sourcing the concept because he was too busy running SpaceX and Tesla. Pishevar pushed Musk to publish his ideas about the Hyperloop, so that Pishevar could study them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43436586",
"title": "Jumpstarter, Inc",
"section": "Section::::JumpStartFund.:Projects.:Hyperloop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Hyperloop Transportation Technologies, a research company organized to bring Elon Musk's idea of Hyperloop into reality is backed by JumpStartFund. After publicizing his concept of the Hyperloop in a white paper, Elon Musk declared he could not work to create a prototype because of his busy schedule and commitments to other projects with his own companies Tesla Motors and SpaceX. JumpStartFund considered it to be their first project and started work on it using their crowd collaboration platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52344305",
"title": "Sherpa Capital",
"section": "Section::::Portfolio of investments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Hyperloop One (formerly Hyperloop Technologies) is a high-speed transportation concept launched by Elon Musk. Sherpa Capital participated in Series A and Series B rounds. Other investors were Caspian Ventures, Fast Digital, Formation 8, Khosla Ventures, and Zhen Capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36971117",
"title": "Hyperloop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a \"fifth mode of transport\", calling it the \"Hyperloop\", in July 2012 at a PandoDaily event in Santa Monica, California. This hypothetical high-speed mode of transportation would have the following characteristics: immunity to weather, collision free, twice the speed of a plane, low power consumption, and energy storage for 24-hour operations. The name \"Hyperloop\" was chosen because it would go in a loop. Musk envisions the more advanced versions will be able to go at hypersonic speed. In May 2013, Musk likened the Hyperloop to a \"cross between a Concorde and a railgun and an air hockey table\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35646792",
"title": "2010s in science and technology",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Transport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- Billionaire entrepreneur Elon Musk proposes the Hyperloop, although he is too busy leading both SpaceX and Tesla, Inc. to implement the plan, so decides to release his Hyperloop plans for free to the world, and allow others to profit from his innovation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3v3yes
|
why is most of the juice available in the supermarket a mix with cranberry juice?
|
[
{
"answer": "I also want to know this. I went to the store one day because I wanted juice that didn't taste like cranberry. So naturally I tried to find juice without cranberry in it. The only one I could find was cherry juice mixed with apple juice. Guess what. That mix tasted exactly like cranberry juice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1927887",
"title": "Cranberry juice",
"section": "Section::::Standards/Regulations.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "For Canadian markets, cranberry juice is regulated as a processed product under fruit juices. Cranberry juice must be made from sound, clean, and ripe cranberries. One or more of the following dry sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, invert sugar, and dextrose. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the common name of this product may appear as “cranberry juice drink/cooler” if at least 25% of the named juice is contained within the net quantity of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1927887",
"title": "Cranberry juice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Cranberry juice is the juice of the cranberry. The term \"cranberry juice cocktail\" refers to products that contain about 28% cranberry juice and the remainder either other fruit juices (typically grape, apple and/or pear) or water with sugar added. There are also low-calorie versions that use non-caloric sweeteners. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1927887",
"title": "Cranberry juice",
"section": "Section::::Standards/Regulations.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1392,
"text": "For US markets, cranberry juice from concentrate is a blended mixture of cranberry juice or cranberry juice concentrate, water, sweeteners, and ascorbic acid. The cranberry juice or concentrate in the mixture must be produced from clean, sound, mature, well-colored, and washed, fresh or frozen cranberries (\"Vaccinium macrocarpon\"). One or more of the following sweetening ingredients may be added: sucrose, liquid sugar, invert sugar syrup, or high fructose corn syrup (40% or greater). The use of food additives (color, flavours, or acids) into cranberry juice depends on the percentage of cranberry juice or concentrate by volume. Cranberry juice mixtures with 25% or 27% contain none of the mentioned additives, except for ascorbic acid. Cranberry juice mixtures with 22% contain no added color or flavors, but citric acid may be added. Cranberry juice mixtures with 20% may contain color, flavors, and citric acid. The finished cranberry juice from concentrate product should yield a minimum of one part cranberry juice concentrate to three parts water with a minimum Brix level of 12°. Additionally, each cranberry juice product should be fortified with Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid), with each serving size delivering not less than 100% of the current US Referenced Daily Intake. The minimum titratable acidity of the cranberry juice product must be 1.67% wt/wt, measured as citric acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31462185",
"title": "Northland Juices",
"section": "Section::::Company history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In 1983, Northland Cranberries, Inc. launched its brand of 100% juice cranberry blends in Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin, sold through supermarkets, drug store chains, mass merchandisers and food service outlets throughout the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7025",
"title": "Cranberry",
"section": "Section::::Food uses.:Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "As fresh cranberries are hard, sour, and bitter, about 95% of cranberries are processed and used to make cranberry juice and sauce. They are also sold dried and sweetened. Cranberry juice is usually sweetened or blended with other fruit juices to reduce its natural tartness. At one teaspoon of sugar per ounce, cranberry juice cocktail is more highly sweetened than even soda drinks that have been linked to obesity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1927887",
"title": "Cranberry juice",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing/Processing.:Additives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Naturally, cranberries are low in sugar content and have a tart or astringent taste. As a result, unsweetened cranberry juice is generally considered unpalatable by consumers. To make the juice more palatable to consumers, the tart flavour can be changed by blending with other fruit juices or the addition of natural/artificial sweetening ingredients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4917013",
"title": "Juissi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The different kind of juices under the Juissi-brand are the following: Pineapple-orange, Strawberry, Lemon-lime, Mixed (apple, green grape and raspberry), Fruit (grapefruit, pineapple, passion fruit, pear and apple), Pear, Blueberry-raspberry, Red Energy and Green Energy. All of them are sold in one liter cartons except for Mixed which can also be found in two liter cartons and Red and Green Energy which are sold in 0.75 liter cartons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ebhwd
|
Where do Newtonian physics stop and Einsteins' physics start? Why are they not unified?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are unified, in the sense that when the velocity is slow enough, both of them give the same answer (you can express this formally for example through the use of Taylor series). They only start to diverge when velocities approach the speed of light and Newtonian physics is no longer an accurate description of nature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a rule of thumb there are three relevant limits which tells you that Newtonian physics is no longer applicable.\n\n1. If the ratio v/c (where v is the characteristic speed of your system and c is the speed of light) is no longer close to zero, you need special relativity.\n\n2. If the ratio 2GM/c^(2)R (where M is the mass, G the gravitational constant and R the distance) is no longer close to zero, you need general relativity.\n\n3. If the ratio h/pR (where p is the momentum, h the Planck constant and R the distance) is no longer close to zero, you need quantum mechanics.\n\nNow what constitutes \"no longer close to zero\" depends on how accurate your measurement tools are. For example in the 19th century is was found that Mercury's precession was not correctly given by Newtonian mechanics. Using the mass of the Sun and distance from Mercury to the Sun gives a ratio of about 10^(-8) as being noticeable.\n\nEdit: It's worth pointing out that from these more advanced theories, Newton's laws do \"pop back out\" when the appropriate limits are taken where we expect Newtonian physics to work. In that way, you can say that Newton isn't *wrong*, but more so incomplete.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Einstein's physics holds in all places that Newtonian physics does, but not the other way around. That is to say: when speeds are slow, Einstein's physics simplifies to Newton's. At larger speeds though, Einstein's physics is capped by the speed of light, whereas Newtonian physics makes no such prediction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Relativity is always correct. Newtonian mechanics are an approximation that usually works well enough at low speed and gravity. Think of it like how `f(x) = sin(x)` is approximated by `g(x) = x` when x is near 0.\n\nWhether or not you can get away with the error just depends on how accurate you need to be, and how far from 0 speed and gravity you are. Newtonian mechanics was good enough to land men on the moon, but we need relativity for GPS satellites to be accurate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of your hand without the last segment that has your fingernails, that is Newtonian physics. Einstein gave us fingertips. Einstein's physics are an extension of Newtonian physics allowing us to explain in greater detail our universe and how it works. \n\nThe great thing about science, what ever has been proven to work in the past through testing, still works in the new theories. It's more a new understanding in greater detail as to why the universe does what it does, which can lead to even new discoveries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are totally, 100% unified. Newtonian physics is the c-- > infinity limit of special and general relativity. \n\nThat is, Newtonian physics is a reasonably accurate approximation as long as all speeds are small comparing to the speed of light and all energies involved (e.g. the absolute value of the gravitational potential energy) are small compared to mc^2 . \n\nWhat constitutes \"small\" depends on the precision of the measurements; atomic clocks will be able to detect the difference in the rate of passage of time between the bottom and the top of a building, while a regular watch would probably not be able to even withstand the kind of gravity you'd need to detect it's effects on time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a lot of good answers. But most of them leave parts out. You can get back *Newtonian* physics by approaching certain boundary conditions. It is not that Newtonian physics and Relativistic physics are separate. They just describe things at different levels of detail. That detail has been laid out by others so I will not repeat it here. The relevant thing as to why we don't just run around using Relativistic calculations all the time is that they are significantly more complex. So, if they are not needed because the results are effectively the same, why not use the easy method? \n\nAs another user noted in a very negative manner, our understanding of physics is still advancing as the nature of sciences will do. So, there may well be more nuanced understandings of the universe to come. But, an important caveat, that he seems to think trivial, is that unlike Aristotlean physics, ours has been tested and retested. So much so that it will always be valid under the proper circumstances. The problem is that our observations have advanced and so our understanding has as well. Pre-Newtonian physics relied on theorycrafting and not matching it to observations. So while they are not still relevant, Newtonian physics always will be because it describes the basic world we live in well. It just does not explain the world we don't live in well (ie, extreme gravity, close to the speed of light, or quantum). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the question understandably misunderstands the relationship between these two physics. It's easy to fall into the idea that Newtonian physics is the normal physics and Einsteinian physics kicks in when things are travelling at around the speed of light. \n\nA better way to think of this is as Einsteinian physics having replaced Netwonian physics. Einstein's equations work like a spectrum- at the zero speed etc they work exactly like classical physics (to the point you can derive the classical laws of motion from Einstein's with the correct conditions). These conditions can never be met in reailty so Newton's laws are actually an idealised situation, a bit like a assuming a \"spherical cow\". As the body speeds up, the relativistic properties become ever more significant (in reality they are always there). At the speeds humans normally deal with the relativistic effects are so small you can't normally see them, which is why Newton's laws appear to work.\n\nTL:DR; they are unified, but Newtonian physics is a special case within Einsteinian physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you need more answers ^^(/s) I'll answer your question a bit more directly: \n\nEinsteins' laws don't start, they are always at play, and Newton's laws progressively breakdown as relative velocities approach the speed of light. It's technically your call when to stop using them but the closer to C the relative velocities are the less accurate your calculations will be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Newtonian physics is wrong but for most applications, the error is acceptable. NASA's Apollo program used Newtonian equations entirely (they did it with pen and papers too) and still landed on the Moon successfully many times.\n\nNow that computers are so fast that your cheap smartphone is hundreds of time faster than what they used back in the 1960s and 1970s, if you want to calculate the force, distance, time, speed and acceleration, a software can give you the most accurate results via Einstein's equations just as fast as Newtonian equations. It's just with Einstein's equations, you must give it a few more inputs.\n\nAs for NASA that now they send time critical satellites such as GPS, they use a full blown simulation suite for trajectory and time window calculations, and the software implementation must not use Newtonian equations. Different times, different acceptability. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Newtonian physics stops if you want accurate GPS readings. The atomic clocks are so sensitive that if you didn't use both Einstein's General relativity ( To deal with the mass of the Earth) and special relativity ( the relative speeds of the satellites) you would be out at a rate of about 10 kilometers each day. see also _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Where do Newtonian physics stop and Einsteins' physics start? Why are they not unified?\n\nSet theory. The set \"Einstein physics\" is larger *and* completely encompasses the set \"Newton physics\". So, the term \"unified\" doesn't quite apply here.\n\nYou were maybe thinking of General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics - these two are (For all we know.) both NOT a set that contains the other, and \"unification\" would mean to discover a new set that encompasses the both of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Newton's physics are just plain old wrong; Einstein's equations are correct. However, for most ordinary calculations, Newton's equations are more than accurate enough, and are vastly easier to calculate. Thus, we just use Newtonian physics when we're not dealing with objects that are extremely massive or going extremely fast. If you start dealing with space stuff, or start shooting things around at a reasonable fraction of the speed of light, then you need to start using Einstein's equations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Einsteinian physics is always applicable, but too complex for smaller calculations. Newtonian physics are way too simple to convey much in larger-scale (or *really* small scale) problems.\n\nBasically, Newton is right if the calculationis about everyday occurences, Einstein is always right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the simplest terms: you can use Newtonian physics up until you need to factor relativity into the equation.\n\nSo unless you're dealing with energy levels capable of curving spacetime you will be fine using Newtonian physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most here are focusing on the equations used to calculate physical movement, which is a very important difference, but another major difference between Newtonian physics and Einstein's general relativity is in the understanding of space and gravity. For Newton, space is absolute, meaning that it is static and empty. Whereas for general relativity, space is relative, meaning that space itself distorts and bends. For Newton gravity works, but there is no account of how. Einstein's general relativity theorizes that gravity works by bending the fabric of space toward larger objects which causes smaller objects to fall toward them. By this theory, you are falling and accelerating toward the earth all of the time, but the surface of the earth is impeding that acceleration. These are contradictory accounts of space and therefore cannot be unified, which is why the theory of general relativity has replaced Newtonian physics, though Newtonian equations are still employed when practical to do so - that is, when the more complex equations of relativity wouldn't bear a significant difference. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Einstein's physics IS physics. But the changes imposed by it are meaningless to things that aren't tiny or traveling very fast. For instance everyone has a harmonic frequency. We all absorb and emitt radiation but we absord and emitt so little as to be completely irrelevant. All physics theories are just models of reality. And all models can break down under certain conditions. So when Newtonian physics broke down it didn't mean that Newton's models are bad, they just reached the limit of their predictive power. So we made some new models that did fit with the observed phenomenon and have been working rather well ever since. But they may one day break down also and we'll need to create a New model to characterise the phenomenon we see.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They basically are. An analogy: for all smallish scale purposes, you can assume the earth is flat. But it's not, and if you're trying to launch satellites, you need to deal with the fact that it's a ball floating in space. \n\nLikewise, for many purposes, you can assume Newtonian physics is correct, but it's not, and if your setting up GPS satellites, for example, you need to correct for time dilation. \n\nYou may be thinking relativity and Quantum physics, in which case the issue is with gravity and very, very small things. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you done calculus? If so, have you seen Taylor series? For those that haven't, Taylor series are essentially ways of representing difficult to deal with functions as approximations using polynomials. For functions that aren't already polynomials, they require infinitely many terms to be entirely correct, but can get pretty close with lesser degrees, but will diverge as you get away from the center of the approximation. \n \nNewtonian physics is analogous to a 5th order Taylor series and Einsteinian physics is analogous to an 11th order Taylor series (slightly arbitrary numbers). Essentially, Einstein's theories hold for a much broader range than Newton's do (if you want to see this visually, plot sin(x), and then plot the 5th order and 11th order Taylor polynomials on top of it). Special relativity holds on nearly any energy scale, Newtonian mechanics holds on \"normal\" energy scales, I.e., those that are relatively close to what we experience as humans. General relativity is our current theory of gravity that supersedes Newton's theory of gravity when dealing with massive objects or fast objects, it describes phenomenon not consistent with Newtonian gravity, such as gravitational lensing (light being bent, or lensed, around massive bodies), which doesn't make sense from Newton's perspective because light is massless, or the precision of the perihelion of Mercuries orbit (essentially the way Mercuries orbit fluctuates is weird because it is so close to the sun). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The areas of physics that are not unified are quantum mechanics and relativity. At large energies and small distances they give conflicting results for their predictions. They do not mesh well and it is the biggest unresolved problem in physics right now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Newtonian physics is just a really good approximation of interactions we see on a daily basis. The reason it is still taught even though it is only approximate (not actually correct) is because the calculations needed to represent what is actually happening are prohibitively complex. That said the limits for Newtonian physics occur when you get to the atomic scale, the super massive scale (planets with very high gravity), or when approaching the speed of light. Been a while since I studied anything but newtonian so correct me if I am wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19595664",
"title": "Time in physics",
"section": "Section::::Conceptions of time.:Einstein's physics: spacetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Einstein's theory was motivated by the assumption that every point in the universe can be treated as a 'center', and that correspondingly, physics must act the same in all reference frames. His simple and elegant theory shows that time is relative to an inertial frame. In an inertial frame, Newton's first law holds; it has its own local geometry, and therefore its \"own\" measurements of space and time; \"there is no 'universal clock\"'. An act of synchronization must be performed between two systems, at the least.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19559",
"title": "Mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Relativistic versus Newtonian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einstein's general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton and Galileo's formulation of mechanics. The differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. For instance, in Newtonian mechanics, Newton's laws of motion specify that F = \"ma, whereas in relativistic mechanics and Lorentz transformations, which were first discovered by Hendrik Lorentz, F = γ\"ma (where γ is the Lorentz factor, which is almost equal to 1 for low speeds).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6432722",
"title": "Photon polarization",
"section": "Section::::Photons: The connection to quantum mechanics.:States, probability amplitudes, unitary and Hermitian operators, and eigenvectors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "This is not the only occasion in which Maxwell's equations have forced a restructuring of Newtonian mechanics. Maxwell's equations are relativistically consistent. Special relativity resulted from attempts to make classical mechanics consistent with Maxwell's equations (see, for example, Moving magnet and conductor problem).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485405",
"title": "Superseded theories in science",
"section": "Section::::Theories now considered incomplete.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "BULLET::::- Newtonian mechanics was extended by the theory of relativity and by quantum mechanics. Relativistic corrections to Newtonian mechanics are immeasurably small at velocities not approaching the speed of light, and quantum corrections are usually negligible at atomic or larger scales; Newtonian mechanics is totally satisfactory in engineering and physics under most circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39499535",
"title": "Derivations of the Lorentz transformations",
"section": "Section::::Physical principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Einstein based his theory of special relativity on two fundamental postulates. First, all physical laws are the same for all inertial frames of reference, regardless of their relative state of motion; and second, the speed of light in free space is the same in all inertial frames of reference, again, regardless of the relative velocity of each reference frame. The Lorentz transformation is fundamentally a direct consequence of this second postulate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Stimulated and spontaneous emission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Einstein was troubled by the fact that his theory seemed incomplete, since it did not determine the \"direction\" of a spontaneously emitted photon. A probabilistic nature of light-particle motion was first considered by Newton in his treatment of birefringence and, more generally, of the splitting of light beams at interfaces into a transmitted beam and a reflected beam. Newton hypothesized that hidden variables in the light particle determined which of the two paths a single photon would take. Similarly, Einstein hoped for a more complete theory that would leave nothing to chance, beginning his separation from quantum mechanics. Ironically, Max Born's probabilistic interpretation of the wave function was inspired by Einstein's later work searching for a more complete theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20431",
"title": "Momentum",
"section": "Section::::Relativistic.:Lorentz invariance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Newtonian physics assumes that absolute time and space exist outside of any observer; this gives rise to Galilean invariance. It also results in a prediction that the speed of light can vary from one reference frame to another. This is contrary to observation. In the special theory of relativity, Einstein keeps the postulate that the equations of motion do not depend on the reference frame, but assumes that the speed of light is invariant. As a result, position and time in two reference frames are related by the Lorentz transformation instead of the Galilean transformation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4l3tp8
|
Why was Scipio Africanus so disliked by his political peers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Scipio's not exactly the only Roman aristocrat to be prosecuted following great service to the state. Actually, it's kind of common. The Roman aristocracy relied on the individual magistrate or promagistrate to get anything done, but was highly suspicious of the individual standing head-and-shoulders above his peers. The individual of unusual *dignitas* and *auctoritas* through his actions was expected to retire from public duties, or voluntarily accept an advisory role for the next generation. This of course did not happen in practice often, even in Scipio's lifetime. Scipio was the political enemy of Marcus Cato, who constantly opposed him at the end of his life, with his characteristic persistence. Part of this was because the nobility, suspicious as usual, did not look kindly on his enormous prestige. Scipio really did have extraordinary *dignitas* following Zama--there built up around him soon after the \"Scipionic Legend,\" in which Scipio was said to have performed various miraculous deeds and to have been the son of a god (usually Jupiter). For example, Livy says that there was a story that Scipio was conceived when his mother was visited by a giant snake--Livy thinks the story is ridiculous, and points out that it was already being told of Alexander, but certainly that gives an idea of the sort of legend that was built up around Scipio within only a short time. Besides the rather unwelcome influence of the growing Scipionic Legend the senatorial class did in fact have some reason to feel insecure about Scipio. Scipio's later career was relatively unremarkable, but not really for want of trying. He held the censorship in 199 and was *princeps senatus* twice in 194 and 189, both somewhat expected of a consular, though Scipio wasn't exactly an ordinary consular. Scipio was, however, consul for a second time in 194, and lobbied for the right to command the war against Antiochus III, a motion which was knocked down in the senate. Scipio did not fight at Magnesia, but he volunteered against Antiochus as legate under his brother in 190. It's not hard to see why Scipio, the quite literally legendary victor over Hannibal and recent consul for the second time, might be suspected by the senatorial class of really being the one pulling the strings in the war, especially when it was Scipio who arranged the peace with Antiochus. Certainly the senatorial class was uncomfortable with the freedom with which Scipio threw his reputation around, and they were not totally unjustified, as Scipio's behavior was not very in character with the expectations of a member of the senatorial class. Following his return from the war against Antiochus Scipio (and his brother) were both attacked by Marcus Cato in the courts--clearly the conduct of this war, and the suspicions of misconduct during it, were the last straw, so to speak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13600275",
"title": "Scipio (cognomen)",
"section": "Section::::The family.:Cultural context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "The Scipiones were also famous for their interest in the Hellenistic way of life. Scipio Africanus was criticized by many in the Senate for his love of luxury and his Greek style of wearing the toga. Yet it was he and his friends who introduced the idea of formally educating women and children in Greek. They also spearhearded a luxurious style of living, with Africanus building an immense house on the Forum itself (subsequently rebuilt by his son-in-law into the Basilica Sempronia). Scipio is said to have introduced orange trees (from Iberia) to Rome, and also brought many rare flowering plants to Rome from Africa. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206280",
"title": "Scipio Africanus (slave)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Scipio Africanus (1702 – 21 December 1720) was a slave born to unknown parents from West Africa. He was named after Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major, the third century BCE Roman general, famous for defeating the Carthaginian military leader Hannibal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75861",
"title": "Cato the Elder",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Influence in Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "His reputation as a soldier was now established; henceforth he preferred to serve the state at home, scrutinizing the conduct of the candidates for public honours and of generals in the field. If he was not personally engaged in the prosecution of the Scipiones (Africanus and Asiaticus) for corruption, it was his spirit that animated the attack upon them. Even Scipio Africanus—who refused to reply to the charge, saying only, \"Romans, this is the day on which I conquered Hannibal\" and was absolved by acclamation—found it necessary to retire, self-banished, to his villa at Liternum. Cato's enmity dated from the African campaign when he quarreled with Scipio for his lavish distribution of the spoil among the troops, and his general luxury and extravagance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60700",
"title": "185 BC",
"section": "Section::::Events.:By place.:Roman Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Roman general Scipio Africanus and his brother Lucius are accused by Cato the Elder and his supporters of having received bribes from the late Seleucid king Antiochus III. Scipio defies his accusers, reminds the Romans of their debt to him, and retires to his country house at Liternum in Campania. However, Cato is successful in breaking the political influence of Lucius Scipio and Scipio Africanus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33642554",
"title": "Scipio Africanus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Scipio's conquest of Carthaginian Iberia culminated in the Battle of Ilipa (near Alcalá del Río, Spain) in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered a hero by the Roman people, primarily for his victories against Carthage, Africanus had many opponents, especially Cato the Censor, who deeply hated him. In 187 BC, he was even tried alongside his brother for bribes they supposedly received from King Antiochos III during the Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by the ingratitude of his peers, Scipio left Rome and withdrew from public life in his villa of Liternum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33642554",
"title": "Scipio Africanus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (; 236–183 BC), also known as Scipio Africanus Major, Scipio Africanus the Elder and Scipio the Great, was a Roman general and later consul who is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders and strategists of all time. His main achievements were during the Second Punic War. He is best known for defeating Hannibal at the final battle of Zama (near modern Zama, Tunisia) in 202 BC. The victory was one of the feats that earned him the agnomen \"Africanus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37579816",
"title": "Scipio Africanus Freeing Massiva (painting)",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The decision to depict Scipio Africanus himself, however, gives the deepest insight into the meanings of the image. Scipio gained his fame in Rome through his exploration and conquering of areas of Africa for the Roman Republic. Scipio is here depicted as the benevolent and powerful conqueror, physically being raised above the other figures of the image and is the only figure to penetrate the upper third of the composition. Scipio's exploration of and power over the African continent has been utilized here to reflect and show off the patron's power and worldly knowledge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gmgjq
|
Evolutionary, will we be fatter or thinner in the future?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think we are a few decades away from drugs that will safely control fat accumulation.\n\nIf that occurs, the genetics will become irrelevant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How fat we get is more of a reaction to our environment rather than our evolution. A creature with a lot of food available will (assuming they eat it) get fat, while one that has to expend a lot of energy to get food will be lean.\n\nFrom an environmental point of view, animals who are out in the wild often have a specific need to being fat or thin to have an advantage to pass on their genes. Seals for example are unlikely to be able to breed if they haven't got enough fat on them (meaning they die of heat loss in their arctic environment). Cheetas on the other hand would be unlikely to catch their prey if they got fat, so that keeps them lean.\n\nHumans don't really have that aspect to their evolutionary chances to pass on their genes. Both fat and lean people are able to grow to an age where they are able to pass on their genes - if anything were to be included it would likely only be aesthetics, but that itself rarely results in children these days (as in casual sex with an attractive partner).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56435",
"title": "Obesity",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that, due to dietary scarcity during human evolution, people are prone to obesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by storing energy as fat would be advantageous during times of varying food availability, and individuals with greater adipose reserves would be more likely to survive famine. This tendency to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies with stable food supplies. This theory has received various criticisms, and other evolutionarily-based theories such as the drifty gene hypothesis and the thrifty phenotype hypothesis have also been proposed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24767166",
"title": "Genetics of obesity",
"section": "Section::::Genes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that due to dietary scarcity during human evolution people are prone to obesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by storing energy as fat would be advantageous during times of varying food availability, and individuals with greater adipose reserves would more likely survive famine. This tendency to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies with stable food supplies. This is the presumed reason that Pima Native Americans, who evolved in a desert ecosystem, developed some of the highest rates of obesity when exposed to a Western lifestyle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11773",
"title": "Flynn effect",
"section": "Section::::Proposed explanations.:Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Improved nutrition is another possible explanation. Today's average adult from an industrialized nation is taller than a comparable adult of a century ago. That increase of stature, likely the result of general improvements of nutrition and health, has been at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade. Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases of head size, and by an increase in the average size of the brain. This argument had been thought to suffer the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g. women, or people of Asian ancestry) do not have lower average IQs. Richard Lynn, however, claims that while people of East Asian origin may often have smaller bodies, they tend to have larger brains and higher IQs than average whites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "905957",
"title": "Human height",
"section": "Section::::Role of an individual's height.:Height and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "A large body of human and animal evidence indicates that shorter, smaller bodies age slower, and have fewer chronic diseases and greater longevity. For example, a study found eight areas of support for the \"smaller lives longer\" thesis. These areas of evidence include studies involving longevity, life expectancy, centenarians, male vs. female longevity differences, mortality advantages of shorter people, survival findings, smaller body size due to calorie restriction, and within species body size differences. They all support the conclusion that smaller individuals live longer in healthy environments and with good nutrition. However, the difference in longevity is modest. Several human studies have found a loss of 0.5 year/centimetre of increased height (1.2 yr/inch). But these findings do not mean that all tall people die young. Many live to advanced ages and some become centenarians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72156",
"title": "Human population planning",
"section": "Section::::Population planning and economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In his book \"The Ultimate Resource\", economist Julian Simon argued that higher population density leads to more specialization and technological innovation, which in turn leads to a higher standard of living. He claimed that human beings are the ultimate resource since we possess \"productive and inventive minds that help find creative solutions to man’s problems, thus leaving us better off over the long run\". He also claimed that, \"Our species is better off in just about every measurable material way.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16413778",
"title": "Ageing",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and delay.:Lifestyle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "In his book \"How and Why We Age\", Hayflick says that caloric restriction may not be effective in humans, citing data from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging which shows that being thin does not favour longevity. Similarly, it is sometimes claimed that moderate \"obesity\" in later life may improve survival, but newer research has identified confounding factors such as weight loss due to terminal disease. Once these factors are accounted for, the optimal body weight above age 65 corresponds to a leaner body mass index of 23 to 27.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40559026",
"title": "Betty Reardon",
"section": "Section::::Ideas, influences, and political stances.:Human nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "On human nature, Reardon has said that humans can be more than they currently are. She has said that: \"there is more that we as a human species can be, just as there is more that all of us can be no matter what stage in life we are\"; and that: \"we probably have a really great future; we can be a lot more\" if possibilities of a better future are envisioned. She has also said that even though humans have: \"done some disastrous horrible things to each other and to ourselves in doing it, to our planet\", that humans are beginning to understand this and are becoming more tolerant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21jj18
|
is the buddha still 'alive'?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are different buddist schools. In Theravada buddhism, anyone that reaches nibanna is removed from circle of life and is never born again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting note, reincarnation was around before Buddhism was founded. Borrowed ideas?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "782003",
"title": "Buddhist deities",
"section": "Section::::Buddhas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "A Buddha is a being who is fully awakened, and has fully comprehended the Four Noble Truths. In the Theravada tradition, while there is a list of acknowledged past Buddhas, the historical Buddha Sakyamuni is the only Buddha of our current era and is generally not seen as accessible or as existing in some higher plane of existence. Mahayana Buddhists however venerate several Buddhas, including Maitreya and Amitābha, who are seen as beings of great wisdom and power who preside over pure lands that one can travel to after death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26261391",
"title": "Cetiya",
"section": "Section::::Sārīraka.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "The sārīraka (Sanskrit śarīra) or dhātu cetiya, the remains of Gautama Buddha's body, are the category commonly considered \"relics\" today by Western observers, and were responsible for major forms of Buddhist art and symbolism, although they only constitute one of the three categories of reminders. Most frequently preserved parts of Buddha's body are tooth and bone, because these parts would remain after the rest of the body decayed. The relic of the tooth of the Buddha in Sri Lanka is the most notable site where a relic is visibly preserved, but hundreds of such sites were created, in the architectural form now called a stupa. In Thai, these stupas are called \"chedī\", retaining the second half of the phrase \"dhātu cetiya\"; in Lao, they are called \"that\" after the first half. Beyond the stupa itself, sārīraka are used across the Buddhist world, in such quantity that not all could be legitimate; in this sense the sārīraka functions mainly as a symbol, with the importance of authenticity varying between cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27886705",
"title": "Pāli Canon",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Authorship.:Authorship according to academic scholars.:Views concerning agnosticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Some scholars of later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. Ronald Davidson has little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha. Geoffrey Samuel says the Pali Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in the 5th century AD. Gregory Schopen argues that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position was criticized by A. Wynne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54474348",
"title": "Buddhist mythology",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Awakening and final Nirvana.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The event of his death and final release (\"paranirvana\") from the realm of rebirth (\"samsara\") are also important themes which are taken up in numerous Buddhist myths. For Buddhists, it was important to explain the death of the Buddha as a monumental event. Some Buddhists such as the Lokuttaravada developed a docetic myth, which said that the Buddha did not really die, only appearing to do so, since his nature was supramundane. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5304274",
"title": "Deva (Buddhism)",
"section": "Section::::Differences from western polytheism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "BULLET::::- Buddhist devas are not immortal. Their lives as devas began some time in the past when they died and were reborn. They live for very long but finite periods of time, ranging from thousands to (at least) billions of years. When they pass away, they are reborn as some other sort of being, perhaps a different type of deva, perhaps a human or something beyond comprehension. The Lamrim mentions that devas are often reborn into lower realms of suffering like the Narakas and Pretas because their existence consumes a lot of good karma, but they can also be reborn as humans and animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7514478",
"title": "List of purported relics of major figures of religious traditions",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Gautama Buddha's body was cremated in Kushinagar, India and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. Ramabhar Stupa in Kushinagar was built over a portion of the Buddha's ashes on the spot where he was cremated by the ancient Malla people. The Temple of the Tooth or \"Dalada Maligawa\" in Sri Lanka is the place where the right tooth relic of Buddha is kept at present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12639357",
"title": "History of vegetarianism",
"section": "Section::::Ancient.:Indian subcontinent.:Early Jainism and Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The Mahaparinibbana Sutta, which narrates the end of the Buddha's life, states that he died after eating \"sukara-maddava\", a term translated by some as \"pork\", by others as \"mushrooms\" (or an unknown vegetable).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2a84rc
|
what was the fault in brazil's defense ?
|
[
{
"answer": "their strategy of panicking and running around in a state of confusion, while bold, was ultimately spectacularly unsuccessful ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "651571",
"title": "Association football tactics and skills",
"section": "Section::::Notable examples.:Combined team play using width and depth: Brazil vs Italy, 1970 Final.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "This tight system however involved a \"collapsing\" approach that while packing the Italian penalty area and denying the Brazilian forwards much space, left relatively large gaps in midfield. See \"Standing Off\" defensive discussion above. Brazil's superb skills exploited this weakness, showing especially that any defence (whether man to man, zone or other variants) can be beaten using the principles of both width and depth. The weakness of the man to man system was also exposed. Italian left back Giacinto Facchetti dedicated himself to winger Jairzinho, shadowing him tightly wherever he went. Jairzinho cunningly moved off the right flank, opening gaps for others to follow as can be seen below. See \"Switching the attack\" and \"Swapping wing men\" above for discussion of this aspect of offensive tactics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22165917",
"title": "History of the Empire of Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Early years.:Apogee.:Paraguayan War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "As the threat of war with the British Empire became more real, Brazil had to turn its attention to its southern frontiers. Another civil war had begun in Uruguay turning its political parties against each other. The internal conflict led to the murder of Brazilians and looting of their property in Uruguay. Brazil's government decided to intervene, fearful of giving any impression of weakness in the face of conflict with the British. A Brazilian army invaded Uruguay in December 1864 beginning the brief Uruguayan War, which ended on 20 February 1865.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19279988",
"title": "Treaty of Montevideo (1828)",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "By 1828 the Cisplatine War had been fought to a stalemate with Argentina’s land forces unable to capture any major cities, and Brazil forces pinned down and with severe lack of manpower for a full-scale offensive against Argentine forces. The heavy burden of the war and the increasing unlikelihood of any positive outcome led to heavy public pressure in Brazil to end the war through diplomacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "269405",
"title": "Empire of Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Government.:Foreign relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "A number of conflicts occurred between the Empire and its neighbors. Brazil experienced no serious conflicts with its neighbors to the north and west, due to the buffer of the nearly impenetrable and sparsely populated Amazonian rainforest. In the south, however, the colonial disputes inherited from Portugal and Spain over the control of the navigable rivers and plains which formed the frontiers continued after independence. The lack of mutually agreed borders in this area led to several international conflicts, from the Cisplatine War to the Paraguayan War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81473",
"title": "Pedro II of Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Paraguayan War.:First Fatherland Volunteer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "As war with the British Empire threatened, Brazil had to turn its attention to its southern frontiers. Another civil war had begun in Uruguay as its political parties turned against each other. The internal conflict led to the murder of Brazilians and looting of their property in Uruguay. Brazil's government decided to intervene, fearful of giving any impression of weakness in the face of conflict with the British. A Brazilian army invaded Uruguay in December 1864, beginning the brief Uruguayan War, which ended in February 1865. Meanwhile, the dictator of Paraguay, Francisco Solano López, took advantage of the situation to establish his country as a regional power. The Paraguayan army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso (the area known after 1977 as the state of Mato Grosso do Sul), triggering the Paraguayan War. Four months later, Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory as a prelude to an attack on Rio Grande do Sul.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3322662",
"title": "Battle of Curupayty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The Paraguayans were also successful in misleading their foes: a trench drew most of the Brazilian fire, but the Paraguayan troops were located elsewhere. Around 20 percent of the almost 20,000 allied (Brazilian and Argentine) troops involved in the attack were lost; Paraguay lost less than a hundred men. The utter failure resulted in the change of the Allied command. Paraguay's biggest success in the ultimately disastrous war was limited because its military leader Francisco Solano López did not counterattack the defeated Allies; not even a general as celebrated as Díaz would attack without López's orders. Ultimately, the battle of Curupayty was merely a sidenote and temporary success in what would eventually become a near-extermination of the Paraguayan people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11633777",
"title": "Brazil–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Current issues.:Mass surveillance scandal.:Reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Addressing the opening session of the UN General Assembly in September 2014, Rousseff strongly criticized the U.S. strategy of forming an international coalition to counter with military strikes the advances of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), urging negotiation rather than force. This stance, and Brazil's silence in face of the Russian invasion and annexation of Crimea may make less likely the chances that Brazil will achieve its long-standing desire to win a permanent seat on the U.N. Security Council.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5dkc6d
|
is the world really round\spherical (exactly 360 degrees)?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not *exactly* spherical. If it were, there would be no variations in terrain like mountains or valleys.\n\nIn fact the Earth is slightly shaped like an oval. But it's mostly spherical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29181",
"title": "Spherical coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry about a point, such as volume integrals inside a sphere, the potential energy field surrounding a concentrated mass or charge, or global weather simulation in a planet's atmosphere. A sphere that has the Cartesian equation has the simple equation in spherical coordinates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33547203",
"title": "Sparse distributed memory",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:The binary space N.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Because N is spherical, it is helpful to think of it as the surface of a sphere with circumference 2n. All points of N are equally qualified as points of origin, and a point and its complement are like two poles at distance n from each other, with the entire space in between. The points halfway between the poles and perpendicular to them are like the equator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233636",
"title": "Spherical Earth",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:High and late medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Many scholastic commentators on Aristotle's \"On the Heavens\" and Sacrobosco's \"Treatise on the Sphere\" unanimously agreed that the Earth is spherical or round. Grant observes that no author who had studied at a medieval university thought that the Earth was flat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650405",
"title": "Spherical trigonometry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Spherical trigonometry is the branch of spherical geometry that deals with the relationships between trigonometric functions of the sides and angles of the spherical polygons (especially spherical triangles) defined by a number of intersecting great circles on the sphere. Spherical trigonometry is of great importance for calculations in astronomy, geodesy and navigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174026",
"title": "Spherical geometry",
"section": "Section::::Relation to Euclid's postulates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Spherical geometry obeys two of Euclid's postulates: the second postulate (\"to produce [extend] a finite straight line continuously in a straight line\") and the fourth postulate (\"that all right angles are equal to one another\"). However, it violates the other three: contrary to the first postulate, there is not a unique shortest route between any two points (antipodal points such as the north and south poles on a spherical globe are counterexamples); contrary to the third postulate, a sphere does not contain circles of arbitrarily great radius; and contrary to the fifth (parallel) postulate, there is no point through which a line can be drawn that never intersects a given line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233636",
"title": "Spherical Earth",
"section": "Section::::Effects and empirical evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The roughly spherical shape of the Earth can be confirmed by many different types of observation from ground level, aircraft, and spacecraft. The shape causes a number of phenomena that a flat Earth would not. Some of these phenomena and observations would be possible on other shapes, such as a curved disc or torus, but no other shape would explain all of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174026",
"title": "Spherical geometry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Spherical geometry is the geometry of the two-dimensional surface of a sphere. It is an example of a geometry that is not Euclidean. Two practical applications of the principles of spherical geometry are navigation and astronomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5vwj41
|
special relativity says the mass of a moving body _url_0_ has the mass of the universe been increasing since the big bang?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm assuming you think the mass of the universe is increasing because of expansion. You can't talk about 'the universe' as an object, even taking into account relativity, because the universe is the thing that all the objects are in. The expansion of the universe is talking about the space itself expanding, so it doesn't really make sense to talk about the mass of the universe itself. While objects are moving away from each other due to expansion, it's because it's like the space itself is moving, not the objects.\n\n(My first ELI5 answer, constructive criticism is welcome)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "491022",
"title": "Mass in special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Although some authors present relativistic mass as a \"fundamental\" concept of the theory, it has been argued that this is wrong as the fundamentals of the theory relate to space–time. There is disagreement over whether the concept is pedagogically useful. The notion of mass as a property of an object from Newtonian mechanics does not bear a precise relationship to the concept in relativity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "Section::::Generalization.:General relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansions. The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1419800",
"title": "Cryogenic Dark Matter Search",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Observations of the large-scale structure of the universe show that matter is aggregated into very large structures that have not had time to form under the force of their own self-gravitation. It is generally believed that some form of missing mass is responsible for increasing the gravitational force at these scales, although this mass has not been directly observed. This is a problem; normal matter in space will heat up until it gives off light, so if this missing mass exists, it is generally assumed to be in a form that is not commonly observed on earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13758",
"title": "History of physics",
"section": "Section::::20th century: birth of modern physics.:Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.:Special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Special Relativity exerted another long-lasting effect on dynamics. Although initially it was credited with the \"unification of mass and energy\", it became evident that relativistic dynamics established a firm \"distinction\" between rest mass, which is an invariant (observer independent) property of a particle or system of particles, and the energy and momentum of a system. The latter two are separately conserved in all situations but not invariant with respect to different observers. The term \"mass\" in particle physics underwent a semantic change, and since the late 20th century it almost exclusively denotes the rest (or \"invariant\") mass. See mass in special relativity for additional discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251399",
"title": "Observable universe",
"section": "Section::::Mass of ordinary matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The mass of the observable universe is often quoted as 10 tonnes or 10 kg. In this context, mass refers to ordinary matter and includes the interstellar medium (ISM) and the intergalactic medium (IGM). However, it excludes dark matter and dark energy. This quoted value for the mass of ordinary matter in the universe can be estimated based on critical density. The calculations are for the observable universe only as the volume of the whole is unknown and may be infinite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212490",
"title": "Subatomic particle",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:By mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In special relativity, the energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared, \"E\" = \"mc\". That is, mass can be expressed in terms of energy and vice versa. If a particle has a frame of reference in which it lies at rest, then it has a positive rest mass and is referred to as \"massive\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4769216",
"title": "Electromagnetic mass",
"section": "Section::::Modern view.:Mass–energy equivalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "So every theory dealing with the mass of a body must be formulated in a relativistic way from the outset. This is for example the case in the current quantum field explanation of mass of elementary particles in the framework of the Standard Model, the Higgs mechanism. Because of this, the idea that any form of mass is \"completely\" caused by interactions with electromagnetic fields, is not relevant any more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
79fs3x
|
What is the farthest direct parallax measurement of an object?
|
[
{
"answer": "GAIA hasn't released parallax measures of distant stars yet, that's going to take some more time. While optical parallax has been limited to the nearest 100 pc or so, parallax from radio measures can go significantly further by using interferometry, where multiple radio telescopes across the globe are linked up to act as a single giant telescope, the Very Long Baseline Interferometer and the Event Horizon Telescope being the main examples (These use many of the same physical dishes). \n\nOn top of the positional accuracy from a telescope the size of the Earth, the position of a radio source is also uncertain by an amount inversely proportional to the signal to noise. I.e. the brighter the source is, the better you know the position. I know [microquasars such as V404 Cyg and GRS 1915+105 in our own galaxy have had their distances measured by trigonometric parallax to a distance of at least 8600 pc](_URL_0_) (almost 100x better than optical!), but I don't know what the actual \"world record\" is. Anything in our galaxy of sufficient radio brightness could have its distance measured by parallax, but past 10 kpc, the density of stars starts to dive precipitously. \n\nSo some objects as far as GAIA can go have already had their distances measured. GAIA scores not in going further, but doing it reliably for a great many ordinary stars. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23253",
"title": "Parallax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Parallax () is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines. Due to foreshortening, nearby objects show a larger parallax than farther objects when observed from different positions, so parallax can be used to determine distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60891",
"title": "Surveying",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Reference networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "\"Triangulation\" is a method of horizontal location favoured in the days before EDM and GPS measurement. It can determine distances, elevations and directions between distant objects. Since the early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of objects for topographic maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal distance between two of the objects, known as the baseline. Then the heights, distances and angular position of other objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the original objects. High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used, and angle measurements repeated for increased accuracy. See also Triangulation in three dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33426641",
"title": "LSR J1835+3259",
"section": "Section::::Distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Trigonometric parallax of this object, measured in 2001–2002 with the USNO 61 inch (1.5 m) reflector under US Naval Observatory (USNO) parallax program, is 0.1765 ± 0.0005 arcsec, corresponding to a distance of 5.67 ± 0.02 pc, or 18.48 ± 0.05 ly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202661",
"title": "Stellar parallax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Once a star's parallax is known, its distance from Earth can be computed trigonometrically. But the more distant an object is, the smaller its parallax. Even with 21st-century techniques in astrometry, the limits of accurate measurement make distances farther away than about 100 parsecs (or roughly 300 light years) too approximate to be useful when obtained by this technique. This limits the applicability of parallax as a measurement of distance to objects that are relatively close on a galactic scale. Other techniques, such as spectral red-shift, are required to measure the distance of more remote objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28854981",
"title": "2MASSI J0937347+293142",
"section": "Section::::Distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Currently the most precise distance estimate of 2MASS 0937+2931 is trigonometric parallax, published in 2009 by Schilbach et al.: 163.39 ± 1.76 mas, corresponding to a distance 6.12 ± 0.07 pc, or 19.96 ± 0.22 ly. A less precise parallax of this object, measured under U.S. Naval Observatory Infrared Astrometry Program, was published in 2004 by Vrba et al.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33030105",
"title": "WISE 1405+5534",
"section": "Section::::Distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Currently the most accurate distance estimate of WISE 1405+5534 is a trigonometric parallax, measured using Spitzer Space Telescope and published in 2013 by Trent Dupuy and Adam Kraus: 0.129 ± 0.019 arcsec, corresponding to a distance 7.8 pc, or 25.3 ly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23253",
"title": "Parallax",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.:Distance measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Distance measurement by parallax is a special case of the principle of triangulation, which states that one can solve for all the sides and angles in a network of triangles if, in addition to all the angles in the network, the length of at least one side has been measured. Thus, the careful measurement of the length of one baseline can fix the scale of an entire triangulation network. In parallax, the triangle is extremely long and narrow, and by measuring both its shortest side (the motion of the observer) and the small top angle (always less than 1 arcsecond, leaving the other two close to 90 degrees), the length of the long sides (in practice considered to be equal) can be determined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33awbu
|
do animals (especially those who mate for life) feel love like we do?
|
[
{
"answer": "What happens when we die? Nobody can actually perceive the reality of a dead person just like nobody can perceive the reality of a swan. This question will only bring opinionated answers not factual ones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hard enough to prove love really exists in humans. But there have been instances of dogs weeping over dead relatives or partners. \nCrows attacking people who captured or killed other crows in their group. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39382736",
"title": "Theories of love",
"section": "Section::::Necessity of love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Humans are not the only species in the world that can feel love and its effects. Non-human animals can feel love as well, although it is less complex and less creative. Many animals feel emotions. When a dog wags its tail or licks its owner after being parted for a few hours, this is interpreted as happiness. When a person leaves for work in the morning and their dog cries at the window, it exhibits sadness. A growling dog who doesn't like it when someone touches its favorite toy is showing anger. Animals can feel love as well as other basic emotions humans feel. Dogs that grow up with siblings create strong bonds to their sibling. If their sibling dies, the dog can go into depression and refuse to eat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17547",
"title": "Love",
"section": "Section::::Interpersonal love.:Comparison of scientific models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14529239",
"title": "Zoophilia",
"section": "Section::::Extent of occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Sexual arousal from watching animals mate is known as \"faunoiphilia\". A frequent interest in and sexual excitement at watching animals mate is cited as an indicator of latent zoophilia by Massen (1994). Sexual fantasies about zoophilic acts can occur in people who do not have any wish to experience them in real life. Nancy Friday notes that zoophilia as a fantasy may provide an escape from cultural expectations, restrictions, and judgements in regard to sex. Masters (1962) says that some brothel madams used to stage exhibitions of animals mating, as they found it aroused potential clientele, and that this may have encouraged the clients to engage in bestiality..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17547",
"title": "Love",
"section": "Section::::Interpersonal love.:Evolutionary basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool. Humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period. Furthermore, researchers as early as Charles Darwin himself identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credit love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species. Another factor may be that sexually transmitted diseases can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase complications during childbirth. This would favor monogamous relationships over polygamy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21378368",
"title": "Bisexuality",
"section": "Section::::Among other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Many species of animals are involved in the acts of forming sexual and non-sexual relationship bonds between the same sex; even when offered the opportunity to breed with members of the opposite sex, they pick the same sex. Some of these species are gazelles, antelope, bison, and sage grouse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39382736",
"title": "Theories of love",
"section": "Section::::Types of love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 2844,
"text": "Humans come across different types of love as they reach different levels are maturity in their life, such as the love a mother feels for their child, the love that involves the instant attraction to person, and the love that comes from years of being together. The love humans share for their family and friends can be viewed as \"slow love\". This love is based on finding shared interests and lifestyles that connect people to each other in reality. It's a love that can be carried out because of the common interests that bind them together. It is more of a mental attraction than a physical attraction. Visually, we make interpretations on love based off the way a person looks. \"Harmonism\" and \"echoism\" are the ways a face is constructed that makes one physically attractive: the distance between the forehead and nose, distant between the mouth and chin, how close the eyes are together, the sweep of one's eyebrows.The biochemical level fluctuation of a person can also explain the question “Who We Love”. People who have expressive traits of dopamine system: curious and energetic tend to be drawn to people who have similar personalities. People have relative high level of serotonin system traits: cautious and social conforming are attracted to their same kind as well. However, people who are foremost with expressive traits of sex hormones tend to be enchanted by their opposite kinds. People with a relative high testosterone hormone are analytical and tough minded. They tend to choose people with relative high estrogen hormone who are empathetic and pro-social. Beside the biochemical level explanation, there are also a few other elements affect people’s choices of mates. Another factor influences who people choose to love is timing. Love can happen when one least expects. Furthermore, people are more easily to fall in love when they are emotionally aroused, especially in a hard and lonely time. This is because such a mental state is associated with arousal mechanism in brains and elevated level of stress hormone, both of which increase the level romantic passion hormone: dopamine. Distance is another element influences people’s love choices: people tend to choose to fall in love with those close to them. Childhood experience also influences on mate choices. By the teenage years, people gradually construct a catalog of aptitudes and mannerisms they are looking for in a mate. Subtle differences in their experiences shape romantic tastes. Physical looking matters as well. From an anthropological point of view, a male tend to choose a female with a visual sign of youth and beauty, which indicates her high estrogen level and strong reproductive ability. However, a female with a more pragmatic and realistic goal, tends to choose a male with education, ambition, wealth, respect, status, masculine appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17547",
"title": "Love",
"section": "Section::::Interpersonal love.:Biological basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst. Helen Fisher, an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust is the feeling of sexual desire; romantic attraction determines what partners mates find attractive and pursue, conserving time and energy by choosing; and attachment involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security. Three distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and three behavioral patterns, are associated with these three romantic styles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wgxrq
|
the height of the average american male has risen roughly 3 inches in the past 200 years. is this an example of evolution, coincidence, or something else?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is probably due to better nutrition. People are more likely to reach their genetic potential.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are fed better. 200 years ago you were rich if you got to eat meat every day. Now, everybody does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly it is a result of nutrition. We have really only had a stable food supply as a species for the last 200 years. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nutrition and medicine mostly.\n\nUnderfed children who battle polio are going to wind up a little shorter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32028",
"title": "Standard of living in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Changing over the past.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Historians have used height to measure living standards during this time as average adult heights can point to a population's net nutrition - the amount of nutrition people grew up with as compared to biological stress which can cause lower heights in adulthood, stemming from things like food deprivation, hard work, and disease. According to military records of American and European men, Americans were on average two to three inches taller than Europeans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "905957",
"title": "Human height",
"section": "Section::::History of human height.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The average height of Americans and Europeans decreased during periods of rapid industrialisation, possibly due to rapid population growth and broad decreases in economic status. This has become known as the early-industrial growth puzzle or in the U.S. context the Antebellum Puzzle. In England during the early-nineteenth century, the difference between average height of English upper-class youth (students of Sandhurst Military Academy) and English working-class youth (Marine Society boys) reached 22 cm (8.7 in), the highest that has been observed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2302383",
"title": "Common periwinkle",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Growth rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "A study in Plymouth Sound suggests an initial growth reaching up to 14 mm in height December the first year, and 17.4 mm by the end of the second year. Females seem to grow more rapidly than males, and in specimens above 25 mm in height, females seem to dominate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1858124",
"title": "Height discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Height and social discrimination.:Employment wage and social experience discrimination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "A research paper published in the Journal of Applied Psychology showed that height is strongly related to success for men. It showed that increase in height for men corresponds to increase in income after controlling for other social psychological variables like age and weight. Economists Nicola Persico, Andrew Postlewaite and Dan Silverman explained the \"height premium\" and found that \"a 1.8-percent increase in wages accompanies every additional inch of height\". They also found that men's wages as adults could be linked to their height at age 16. The researchers found that on an average an increase in height by one inch at age 16 increased male adult wages by 2.6 percent. This is equal to increase of approximately $850 in 1996 annual earnings. In other words, the height and corresponding social experiences of taller male adolescent at age 16 would likely translate to higher wage in later adulthood as compared to shorter male adolescent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Anatomy and physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "It is estimated that the worldwide average height for an adult human male is about , while the worldwide average height for adult human females is about . Shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals, but tends to be typical in the extremely aged. Through history human populations have universally become taller, probably as a consequence of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions. The average mass of an adult human is for females and for males. Like many other conditions, body weight and body type is influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals. (see obesity)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "905957",
"title": "Human height",
"section": "Section::::History of human height.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "In the 150 years since the mid-nineteenth century, the average human height in industrialised countries has increased by up to . However, these increases appear to have largely levelled off. Before the mid-nineteenth century, there were cycles in height, with periods of increase and decrease; however, examinations of skeletons show no significant differences in height from the Stone Age through the early-1800s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197179",
"title": "Sexual dimorphism",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Primates.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Females are taller, on average, than males in early adolescence, but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are, on average, 9% taller and 16.5% heavier than adult females. There is no comparative evidence of differing levels of sexual selection having produced sexual size dimorphism between human populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
205i37
|
What was the impact of the First World War on eastern Europe
|
[
{
"answer": "World War I had some pretty big consequences for Eastern Europe in all sectors of life, including the economy, culture, and politics. I'll focus on the most obvious consequence: the redrawing of borders in Eastern Europe. The dissolution of the of the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires allowed the Allies to pursue a policy of self-determination for national minorities as laid out in [Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points](_URL_1_).\n\nHere is a [map of Europe in 1914](_URL_3_).\n\nAnd here is [Europe five years later](_URL_6_), after the war was concluded.\n\nThe three main treaties we're going to be looking at here are [Versailles](_URL_0_), [Saint-Germain-en-Laye](_URL_2_), and [Trianon](_URL_5_), which redrew the borders of [Germany](_URL_4_), [Austria, and Hungary](_URL_7_), respectively. \n\nIn the new map, we can see the emergence of several new nations, including: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and the Free City of Danzig. Additionally, we see a greatly enlarged Romania and a slightly smaller Bulgaria, whose path to the Aegean now firmly in the hands of Greece. This map is, however, a little bit misleading as it implies that the USSR at this time is firmly established, when in reality it was in the midst of the Russian Civil War (which is its own big can of worms). I'll try to give those countries a quick mention too. I think the easiest way to go about this is to examine each country really quickly, looking at where its territory came from and because of what treaties. Obviously people can go into more detail about specific countries; this is just a brief(ish) overview.\n\nEstonia, Latvia, and Lithuania: Formed from territory of Russia and Germany\n\nRussia formally pulled out of World War I under Bolshevik leadership with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in early 1918. Originally the Germans had planned to establish puppet governments under the control of Baltic Germans (who owned most of the land), but obviously Versailles halted those plans. With the retreat of most German forces from the region, the Bolsheviks moved in in an attempted to reassert their claim to the lands that they had so recently surrendered, and thus the Baltic states became a part of the Russian Civil War. In general, the nationalists of these countries sided with the Whites (anti-communist forces), through not without some issues. Eventually, the Bolsheviks came to realize that holding on to the region was simply too difficult, thanks in large part to Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian troops using supplies from the Western Allies.\n\nPoland: Formed from territory of Germany, Russia, Austria, Hungary\n\nPoland emerged from the war with territory from all the major empires. Like its counterparts in the Balkans, it too was drawn into the Russian Civil War, during which Poland allied with the Whites. After initial success in Ukraine, the Poles were eventually beaten back by the Soviets, all the way to Warsaw. Fortunately for Poland, the Red Army was decisively defeated at Warsaw in August of 1920. The Polish government also got into a squabble with Lithuania over Vilnius, which it held throughout the inter-war period. The question would not be settled until 1939 when the Soviets returned Vilnius to Lithuania after they invaded Poland. Germany's borders with Poland were set in Article 27 of Versailles. It should be noted that the creation of the “Polish Corridor” between Germany and East Prussia was one of the main problems the Nazis had with the treaty.\n\nCzechoslovakia: Formed from territory of Austria, Hungary, and a little bit of Germany\n\nThe Czechs and Slovaks are two distinct ethnic groups, but after the Pittsburgh Agreement (yay, hometown!) leaders from both communities agreed on the formation of an independent Czechoslovakia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Unlike the previous countries, Czechoslovakia was not involved in the Russian Civil War and its independence did not involve significant conflict beyond the First World War itself. Czechoslovakia was officially recognized with Saint-Germain.\n\nRomania: Romania's loyalty to the Allies earned them a sizable chunk from Hungary, as a result of Trianon. This eventually led to problems due to ethnic Hungarians being stuck in Romania. Hungary swiped some of their old territory back during WW2, but that was eventually returned, and it remains that way today.\n\nYugoslavia: I'm unfortunately not all that well-versed in what went on in Yugoslavia at the time. I can tell you that it was the culmination of the efforts of the Pan-Slavic movement, and that it included former territories of Austria-Hungary and Serbia, but that's about it. It was a monarchy, with a Serbian king.\n\nI just want to point out, that for all the crap Versailles gets for being harsh on the Germans, everyone seems to forget that Austria and Hungary were *gutted* by their treaties. Following WW1, both Austria and Hungary ceased to be major powers, and the industrial heartland of the empire, Bohemia, was now part of Czechoslovakia. \n\nI'm sorry if I've forgotten anything, but I think I got most of the points.\n\nDavies, Norman. *Europe: A History*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.\n\nDziewanowski, M. K.. *Russia in the Twentieth Century*. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53528780",
"title": "International relations (1919–1939)",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Eastern Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "A major result of the First World War was the breakup of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires, as well as partial losses to the German Empire. A surge of ethnic nationalism created a series of new states in Eastern Europe, validated by the Versailles Treaty of 1919. Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan tried to do the same but were later retaken by the Bolsheviks in Russia. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia became entirely new nations. Austria and Hungary survived with much smaller territories based on their German and Hungarian core populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727159",
"title": "American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:Agro-Joint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "World War I plunged Eastern Europe into chaos and subjected Jewish communities across the region to intense poverty, famine, and inflamed anti-Semitism. The Russian Revolution and other subsequent conflicts fanned the flames further, and pleas for JDC's humanitarian intervention increased. Therefore, the Soviet Union allowed the JDC to work with the American Relief Aid (ARA), instead of the Jewish Public Committee, in order to help those living in famine. This went on from 1921-1923, and during this time the JDC and ARA were able to use nearly $4 million to feed 2 million people in both Belorussia and the Ukraine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "900011",
"title": "Interwar period",
"section": "Section::::Turmoil in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "Following the Armistice of Compiègne on November 11th, 1918 that ended World War I, the years 1918–24 were marked by turmoil as the Russian Civil War continued to rage on, and Eastern Europe struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War and the destabilising effects of not just the collapse of the Russian Empire, but the destruction of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire, as well. There were numerous new nations in Eastern Europe, some small in size, such as Lithuania or Latvia, and some large and vast, such as Poland and Yugoslavia. The United States gained dominance in world finance. Thus, when Germany could no longer afford war reparations to Britain, France and other former members of the Entente, the Americans came up with the Dawes Plan and Wall Street invested heavily in Germany, which repaid its reparations to nations that, in turn, used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington. By the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known as the Roaring Twenties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "353000",
"title": "Polish–Soviet War",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "As World War I ended (1918), the map of Central and Eastern Europe changed drastically. Germany's defeat rendered Berlin's plans for the creation of Eastern European puppet states (Mitteleuropa), including one in Poland, obsolete. The Russian Empire collapsed, resulting in the 1917 Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. Several small nations of the region saw a chance for real independence and seized the opportunity to gain it; Soviet Russia viewed its lost territories as rebellious provinces, vital for its security, but did not have the resources to react swiftly. While the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 had not made a definitive ruling in regard to Poland's eastern border, it issued a provisional boundary in December 1919 (the Curzon line) as an attempt to define the territories that had an \"indisputably Polish ethnic majority\"; the conference participants did not feel competent to make a certain judgment on the competing claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Western countries: 1945–1980.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 240,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 240,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "At the close of the war, much of Europe lay in ruins with millions of homeless refugees. A souring of relations between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union then saw Europe split by an Iron Curtain, dividing the continent between West and East. In Western Europe, democracy had survived the challenge of Fascism and began a period of intense rivalry with Eastern Communism, which was to continue into the 1980s. France and Britain secured themselves permanent positions on the newly formed United Nations Security Council, but Western European Empires did not long survive the war, and no one Western European nation would ever again be the paramount power in world affairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700723",
"title": "International Watch Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:1900-1960.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "After World War II, IWC was forced to change its focus. All of Eastern Europe had fallen under the Iron Curtain, and the economy of Germany was in shambles. As a result, old contacts and connections with other countries in Europe and the Americas as well as Australia and the Far East were revived and intensified or established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37403",
"title": "Eastern Europe",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II and the onset of the Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Russia ended its participation in the First World War in March 1918 and lost territory, as the Baltic countries and Poland became independent. The region was the main battlefield in the Second World War (1939–45), with German and Soviet armies sweeping back and forth, with millions of Jews killed by the Nazis, and millions of others killed by disease, starvation, and military action, or executed after being deemed as politically dangerous. During the final stages of World War II the future of Eastern Europe was decided by the overwhelming power of the Soviet Red Army, as it swept the Germans aside. It did not reach Yugoslavia and Albania however. Finland was free but forced to be neutral in the upcoming Cold War. The region fell to Soviet control and Communist governments were imposed. Yugoslavia and Albania had their own Communist regimes. The Eastern Bloc with the onset of the Cold War in 1947 was mostly behind the Western European countries in economic rebuilding and progress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4vw5ts
|
how are we able to animate so much more realistically now than ten, fifteen, etc. years ago?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's due to a combination of better software and better hardware.\n\nAs animation became more popular, newer and better methods were developed. For example, the way animators now move a person is through a inverse or forward kinematics rig. This basically lets the animator assign \"bones\" to different parts of a model, and have them all connected. So if the animator wants to move a hand, they just drag the hand, and the computer will automatically fill in all of the in between frames and automatically move the elbow and the shoulder and the arm to make it more realistic. Years ago before this was developed, an animator would have to move every joint individually, one frame at a time. Or earlier in 2d animation, draw every frame by hand.\n\nAlso, as computing technology developed, faster processors and graphics cards in computers allowed for more advancements in animation software. Trying to run modern animation software on an eight year old computer probably wouldn't work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5338743",
"title": "PowerPoint animation",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Though animations can be created easily using Custom Animations provided in Microsoft PowerPoint, it may be much more tedious to complete a project in PowerPoint than in professional animation programs such as Adobe Flash due to the absence of key frames and tweening in the former.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2853240",
"title": "Educational animation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The popularity of using animations to help learners understand and remember information has greatly increased since the advent of powerful graphics-oriented computers. This technology allows animations to be produced much more easily and cheaply than in former years. Previously, traditional animation required specialised labour-intensive techniques that were both time-consuming and expensive. In contrast, software is now available that makes it possible for individual educators to author their own animations without the need for specialist expertise. Teachers are no longer limited to relying on static graphics but can readily convert them into educational animations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2853240",
"title": "Educational animation",
"section": "Section::::Do animations make learning faster?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Well-designed animations may help students learn faster and easier. They are also excellent aid to teachers when it comes to explaining difficult subjects. The difficulty of subjects may arise due to the involvement of mathematics or imagination. For instance, the electric current is invisible. The operation of electric circuits is difficult for students to understand at the beginning. With the aid of computer animations, learning and teaching might become easier, faster and amusing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2264802",
"title": "PowerAnimator",
"section": "Section::::Alias PowerAnimator 9.0 documentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Animating in Alias 9.0\" (436 pages) - Provides information to help creators create basic animations, build skeletons, bring creatures to life using Inverse Kinematics, produce particles and special effects, and deform time using time warps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25778048",
"title": "OpenSCAD",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Animation is possible with a speed of a few images per seconds for simple models. The animation can have effect on any parameter, being it the camera position or the parts dimensions, position, shape or existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17209249",
"title": "ShapeShifter (animation)",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Given the nature of the software, creating an animation can become tedious or slow. Because of this, many animations are very short and lack detail but some users have created impressive animations using the application.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "593",
"title": "Animation",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rlxgv
|
What tactics did medieval European armies use when fighting horse archers? Did European armies ever employ horse archers?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Byzantines used Horse Archers as well as Cataphracts. They adapted their armies to be very Calvary based due to their fighting with the Sassanids.\n\nThat said horses were very expensive to buy and maintain and horse archers were not all that effective in the heavily wooded German regions. Horse archers need a lot of room to maneuver to be effective, so they were usually beaten when their amazing mobility could be restricted.\n\nTactics to reduce the mobility of horses and horse archers at least in the early medieval period would have been trenches dug that would be covered by the dust created by an army.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A fairly good example of a battle won by medieval European armies against horses archers would be the battle of Dorylaeum (1097) fought by the armies of the first crusade against the Turks led by Kilij Arslan.\n\nThe battle was described in the Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum (\"The deeds of the Franks and the other pilgrims to Jerusalem\"), whose author was a first-hand witness serving in the army of Bohemond of Taranto and is available here: _URL_0_\n\n\nThe vanguard of the crusader army was attacked by an important turkish force of horse archers. Taken by surprise, the crusaders were unable to engage the opponent skirmishers (although their heavy armors protected the knights from most arrows, their horses and less armoured foot soldiers were not as lucky), and Bohemond of Taranto had to organize a somewhat desperate defense. \n\nAs the day went on, the Turks became more agressive, trying to press their advantage in order to break their opponents morale. However, in doing so, they became vulnerable to a surprise attack: the rear guard of the first Crusade, led by Bishop Adhémar of Le Puy , made it into the battlefield at this moment and managed to close the gap with the bulk of the turkish force. \n\nIn melee combat, the average french or norman knight was extremely favoured against the lightly armoured horse archers. By outflanking the turkish troops, the crusaders won the battle and opened the road to Antioch. Proper use of terrain and the element of surprise were the key factors to most victories the first crusaders won against forces using large amounts of horse archers.\n\n\n\nSources: \n\n**Z.Oldenbourg**, *Les Croisades*, Gallimard, 1965, p 147-151\n\n**Louis Bréhier**, *Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum*, 1964. French translation.\n\n**R. C. Smail**, *Crusading Warfare, 1097-1193*, Cambridge University Press, 1995",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the Battle of Jaffa, during the 3rd Crusade, crossbowmen proved very effective against Saladin's horse archers.\n\nSaladin had taken the town of Jaffa from the Crusaders, but the citadel held out. Richard the Lionheart attacked the town from the sea and drove the Saracens out. \n\nSaladin then attempted a battle with his horse archers to retake the town. The clash between the two armies took place in the fields outside the walls of the town.\n\nRichard's army consisted of about 54 knights, a few hundred infantry armed with spears, and 2,000 Genoese crossbowmen.\n\nThe crossbows shot the horse archers to pieces. Saladin was said to have lost 700 men and 1500 horses. Crusader casualties were two men.\n\nIt was this victory which led to the peace which concluded the Third Crusade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19685198",
"title": "Mounted archery",
"section": "Section::::Appearance in history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The Roman Empire and its military also had an extensive use of horse archers after their conflict with eastern armies that relied heavily on mounted archery in the 1st century BC. They had regiments such as the Equites Sagittarii, who acted as Rome's horse archers in combat. The Crusaders used conscripted cavalry and horse archers known as the Turcopole, made up of mostly Greek and Turks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16612805",
"title": "Infantry in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::The nature of infantry combat.:The role of archery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "The traditional role of archery on the medieval battlefield was to begin the action, advancing in front of the main body of the army, as occurred at the Battle of Hastings. This continued to be a standard tactic, particularly in the absence of enemy cavalry. The Swiss crossbowmen and handgunners of the 15th century were notable for their aggressive skirmishing in advance of the main army, as at Morat. To protect archers, particularly crossbowmen, against enemy archers, they were often deployed behind men with large shields, called pavises. This technique is first noted during the Crusades in the 12th century, for example at Jaffa, but was particularly common in Italy in the later Middle Ages. The crossbow began to replace the standard bow throughout Europe in the 12th century. In England and Wales the longbow and in Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) the recurved bow continued in use to the end of the period. Christian Spain owed the use of composite bows and mounted archery using Parthian shots to its long exposure to Islamic military techniques during the \"Reconquista\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19685198",
"title": "Mounted archery",
"section": "Section::::Basic features.:Heavy horse archers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Horse archers may be either light, such as Scythian, Hun, Parthian, Cuman or Pecheneg horsemen, or heavy, such as Byzantine kavallarioi, Turkish timariots, Russian druzhina and Japanese samurai. Heavy horse archers typically fought as disciplined units. Instead of harassing without ever making contact, they shot in volleys, weakening the enemy before they charged. In addition to bows, they often also carried close combat weapons, such as lances or spears. Some nations, like medieval Mongols, Hungarians and Cumans fielded both light and heavy horse archers. In some armies, such as those of the Parthians, Palmyrans, and the Teutonic Order of Knights, the mounted troops consisted of both super-heavy troops (cataphracts, knights) without bows, and light horse archers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5427676",
"title": "Cavalry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Riding and fighting on horseback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "An example of combined arms and the efficiency of cavalry forces were the Medieval Mongols. Important for their horse archery was the use of stirrups for the archer to stand while shooting. This new position enabled them to use larger and stronger cavalry bows than the enemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390149",
"title": "Medieval technology",
"section": "Section::::Military technologies.:Miscellaneous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The battle of Halidon Hill 1333 was the first battle where intentional and disciplined combined arms infantry tactics were employed. The English men-at-arms dismounted aside the archers, combining thus the staying power of super-heavy infantry and striking power of their two-handed weapons with the missiles and mobility of the archers using longbows and shortbows. Combining dismounted knights and men-at-arms with archers was the archetypal Western Medieval battle tactics until the battle of Flodden 1513 and final emergence of firearms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19685198",
"title": "Mounted archery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "A horse archer is a cavalryman armed with a bow, able to shoot while riding from horseback. Archery has occasionally been used from the backs of other riding animals. In large open areas, it was a highly successful technique for hunting, for protecting the herds, and for war. It was a defining characteristic of the Eurasian nomads during antiquity and the medieval period, as well as the Iranian peoples, (Alans, Scythians, Sarmatians, Parthians, Sassanid Persians) and Indians in antiquity, and by the Hungarians, Mongols and the Turkic peoples during the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19685198",
"title": "Mounted archery",
"section": "Section::::Appearance in history.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Horse archery was usually ineffective against massed foot archery. The foot archers or crossbowmen could outshoot horse archers and a man alone is a smaller target than a man and a horse. The Crusaders countered the Turkoman horse archery with their crossbowmen, and Genoese crossbowmen were favoured mercenaries in both Mamluk and Mongol armies. Likewise the Chinese armies consisted of massed crossbowmen to counter the nomad armies. A nomad army that wanted to engage in an archery exchange with foot archers would itself normally dismount. The typical Mongol archer shot from a sitting position when dismounted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3oe55s
|
Does raising acetylcholine increase or decrease dopamine?
|
[
{
"answer": " Where? Acetylcholine is not generally just freely diffusing throughout the CSF, as there is a relatively large amount of chemicals that break it down diffuse in the CSF. Also it's not like you could just eat acetylcholine and get more at your synapses or something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12498902",
"title": "Citicoline",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Glutamate transport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Citicoline lowers increased glutamate concentrations and raises decreased ATP concentrations induced by ischemia. Citicoline also increases glutamate uptake by increasing expression of EAAT2, a glutamate transporter, in vitro in rat astrocytes. It is suggested that the neuroprotective effects of citicoline after a stroke are due in part to citicoline’s ability to decrease levels of glutamate in the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327886",
"title": "Theanine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Theanine increases serotonin, dopamine, GABA, and glycine levels in various areas of the brain, as well as BDNF and NGF levels in certain brain areas. However, its effect on serotonin is still a matter of debate in the scientific community, with studies showing increases and decreases in brain serotonin levels using similar experimental protocols. It has also been found that injecting spontaneously hypertensive mice with theanine significantly lowered levels of 5-hydroxyindoles in the brain. Researchers also speculate that it may inhibit glutamate excitotoxicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41120920",
"title": "Central nervous system fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Neurochemical mechanisms.:Acetylcholine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Acetylcholine is required for the generation of muscular force. In the central nervous system, acetylcholine modulates arousal and temperature regulation. It also may play a role in central fatigue. During exercise, levels of acetylcholine drop. This is due to a decrease in plasma choline levels. However, there have been conflicting results in studies about the effect of acetylcholine on fatigue. One study found that plasma choline levels had dropped 40% after the subjects ran the Boston Marathon. Another study found that choline supplementation did not improve time to exhaustion. This study also found that plasma choline levels had not changed in either the placebo or the choline supplemented groups. More research is needed to investigate acetylcholine's effects on fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4939546",
"title": "Hemicholinium-3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and a donated acetyl group from acetyl-CoA, by the action of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Thus, decreasing the amount of choline available to a neuron will decrease the amount of acetylcholine produced. Neurons affected by hemicholinium-3 must rely on the transport of choline from the soma (cell body), rather than relying on reuptake of choline from the synaptic cleft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12498902",
"title": "Citicoline",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Studies suggest that CDP-choline supplements increase dopamine receptor densities. Intracerebroventricular administration of Citicoline has also been shown to elevate ACTH independently from CRH levels and to amplify the release of other HPA axis hormones such as LH, FSH, GH and TSH in response to hypothalamic releasing factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2005601",
"title": "Enterochromaffin cell",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Serotonin synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The primary effect of serotonin involves the increase in peristaltic contraction through its effects on both ENS neurons and smooth muscle. 5-HT also activates a neural secretory response, whereby binding at 5-HT1P receptors on myenteric neurons triggers a signalling cascade in the submucosal plexus. This results in the release of acetylcholine to initiate secretion from the gut mucosa via release of chloride ions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9355731",
"title": "Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Elevated PNMT expression is one of the ways that the stress response positively feeds back on itself. An increase in stress hormones or nerve impulses due to stress can cause PNMT to convert more norepinephrine into epinephrine. This increases the potency of the catecholamine response system, increasing the sympathetic output and making the stress response more profound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1786ki
|
Why does an aluminum pot turn dark grey if left on the stove for too long?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oxidation, Al2O3 is grey.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1317767",
"title": "Window capping",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Capping can hide problems rather than fix them. Aluminum and vinyl are impermeable materials so the natural transfer of moisture through the wood trim will be trapped when it reaches the capping material. The quality of paint on some aluminum coil stock begins to chalk or fade in about five years so the claim of being maintenance free can be misleading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51449150",
"title": "Lead abatement in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes of lead poisoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Even though lead paint usage has been abolished, there are still houses and buildings that have not had the lead paint removed. The removal of lead paint may also cause symptoms because of the dust created in the process that still contains unhealthy amounts of lead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5489512",
"title": "Aluminium carbide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Aluminum carbide, chemical formula AlC, is a carbide of aluminum. It has the appearance of pale yellow to brown crystals. It is stable up to 1400 °C. It decomposes in water with the production of methane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402681",
"title": "Aluminum can",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Most aluminum cans are made of two pieces. The bottom and body are \"drawn\" or \"drawn and ironed\" from a flat plate or shallow cup. After filling, the can \"end\" is sealed onto the top of the can. This is supplemented by a sealing compound to ensure that the top is air tight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4634922",
"title": "Aluminium phosphide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Aluminium phosphide (aluminum phosphide) is a highly toxic inorganic compound with the chemical formula used as a wide band gap semiconductor and a fumigant. This colorless solid is generally sold as a grey-green-yellow powder due to the presence of impurities arising from hydrolysis and oxidation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11237703",
"title": "Sigg",
"section": "Section::::Aluminum Bottles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The aluminum bottles are made by an extruding press which forms an aluminum puck into a cylinder in a single movement after which it is pressed into one of several possible bottle sizes. A separate threading ring is inserted and secured. Once the bottle has been formed, it is cleaned and the interior is sprayed with a food-compatible stove enamel which is heated while the outside is coated and heat bonded with powder paint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3306100",
"title": "Tropical agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Major constraints.:Acidic soils.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Traditionally on commercial farms, aluminum toxicity is countered by adding lime to the soil, which neutralizes the acid and renders the aluminum inert. However, many small land holders and resource-poor farmers cannot afford lime, and instead rely on slash-and-burn agriculture. As the original plant life is burnt, the ash acts to neutralize the acidic soil and makes the area acceptable for food plants. In time, acidity increases and only native plants will grow, forcing the farmer to move on and clear a new area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
442tyy
|
When did women first start outnumbering men as teachers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not OP, but to qualify the question:\n\nAt least in the United States, teachers at early \"public\" schools seem to have been mostly male. At the very least, this is how 19th century writers like Hawthorne depicted their 18th-century ancestors. By the mid-19th century the \"schoolmarm\" stereotype appears in contemporary fiction by authors like Mark Twain and Harriet Beecher Stowe. \n\nYet my the late 20th century, there had developed a persistant sterotype that teaching, especially in primary schools, was a \"feminine\" profession.\n\nHow and why did this gendered understanding of teaching come to be in American cultural life?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In [this](_URL_0_) article there is a table (Table 2) that shows the percentage of male teachers by decade (roughly). There is also a historical summary on page 4 which says it better than I can. However, here is the money quote:\n > Defining teaching as women’s work could be interpreted as a remarkably clever marketing tool used by educational reformers to meet the demand for teachers. The vacuum created by the exodus of men to the factory floor — complicated by the proliferation of new teaching positions — had to be filled by someone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to preface this, this is not a deep response crossing multiple countries. It looks only at the case of Australia. However, Australia's education system does (apparently) have similar trends to much of the western world/other OECD countries.\n\nFirstly, this would depend on country, what type of school we're talking about (primary/elementary vs. secondary) and subject (I won't be delving into subject as it gets even more complicated, but basically stem is still male dominated, languages/arts is female in secondary). For example, within Australia (where my data is from), female primary school teachers heavily outweigh male primary school teachers with a ratio of approximately 4:1, whilst for secondary schools, the gender balance is much more equal^1 . Another thing to note from that source is that even within the same state, there was up to an 8.4% difference in the number of male primary teachers, depending on location. Taking this into account, an actual answer to this can get a bit tricky.\n\nFrom the Australian Bureau of Statistics, in 1982 there were 2.4 female primary teachers to every male, which went up to 3.8 in 2002. Now, this isn't the most helpful in determining an answer in terms of primary school teachers, but does give guidance to at least pre-1982. What interesting information is given, however, is that in 1982, there were only 0.8 female secondary teachers, meaning males still dominated in this market, and in 2002, this had raised to 1.2. Assuming the rate had changed linearly, it would be assumed gender balance occurred around 1992 for secondary teachers^2 .\n\nFrom a QLD government publication, \"In 1969, females, for the first time since 1933, constituted a majority of the teaching force, and by 1983 the percentage of females employed (60 per cent) was approaching the highest ever (61 per cent) reached between 1918 and 1920.\"^3 So, it would seem women outnumbered men around 1918-1920, however, the tables turned and men again became the majority. It took ~49 years for women to take back the majority share. Again, showing the complexity of the issue and not just a simpler \"well, in *x* year!\" This document also goes further into depth about why this happened and whatnot.\n\n\nWhilst I haven't been able to 100% answer this question, and can only provide insight into one place, I hope this is of some help.\n\n\n\n1. _URL_0_ Note: although this is for NSW, the rest of Australia has very similar statistics.\n\n2. _URL_4_\n\n3. _URL_2_\n\n\nOf possible interest: \nThis World Bank site allows you to see the percentage of female primary teachers across all countries, with data from 1981-2015 (note: some data is missing). _URL_3_ \nThere is also this UNSECO one that allows you to look at female teacher percentage from 1999 onwards across a range of different educational settings, from pre-primary to tertiary. _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23147250",
"title": "Vergennes Schoolhouse",
"section": "Section::::School in the 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Men predominated as teachers until the early 19th century, but by the mid-19th century most teachers were women. Women could be teachers only if they were unmarried; as soon as they married, another teacher was hired. Women were paid half the salaries as men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9331663",
"title": "National Union of Women Teachers",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Women teachers in the National Union of Teachers (NUT) first formed a Ladies' Committee in 1896. In 1900, this became a standing committee, consisting of the women members of the executive of the union, and some male executive members in an \"ex officio\" role. However, the committee focused on recruitment drives and, for example, in 1906 refused to sign a petition for women's suffrage. The union's journal, \"Board Teacher\", was opposed to equal pay for women teachers, but the Ladies' Committee was unwilling to campaign on the issue. This inspired a small number of members to form the Equal Pay League in April 1904.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9331663",
"title": "National Union of Women Teachers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The National Union of Women Teachers (NUWT) was a trade union representing women schoolteachers in Great Britain. It originated in 1904 as a campaign for equal pay for equal work, and dissolved in 1961, when this was achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50607905",
"title": "History of women in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:Work opportunities.:Teaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Teaching was not quite as easy to break into, but the low salaries were less of the barrier to the single woman then to the married man. By the late 1860s a number of schools were preparing women for careers as governesses or teachers. The census reported in 1851 that 70,000 women in England and Wales were teachers, compared to the 170,000 who comprised three-fourths of all teachers in 1901. The great majority came from lower middle class origins. The National Union of Women Teachers (NUWT) originated in the early 20th century inside the male-controlled National Union of Teachers (NUT). It demanded equal pay with male teachers, and eventually broke away. Oxford and Cambridge minimized the role of women, allowing small all-female colleges operate. However the new redbrick universities and the other major cities were open to women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52787075",
"title": "Spring Gardens Teacher Training College",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "The Female Teachers' Training School opened in Lebanon, Antigua in 1840 at the home of Moravian Bishop George Westerby as an exclusively female training academy providing an education for five girls who wanted to become teachers. The missionary goal to prepare women to be good wives and mothers for the male teachers expanded to train women to be teachers themselves. Westerby and his wife's success with their initial trainees, led them to seek \"black and coloured\" girls between the ages of ten and fifteen to be trained to teach others about cleanliness, industry and order. Students were boarded and provided with clothing and lodging, as well as training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16879756",
"title": "Gisela Gymnasium",
"section": "Section::::Women in the Gisela Gymnasium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In 1953 the school was assigned two female teachers for the first time - and against the futile protestations of the then headmaster Dr Hans Buchner. By 1972 13 out of 66 teachers were female. The school became a co-educational school in 1981/82 and although male teachers and students still outnumber females, the ratio is much close to being half and half today and the school has had a female headmaster for the first time since 2001.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40744325",
"title": "Association of Secondary Teachers, Ireland",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "In 1911 the decision was taken to establish a women's section within the ASTI, which was named the Women Teachers' Association (WTA). The role and social acceptance of women teachers changed dramatically from a place where women secondary teachers had to retire on marriage to a place where women became president of the union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30nks0
|
why is toronto the only canadian city with sports teams in the mlb and nba?
|
[
{
"answer": "Toronto is the biggest city in Canada. Big cities tend to have more diverse tastes and larger markets, so there are more people interested in American sports.\n\nAlso, it's on the Great Lakes, so it's very close to a number of major US cities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Vancouver had an NBA team (the Grizzlies) but they didn't do so well. And Montreal had an MLB Team (Expos) but again, they didn't do well. Both teams ended up moving to the U.S. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other teams have been successful in Canada, but not in the long run. There's more money in the States. Montreal Expos in MLB and Vancouver Grizzlies in the NBA come to mind. Both teams were relocated to the States.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1175633",
"title": "List of sports teams in Toronto",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Toronto, Ontario, is home to several professional, semi-professional, and university sports teams. It is notable among Canadian cities in sports for having several professional and semi-professional teams associated with United States leagues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12680149",
"title": "Recreation in Toronto",
"section": "Section::::Sport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The city has a broad range of professional sport franchises, with clubs in six major North American leagues. With approximately 200 matches contested in the city, attending a professional game is possible throughout the year. The city is famously known for the Toronto Maple Leafs hockey franchise, and is also home to the Toronto Argonauts, Toronto Blue Jays, Toronto Raptors, Toronto Rock, and Toronto FC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205598",
"title": "U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Canadian cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1426,
"text": "Three of the four major leagues (MLB, the NBA and the NHL), have at least one team in Canada. Thus, although it is not a U.S. city, Toronto is notable because it has MLB (Blue Jays), NBA (Raptors), NHL (Maple Leafs) and MLS (Toronto FC) teams, plus a professional Canadian football team, the Toronto Argonauts. The Argonauts play in the Canadian Football League, which is currently an all-Canadian circuit, although the CFL had teams in the United States from 1993 until 1995. Calling the CFL a major league would be problematic since its lack of a U.S.-based team leaves it with a much smaller revenue base than the NFL. There has often been speculation of an NFL team in Toronto, which is larger than many NFL cities and the second-largest city in North America (behind Mexico City) without an NFL team, but the NFL insists it has no plans for expansion. The NFL allowed the Buffalo Bills to play one regular-season game a year at Toronto's Rogers Centre for several years in the early 21st century, as the Bills' profits depend on a considerable Southern Ontario fan base. The first two games in the Toronto series did not directly conflict with the CFL, as they were scheduled for December, after the end of the CFL season. The series was put on hiatus after the 2013 season; current Bills owner Terry Pegula, who bought the team after the 2014 death of founding owner Ralph Wilson, formally ended the Toronto experiment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10647721",
"title": "Sports in Toronto",
"section": "Section::::Clubs.:Professional sports teams based in the Greater Toronto Area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Toronto has teams in nearly every North American major professional league, including the Toronto Blue Jays (MLB), Toronto Argonauts (CFL), Toronto Raptors (NBA), Toronto Rock (NLL), Toronto FC (MLS) and the Toronto Maple Leafs (NHL). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64646",
"title": "Toronto",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Sports.:Professional sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The city is home to the Toronto Blue Jays professional baseball team of Major League Baseball (MLB). The team has won two World Series titles (1992, 1993). The Blue Jays play their home games at the Rogers Centre, in the downtown core. Toronto has a long history of minor-league professional baseball dating back to the 1800s, culminating in the Toronto Maple Leafs baseball team, whose owner first proposed an MLB team for Toronto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52144843",
"title": "Basketball in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Professional basketball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Presently, only one team in the NBA is based in Canada, the Toronto Raptors. The Raptors also operate a minor league professional team, the Raptors 905 of the NBA G League. Both Raptors franchises are based in the Greater Toronto Area. In addition to the NBA, there are two other professional basketball leagues which have a team based in Canada, the National Basketball League of Canada, and the American Basketball Association. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26472383",
"title": "Professional sports in Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "There are professional teams based in Canada in several professional sports leagues. The National Hockey League has seven Canadian franchises and is the most popular professional sports league in Canada. The second most popular sports league in Canada is the Canadian Football League. Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association and Major League Soccer are also popular in Canada, more so in Ontario than the rest of the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sj2g6
|
what do boy/girl scout actually do?
|
[
{
"answer": "In norway we try to have fun. Light fires, Cook Food on fire, build stuff with lumber. Also do some camoing,m in cabins, tents, under tarp or under gods sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "we are just finishing up a 5 year run in Cub Scouts (ie, the junior level of Boy Scouts). They go camping. They earn merit badges and pins for all sorts of activities - cooking, science, photography, woodworking, and 100s of other things. They do field trips. They do community activities like food drives, picking up trash on the roads, etc. They do activities like Pinewood Derby (build a wooden race car and race against other boys).\n\nIt's basically a mix of fun social activities and character building activities and practical skill learning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Eagle Scout here. \n\nAt the first few levels, the Scout learns the basics of surviving in the woods, making fire, and getting skills in self-discipline and motivation. At First class, the Scout begins learning about leadership skills and what it takes to run a group of peers and get them to do things together. \n\nStar is the step beyond first class, here, the Scout has shown his ability to lead a group for at least 6 months and has been in charge of some part of the troop. A good troop will be led entirely by Scouts 1st class and above with minimal input from adults whenever it's safe/legal to do so. \n\nLife comes after Star. If a Star scout is a great scout, a Life Scout is a Scout for life. He know leadership and can lead others when necessary. He embodies the ways of scouting and cheerfully serves his troop, his nation, and his communities. He is also halfway to being an Eagle Scout. \n\nThe Eagle Scout is a Scout who has taken the lessons from the other (not lower, other) ranks of scouting and pulled them together. He embodies all that Scouting is intended to build in young men. He is one of the less than 5% who make the cut and excel in the program. His stature is not given by the troop like all other ranks, it is awarded at the Council level which is the largest scouting body within each state typically. He has completed over a dozen required merit badges and perhaps twice as many elective ones. For all intents and purposes, he has received a college degree in Scouting and leadership. \n\nMerit badges are similar to courses or modules. Each one has a set of requirements for the Scout to show he has attempted and completed to the best of his ability (the merit of his work, not the quality earns the badge). There are numerous badges in a variety of disciplines that Scouts can attempt. Film, fishing, Hiking, camping, Art, Nuclear SCience, etc. Each one is different, but each lets the scout explore his interests. \n\nThere is also the Order of the Arrow (WWW, my brothers) which is an honor society for Scouts. It is fairly unique in that it is the only honor organization where non-members vote in members. Each Scout in the troop 1st class and above is eligible if he meets the requirements and is elected by the troop. The Order of the Arrow is a different topic though and not as widely known as the BSA, so I'll not digress further. \n\nThe camping aspect is generally only a portion of the time in the scouts. Perhaps 2-3 times a season a troop will go on a large trip. Patrols will typically go on a single night adventure once a month, and the entire troop will often go to camp for a week or more. The most lauded trip though is to Philmont Scout Ranch (Never got to go, want a son or Ventures daughter who will go with me). \n\nTypically, a scout troop meets once a week in their chartered organization. The troop will have a program that varies widely but typically involves some sort of news/updates/reminders, perhaps a lesson for the SCouts working on a merit badge will occur, and their will be a game for the Scouts who aren't taking a badge or working on requirements. Typically though, everyone does something during the meeting. Early ranks are taught by later ranks (Life scouts teach tenderfoots how to tie a square-hitch, etc.) and the later ranks concentrate on getting stuff done with the adults or Eagles who are merit badge counselors. \n\nAll-in-all, it's a pretty hefty, fun program where the SCouts don't realize the life skills they are learning until they've left.\n\nTl;Dr: Learn life skills and self-improvement while trying not to burn down the woods or get ated by bears. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Eagle scout and Assistant Scoutmaster here! (Eagle is Americas highest boy scout rank)\n\nFor the most part it's all about developing ourselves to be good young men and eventually adults.\n\nEverything we do is geared to be fun and worthwhile . merit badges teach skills that a boy could want to know. Earning ranks require knowing skills, public service, teaching others, being a leader and developing one's character. Out door skills are a major part of the program but family values, Faith (any religion is supoorted) and pride in one's community and country are also big.\n\nThis is my understanding of the program after 8 years of experience. There is latitude to what different troops want to do but the experience is fairly regular from boy to boy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "796809",
"title": "Norwegian Guide and Scout Association",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Scouting's main purpose is to develop young members into independent and responsible adults. This is achieved using a training program with many outdoor recreation and practical activities, teamwork in small groups (patrol system), and by actively using the \"learning by doing\" method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52888204",
"title": "Personal progression in Scouting Ireland",
"section": "Section::::ONE Programme.:Role of Scouters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The role of the Scouters is one of assisting, supporting, facilitating, motivating, being a role model rather than directive. Younger age ranges will require more facilitation and direction but this should be reversed in older age ranges to one of 'mentor or coach'. The Scouters need to be aware of the young people in their Section,and understand 'where they are' in relation to their development as young people. Scouters will assist in reviewing activities and help young people to reflect on their experiences and personal journey through Scouting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5987731",
"title": "Cub Scouts (Scouting Ireland)",
"section": "Section::::Leadership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The role of the Scouter is one of assisting, supporting, facilitating and motivating. The Scouter is a role model, rather than a boss. Younger age ranges will require more facilitation and direction but this should be reversed in older age ranges to one of ‘mentor or coach’. The Scouter needs to be aware of the young people in their Section, and understand ‘where they are’ in relation to their development as young people. Scouters will assist in reviewing activities and help young people to reflect on their experiences and personal journey through Scouting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154680",
"title": "Boy Scouts of America v. Dale",
"section": "Section::::Decision.:Dissenting opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "What guidance the Boy Scouts gave to the adult leaders that have direct contact with the Scouts themselves urged those leaders to avoid discussing sexual matters. \"Scouts... are directed to receive their sex education at home or in school, but not from the organization.\" Scoutmasters, in turn, are told to direct \"curious adolescents\" to their family, religious leaders, doctors, or other professionals. The Boy Scouts had gone so far as to devise specific guidelines for Scoutmasters:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42954024",
"title": "Teso College Aloet",
"section": "Section::::Clubs and Societies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The Scouting Club is a voluntary, non-political and educational youth movement. It is open to all, without discrimination, regardless of ethnicity and creed, in accordance with the purpose, principles and methods defined by Lord Baden Powell, and his wife, Mrs. Olivier of Gilwell. The Scouts' mission is to educate young people to play a constructive role in society. Scouts are taught to live by a code of conduct exemplified in the 12 points of the Scout Law, and they continue to live by these laws in adulthood. A central part of a Scout's code of conduct is honesty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76511",
"title": "Boy Scouts of America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "The stated mission of the Boy Scouts of America is to \"prepare young people to make ethical and moral choices over their lifetimes by instilling in them the values of the Scout Oath and Law.\" Youth are trained in responsible citizenship, character development, and self-reliance through participation in a wide range of outdoor activities, educational programs, and, at older age levels, career-oriented programs in partnership with community organizations. For younger members, the Scout method is part of the program to instill typical Scouting values such as trustworthiness, good citizenship, and outdoors skills, through a variety of activities such as camping, aquatics, and hiking. To further these outdoor activities, the BSA has four high-adventure bases: Northern Tier (Minnesota, Manitoba, and Ontario), Philmont Scout Ranch (New Mexico), Sea Base (Florida, US Virgin Islands, and Bahamas), and Summit Bechtel Reserve (West Virginia), as well as close to a hundred separate camps and reservations specifically dedicated to scouts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3844203",
"title": "Scout method",
"section": "Section::::The eight elements.:Personal progression.:Self-learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Education in Scouting should give a Scout the ambition and desire to learn by himself, which is more valuable than receiving instruction from leaders. This is done by having the Scout undertake activities that attract him individually from the selection offered in Scouting for Boys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
684kdo
|
were anatomically modern humans from 200,000 years ago exactly the same as us, except without language and culture?
|
[
{
"answer": "They were close enough that we could bump junk with them and produce viable offspring.\n\nThere would be some differences (200,000 years is enough for SOME drift) but they would be pretty similar to us. They would be on the short side, and have a lot of injuries and scars that we don't have... but fundamentally they are us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14115",
"title": "History of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The discovery of some of the earliest evidence for the presence of anatomically modern humans found anywhere in Europe was reported in 2007 from the deepest levels of the Kostenki archaeological site near the Don River in Russia, which has been dated to at least 40,000 years ago. Arctic Russia was reached by 40,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99645",
"title": "Homo sapiens",
"section": "Section::::Behavioral modernity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "There is considerable debate regarding whether the earliest anatomically modern humans behaved similarly to recent or existing humans. Behavioral modernity is taken to include fully developed language (requiring the capacity for abstract thought), artistic expression, early forms of religious behavior, increased cooperation and the formation of early settlements, and the production of articulated tools from lithic cores, bone or antler. The term Upper Paleolithic is intended to cover the period since the rapid expansion of modern humans throughout Eurasia, which coincides with the first appearance of Paleolithic art such as cave paintings and the development of technological innovation such as the spear-thrower. The Upper Paleolithic begins around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago, and also coincides with the disappearance of archaic humans such as the Neanderthals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4016366",
"title": "Crimean Mountains",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Archaeologists have found the earliest anatomically modern humans in Europe in the Crimean mountains' Buran-Kaya caves. The fossils are 32,000 years old, with the artifacts linked to the Gravettian culture. The fossils have cut marks suggesting a post-mortem defleshing ritual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3222831",
"title": "Archaic humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Anatomically modern humans appear from over 160,000 years ago in Ethiopia and after 70,000 years ago (see Toba catastrophe theory), gradually supplanting the \"archaic\" human varieties. Non-modern varieties of \"Homo\" are certain to have survived until after 30,000 years ago, and perhaps until as recently as 12,000 years ago. Which of these, if any, are included under the term \"archaic human\" is a matter of definition and varies among authors. Nonetheless, according to recent genetic studies, modern humans may have bred with \"at least two groups\" of ancient humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans. Other studies have cast doubt on admixture being the source of the shared genetic markers between archaic and modern humans, pointing to an ancestral origin of the traits which originated 500,000–800,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14821485",
"title": "Early human migrations",
"section": "Section::::\"Homo sapiens\".:Dispersal throughout Eurasia.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Cro-Magnon are considered the first anatomically modern humans in Europe. They entered Eurasia by the Zagros Mountains (near present-day Iran and eastern Turkey) around 50,000 years ago, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and another migrating north to the steppes of Central Asia. Modern human remains dating to 43–45,000 years ago have been discovered in Italy and Britain, as well as in the European Russian Arctic from 40,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3222831",
"title": "Archaic humans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology and definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The evolutionary dividing lines that separate modern humans from archaic humans and archaic humans from \"Homo erectus\" are unclear. The earliest known fossils of anatomically modern humans such as the Omo remains from 195,000 years ago, \"Homo sapiens idaltu\" from 160,000 years ago, and Qafzeh remains from 90,000 years ago are recognizably modern humans. However, these early modern humans do possess a number of archaic traits, such as moderate, but not prominent, brow ridges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1293,
"text": "The idea that, along with other life forms, modern-day humans evolved from an ancient, common ancestor was proposed by Robert Chambers in 1844 and taken up by Charles Darwin in 1871. Modern humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking apes that has been traced back over to \"Sahelanthropus\". The first known stone tools were made about , apparently by \"Australopithecus garhi\", and were found near animal bones that bear scratches made by these tools. The earliest hominines had chimpanzee-sized brains, but there has been a fourfold increase in the last 3 Ma; a statistical analysis suggests that hominine brain sizes depend almost completely on the date of the fossils, while the species to which they are assigned has only slight influence. There is a long-running debate about whether modern humans evolved all over the world simultaneously from existing advanced hominines or are descendants of a single small population in Africa, which then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species. There is also debate about whether anatomically modern humans had an intellectual, cultural and technological \"Great Leap Forward\" under 100,000 years ago and, if so, whether this was due to neurological changes that are not visible in fossils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fd79e
|
What were the long term effects of D-Day?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you mean going beyond the war itself you end up with decades of US soldiers being stationed in mainland Europe. Without Operation Overlord (DDay actually means the day on which a campaign starts and was not the name for the invasion of Europe) it's possible that the Soviets would have overrun a lot more of Europe than they did. \n\nSo Overlord meant that the Cold War was more stable due to both spheres of influence having control over segments of Europe where neither appeared to have one up on the other to any large degree enough to make war worth it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's a good question. Part of me wants to say that it helped keep France out of the Soviet sphere of influence, but then again, there's no telling if Germany would've surrendered with the fall of Berlin. Resistance cells would've likely risen up and pushed the remaining troops out of France, given that Germany would've been able to pull more troops out of France to stem the tide of the Russians.\n\nIt's also possible that there would be two separate states, the \"Free France\" state and the Vichy State, because said resistance cells (now turned into a formal militia) may not have been able to overtake those French troops...I'm going to just stop here because this isn't /r/HistoricalWhatIf and there's no need for further speculation. \n\nTl;dr: We will never know because of the massive impact it had in \"saving\" BeNeLux, Denmark, and Italy; there are too many variables to take into account.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46128",
"title": "Invasion of Normandy",
"section": "Section::::Planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast, 749 U.S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20396035",
"title": "449th Expeditionary Flying Training Squadron",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "After D-Day deployed to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and later Belgium. Provided tactical air support and bombardment of enemy strong points and military targets to disrupt resistance to Allied ground forces advancing from the French invasion beaches and the ensuing offensives on the continent; 1944-1945. Attacked enemy forces as part of the Western Allied invasion of Germany, 1945 and continued offensive tactical operations in support of ground forces until German capitulation in May 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20410776",
"title": "450th Expeditionary Flying Training Squadron",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "After D-Day deployed to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and later Belgium. Provided tactical air support and bombardment of enemy strong points and military targets to disrupt resistance to Allied ground forces advancing from the French invasion beaches and the ensuing offensives on the continent; 1944-1945. Attacked enemy forces as part of the Western Allied invasion of Germany, 1945 and continued offensive tactical operations in support of ground forces until German capitulation in May 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27436212",
"title": "451st Flying Training Squadron",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "After D-Day deployed to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and later Belgium. Provided tactical air support and bombardment of enemy strong points and military targets to disrupt resistance to Allied ground forces advancing from the French invasion beaches and the ensuing offensives on the continent; 1944-1945. Attacked enemy forces as part of the Western Allied invasion of Germany, 1945 and continued offensive tactical operations in support of ground forces until German capitulation in May 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21032302",
"title": "452nd Flight Test Squadron",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "After D-Day deployed to Advanced Landing Grounds in France and later Belgium. Provided tactical air support and bombardment of enemy strong points and military targets to disrupt resistance to Allied ground forces advancing from the French invasion beaches and the ensuing offensives on the continent; 1944-1945. Attacked enemy forces as part of the Western Allied invasion of Germany, 1945 and continued offensive tactical operations in support of ground forces until German capitulation in May 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14748050",
"title": "D-Day -1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "D-Day - 1 was a short propaganda film produced shortly before the end of the Second World War to boost the 7th war bond drive. It focused on the experiences of American paratroopers and gliders who went into Normandy prior to the sea borne invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27624193",
"title": "Al Murray's Road to Berlin",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:D-Day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "In \"D-Day\", Murray looks at the opening phase of the Allied invasion of Normandy, and the battles on the crucial east flank by British forces, designed to allow the securing of the critical objective of the city of Caen, key to controlling Normandy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8z44t1
|
why can’t the panama canal just dig a deep canal and remove the locks?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oceans are in constant motion. This means that they surge up and down.\n\nBecause the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean aren't connected anywhere *but* the Panama Canal, you're channeling the entire difference in wave height at any given time through the canal.\n\nWithout the locks, that means you'd mostly get a fast running channel from the Pacific to the Atlantic... that reversed from time to time to run the other way. Navigating that channel would be an enormous effort.\n\nInstead, they install locks to prevent the water from flowing unchecked from one end to the other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The tides on the pacific side are pretty extreme, varying by 7 meters between extreme high and extreme low tide. The result of this would be a very large wave pushing its way down the canal, this is not ideal and would likely destroy a lot of ships\n\nPlus, you'd have to dig the canal down another 26 meters and most of the canal is built to just 12 meters deep right now. Its a massive engineering effort when they want to support ships just a couple meters deeper, adding 10 or 20 or 30 meters would take decades of construction work and billions of dollars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The middle part of the canal system is 85 feet above sea level.\n\nSo you'd need to dig the rest of the canal 85 feet deeper. For about 40 miles. So that would be an enormous amount of earth and rocks to dig and move, much more than was dug to place the locks as they currently are.\n\nThat's not even the biggest issue, though. Look at the map:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSee all that water in the middle? The canal isn't a single cut across Panama, it's two canals, with locks, with **a huge ass lake in the middle**. Gatun Lake *is* the canal's middle, you enter the lake at one end and scoot across. Leveling the canal would be draining the entire lake (which itself was filled to create the canal) and drastically changing everything in the area, which now has created a large healthy rainforest area. That lake is the source of drinking water for Panama City.\n\nWeirdest part is, the mean sea level at the Pacific side is 20 feet higher than the Atlantic side owing to differences in tides. I have no idea what would happen exactly if you were to make a singe level clean cut across Panama but I wouldn't want to be standing in the middle of it when the Pacific Ocean decides it's time to be 20 feet higher than the water on the other end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because when it was built they took the easy route and had a big part or the channel go through a lake that was already there.\n\nIf they dug through land all the way without locks, it would triple the length and add extra 30-something meters of depth. That would probably be an impossible task 100 years ago(might even still be impossible)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3037624",
"title": "Panama Canal locks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The Panama Canal locks () are a lock system that lifts a ship up to the main elevation of the Panama Canal and down again. The original canal had a total of six steps (three up, three down) for a ship's passage. The total length of the lock structures, including the approach walls, is over . The locks were one of the greatest engineering works ever to be undertaken when they opened in 1914. No other concrete construction of comparable size was undertaken until the Hoover Dam, in the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29323",
"title": "Suez Canal",
"section": "Section::::Layout and operation.:Navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The canal has no locks because of the flat terrain, and the minor sea level difference between each end is inconsequential for shipping. As the canal has no sea surge gates, the ports at the ends would be subject to the sudden impact of tsunamis from the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea, according to a 2012 article in the \"Journal of Coastal Research\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24849",
"title": "Panama Canal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The Panama Canal () is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit for maritime trade. Canal locks are at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 m (85 ft) above sea level, and then lower the ships at the other end. The original locks are 34 m (110 ft) wide. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began commercial operation on June 26, 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233684",
"title": "Delaware and Raritan Canal",
"section": "Section::::Route.:Locks and spillways.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Locks were used to overcome elevation differences along the D&R canal. Many of the locks are still present along the canal route; however, the lock gates have been replaced on the upstream side with small dams and water outfalls. The downstream gates have been removed, so the water in the locks is level with the water on the downstream side. Some of the locks have been buried or removed due to construction projects in the vicinity of the canal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2858546",
"title": "Suezmax",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The current channel depth of the canal allows for a maximum of of draft, meaning that a few fully laden supertankers are too deep to fit through, and either have to unload part of their cargo to other ships (\"transhipment\") or to a pipeline terminal before passing through, or alternatively avoid the Suez Canal and travel around Cape Agulhas instead. The canal was deepened in 2009 from .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5485042",
"title": "Panama Canal expansion project",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "All of the canal-widening studies since the 1930s have determined that the best way to increase canal capacity is by building a third set of locks larger than the 1914 locks. The US began excavations for new locks in 1939, but abandoned them in 1942 because of the outbreak of World War II. This conclusion was again reached in the 1980s by the tripartite commission formed by Panama, Japan, and the US. More recently, the studies developed by the Panama Canal Authority () for its 2025 master plan confirm that a third, larger set of locks is the most suitable, profitable, and environmentally responsible option.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5485042",
"title": "Panama Canal expansion project",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The original Panama Canal has a limited capacity determined by operational times and cycles of the existing locks and further constrained by the current trend towards larger (close to Panamax-sized) vessels transiting the canal, requiring more transit time in the locks and channels. Also, periodic maintenance on the aging canal requires shutdowns of this waterway. Demand is growing due to the growth of international trade, and many users require a guaranteed level of service. Despite the gains which have been made in efficiency, the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) estimated that the canal would reach its maximum sustainable capacity between 2009 and 2012. The long-term solution for the congestion was the expansion of the canal with a third set of locks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6d24vd
|
as diseases like polio are eradicated why do we still need to vaccinate against them.
|
[
{
"answer": "When a disease is considered eradicated, it is saying that we (\"we being whatever group(s) keeps these records) haven't heard of any recorded cases in ___ number of years. It's possible the disease is still out there and it's just not being reported. Vaccinations continue for a little while just in case.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The main reason is that the diseases we vaccinate against have not been eradicated. For example, while the incidence of polio has reduced by 99% since we began vaccination programs, there are still about 50 confirmed cases per year. While extremely unlikely, there is still a small chance that someone can be infected. If I remember correctly, smallpox is the only disease that has been 100% successfully eradicated through vaccination, with no reported cases since 1980. Which is why kids are often no longer vaccinated against smallpox.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "also, in many less developed nations, they either don't have certain vaccines or they're not as accessible. so while something may be eradicated in the usa or europe, maybe a poor or underdeveloped nation is more common. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Vaccines aren't perfect. Say a vaccine has an 85% effective rate. That means there's still 15% of people that are going to get that disease (people will still carry the disease, but it won't effect them). Well, since everyone around them has that vaccine, the disease doesn't have anywhere to go, so it burns out. \n\nNow, if there's a bunch of people that DIDN'T get vaccinated, then there's a higher chance of it spreading to those who did, and causing an outbreak.\n\nI know this isn't exactly what you asked, but I feel like it's a solid answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many diseases that we vaccinate against are difficult to get rid of completely, because they can be carried by animals. Even if we vaccinate every human, the virus still could be kept alive in bat populations for example, and then passed back to humans if we stop vaccinating. \n\nSome viruses do only affect humans and are much easier to eradicate. Smallpox, for one. HPV for another, but a lot of people refuse that one because they can't stand the thought that their kids might have sex some day, so cervical cancer will linger far longer than it should even though we could conceivably eradicate it within a generation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Polio isn't eradicated, but we've mostly stopped vaccinating for it because it's extremely rare outside of a very few areas (a bit of Pakistan and a bit of Africa, iirc).\n\nSmallpox is eradicated, and we no longer vaccinate for that at all.\n\nOther diseases, the vaccine isn't perfect protection, or the disease has non-human reservoirs that make re-occurrence a risk forever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45300883",
"title": "Epidemiology of measles",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Choosing not to vaccinate is largely to blame for the recent outbreak of measles. Parents choosing not to vaccinate prevents herd immunity, which is what patients who suffer with immunocompromising diseases rely on to protect them. To prevent the measles outbreak of 2019 from getting worse it is necessary for anti-vaxxers to choose to vaccinate, however, just presenting evidence to parents that are resistance is usually not enough. “Finding common ground with parents' goals and hopes for their children and sharing compelling individual accounts may help” (Smith, 2018, p. 1).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2808424",
"title": "Pox party",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness and risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Parents who expose their children to Varicella zoster virus in this manner may believe that a case of chickenpox is safer and more effective than receiving a vaccination. Similar ideas have been applied to other diseases such as measles. However, pediatricians have warned against holding pox parties, citing dangers arising from possible complications associated with chicken pox, such as encephalitis, chickenpox-associated pneumonia, and invasive group A strep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32473",
"title": "Vaccination",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Opposition to vaccination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Many parents do not vaccinate their children because they feel that diseases are no longer present due to vaccination. This is a false assumption, since diseases held in check by immunization programs can and do still return if immunization is dropped. These pathogens could possibly infect vaccinated people, due to the pathogen's ability to mutate when it is able to live in unvaccinated hosts. In 2010, California had the worst whooping cough outbreak in 50 years. A possible contributing factor was parents choosing not to vaccinate their children. There was also a case in Texas in 2012 where 21 members of a church contracted measles because they chose not to immunize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32653",
"title": "Vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Vaccines led to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious and deadly diseases in humans. Other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago thanks to widespread vaccination programs. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur, let alone spread. This effect is called herd immunity. Polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries (Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Pakistan). However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34254",
"title": "Yellow fever",
"section": "Section::::History.:Current status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination. These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the sylvatic cycle involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8649736",
"title": "Varicella vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Duration of immunity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Catching \"wild\" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with \"pox parties\". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The CDC and corresponding national organisations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines—large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4840281",
"title": "MMRV vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Recommendations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "The World Health Organization recommends vaccinating against measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), and varicella (chickenpox) because the risks of these diseases far outweigh the risks of vaccinating against them. In particular, the World Health Organization recommends varicella vaccination in countries where the vaccine is affordable, the disease is a relatively important problem, and high and sustained vaccine coverage can be achieved. The U.S. and a few other countries have widely implemented this. MMR and varicella vaccine are given at roughly the same time and a booster injection is recommended for both. The MMRV vaccine, a combined MMR and varicella vaccine, simplifies administration of the vaccines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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