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6vfq7h
|
how much of the "side effects" medicine talks about are actually side effects?
|
[
{
"answer": " > But how much is actually proven to be a side effect? \n\nAll those are \"possible side effects\", meaning you *might* experience them. Drugs can be difficult to predict and just because someone experienced them in testing doesn't mean you will.\n\n > because companies are too cheap to do extra testing?\n\nExtra testing probably won't help. Suppose 5% of people who take the drug experience anal leakage while others don't. What will more testing reveal about that possible side effect?\n\n > Does that mean that heart attack could actually be a 10% occurrence and not a .01%?\n\nSuch a dangerous drug would never pass FDA approval.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5901008",
"title": "Lofepramine",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The most common adverse effects (occurring in at least 1% of those taking the drug) include agitation, anxiety, confusion, dizziness, irritability, abnormal sensations, like pins and needles, without a physical cause, sleep disturbances (e.g. sleeplessness) and a drop in blood pressure upon standing up. Less frequent side effects include movement disorders (like tremors), precipitation of angle closure glaucoma and the potentially fatal side effects paralytic ileus and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "644492",
"title": "Amlodipine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Common but not dose-related adverse effects are [[Fatigue (medical)|fatigue]] (4.5% vs. 2.8% with a placebo), [[nausea]] (2.9% vs. 1.9%), [[abdominal pain]] (1.6% vs. 0.3%), and [[somnolence]] (1.4% vs. 0.6%). Side effects occurring less than 1% of the time include: [[blood disorders]], [[impotence]], [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[peripheral neuropathy]], [[insomnia]], [[tachycardia]], [[gingival enlargement]], [[hepatitis]], and [[jaundice]].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5108068",
"title": "Varenicline",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "Mild nausea is the most common side effect and is seen in approximately 30% of people taking varenicline though this rarely (<3%) results in discontinuation of the medication. Other less common side effects include headache, difficulty sleeping, and nightmares. Rare side effects reported by people taking varenicline compared to placebo include change in taste, vomiting, abdominal pain, flatulence, and constipation. It has been estimated that for every five subjects taking varenicline at maintenance doses, there will be an event of nausea, and for every 24 and 35 treated subjects, there will be an event of constipation and flatulence, respectively. Gastrointestinal side-effects lead to discontinuation of the drug in 2% to 8% of people using varenicline. Incidence of nausea is dose-dependent: incidence of nausea was higher in people taking a larger dose (30%) versus placebo (10%) as compared to people taking a smaller dose (16%) versus placebo (11%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151828",
"title": "Side effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In medicine, a side effect is an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is secondary to the one intended; although the term is predominantly employed to describe adverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequences of the use of a drug. Developing drugs is a complicated process, because no two people are exactly the same, so even drugs that have virtually no side effects, might be difficult for some people. Also, it is difficult to make a drug that targets one part of the body but that doesn’t affect other parts, the fact that increases the risk of side effects in the untargeted parts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4056078",
"title": "Brivudine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The drug is generally well tolerated. The only common side effect is nausea (in 2% of patients). Less common side effects (<1%) include headache, increased or lowered blood cell counts (granulocytopenia, anaemia, lymphocytosis, monocytosis), increased liver enzymes, and allergic reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5597376",
"title": "Motofen",
"section": "Section::::Side effects, interactions, and misuse potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Side effects include drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, burning eyes, blurred vision, dry eyes, dizziness, dry mouth, epigastric distress, and constipation (a paradoxical side effect). Side effects attributed to the atropine content (especially when taken in excess doses, or in children), include: flushing, dryness in many areas, urinary retention, insomnia, headache, anxiety, hyperthermia, and tachycardia. It is these side effects that make it undesirable for most patients to take higher amounts of the medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414058",
"title": "Oxcarbazepine",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Side effects are dose dependent. The most common include dizziness, blurred or double vision, nystagmus, ataxia, fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting, sleepiness, difficulty in concentration and mental sluggishness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fip1v
|
why when another person is picked up when they are conscious, they feel lighter than their actually weight, but if they are unconscious or like a rag doll they feel more like their true weight?
|
[
{
"answer": "People who are concience are able to help you lift them, or shift their weight so it's less awkward to cary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think about it like trying to pick up a hundred pounds of sand. Consciousness is, metaphorically, sand bags. The contain the mass. A conscious person being carried has a desire to not be dropped, and so will assist the carrier by keeping his limbs tucked in, maybe even wrapping arms around the center mass of the carrier and alleviating pressure on the arms by putting more weight on the hips and legs. An unconscious person can't contain their body, their legs and arms will flop and they won't grab on for support, so it's like trying to lift a hundred pounds of sand using a large piece of tarp to carry it instead of a bag.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3821985",
"title": "Complex training",
"section": "Section::::Complex training variations.:Weight lifting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Weight lifting can effectively demonstrate the effects of post-activation potentiation. For example, if a person lifts a light weight, and then lifts a heavy weight, before lifting the light weight again, the light weight will be relatively easier to lift and feel lighter the second time it has been lifted. Because the intense activation of the nervous system and correspondent recruitment of muscle fibres which occurred in conjunction with the heavy lift has allowed the person to perform more powerful movements, and the weight therefore feels relatively lighter. Another resistance based explanation involves the example of heavy suitcase, light suitcase i.e. after lifting a heavy suitcase, a person lifts a similar size, but light suitcase with no idea what is in it; as the person has just been carrying a heavy suitcase, their level of power application is well in excess of what is required to lift the light suitcase and it flies off the floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:How to avoid weightlessness.:Sensation of weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Humans experience their own body weight as a result of this supporting force, which results in a normal force applied to a person by the surface of a supporting object, on which the person is standing or sitting. In the absence of this force, a person would be in free-fall, and would experience weightlessness. It is the transmission of this reaction force through the human body, and the resultant compression and tension of the body's tissues, that results in the sensation of weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5583202",
"title": "Preconscious",
"section": "Section::::Freud's 'Topographical' System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "\". . . two kinds of unconscious—one which is easily, under frequently occurring circumstances, transformed into something conscious, and another with which this transformation is difficult and takes place only subject to a considerable expenditure of effort or possibly never at all. [...] We call the unconscious which is only latent, and thus easily becomes conscious, the 'preconscious', and retain the term 'unconscious' for the other\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "386232",
"title": "Psychosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Model of the person.:Lower unconscious.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The lower unconscious is that realm of the person to which is relegated the experiences of shame, fear, pain, despair, and rage associated with primal wounding suffered in life. One way to think of the lower unconscious is that it is a particular bandwidth of one's experiential range that has been broken away from consciousness. It comprises that range of experience related to the threat of personal annihilation, of destruction of self, of nonbeing, and more generally, of the painful side of the human condition. As long as this range of experience remains unconscious, the person will have a limited ability to be empathic with self or others in the more painful aspects of human life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42037",
"title": "Unconscious mind",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Erich Fromm contends that, \"The term 'the unconscious' is actually a mystification (even though one might use it for reasons of convenience, as I am guilty of doing in these pages). There is no such thing as \"the\" unconscious; there are only experiences of which we are aware, and others of which we are not aware, that is, \"of which we are unconscious\". If I hate a man because I am afraid of him, and if I am aware of my hate but not of my fear, we may say that my hate is conscious and that my fear is unconscious; still my fear does not lie in that mysterious place: 'the' unconscious.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32149",
"title": "Unconsciousness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Unconsciousness may occur as the result of traumatic brain injury, brain hypoxia (e.g., due to a brain infarction or cardiac arrest), severe poisoning with drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system (e.g., alcohol and other hypnotic or sedative drugs), severe fatigue, anaesthesia, and other causes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17456219",
"title": "The Case for Animal Rights",
"section": "Section::::Arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "[It] involves more than merely being alive and more than merely being conscious. ... individuals are subjects-of-a-life if they have beliefs and desires; perception, memory, and a sense of the future, including their own future; an emotional life together with feelings of pleasure and pain; preference- and welfare-interests; the ability to initiate action in pursuit of their desires and goals; a psychophysical identity over time; and an individual welfare in the sense that their experiential life fares well or ill for them, logically independently of their utility for others and logically independently of their being the object of anyone else's interests. Those who satisfy the subject-of-a-life criterion themselves have a distinctive kind of value – inherent value – and are not to be viewed or treated as mere receptacles.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
80bpn2
|
why does orange juice after brushing my teeth with mint tooth paste feel like the gods are punishing me?
|
[
{
"answer": "Orange juice is very sour and very sweet. Your tooth paste temporarily makes you unable to taste sweetness. Without the sweet there to balance it, the sourness of orange juice becomes kinda overwhelming. \n[A similar thing happens with the miracle berry, which blocks sour and salty tastes](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add on to the other answers, as a general rule, you’re not supposed to brush 30 minutes to an hour before or after eating or drinking. Admittedly far easier said than done. Perhaps it’s the god of oral hygiene who’s punishing us all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s the Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) in most toothpaste that causes this reaction. Find a toothpaste that is SLS-free and you can enjoy your orange juice without fear of punishment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147735",
"title": "Toothpaste",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Miscellaneous issues and debates.:Alteration of taste perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "After using toothpaste, orange juice and other juices have an unpleasant taste. Sodium lauryl sulfate alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58875",
"title": "Maclura pomifera",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Although Osage oranges are commonly believed to repel insects, there is insufficient evidence to support this. Research has shown that compounds extracted from the fruit, when concentrated, may repel insects. However, the naturally occurring concentrations of these compounds in the fruit are far too low to make the fruit an effective insect repellent. In 2004, the EPA insisted that a website selling \"M. pomifera\" fruits online remove any mention of their supposed pesticidal properties as false advertisements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27142140",
"title": "Annoying Orange",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Despite what other fruits and objects think, Orange often cannot control his tendency to be \"annoying,\" and rarely intentionally tries to spite others; he usually means well for most fruits and objects. In one episode of the web series, a \"life coach,\" Mango, suggests that Orange uses his annoying nature to try to cope with the destruction of the fruits he tries to make friends with. It is implied that Orange has a learning disability. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370312",
"title": "Bitter orange",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Bitter orange is also employed in herbal medicine as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, due to its active ingredient, synephrine. Bitter orange supplements have been linked to a number of serious side effects and deaths, and consumer groups advocate that people avoid using the fruit medically. It is still not concluded if bitter orange affects medical conditions of heart and cardiovascular organs, by itself or in formulae with other substances. Standard reference materials are released concerning the properties in bitter orange by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), for ground fruit, extract and solid oral dosage form, along with those packaged together into one item.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47408224",
"title": "Pomiferin",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Repellent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Peterson and Fristad (2000) investigated folklore beliefs stating that osage orange fruit repelled insects. They concluded that pure pomiferin had little or no effect and that there must be another component of the Osage orange that repels insects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52136",
"title": "Citrus",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Medical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Oranges were historically used for their high content of vitamin C, which prevents scurvy. Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency, and can be prevented by having 10 mg of vitamin C a day. An early sign of scurvy is fatigue. If ignored, later symptoms are bleeding and bruising easily. British sailors were given a ration of citrus fruits on long voyages to prevent the onset of scurvy, hence the British nickname of Limey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38624258",
"title": "Ju Song",
"section": "Section::::Symbolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The word \"ju\", meaning \"orange (fruit or tree)\" is phonetically reminiscent of the word \"zhù\" (祝), which means \"to wish or pray for\", as in the phrase \"zhù fú\" (祝福), \"to wish or pray for good luck\", thus the orange is symbolically a \"harbinger of good luck\". Also in ancient times the emperor gave oranges to his officials, and was thus like an orange tree, by being a source of orange fruits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j3mnq
|
li5: cuban missle crisis, bay of pigs...
|
[
{
"answer": "Long ago, in 1823, President Monroe announced the Monroe Doctrine, which essentially said that the United States would view any attempts by European nations to colonize North American countries as threats to US national security. This is important.\n\n\nCuba used to be ruled by a US-friendly dictator named Fulgencio Batista. The US liked Batista, the communists in Cuba didn't like him. In 1959 there was a revolution in Cuba and the communists, led by Fidel Castro, took power. Now, the communists in the Soviet Union were generally big fans of any other nation becoming communist, so they immediately tried to become allies with Cuba. The United States was not happy about the Soviet Union getting an ally in their backyard, and remember the ancient Monroe Doctrine allowed them to say that the Soviet Union interfering in Cuba's affairs was a threat to the US. This made sufficiently flimsy justification for the US to attempt to remove Castro and reinstate Batista or another US-friendly ruler.\n\nIn 1961, Kennedy authorized the Bay of Pigs invasion. Essentially a bunch of exiled Cubans were trained by the CIA to invade Cuba. The plan hinged on the fact that the communist Cuban army would be weak, the Cuban resistance would want to lend their support to the exiles, and the Cuban people in general would be happy to help overthrow Castro. As you can guess, it backfired. The invasion failed in 3 days, and it was a big foreign policy disaster for Kennedy.\n\nThe Cuban Missile Crisis was basically the closest the world ever came to full-scale nuclear war. As I mentioned above, the USSR and Cuba were allies, and the USSR had started stockpiling missiles in Cuba that had the ability to strike most of the continental US. The US had a similar situation with their allies in Turkey allowing them to strike the USSR. In October, 1962, a US surveillance plane took photos of Soviet nuclear bases under construction in Cuba. This kicked off about two weeks of posturing and brinkmanship over the Cuban bases. Hawks in the US wanted Kennedy to invade Cuba, which would have essentially kicked off a nuclear war. Ultimately the crisis was settled by Kennedy and Khrushchev (then head of the USSR) agreeing to get rid of the bases in Turkey and Cuba.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10808948",
"title": "Military history of Cuba",
"section": "Section::::Post-revolution Cuba (1959–present).:Bay of Pigs Invasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The Bay of Pigs Invasion (known as La Batalla de Girón in Cuba), was an unsuccessful attempt by a U.S.-trained force of Cuban exiles to invade southern Cuba with support from U.S. armed forces to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro. The plan was launched in April 1961, less than three months after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency in the United States. The Cuban armed forces, trained and equipped by Eastern Bloc nations, defeated the exile combatants in three days. Bad Cuban-American relations were exacerbated the following year by the Cuban Missile Crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740220",
"title": "Special Activities Center",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cuba (1961).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The Bay of Pigs Invasion (known as \"La Batalla de Girón\", or \"Playa Girón\" in Cuba), was an unsuccessful attempt by a U.S.-trained force of Cuban exiles to invade southern Cuba and overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro. The plan was launched in April 1961, less than three months after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency of the United States. The Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, trained and equipped by Eastern Bloc nations, defeated the exile-combatants in three days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184511",
"title": "Bay of Pigs Invasion",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Political reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion and events involving Cuba that followed caused the US to feel threatened by their neighbor. Previous to the events at Playa Girón the US government imposed embargoes that limited trade with Cuba. An article appearing in \"The New York Times\" dated 6 January 1960 called trade with Cuba \"too risky.\" About six months later in July 1960, the US reduced the import quota of Cuban sugar, leaving the US to increase its sugar supply using other sources. Immediately following the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Kennedy Administration considered complete trade restrictions with Cuba. Five months later the president was authorized to do so. After Cuba's declaration of Marxism, the Kennedy administration imposed a complete trade embargo against Cuba. After the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 the Kennedy Administration imposed strict travel restrictions for U.S. citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6409666",
"title": "Gulf of Cazones",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The Bay of Pigs (), a small nondescript bay on the Gulf of Cazones, was the location of the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, a failed attempt by a group of Cuban counter-revolutionaries, funded and trained by the United States, to overthrow Fidel Castro's leftist government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1465190",
"title": "List of military disasters",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Cold War Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a United States-backed 1961 attempt to overthrow Cuban President Fidel Castro with 1,500 Cuban exiles. Not only were the exiles heavily outnumbered when they reached the bay, but the US-promised air support never came to aid the exiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61332398",
"title": "1994 Cuban rafter crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The 1994 Cuban rafter crisis which is also known as the 1994 Cuban raft exodus or the Balsero crisis was the emigration of more than 35,000 Cubans to the United States via makeshift rafts. The exodus would occur over five weeks after rioting in Cuba, Fidel Castro announced in response that anyone who wished to leave the country could.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2055454",
"title": "Cuban exile",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Political motives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Social analyst Kelly M. Greenhill argues that the 1994 Cuban rafter crisis was in part engineered by the Cuban government to push social problems out of Cuba and threaten the creation of a humanitarian crisis for the United States. This threat would stimulate fears of Cuban immigrants in the United States as was seen previously during the Mariel boatlift and would be able to change United States policy towards Cuba in Cuba's favor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m6g0q
|
how did cavemen maintain their teeth if they didn't have the proper knowledge and tools the same way we do in the modern world?
|
[
{
"answer": "They did not. Many died of starvation because they could not eat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did did not have any added sugar in their food, which made it much easier to maintain good teeth health.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as I can tell, most people who survived childhood lived fairly long lives, 40 years at least to a high of 70. This is only well sourced since well into modern men since there are few bodies to make generalizations on of cavemen.\n\nIt seems a study published this year in *Nature Genetics* done by University of Adelaide is frequently referenced as saying that Cavemen had a better set of bacteria to protect their teeth and postulates our diet favors less helpful micro-organisms. _URL_0_\n\nThe true answer to this at the moment seems to be: we don't know if cavemen cleaned their teeth or not, we don't know how often they kept all their teeth until death, and we don't know how often they died of dental problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They probably didn't.\n\nBut between not having refined grains and sugars, and having to gnaw at their food a lot more, they probably avoided a lot of the dental problems that face modern humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dentist here. Cavemen did not have modern diets and had no refined sugar. Eating mostly meat and raw foods, cavities were not a problem, just like they aren't for most animals. Cavemen probably didn't snack too much, as there was not an abundance of food or resources. No snacking and no sugar so, for the most part, cavities were not a problem for cavemen. However fossil records have indicated almost universal periodontal disease in prehistoric man. Basically meaning they were losing bone around teeth from an infection in their gums.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2991042",
"title": "Dental drill",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "The Indus Valley Civilization has yielded evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BC. This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. Cavities of 3.5 mm depth with concentric grooves indicate use of a drill tool. The age of the teeth has been estimated at 9000 years. In later times, mechanical hand drills were used. Like most hand drills, they were quite slow, with speeds of up to 15 rpm. In 1864, British dentist George Fellows Harrington invented a clockwork dental drill named \"Erado\". The device was much faster than earlier drills, but also very noisy. In 1868, American dentist George F. Green came up with a pneumatic dental drill powered with pedal-operated bellows. James B. Morrison devised a pedal-powered burr drill in 1871. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9812712",
"title": "Tooth brushing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "As long ago as 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians constructed crude toothbrushes from twigs and leaves to clean their teeth. Similarly, other cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, and Indians cleaned their teeth with twigs. Some would fray one end of the twig so that it could penetrate between the teeth more effectively. The Arabs, especially after the rise of Islam, used Miswak, a kind of natural toothbrush.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695713",
"title": "Toothpick",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Known in all cultures, the toothpick is not just the oldest instrument for dental cleaning, but predates the arrival of early modern humans, for the skulls of Neanderthals, as well as Homo sapiens, show clear signs of teeth picked with a tool. Toothpicks made of bronze have been found as burial objects in prehistoric graves in Northern Italy and in the East Alps. In 1986, researchers in Florida discovered the 7500-year-old remains of ancient Native Americans and discovered small grooves between many of the molar teeth. One of the researchers, Justin Martin of Concordia University Wisconsin, said \"The enamel on teeth is quite tough, so they must have used the probes quite rigorously to make the grooves.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41244577",
"title": "Dentistry in the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Spanish era (before 900 to 1521).:Barber-dentists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The practice of extracting teeth has been practiced in the Philippines before the islands became a colony of Spain. Among the early Filipino to act as \"dental practitioners\" and \"curers of toothaches\" were barbers. Their crude and \"queer methods\" pulling out teeth from patients involved the use of fingers and nail-pliers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67511",
"title": "Mammoth Cave National Park",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Another technique employed in archaeological research, at Mammoth Cave, was \"experimental archaeology\" in which modern explorers were sent into the cave using the same technology as that employed by the ancient cultures whose leftover implements lie discarded in many parts of the cave. The goal was to gain insight into the problems faced by the ancient people who explored the cave, by placing the researchers in a similar physical situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "675082",
"title": "Russell Cave National Monument",
"section": "Section::::History.:Archaic period (before 1000 BCE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "These early cave dwellers were efficient consumers of game. The women roasted or stewed the flesh. They cured and softened the hides or skins, and made pieces into clothing. Bones were shaped into tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1282836",
"title": "Gigantopithecus",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Some of the caves in which teeth have been found were not caves yet at the time the apes lived, but just fissures. It has been suggested that \"Gigantopithecus\" bones were brought there by giant porcupines, who chew on bones as a source of calcium. This may help explain the lack of \"Gigantopithecus\" bones today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y7s84
|
Why did stars stop producing new elements?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nElements up to Iron are formed during the life of stars, heaver during supernovae star deaths. \n\nSo, stars *are* producing new elements as they die, if they're massive enough. \n\nStars that aren't massive enough to die as a supernova just use up all their fuel and become white dwarfs and eventually black dwarfs. The reason is that the fusion of iron atoms does not *produce* energy, it *consumes* energy. So, fusion past Iron doesn't release energy and everything just \"runs out of gas\" quite literally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "152440",
"title": "Stellar nucleosynthesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Stars evolve because of changes in their composition (the abundance of their constituent elements) over their lifespans, first by burning hydrogen (main sequence star), then helium (red giant star), and progressively burning higher elements. However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances of elements in the universe as the elements are contained within the star. Later in its life, a low-mass star will slowly eject its atmosphere via stellar wind, forming a planetary nebula, while a higher–mass star will eject mass via a sudden catastrophic event called a supernova. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the explosion of a massive star or white dwarf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48903",
"title": "Nucleosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "A star gains heavier elements by combining its lighter nuclei, hydrogen, deuterium, beryllium, lithium, and boron, which were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang. Larger quantities of these lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been restored through billions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include the light elements Li, Be and B.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27739443",
"title": "Nuclear transmutation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Later in the twentieth century the transmutation of elements within stars was elaborated, accounting for the relative abundance of heavier elements in the universe. Save for the first five elements, which were produced in the Big Bang and other cosmic ray processes, stellar nucleosynthesis accounted for the abundance of all elements heavier than boron. In their 1957 paper \"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars\", William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, and Fred Hoyle explained how the abundances of essentially all but the lightest chemical elements could be explained by the process of nucleosynthesis in stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23364086",
"title": "Hertzsprung–Russell diagram",
"section": "Section::::Diagram's role in the development of stellar physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Contemplation of the diagram led astronomers to speculate that it might demonstrate stellar evolution, the main suggestion being that stars collapsed from red giants to dwarf stars, then moving down along the line of the main sequence in the course of their lifetimes. Stars were thought therefore to radiate energy by converting gravitational energy into radiation through the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. This mechanism resulted in an age for the Sun of only tens of millions of years, creating a conflict over the age of the Solar System between astronomers, and biologists and geologists who had evidence that the Earth was far older than that. This conflict was only resolved in the 1930s when nuclear fusion was identified as the source of stellar energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48903",
"title": "Nucleosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The subsequent nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within stars and supernovas. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars at 500 million years. Star formation has occurred continuously in galaxies since that time. Among the elements found naturally on Earth (the so-called primordial elements), those heavier than boron were created by stellar nucleosynthesis and by supernova nucleosynthesis. They range in atomic numbers from \"Z\" = 6 (carbon) to \"Z\" = 94 (plutonium). Synthesis of these elements occurred either by nuclear fusion (including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture) or to a lesser degree by nuclear fission followed by beta decay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4229687",
"title": "Iron-56",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Thus, light elements undergoing nuclear fusion and heavy elements undergoing nuclear fission release energy as their nucleons bind more tightly, and the resulting nuclei approach the maximum total energy per nucleon, which occurs at Ni. However, during nucleosynthesis in stars the competition between photodisintegration and alpha capturing causes more Ni to be produced than Ni (Fe is produced later in the star's ejection shell as Ni decays). This means that as the Universe ages, more matter is converted into extremely tightly bound nuclei, such as Fe, ultimately leading to the formation of iron stars in around 10 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392828",
"title": "Abundance of the chemical elements",
"section": "Section::::Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The abundance of the lightest elements is well predicted by the standard cosmological model, since they were mostly produced shortly (i.e., within a few hundred seconds) after the Big Bang, in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Heavier elements were mostly produced much later, inside of stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mbrg3
|
how come most people who grew up poor/lower socioeconomic, usually stay that way?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two main reasons\n\nFewer opportunities. This sounds like a cop out, but it's true. It's harder for the lower classes to afford college, and many don't have the ability to finish highschool before they need to find a job to help cover bills. Of those that do go to college, not many can afford unpaid internships and therefore don't have the resume necessary to break into higher paying \"white collar\" jobs. This means that even those with degrees sometimes end up with blue collar jobs where their education is almost useless.\n\nPoor habits. Because many grow up living paycheck to paycheck, they get bad habits like spending excess money as soon as they get it instead of saving. They immediately try to upgrade their life by getting a better car or better apartment instead of saving their money and living frugally. This means that they don't usually end up with the money to be able to afford real improvements like buying a house.\n\nTLDR- It's a combinations of too few opportunities and too poor of habits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because their parents can not afford to put them through college therefore they were probably not pushed to go right away and just have that extra hurdle of trying to work and pay their way through an education. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Poverty is known to be perpetual for one pretty huge reason; the available opportunities. \n\nIt is repeated time and time again, but basically those born economically struggling area, in a \"poor\" family, and such forth have less immediately available opportunities to succeed upwards compared to those of the upper 10% and more opportunities for failure downwards than those of the upper 10%. \n\n For example:\n A child growing up in a poverty-stricken lifestyle will most likely have easier access the drugs, gangs, and other influences. As well as less access to positive influences such as a good school, a supportive and educated family, great role models for advice, etc. \n\n Meanwhile, a child growing up in a well-off family will have access to better schools, educated individuals, and would most likely know no one in a gang. As for drugs, a well off child's parents will probably have the proper resources to help any problem, however, drugs will not too apparent in his environment to influence him. \n\nThat is merely just growing up. In adulthood, many of the same problems exist, however, more are tacked on. The key to success is having an education or marketable skill, those are usually tied. A poor working full time and barely making it will most likely face constant stress and anxiety around just surviving. He most likely will struggle to save enough to get an expensive education or won't have enough time to work on a skill. \n\nOn the other side, a very well-off person can afford to pay people to do his/her chores there for freeing up time to work on a skill, or they can have enough money to go get an expensive education. They are not stressed or living check to check, and there for can focus on further their education, bettering them. \n\nThe list can go on and on, but pretty much it comes down to opportunities. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One underappreciated factor is that poorer individuals simply aren't as well connected as richer ones. You can take two students same in all traits except how they grew up. The rich student will have friends, family, etc, who can point him towards opportunities - say, a job vacancy that isn't even advertised, etcetera. The poor student will have to rely on publicly available information, which is usually... second-rate.\n\nWho you know and who your family knows matters. Unfortunately.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some people do not stay that way. Immigrants can accumulate more wealth than native born residents of their country can become more affluent over twenty years. This is true all over the world.\n\nThey will work extra hard, not spend anything unnecessary. They will live in small cramped quarters. They will invest their savings wisely. It is an attitude they have. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29174",
"title": "Social class",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of class position.:Health and nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Lower-class people experience a wide array of health problems as a result of their economic status. They are unable to use health care as often and when they do it is of lower quality, even though they generally tend to experience a much higher rate of health issues. Lower-class families have higher rates of infant mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease and disabling physical injuries. Additionally, poor people tend to work in much more hazardous conditions, yet generally have much less (if any) health insurance provided for them, as compared to middle- and upper-class workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42212196",
"title": "Structural violence in Haiti",
"section": "Section::::Compounding factors.:Socioeconomic status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Coming from a lower socioeconomic background can render individuals and groups to be more vulnerable to \"extreme human suffering\". This is because economic and political structural barriers tend to have a greater impact on those who are lower down on the social order, or are affected by poverty. This stems from the fact that those who are of lower classes often have limited access to resources or do not share the quality of resources that those of higher socio-economic classes have access to. UNICEF statistics show that while less than 10% of births among the poorest 20% in Haiti had a skilled attendant present, 78.1% of all births had a skilled attendant present for the richest 20%. Underweight prevalence among the poorest 20% is 4.7 times greater than that of the richest 20%. Economically, the poorest 40% make up 8% of the nation's total household income, while the richest 20% make up 63%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44677662",
"title": "Collective efficacy",
"section": "Section::::Factors influencing collective efficacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Lower income individuals, such as members of racial/ethnic minorities or female household heads, tend to live close to each other. These individuals usually lack the resources to live in areas with large proportions of affluent individuals. Residents of lower income communities are thus more likely to be excluded from contact with more advantaged people. This isolation creates feelings of helplessness and lack of control among residents of lower income neighborhoods. These feelings in turn make it less likely for trust and cooperation to develop between residents of disadvantaged communities. Lack of trust and cohesion between individuals reduces the probability that they will be willing to monitor the behavior of others or intervene to prevent crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786944",
"title": "Working poor",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "In her book, \"No Shame in My Game\", Katherine Newman finds that \"[t]he nation's young, its single parents, the poorly educated, and minorities are more likely than other workers to be poor\" (p. 42). These factors, in addition to being part of a large household, being part of a single-earner household, being female, and having a part-time (instead of a full-time) job have been found to be important working poverty \"risk factors.\" Immigrant workers and self-employed workers are also more likely to be working poor than other kinds of workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16974018",
"title": "Residential segregation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Recent trends.:Income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Poor families are becoming more isolated. Whereas in 1970 only 14 percent of poor families lived in predominantly poor areas, this number increased to 28 percent in 1990 and continues to rise. Most low-income people live in the suburbs or central cities. When looking at areas classified as \"high-poverty\" or \"low-poverty\" in 2000, about 14% of low-income families live in high-poverty areas and 35% live in low-poverty areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4963532",
"title": "Colonia (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Health disparities.:Alcohol use, anxiety, traumatic stress, and hopelessness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In a 2005 study, researchers found that \"people with low socioeconomic status have dramatically higher disease risks and shorter life spans\" than wealthier people. Therefore, poor people have less access to health care and more incidents of harmful lifestyles associated with drinking, smoking, and obesity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56906125",
"title": "Surrey Dispensary",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The poor constitute an important part of every large community, and justly merit the attention and assistance of the rich; especially in sickness, when they are rendered incapable of supporting themselves and their families. Hard labour, unwholesome food, want of proper clothing, and exposure to the vicissitudes of air and weather, subject them to many disorders unknown to those whose affluence can procure the conveniences of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pja95
|
Is there anything special or discerning about "visible light" other then the fact that we can see it?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not amazingly special, but there are some good reasons why animals have similar ranges of vision (although some go a little bit into infrared and ultraviolet). I can't talk about evolutionary pressure because that's not my field, but I can talk about the physics of light and why if I was the engineer tasked with designing a biological eye, I would use visible light.\n\n1. While the Sun emits light at all sorts of wavelengths, the peak is in visible light - in green to be specific. So we get the brightest light at visible.\n\n2. The atmosphere is partially opaque at a lot of wavelengths. There are convenient \"windows\" where the atmosphere is transparent: at radio wavelengths and at visible wavelengths. So it's much easier to transmit and receive information over long distances using radio or visible light.\n\n3. Our eyes detect light with chemical reactions. So the light photons need to have a similar energy to the range of energies used in chemical reactions, and visible light has energies of around 1-10 eV, which is just right. It also means that this light is easily absorbed and reflected by objects we interact with, and that's what allows us to see things: things like gamma rays or radio waves aren't very well absorbed by things like people, trees, or computers, so it's very difficult to get a proper image of those types of object at these wavelengths.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Visible light is also kind of a transitional area between IR - transmitting a lot of heat - and UV - pushing into ionizing radiation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know a ton about the evolution of our eyes specifically. I can tell you, however, that the reason that the visible light is in the middle of the spectrum is because the wavelengths of these specific lights are the approximately the median for light wavelengths. That said, the amount of light out there that is not visible far exceeds the amount of visible light. If you are looking at a spectrum that does not indicate that by showing the visible light spectrum as a small section near the middle left of the spectrum, that might be misleading, but those are usually made to show the different colors of light involved in the visible spectrum, so it really only should be used to observe the qualitative differences between the spectra.\n\nAs far as I know, there is nothing inherently \"special\" about visible light, but I am only in the very early stages of an astrophysics degree, so that is my disclaimer there. I could very easily be wrong about that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chemical bonds have similar energies to UV-vis light meaning it's easy to do chemistry to detect light, and the atmosphere is transparent to visible light so it's a good way to detect things. UV light is quite damaging to things and splits apart a lot of bonds so it's dangerous seeing that.\n\nTo my knowledge no organisms can directly sense IR light, presumably because they have no chemical bonds with a similar energy to be split by them. They have heat detecting channels which are warmed up by a variety of sorts of radiation, IR especially. Microwaves, radiowaves, gamma and xrays would also be very hard for a biological organism to detect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is an article about the absorption of light in seawater:\n _URL_0_\n\nIt shows that visible light penetrates seawater much better than other parts of the spectrum. This means when eyes were first developing in our aquatic ancestors, it was much more beneficial for them to be sensitive to the 'visible' range of the spectrum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light with wavelength less than 400 nm (aka UV light) is especially harmful to our cells, especially sensitive ones on our retina. Our eyes are damaged by the sun just as our skin is, hence why sunglasses should be worn to protect your eyes from UV light (sounds reasonable, yet only 9% americans polled know this compared to over 75% of Australians due to their investment in preventative care instead of heath care). Our cornea and lens filter most UV light out before it reaches our photoreceptors. If large amounts of UV light was allowed to hit our photoreceptor cells that allow us to see, it would damage them thus blinding us and we would not be effective at reproduction. On the other side of visible light, long wavelength infrared light may be difficult for our eyes to localize because of the radiant heat from our body. Near wavelength infrared may be something of a buffer? Finally, the optical system defined by the shape and index of air/cornea/lens/eye is sensitive to wavelength (this is described by one of the more complex laws of linear optics I cannot recall its name). Having too large of a range of wavelengths could effect the quality of vision by creating chromatic aberrations on our retina. In my opinion, our brains could adapt to chromatc aberration although there is no proof that is has probably because it is not significant enough to affect our vision given the current visible spectrum. These are the primary reasons based on my knowledge but there are several researchers looking at these phenomenon (UV damage, IR radiation, chromatic aberration) so there is a ton of info about this stuff in journals. I wouldn't be surprised if there were more reasons, these are just what was on the top of my head. Finally, and this especially applies to short wavelength IR, our ability to see is governed by evolution of proteins that absorb certain wavelengths. The DNA coding those proteins not only have to spontaneously mutate into existence but they must give the animal a significant advantage over the rest of the gene pool before the mutation becomes the norm. over 10% of the human population gets along just fine carrying genes for color-blindness. Do we really need even more visible colors? What would be the evolutionary benefit? Source: I am an optometrist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The easiest explanation is convenience. Visible light has sufficient energy to cause electronic transitions in chemicals(bumping an electron into a higher orbital), but not so much energy to cause damage like UV. Additionally the spectrum we are able to observe corresponds to the maximum intensity of the sun. The highest intensity light coming from the sun is in the yellow-green part of the spectrum which is dead center for our sensitivity as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a variety of reasons why, for humans, the visible spectrum is where it is.\n\n* Our visible spectrum is closely correlated with the spectrum emitted by the Sun. For the purposes of sunlight, the light emitted by the fusion reactions that fuel the sun are completely irrelevant - The Sun is basically just a giant black body emitting [black body radiation](_URL_2_) at it's characteristic temperature, which is ~5700 K. That puts it's peak at 500 nm, smack dab in the middle of our visible acuity (390-700 nm). Well, not precisely in the *exact* middle, but pretty close given [this spectral curve](_URL_0_).\n\nThe point is we're making use of the light that's available to us, sunlight.\n\nIt's also the most **useful** part of the spectrum. That is to say, there are good and proper reasons why it would be bad for us to try to use different parts of the spectrum. There are two cases:\n\n* As you get to wavelengths *shorter* than 390 nm, (higher frequencies,) the photons get more energetic. It's not that big of a deal for the UV frequencies, but once you get into X-Rays and Gamma rays, you're doing damage to organic compounds.\n\n* As you get to wavelengths *longer* than 700 nm, the resolution you're capable of generating degrades. That's because you cannot use a photon to resolve details smaller (or even of the same order of magnitude) than it's wavelength. That's the scale where the photon stops being *specularly reflected* by those details and starts being **diffracted** by them instead. As you go further the photon stops interacting with it at all. A Radio Wave (wavelength ~ > 1 m), for example, will just blow on by a person without being affected by them very much at all. That's one of the reasons we use radio waves for cell phones - So that your reception isn't ruined when someone steps between you and the cell tower.\n\nWhat does this mean for us? Well, in the far-infrared and microwave wavelengths, we wouldn't be able to resolve details. Not great for a species that was a predator/carnivore when it was evolving.\n\n* Finally, (and this is a bit of a corrolary to item #1) there are spectral bands that the atmosphere absorbs, meaning even though the sun's emitting them, we're not seeing them. The atmosphere's basically four compounds: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Water (vapor) and Carbon Dioxide. Nitrogen and Oxygen don't do much, but Ozone filters out quite a bit starting at around 3000 nm. Then water kicks in: Water vapor is opaque to microwaves around 7.5 mm. There's a vibrational mode in the water molecule: Imagine you making a peace sign with your index and middle fingers. Now imagine the oxygen is sitting at the junction between your two fingers and the two hydrogens are at your fingertips. The vibration of the molecule is you, pushing your fingers together and then apart, over and over. That vibrational mode starts to resonate at 40 GHz, which is the frequency corresponding to 7.5mm microwave wavelength, so it filters those wavelengths out.\n\nHere's a graph of the opacity of the earth's atmosphere by wavelength. Conveniently it shows where the visible spectrum is as well:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n**TL;DR**: The spectrum we see is visible because it's the spectrum we actually receive from the sun, and the other wavelengths aren't as useful anyway; They tend to be damaging to our health or useless at resolving detail.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not a random spot. We see the light in the 'visible spectrum' corresponds with the peak energy and brightness that gets through the atmosphere. Ever sense a competition of photosensitive cells started, selecting for sensitivity to where you get the most feedback in the atmosphere was a natural advancement.\n\nOther than that, outside of the atmosphere and water, there's nothing special about 'visible light' at all. It's just special to us on the surface. It's one reason I get irritated when people look at a picture from various telescope and get all excited, then get disappointed when they learn it's not 'natural color', like the contrast in a different band is somehow 'fake'. Requiring objects in space to fit our atmosphere's narrow band of permissible light in order to appreciate their wonder is amazingly short-sighted. (doh, pun)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides [Astrokiwi's excellent post](_URL_0_) \n\nI would add this [image](_URL_1_) . You can see the transmission window for water pretty much matches with visible wavelengths. \n\nWater, the original \"solvent\" in which life originated, is pretty absorbing outside of the visible. It is therefore not surprising that life, which so crucially depends on water, would not have bothered to be sensitive to other wavelengths. \n\nAs such, most animals with a [non-compound](_URL_2_) eye (and especially those with a lens and a cavity behind, like mammalian eyes) have demonstrably evolved it while being aquatic. They eye is filled with (mostly) water. So you will not find many such animals exhibiting any sensitivity outside the visible, since anyway, their eye is not well adapted to transmitting those wavelengths. \n\nAnimals with compound eyes have the photoreceptor near the surface of the eye and have therefore sometimes evolved sensitivity outside the visible once outside an aquatic environment (insects can be sensitive to UV for exemple). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Essentially, visible light is the portion of the spectrum with the greatest amount of energy you can hit most molecules with before they break (ionize) but still cause a biologically detectable change.\n\nIt all comes down to chemistry... light in this region of the spectrum does not follow different laws of physics as compared to light in other parts of the spectrum. However, our (and matter in general) ability to interact with light in different parts of the spectrum varies widely (or wildly, depending on how excited you get about science). For example, we have sources (eg. LED's, lasers, and lamps) and detectors (eg. photodiodes, bolometers, antennas) for various wavelengths in the gamma ray, x-ray, UV, visible, near-infrared, infrared, terahertz, microwave, and radio. There are portions of the spectrum that are quite difficult to interact with, such as gamma rays, hard x-rays, and terahertz radiation.\n\nThe blue end of the visible spectrum pretty much ends where the energy of a single photon is enough to start kicking electrons off molecules. That means a biological system gets damaged by higher energy photons which would be past the blue end of the visible spectrum.\n\nThe red end of the spectrum is where individual photons stop being able to excite electronic transitions in most molecules- that means where the photons don't have enough energy to bounce electrons between individual molecular orbitals. If they can't move electrons between orbitals, then they can't change the shape of the molecule, so it's hard a biological system to detect the light past the red end of the visible spectrum. Infrared and lower energy light mostly interacts with vibrational, rotational, and phonon modes of matter, all of which correspond to lower energy levels.\n\nThe spectrum of light doesn't really have a 'center'. The energy level (and wavelengths) of visible light are sandwiched between shorter and longer wavelengths, but there is no center... much like if I were to ask you to define the middle of the numeric range from zero to infinity. [Here is a picture of the spectrum](_URL_0_), and visible light is typically shown in the center by using a very non-linear scale.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42421061",
"title": "Hiding in the Light",
"section": "Section::::Episode summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Tyson proceeds to discuss the nature of light as discovered by mankind. Work by Isaac Newton using refraction through prisms demonstrated that light was composed of the visible spectrum, while findings of William Herschel in the 19th century showed that light also consisted of infrared rays. Joseph von Fraunhofer would later come to discover that by magnifying the spectrum of visible light, gaps in the spectrum would be observed. These Fraunhofer lines would later be determined to be caused by the absorption of light by electrons in moving between atomic orbitals when it passed through atoms, with each atom having a characteristic signature due to the quantum nature of these orbitals. This since has led to the core of astronomical spectroscopy, allowing astronomers to make observations about the composition of stars, planets, and other stellar features through the spectral lines, as well as observing the motion and expansion of the universe, and the existence of dark matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30872182",
"title": "Non-ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.:Visible light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Light, or visible light, is the very narrow range of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm), or up to 380–750 nm. More broadly, physicists refer to light as electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2442961",
"title": "The Spooklight",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Other explanations for the light's appearance include atmospheric gases being affected by electrical fields. A University of Arkansas professor studied the light in the 1960s and suggested that it was from a fixed object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10134",
"title": "Electromagnetic spectrum",
"section": "Section::::History and discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "For most of history, visible light was the only known part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction. The study of light continued, and during the 16th and 17th centuries conflicting theories regarded light as either a wave or a particle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "418974",
"title": "Fluoroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Visible light can be seen by the naked eye (and thus forms images that people can look at), but it does not penetrate most objects (only translucent ones). In contrast, X-rays can penetrate a wider variety of objects (such as the human body), but they are invisible to the naked eye. To take advantage of the penetration for image-forming purposes, one must somehow convert the X-rays' intensity variations (which correspond to material contrast and thus image contrast) into a form that is visible. Classic film-based radiography achieves this by the variable chemical changes that the X-rays induce in the film, and classic fluoroscopy achieves it by fluorescence, in which certain materials convert X-ray energy (or other parts of the spectrum) into visible light. This use of fluorescent materials to make a viewing scope is how fluoroscopy got its name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14021",
"title": "History of astronomy",
"section": "Section::::New windows into the Cosmos open.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "In the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-Rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to the Sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of \"external\" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10779",
"title": "Frequency",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Visible light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling through space. The frequency of the wave determines its color: is red light, is violet light, and between these (in the range 4-) are all the other colors of the visible spectrum. An electromagnetic wave can have a frequency less than , but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called infrared (IR) radiation. At even lower frequency, the wave is called a microwave, and at still lower frequencies it is called a radio wave. Likewise, an electromagnetic wave can have a frequency higher than , but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Even higher-frequency waves are called X-rays, and higher still are gamma rays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7gwaqu
|
The golden age of Islam saw the middle east as one , if not the centre of scientific progress during it's time. What happened that today the west overtook the islamic world in scientific progress and innovation?
|
[
{
"answer": "[A great answer to a similar question here](_URL_0_) by u/profrhodes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15624326",
"title": "History of globalization",
"section": "Section::::Archaic globalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The Islamic Golden Age was also an important early stage of globalization, when Jewish and Muslim traders and explorers established a sustained economy across the Old World resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and technology. Globally significant crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated across the Muslim world in this period, while the necessity of learning Arabic and completing the Hajj created a cosmopolitan culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13139823",
"title": "Post-classical history",
"section": "Section::::History by region in the Old World.:West Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics that would later finds it way back to Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14097",
"title": "History of Asia",
"section": "Section::::Medieval.:Western Asia (Middle East).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics that would later finds it way back to Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2867231",
"title": "Early Muslim conquests",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Nicolle wrote that the series of Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries was \"one of the most significant events in world history\", leading to the creation of \"a new civilisation\", the Islamicised and Arabised Middle East. Islam, which had previously been confined to Arabia, became a major world religion, while the synthesis of Arab, Roman, and Persian elements led to distinctive new styles of art and architecture emerging in the Middle East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14400",
"title": "History of science",
"section": "Section::::Post-classical science.:Islamic world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th–13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed. The end of the Islamic Golden Age is marked by the destruction of the intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5230611",
"title": "Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The Islamic Golden Age was traditionally believed to have ended in the 14th century, but has been extended to the 15th and 16th centuries by recent scholarship, which has demonstrated that scientific activity continued in the Ottoman Empire in the west and in Persia and Mughal India in the east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165511",
"title": "Ulama",
"section": "Section::::Branches of learning.:Philosophy and ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The early Muslim conquests brought about Arab Muslim rule over large parts of the Hellenistic world. During the time of the Umayyad Caliphate, at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with the classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language initiated a period which is known today as the Islamic Golden Age. According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes al-Kindi (c. 801–873 AD), \"the father of Islamic philosophy\", as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
150ogm
|
When a fighter jet fires it's machine guns, does it slow down the jet by a considerable amount?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not considerably, it's all just conservation of momentum.\n\nxkcd's What If [handled a similar question](_URL_0_) about machine gun jetpacks. A quote of interest about the Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-30, a minigun sometimes mounted to Russian aircraft:\n\n > [T]he recoil … still had a tendency to inflict damage on the aircraft. The rate of fire was reduced to 4,000 rounds a minute but it didn't help much. Landing lights almost always broke after firing … Firing more than about 30 rounds in a burst was asking for trouble from overheating …\n\nSo particularly heavy duty guns can have negative effects on aircraft.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other answers are generally correct, explaining that the effects are mostly negligible.\n\nHowever, there is one airplane that stands head and shoulders above other aircraft in terms of amount of gunfire that it can rain down upon a target: the A-10 Thunderbolt II (aka Warthog).\n\nThe A-10 has a 30 mm gatling cannon under the cockpit, capable of firing over 4,000 rounds per minute. On the A-10, the firing rate is set to 3,900 rounds per minute. Many rounds can be used, but a favorite is the .69-kg (1.5 lb) depleted uranium ammo. Muzzle velocities are around 1070 m/s (.66 mi/s).\n\nSo when the above rounds are fired at the specified rate and velocity, they produce about 48 kN force. This is over half of the force generated by the two GE turbofans in back (40 kN each).\n\nTo compensate, pilots would dive when firing (diving is also helpful at hitting targets on the ground).\n\nAdditionally, yes, I know there are sites that say this is a myth, but no, it's not. Do the math. The recoil of the gun is greater than the force generated by one engine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't a jet but the B-25 had a 75mm gun on it's front and caused the plane to slow down. [wikipedia](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288",
"title": "Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cold War and later.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The introduction of jet engines and the subsequent rough doubling of aircraft speeds greatly reduced the effectiveness of the SPAAG against attack aircraft. A typical SPAAG round might have a muzzle velocity on the order of and might take as long as two to three seconds to reach a target at its maximum range. An aircraft flying at is moving at a rate of about . This means the aircraft will have moved hundreds of meters during the flight time of the shells, greatly complicating the aiming problem to the point where close passes were essentially impossible to aim using manual gunsights. This speed also allowed the aircraft to rapidly fly out of range of the guns; even if the aircraft passes directly over the SPAAG, it would be within its firing radius for under 30 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40026911",
"title": "SAM-A-1 GAPA",
"section": "Section::::History.:German work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines basically double the speed and altitude of conventional designs, so limiting the number of shells that the chance of hitting the bomber essentially dropped to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8426668",
"title": "Triplane Turmoil",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Machine Gun turrets have a relatively low ceiling, given a turret at a reasonable elevation, an aircraft would likely be able to fly above the bullets unscathed. They are quick to fire, sending up bursts of 5 bullets at a faster rate than aircraft machine guns at quick, regular intervals. Depending on the aircraft being targeted, anywhere from 1 to 4 bursts will do in an unwary pilot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39327014",
"title": "MIM-3 Nike Ajax",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes often has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines roughly double the speed and altitude over piston-powered designs, limiting the number of shells so greatly that the chance of hitting the bomber dropped almost to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1151868",
"title": "Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "The advent of jet engines for fighters and bombers posed new problems for interceptors. With closing speeds of 1,500 ft/s (457 m/s) or more for a head-on interception, the time available for a fighter pilot to successfully target an enemy aircraft and inflict sufficient damage to bring it down was vanishingly small. Wartime experience had shown that .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns were not powerful enough to reliably down a bomber, certainly not in a single volley, and heavy autocannon did not have the range or rate of fire to ensure a hit. Unguided rockets had been proven effective in ground-attack work during the war, and the \"Luftwaffe\" had shown that volleys of their \"Werfer-Granate 21\" rockets, first used by elements of the \"Luftwaffe's\" JG 1 and JG 11 fighter wings on July 29, 1943 against USAAF bombers attacking Kiel and Warnemünde, could be a potent air-to-air weapon. The summer and autumn of 1944 saw the adoption of the folding-fin R4M unguided rocket for use underneath the wings of the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter for bomber destroyer duties against the USAAF's Eighth Air Force heavy bombers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237949",
"title": "Aerial refueling",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Flying boom.:Systems in service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fighter aircraft cannot accept fuel at the boom's maximum flow rate, requiring a reduction in refueling pressure when servicing these aircraft, reducing (but not eliminating) the flying boom's advantage over the drogue system when refueling fighter aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20488",
"title": "Messerschmitt Me 262",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Anti-bomber tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Since the 30mm MK 108 cannon's short barrels and low muzzle velocity (only ) rendered it inaccurate beyond , coupled with the jet's velocity, which required breaking off at to avoid colliding with the target, Me 262 pilots normally commenced firing at . Gunners of Allied bomber aircraft found their electrically powered gun turrets had problems tracking the jets. Target acquisition was difficult because the jets closed into firing range quickly and remained in firing position only briefly, using their standard attack profile, which proved more effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dqwa1
|
What mechanisms support genetic diversity of the whole population of (complex) species?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most mutations are indeed deleterious/bad, but there are also beneficial/good mutations. A good example is the ability to metabolize lactose as adults - since we've domesticated cows/goats/etc. and milk is a good source of nutrition, there is positive selection on this trait being maintained on a population. That's why this mutation, or trait, is very common among European and African populations.\n\nIt's helpful to think of selection as a \"force\" that pushes a trait to become more or less common in a population. If selection against a trait is strong enough, it will die out (go to 0% incidence in a population), and if it is strong enough, it will \"fix\" (go to 100%).\n\nIn addition to selection, there is genetic \"drift.\" Because of how people pair off to mate and how traits get passed on, there is a degree of randomness that causes the percentage incidence of a trait in a population to fluctuate - like a random walk in physics.\n\nJust from these factors alone, with the introduction of new traits (mostly bad, but some good), there is always going to be diversity within a population. But because we have two copies of each chromosome and each gene, one from mom and one from dad, you can also have interesting situations where having one mutation has a very different outcome than none or two. In some of these cases, you can get a stable percentage of a trait in a population at a value between 0% and 100%. A good example is the mutation that causes sickle cell anemia if you have two copies, but may protect against malaria if you have one copy. \n\nIf you want to learn more, Population Genetics by Gillespe is an accessible (and cheap) book on this subject. I think a little bit of calculus helps for the math. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You are using some odd terminology that I think may be confusing you a bit. Calling mutations 'mistakes', while true in one sense, is inaccurate nonetheless. Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic material, 'good' and 'bad'. Also, you are jumbling up the source of genes at the molecular level with the frequency of alleles within a population.\n\nHere's a quick rundown:\n\nInbreeding depression occurs because it increases the likelihood of children being born homozygous (having the same version from both parents) for potentially deleterious recessive alleles. In a large population with little or no inbreeding, these alleles can persist because if they are relatively uncommon, there will be heterozygotes (individuals with two different alleles at a given locus) who are not impacted, or don't have the disease. They can keep passing on the allele, even though all homozygous recessive individuals may die before reproducing. So if a small related subset of the population that contains the recessive allele inbreeds, there is a higher than otherwise normal likelihood they will produce children with the disease.\n\nThis is a separate issue from where those versions of the gene originally came from. Those are the \"mistakes\" you reference. Those mutations, while they can often produce a version of a gene that does not code properly for a necessary protein and therefore is deleterious, also gave rise to all your other genes. As an easy to follow example, sometimes entire genes mistakenly get copied an extra time. (I should note this is within one line, it's completely unrelated to different alleles you receive from your parents, as in the above discussion). The extra gene does nothing and is not selected against. It can now mutate further, unrestricted, and over time come to code for an entirely new beneficial trait never before seen in the species.\n\nSo basically, non-negative mistakes DO happen, inbreeding decreases genetic diversity but has nothing to do with this level of biological organization, and mutations are the ultimate source of genetic diversity, while it is potentially maintained and/or increased by mating patterns and immigration into the population.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "219268",
"title": "Population genetics",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Explaining levels of genetic variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "It is clear that levels of genetic diversity vary greatly within a species as a function of local recombination rate, due to both genetic hitchhiking and background selection. Most current solutions to the paradox of variation invoke some level of selection at linked sites. For example, one analysis suggests that larger populations have more selective sweeps, which remove more neutral genetic diversity. A negative correlation between mutation rate and population size may also contribute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29963778",
"title": "Agnorhiza reticulata",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The genetic diversity of the populations is probably low because they are often clonal, spreading via vegetative reproduction with rhizomes rather than sexual reproduction by seed. Some populations are also threatened by development of their habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25394231",
"title": "Popular sire effect",
"section": "Section::::Genetic consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Genetic diversity in a population is dependent on the cumulative effects of mutation, natural selection, and population size over many generations. The effective population size (\"N\") is the number of individuals in a given population that are able to reproduce and contribute offspring to the next generation. Genetic diversity decays over generations at a rate that is inversely related to the effective population size. In small populations, a major factor that causes a loss of genetic diversity is inbreeding. Intentionally breeding for desirable attributes in a species is known as selective breeding. This process artificially limits the size of the population pool, thereby increasing the rates of inbreeding as well as inbreeding depression, and decreasing a species biological fitness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15993881",
"title": "1000 Genomes Project",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Since the completion of the Human Genome Project, advances in human population genetics and comparative genomics have made it possible to gain increasing insight into the nature of genetic diversity. However, we are just beginning to understand how processes like the random sampling of gametes, structural variations (insertions/deletions (indels), copy number variations (CNV), and retroelements), single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and natural selection have shaped the level and pattern of variation within species and also between species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29291510",
"title": "Structural variation",
"section": "Section::::Structural variation and phenotypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Structural variations also have its function in population genetics. Different frequency of a same variation can be used as a genetic mark to infer relationship between populations in different areas. A complete comparison between human and chimpanzee structural variation also suggested that some of these may be fixed in one species because of its adaptative function. There are also deletions related to resistance against malaria and AIDS. Also, some highly variable segments are thought to be caused by balancing selection, but there are also studies against this hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5223048",
"title": "Overlapping generations",
"section": "Section::::Effects of overlapping generations.:Genetic diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Whether a species has overlapping generations or not can influence the genetic diversity in the new generation. Changes in the genetic variance in populations due to genetic drift have been shown to been twice as great when they are overlapping generations as opposed to there being non-overlapping generations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "25614",
"title": "Race (human categorization)",
"section": "Section::::Modern scholarship.:Biological classification.:Genetically differentiated populations.:Clines and clusters in genetic variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1150,
"text": "Recent studies of human genetic clustering have included a debate over how genetic variation is organized, with clusters and clines as the main possible orderings. argued for smooth, clinal genetic variation in ancestral populations even in regions previously considered racially homogeneous, with the apparent gaps turning out to be artifacts of sampling techniques. disputed this and offered an analysis of the Human Genetic Diversity Panel showing that there were small discontinuities in the smooth genetic variation for ancestral populations at the location of geographic barriers such as the Sahara, the Oceans, and the Himalayas. Nonetheless, stated that their findings “should not be taken as evidence of our support of any particular concept of biological race... Genetic differences among human populations derive mainly from gradations in allele frequencies rather than from distinctive 'diagnostic' genotypes.\" Using a sample of 40 populations distributed roughly evenly across the Earth's land surface, found that \"genetic diversity is distributed in a more clinal pattern when more geographically intermediate populations are sampled.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
wlhve
|
Could a Middle English speaker and a Modern English speaker have been able to verbally communicate
|
[
{
"answer": "This is not really a historical question and r/linguistics could probably answer this better. My take on it:\n\nIt would be difficult, but you could probably communicate.\n\nHave a look at Middle English yourself to find out. For example [here](_URL_0_).",
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"answer": "I think it would be fairly difficult but not impossible. The main problem, as you point out, lies in the Great Vowel Shift which began around the fifteenth century, and changed the way all of our long vowels sounded. Then there are also numerous words which have either been added to English, dropped out, or changed the meaning. Grammar is somewhat different, mostly in syntax, but not enough to really stand in the way. So if things were kept simple, I do think you could make yourself understood, especially with a little practice (unless your time-traveler is in a hurry). Go back a few more centuries and the answer would be no.",
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"answer": "Eddie Izzard once tried an experiment similar to this. See _URL_0_",
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{
"answer": "A bit easier if you both wrote rather than spoke and of course you'd have to stick to topics for which there was Middle English vocabulary. To get an idea of what's involved you can try reading the [Middle English version of the Canterbury Tales](_URL_0_) and [listening to a reading of it](_URL_1_) and see what makes more sense to you.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12840148",
"title": "List of polyglots",
"section": "Section::::Deceased.:Modern age, pre-17th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::- Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603) could speak ten languages: English, French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Latin, Welsh, Cornish, Scottish and Irish. The Venetian Ambassador once said: \"it is as if she possessed these languages as if they were her mother tongue\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2757988",
"title": "English nationalism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "...the Norman could not speak anything then except their own speech, and they spoke French as they had done at home, and had their children taught it, too, so that important men in this country who come from their stock all keep to that same speech that they derived from them; because, unless a man knows French, he is thought little of. But humble men keep to English and their own speech still. I reckon there are no countries in the whole world that do not keep to their own speech, except England only.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1574954",
"title": "A Treatise on the Astrolabe",
"section": "Section::::Significance.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "He continues to explain that it easier for a child to understand things in his own language than struggle with unfamiliar grammar, a commonplace idea today but radical in the fourteenth century. Finally, he appeals to Royalty (his wife was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen and sister to John of Gaunt's wife) in an early version of the phrase \"the King's English\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "21514416",
"title": "COLA (software architecture)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Natural language analogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Also, anyone can become an English speaker simply by having this base translated into their native tongue (a more tractable problem than translating the whole of English). Once they know this subset then they know enough English to understand other statements like the giraffe one, and thus grow their knowledge to the whole language through English sentences (which can be reused by everyone, regardless of their first language). This is analogous to the bootstrapping and compatibility of a COLA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "89842",
"title": "Sociolinguistics",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts.:Speech community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "To be considered part of a speech community, one must have a communicative competence. That is, the speaker has the ability to use language in a way that is appropriate in the given situation. It is possible for a speaker to be communicatively competent in more than one language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13393796",
"title": "Lower Arrernte language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "By 2007 only one person was known to speak it fluently enough to hold a conversation: Brownie Doolan Perrurle (1918–2011), known as Brownie Doolan. Gavan Breen, an Australian linguist, was able to compile a dictionary of Lower Arrernte comprising about a thousand words by recording talks he had with Doolan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12840148",
"title": "List of polyglots",
"section": "Section::::Deceased.:20th century.:1910s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "BULLET::::- George Campbell (1912–2004), a Scottish polyglot and a linguist at the BBC, who could supposedly speak and write fluently in at least forty-four languages and had a working knowledge of perhaps twenty others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
49iy49
|
historically, does socialism work long-term? why or why not?
|
[
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"answer": " Nearly every socialist country has given it up after experiencing a string of economic failures. The most notable example is the Soviet Union. Another interesting example is China, which still calls itself communist but is in fact a large percentage capitalist. Both of these countries experienced not only poverty, but even starvation of millions of people, as a result of their failed economic policies during socialism.",
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"answer": "Pretty much every democratic country that collects taxes and uses tax money to fund things like infrastructure, healthcare, public education, etc is socializing the costs of all of those things, so I would argue that some socialist principles work out pretty good in the long run.",
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"answer": "There has never been a long-term socialist government. I highly doubt there has ever been a short-term socialist government on any real scale. (As in, more than a few hundred people.) Plenty of governments have attempted to be socialist, but none have accomplished it. \n\nThe fundamental core of socialism is the obliteration of the concept of value, both of people and material items. Which goes against basic tenets of rationality, (at least, for the long foreseeable future.) This manifests in various contradictions and hypocrisies which prevent a society from properly functioning.",
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"answer": "Social policies mixed with capitalism have been proven to work very well together. This includes the United States, Canada, and many European countries. Pure socialism (public ownership of *all* means of production) has never been properly implemented.\n\nCapitalism comes with many inherent flaws, and a \"mixed\" approach which applies social control over some aspects of the economy seeks to remedy those flaws.",
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"answer": "This ends up not being a topic that lends itself well to an ELI5 explanation.\n\nThe reason for this is that we're discussing a political entity who who has at its core a tactic of controlling the definitions and names for things through propaganda.\n\nOne of the better examples is the Bolshevik party in Russia (originating in 1905, coming to power as part of the 'October' revolution)... they eventually formally became the party of Vladimir Lenin. At the time, they called themselves officially the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. But that's long and hard to remember so they called themselves the 'Bolsheviks'. Bolshevik in Russian literally means ' of majority'. Note that they called themselves this before coming into power, long before they would have been considered a majority party. Also note that their opposition party (Menshiviks) literally translates to 'of minority'. Even though, at the time, they were actually the majority.\n\nIt's a propaganda tactic, used in amazing effectiveness. Quite an interesting history study actually. They basically called themselves the majority and the masses started thinking of them in that light.\n\nRelevant Point: discussions on the topic you're asking about is steeped in a history of propaganda. You'll be lucky if anyone even agrees on what the difference between \"socialist\" vs. \"communist\" is.\n\nHow do I know all this? Well I speak Russian. I am not Russian, but have read many, many books on this history. It's fascinating.",
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"answer": "There has probably never been a proper implementation of socialism on a large scale. Certainly all of the historical examples, like the Soviet Union, are not examples of socialism. In all of these traditional historical examples, the government wasn't actually socialist, or it sacrificed its socialism pretty quickly for something else, like fascism, but continued to call itself socialism, confusing the world to this day.\n\nSo we really don't have good information to say whether or not socialism can work long term. Someone needs to really try it for real.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39766826",
"title": "Mode of production",
"section": "Section::::Modes of Production.:Socialist mode of production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Socialism is the mode of production which Marx considered will succeed capitalism, and which will itself ultimately be succeeded by communism - the words socialism and communism both predate Marx and have many definitions other than those he used, however - once the forces of production outgrew the capitalist framework. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22937795",
"title": "Value-form",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to value.:Millennials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 434,
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"end_character": 350,
"text": "Some think the crisis of Marxism cannot easily be overcome anymore, because the millennial generation was born after the collapse of socialist countries. They have been educated to think that socialism was a failure, and they mostly have no knowledge and experience about socialist societies. Or, they think that real socialism never existed anyway.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "13992896",
"title": "Socialism of the 21st century",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Socialism of the 21st century () is an interpretation of socialist principles first advocated by German sociologist and political analyst Heinz Dieterich and taken up by a number of Latin American leaders. Dieterich argued in 1996 that both free-market industrial capitalism and 20th-century socialism have failed to solve urgent problems of humanity like poverty, hunger, exploitation, economic oppression, sexism, racism, the destruction of natural resources and the absence of a truly participative democracy. Socialism of the 21st century has democratic socialist elements, but it primarily resembles Marxist revisionism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38216151",
"title": "Primary stage of socialism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Su Shaozhi's theory of \"undeveloped socialism\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The characteristics of undeveloped socialism are the two forms of public ownership, commodity production and commodity exchange. Capitalists have been basically eliminated as a class but there are still capitalist and bourgeois remnants, even feudal remnants. There also exist quite a few small producers, class differences among workers and peasants … and the force of habit of small-scale producers. The production forces are still not highly developed. And there is not an abundance of products … Therefore, the transition toward socialism has not yet been completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "33526804",
"title": "Authoritarian socialism",
"section": "Section::::Latin American socialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "Socialism of the 21st century is an interpretation of socialist principles first advocated by German sociologist and political analyst Heinz Dieterich and taken up by a number of Latin American leaders. Dieterich argued in 1996 that both free-market industrial capitalism and 20th-century authoritarian socialism have failed to solve urgent problems of humanity like poverty, hunger, exploitation, economic oppression, sexism, racism, the destruction of natural resources and the absence of a truly participative democracy. While having democratic socialist elements, it primarily resembles Marxist revisionism. Leaders who have advocated for this form of socialism include Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Néstor Kirchner of Argentina, Rafael Correa of Ecuador, Evo Morales of Bolivia and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil. Because of the local unique historical conditions, it is often contrasted with previous applications of socialism in other countries, with a major difference being the effort towards a more decentralised and participatory planning process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2706203",
"title": "Pyongyang Declaration",
"section": "Section::::Text.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Socialism suffered a setback in some countries in recent years. As a consequence of this, the imperialists and reactionaries are claiming that socialism has ‘come to an end’. This is nothing but a sophistry to beautify and embellish capitalism and patronise the old order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "43069513",
"title": "Socialist economics",
"section": "Section::::Elements of socialism in practice.:Transition to market economies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The transformation from socialism to capitalism involved a political shift: from a people’s democracy (see People's Republic and Communist state) with a constitutionally entrenched \"leading role\" for the communist and workers’ parties in society to a liberal representative democracy with a separation of legislative, executive and judicial authorities and centres of private power that can act as a brake on the state’s activity.\n",
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1g1b3l
|
what are the main differences between sunni and shia islam?
|
[
{
"answer": "Orthodox vs Roman Catholic is kind of a workable example to a point, but it misses the huge political factor.\n\nTo delve into it a bit more, you need to know why they're different. Islam follows on from Judaism and Christianity with a fellow named Muhammad, who around 600AD, proclaimed that he was receiving revelations from God and that he was the next great prophet (Christ being the last one). He gathered followers, eventually raised an army, and conquered the crap out of the Middle East, giving conquered people options between converting to this new religion of Islam, paying tax, or dying (some debate on this in posts below). Then he chilled out for a bit and eventually died.\n\nNow, let's get to the point differences:\n\n1: A large part of Islam has been based around those who knew Muhammad but weren't recorded in the Quran, and what they claim Muhammad said, meant, or did off the record. Called Hadiths, these are Islamic laws or suggestions based around such anecdotes. It could be as simple as a man who once observed Muhammad treat a beggar in a certain way declaring that this way of treating beggars is the one true way all Islam should follow, through to rather complicated arguments of how to interpret Islamic law written in the Quran based on what was implied by something Muhammad was once recorded to have said. Sunni and Shia Muslims believe in and accept different Hadiths, as do various smaller branches within those two factions.\n\n2: The more concrete divide is the matter of a chap named Ali, and the matter of who would succeed Muhammad upon his death. Ali was Muhammad's first cousin and closest living male relative, and also married Muhammad's daughter. Shia Islam believes and accepts that Ali was the rightful heir to Muhammad, stating that only God has the right to choose such leaders, and had appointed Ali caliph and all round #1 guy in Muhammad's wake. The Sunni, by contrast, whilst holding him in high regard still consider him one of FOUR caliphs, rather than the one and only. It's a bit more complex than that, but it'd be stepping out of ELI5 territory and into a major debate (Llama Labia made a post below that does go into those details a bit more. Scroll down and go look!). At the time, there were battles over this.\n\n3: Sunnism puts a LOT of emphasis on Sharia, Islamic law. Shia aren't as strict about taking law solely from the Quran, and have several other ways of defining Sharia law (such as Mantiq, which is argument of traditional logic, or proclaiming a change to the law to be in 'public interest'), for better or for worse.\n\n4: Different beliefs on what will happen at the end of the world. Both believe some kind of redeeming figure will appear as prophecised, but its nature and actions are disputed by both sides. The Sunni view him kind of as another of God's prophets who will arrive to rule the world and re-establish Islamic rule and law. The Shia view is more akin to a Biblical rapture, with a great host of badasses showing up to kick the hell out of everything bad and wicked and wrong.\n\nClarification by SuitedPair below: \"Sunnis also believe in Jesus and the Mahdi returning for the end of days to fight off Dajjal(the antichrist)\"\n\nDouble-clarification by LlamaLabia below, go read a big long post!\n\n5: Lots of different practices. Praying is done slightly different between branches, how much of a woman should be covered by hijab is debated between branches, those kind of things.\n\nSo now we know where they came from and how they differ.\n\nWhy they commit acts of violence and hatred against one another? That's where it all gets very political. Traditionally, Sunni has been the more dominant, anti-revolutionary branch, and in the last 30 years this has been challenged. Shia has been on the rise, foreign interests such as America have gotten involved, the Gulf War and the War on Terror have all contributed. Most of these attacks are explicitly Sunni attempting to supress Shia uprising, or Shia attempting to destabilize Sunni rule.\n\nIraq and Pakistan are the most notable. Much of it stems from the balance of power shifting away from Sunni towards Shia. Sunni proclaim Shia to be rebels, troublemakers attempting to start a civil war. Shia proclaim Sunni to be an unpopular, corrupt dictatorship and lackey of the American government. Iran is a bee in everyone's bonnet as it's the only country (edit: see TheWierdSide below) with a huge majority Shia population (around 90% Shia, most Muslim countries are closer to 80-90% Sunni) which makes Sunnis grumble and point at it as a bad example of what Shia rule is like. People don't like losing power and influence, ostensibly because it stops them being able to enforce their version of Islam in the form of Sharia law, banning of western influence, etc.\n\nExtremists constantly wade into the mix to do whatever they can for a personal power grab. Accusing the opposition of Zionism and collaborating with western forces is a great way to gain support and discredit political opponents, which is largely rooted in Sunni vs Shia political parties. The Taliban for instance explicitly supported anti-Shia groups in Pakistan in order for Sunnis to give political support in return, helping escalate the violence in the region.\n\nHell, some Al-Qaeda have called for all Shia to be treated as heretics and put to death.\n\nAll in all, it's a bit of a mess. The differences between the groups are in the minutae of religious texts. The violence between the groups really stems more from pure politics of who is in control.\n\nEdited to add: Check out the [ELI5 about Syria](_URL_0_) for a good breakdown of such a conflict playing out in detail right now. Though it's between Sunni and a tinier minority called the Alawites rather than Shia.\n\nAlso edited to add: I'm not a muslim myself, just have a friend who converted a few years back, and I made a great effort to understand. Also generally fascinated by theology but no formal education in it. So feel free to correct the hell out of my layman's understanding. Double edit: People have! Read the rest of this thread, there are a few practicing muslims correcting me or adding to what I wrote in more detail if you want that.\n\nFinal edit: Read the fucking sidebar. ELI5 has not literally meant \"something a five year old can understand\" for a longass time.\n\nDouble-final edit: Thanks for gold! Between that and a couple of PMs saying I've genuinely opened some eyes and educated people, this discussion has made me feel warm and fuzzy inside.",
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"answer": "My knowledge of this is a bit rusty, but I'll have a go.\n\nIn the most basic, ELI5 sense: the main thing that separates Sunnis from Shias is that Shia Muslims believe the heir to the prophet Muhammed should be related to him by blood, and Sunnis do not. A man called Ali, who was Muhammed's cousin, is regarded as the first Shia Imam (Islamic leader / scholar). Shias believed he should be the one to succeed Muhammed as the first caliph (Leader of the Islamic state), while the Sunnis voted for, and eventually elected, a man called Abu Bakr. He was soon succeeded by Umar ibn Al-Khattāb, a close companion of the prophet. Sunnis generally view Umar as a strong and just leader, while many Shias see him as a traitor and usurper.\n\nIt's also important to remember that there are many different sects of Sunni and Shia Islam, who all believe slightly different things, but the roots of the separation between the two all stem from the disagreement over who would lead the Muslims after Muhammed, and all the events that occurred because of this.",
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"answer": "I can go into the details if you want about the actual differences between Shia and Sunni.\nHowever, to help you direct your thoughts in the right direction, you should know that there is little to no violence or hate between the actual Sunni and Shia Muslims.\nWhatever violence we see and hear of is brought forward by extremist groups that use the religion to serve their own purposes.\nThey have extreme, violent, and sectarian views that call for violence and annihilation of the other group, and they have followers who are usually simple-minded people who are easily convinced and forget to use their reason to identify and stay away from this extremism.\n",
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"answer": "Muslim dude here, will try to keep a simple explanation.\n\nProphet Muhammad is the main prophet (the last prophet) according to the Quran, which is the word of Allah (God).\n\nAfter the Prophet's death there were 4 main caliphs, all people who the Prophet had known. \n\nSunni people believe all these caliphs to be equal, while Shia people believe that since Hazrat Ali was related to the Prophet he was the rightful heir and caliphate. \n\nThe divergence started from there and then became a bit.. strange. So now you have Sunni people and a lot of sunni sects, and Shia people now do [matam](_URL_0_) (Note: Violent). Note, the pics are mostly of violent matam, most people just do it lightly with their hands but you can see the swords and knife stuff happening on streets here in Pakistan on relevant days.\n\nBecause this is historical talk, people have different interpretations and knowledge about the history and both Sunni and Shia people disagree with many things which happened. \n",
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"answer": "To put it simply, one group believes direct descendants of muhammad are the most holy and should be the Islamic Leaders. The other group thinks the man \"closest\" to god should be leader, this caused a big dispute about 1500 years ago.",
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"answer": "I spent a year teaching in Saudi Arabia. It was the Shia who worked and were more open minded. I don't know if that's because they're the minority or if it was cultural. ",
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"answer": "Shi'ites believe the new Muslim leader should be a descendant of Muhammed (Which is difficult because it has to be male, and Muhammed only had a daughter; son in law was newest leader after Muhammad's death). \n\n\n\nSunnis believe they should elect their new leader. ",
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"answer": "When the old boss died, there was a disagreement over who should be the new boss. Each of the two contender said they were the one true descendant of the boss and they should be telling others what to think and do.\n\nThey never resolved their disagreement so there has been those two lines of descendants ever since",
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"answer": "They disagreed about who should rule a long time ago.",
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"answer": "Muslim here. Lot's of answers. Some great, some okay, some poor. No one really gave the ELI5 answer. So here is my attempt:\n\nAfter Prophet Muhammad died, Abu Bakr became the leader of the Muslims. After Abu Bakr, then came Umar ibn al Khattab. After him was Uthman ibn Affan. Then it was Ali.\n\nThe Sunnis accept all 4 leaders while the Shia only accept Ali. They believed Ali should have been the leader of the Muslims after the death of Prophet Muhammad.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2360572",
"title": "Islamic schools and branches",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "Shia Islam, on the other hand, is separated into three major sects: Twelvers, Ismailis, and Zaydis. The vast majority of Shias are Twelvers (a 2012 estimate puts the figure as 94% of Shias being Twelvers) to the extent that the term \"Shia\" frequently refers to Twelvers by default. The Twelver Shias are also notably the only sect of Muslims that complies with the saying of Muhammad that he would have twelve successors, a saying accepted by both Shia and Sunni Muslims. All mainstream Twelver Shia Muslims follow the same school of thought, the Jafari school of thought (named after Jafar as-Sadiq, the sixth Shia Imam). All four founders of the Sunni schools of thought gained knowledge, either directly or indirectly, through Jafar as-Sadiq.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2360572",
"title": "Islamic schools and branches",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
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"text": "In addition, there are several differences within Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. Sunni Islam is separated into four main schools of jurisprudence, namely, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali. These schools are named after Abu Hanifa, Anas bin Malik, al-Shafi'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, respectively.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3404144",
"title": "Sunni fatwas on Shias",
"section": "",
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"text": "Sunni and Shia are different sects of Islam and the difference of opinions have resulted in many Fatwas, non-binding but authoritative legal opinion or learned interpretation issues pertaining to the Islamic law. Fatwas are based on the question and answer process found in the Quran, which seeks to enlighten on theological and philosophical issues, hadith, legal theory, duties, and the Sharia law. Sunni fatwas have been used to justify the persecution of Shia throughout their history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26961",
"title": "Shia Islam",
"section": "Section::::Theology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "The Shia Islamic faith is vast and inclusive of many different groups. Shia theological beliefs and religious practises, such as prayers, slightly differ from the Sunnis'. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shias have the option of combining \"Dhuhr\" with \"Asr\" and \"Maghrib\" with \"Isha'\", as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran. The Sunnis tend to combine only under certain circumstances. Shia Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world. The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam Ali, and Shia theology was formulated in the 2nd century AH, or after Hijra (8th century CE). The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 3rd century AH/9th century CE. The 4th century AH /10th century CE has been referred to by Louis Massignon as \"the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42199619",
"title": "Schools of Islamic theology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The main split between Sunni and Shia Islam was initially more political than theological, but over time theological differences have developed. Still, differences in aqidah occur as divisions orthogonal to the main divisions in Islam along political or fiqh lines, such that a Muʿtazili might, for example, belong to Ja'fari, Zaidi or even Hanafi school of jurisprudence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9868605",
"title": "History of Shia Islam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Shi‘a Islam, also known as Shi‘ite Islam or Shi‘ism, is the second largest branch of Islam after Sunni Islam. Shias adhere to the teachings of Muhammad and the religious guidance of his family (who are referred to as the Ahl al-Bayt) or his descendants known as Shia Imams. Muhammad's bloodline continues only through his daughter Fatima Zahra and cousin Ali who alongside Muhammad's grandsons comprise the Ahl al-Bayt. Thus, Shias consider Muhammad's descendants as the true source of guidance. Shia Islam, like Sunni Islam, has at times been divided into many branches; however, only three of these currently have a significant number of followers, and each of them has a separate trajectory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2360572",
"title": "Islamic schools and branches",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The original difference between Sunnis and Shias is over who the true successor to Muhammad is. Shias believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnis consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Khawarij broke away from both the Shias and Sunnis during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War) and subsequently opposed both the Shias and the Sunnis, often violently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5m6er7
|
How popular was the name Muhammad before the prophet Muhammad was born?
|
[
{
"answer": "I spent around an hour looking but couldn't find too much. There is an article from 1936 (so methodologies have definitely changed since then) by Edward Jabra Jurji that claims that the name Muhammad has been in use in Arabia since the first-millennium B.C.E. \n\nJurji cites *Kitāb al-Ishtiqāq* written by Ibn Durayd (~10th century C.E) that the name Muhammad had been used prior to the birth of the prophet Muhammad in ~570C.E. However, it wasn't a customary name of the Quraysh tribe themselves. Muhammad's grandfather allegedly named him Muhammad so that he would \"be praised in the heavens and the earth\" (the name Muhammad is derived from the Arabic root ḥ-m-d meaning *to praise* and can literally be seen as the passive participle meaning \"the one that is praised\").\n\nJust to be safe, I checked the Arabic of *Kitāb al-Ishtiqāq* and found the quote attributed to Muhammad's grandfather as well as a list of others who had been named Muhammad before the Prophet himself.\n\nJujri also said that the name Muhammad had been found in Southern Arabian inscriptions and cited the *Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum* (The Collection of Semitic Inscriptions). However, when I tried to find the references inside of it I could not locate them (Volume 2, Tome 1, #353 and Tome 2, #420). This is probably due to my own inexperience with the Corpus though.\n\nSo at least according to Jujri and Ibn Durayd, the name Muhammad had indeed at least *existed* before the prophet was born. However, at least among the Quraysh it does not appear to be very popular. This can be backed up by the fact that in lists of early notable *Ṣaḥāba* (companions of the prophet) there are only [1 or 2](_URL_1_) other Muhammads found. However, after a few generations we can find [137](_URL_0_) with the name Muhammad. As you can see on the second list, a lot of them are \"Muhammad ibn xxx al-Ansari\" meaning that they were the sons of the residents of Medina who converted to Islam when Muhammad made it his home after fleeing Mecca. Thus, much of the popularity of the name can be attributed to the prominence of the Prophet, and not necessarily that it was a popular name before.\n\n\n**Sources:**\n\nJurji, E. J. (1936), PRE-ISLAMIC USE OF THE NAME MUHAMMAD. The Muslim World, 26: 389–391. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1936.tb00898.x\n\nIbn Durayd, Abu Bakr Muhammad, *kitāb al-ashtiqāq*.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7544888",
"title": "Muhammad (name)",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "\"Muhammad\" was the most popular baby boys' name in four regions of England and Wales, including in London and the West Midlands, according to 2013 official statistics. It is also sometimes reported that \"Muhammad\" is the most popular boy’s name in all of Britain, however this is based on combining multiple spelling variations such as \"Mohammed\", but not combining spelling variants of other popular British names such as Ollie and Olly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7966491",
"title": "Muhammad Qadiri",
"section": "Section::::Birth and names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "At his birth he was named Muhammad. Later on he also adopted the names Haji Naushah (Noshāh), Abul Hashim, Hazrat Naushāh Walī, Bhoora Wala Pir (the enshrouded one), Mujaddid-i Azam (the great reviver of Islam), Naushah Ganj Bakhsh, Sayyid Naushah Pir and Naushah Pak. He claimed to have received the titles \"Ganj Bakhsh\" and \"Naushah\" in the presence of God. Both names are Persian words; Ganj Bakhsh means \"bestower of hidden treasures\" and Naushah means a young king or a bridegroom. He was also known as Maqām-i Naushāhat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7544888",
"title": "Muhammad (name)",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "According to the sixth edition of \"The Columbia Encyclopedia\" (2000), \"Muhammad\" is probably the most common given name [in the world], including variations. It is estimated that more than 150 million men and boys in the world bear the name \"Muhammad\" due to its relationship to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32425866",
"title": "Shabazz Muhammad",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "On March 22, 2013, it was revealed in a report from the \"Los Angeles Times\" that Muhammad was actually born exactly one year earlier than his thought-to-be birthday of November 13, 1993. A copy of his birth certificate on file with the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health shows that he was born at Long Beach Memorial Medical Center exactly one year earlier, which made him 20 years old at the time. \"Los Angeles Times\" assumes that this was to make Muhammed look better \"competing against younger, smaller athletes, particularly in the fast-growing years of early adolescence\", and compared the case to that of baseball's Danny Almonte. Although Muhammad's father said the younger age in UCLA's media guide was \"a mistake\", numerous sources online show that Muhammad had been passing himself off as younger for years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37568013",
"title": "Names and titles of Muhammad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The names and titles of Muhammad, names and attributes of Muhammad, Names of Muhammad (Arabic: أَسْمَاءُ ٱلْنَّبِيّ \"’Asmā’u ’n-Nabiyy\") are the names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and used by Muslims, where 88 of them are commonly renown, but also countless names which are found mainly in the Quran and hadith literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "655858",
"title": "Ahmad",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations and meanings of Ahmad.:Scholarship regarding the Greek translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "\"Muslim children are never called Ahmad before the year 123AH. But there are many instances prior to this date of boys called 'Muhammad.' Very rarely is the name 'Ahmad' met with in pre-Islamic time of ignorance (Jahiliya), though the name Muhammad was in common use. Later traditions that the prophet's name was Ahmad show that this had not always been obvious, though commentators assume it after about 22 (AH).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7559856",
"title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
"section": "Section::::Critics.:Jewish criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "In the Middle Ages, it was common for Jewish writers to describe Muhammad as \"ha-Meshuggah\" (\"The Madman\"), a term of contempt frequently used in the Bible for those who believe themselves to be prophets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wl98d
|
how people get graffiti in ridiculous places
|
[
{
"answer": "However they have to. Ladders, are common, as is standing on your friend's shoulders. They climb, jump, or hang as necessary. Some even bring rope and rappel down to where they need to get.\n\nIf you have Netflix, the documentary \"DamNation\" has a scene where protesters painted a dotted line and scissors on a dam they wanted removed. You can watch them do it, and it's one of the biggest and most ridiculous places I can think of. \n\nHanging from a rope with a bucket of paint. That's all there is too it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Filmed with a potato, but my stomach still gets queasy watching [this] (_URL_0_)",
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},
{
"answer": "There is a guy here in New Orleans that goes by the name \"Pyro Lies\" and he gets into some ridiculously crazy spots. I've always wondered how he pulls it off as well. One of his more recent ones is on a 24/7 lighted billboard above Superior Seafood, which is a super popular restaurant located on St. Charles Ave, easily the busiest and most iconicly famous street in Nola, other than Bourbon St. There are constant police patrols in the area, I have no clue how he did that one without getting caught. It's giganticly artistic, not just a scribbled name, and basically covers the entire billboard. It had to have taken a pretty long time to do. Shit is nuts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17116371",
"title": "Underground art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Graffiti, a form of street art, typically refers to illegal forms of street art. Public response to graffiti is not always favorable and is often negative. Others say that unauthorized art comes from a desire to spread beauty and make cityscapes more interesting by painting over blank or barren walls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27758191",
"title": "Graffiti in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Graffiti are writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed illicitly on a wall or other surface in a public place. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings. Graffiti, consisting of the defacement of public spaces and buildings, remains a nuisance issue for cities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2033759",
"title": "Remix culture",
"section": "Section::::Domains of remixing.:Graphic arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "BULLET::::- Graffiti is an example of read/write culture where the participants interact with their surroundings and environment. In much the same way that advertisements decorate walls, graffiti allows the public to choose the images to have displayed on their buildings. By using spray paint, or other mediums, the artists essentially remix and change the wall or other surface to display their twist or critique. As example, Banksy is a notable contemporary English graffiti artist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27758191",
"title": "Graffiti in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Graffiti proponents perceive it as a method of reclaiming public space or displaying an art form; their opponents regard it as a nuisance, or as costly vandalism requiring abatement. Graffiti can be viewed as a \"quality of life\" issue, and its detractors suggest that the presence of graffiti contributes to a general sense of squalor and a heightened fear of crime. Graffiti has a strong negative influence on property values and lowers the tax base, reducing the available funding for municipal services, such as schools, fire protection, and sanitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48090526",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of outdoor murals",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Graffiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Graffiti plagues the presence of many murals, especially those found within city limits. Graffiti is often seen as a form of territory, and once it premiers on a location it invites others to participate in the act of vandalism. Involving the youth of the community with mural project directly is seen as a way to prevent future graffiti, giving them a profound connection and education with and about the project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44316773",
"title": "Graffiti in Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Definition of graffiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Graffiti is a term applied to a range of illegally created marks in which there has been an attempt to establish some sort of coherent composition that people could resonate with, or one that conveys messages. Such marks are made by an individual or individuals, who might not be professional artists, upon a wall or other surface that is usually visually accessible to the public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46212284",
"title": "Ancient Maya graffiti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Graffiti are not integral decoration of the structures where they are found; rather, they are additions to pre-existing features, and lack formal organisation. Usually they bear no obvious relationship to any neighbouring graffiti, and they can be found randomly scattered on walls, floors, and benches. Some examples are found in obscure locations, such as dark corners and narrow passageways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3baqq8
|
What is the history of the Western Sahara? Why does Morocco have (no) legitimate sovereignty over this region?
|
[
{
"answer": "/u/rkwan (partially) answers your question in [this comment](_URL_0_) to a similar question from 2 years ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A good resource is the non-binding ICJ advisory opinion issued in 1975. _URL_1_\n\nIt essentially holds that there was some contact between certain nomadic Saharawi tribes and Morocco, but not enough to establish sovereignty or have them be considered subjects of the crown. That said, advocates for Morocco either decry the advisory opinion or interpret that limited contact as proof (despite the fact the opinion says otherwise).\n\nAnother landmark document in the conflict is the Madrid Accords, when Spain was in a hurry to give up the territory. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3224986",
"title": "Settlement Plan",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The area of Western Sahara is home to the Saharawi people who became Spanish subjects when Spain colonized the area in 1884. The United Nations (UN) became involved with Western Sahara when the UN asked Spain on December 16, 1965, through a General Assembly resolution, to decolonize the former Spanish territory. King Hassan II of Morocco rejected claims of independence for Western Sahara as early as 1975, despite International Court of Justice findings that Morocco did not have legal ties to the area. However, a Moroccan rule of the area can be traced to Islamic expansion in the area, starting with the Midrarid dynasty (823-977 AD). In October 1975, King Hassan ordered an invasion of Western Sahara, and the United States pressured Spain to withdraw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1595995",
"title": "Madrid Accords",
"section": "Section::::International status of the accords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Morocco continues to claim Western Sahara as an integral part of its territory, by virtue of the Madrid Accords inter alia. The Polisario Front declared in 1976 an Algeria-based government-in-exile, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), which denies that the Madrid Accords held any validity and claims the entire area whereas actually controlling only small uninhabitable parts of it. The SADR is also unrecognized by the UN, but has been admitted as Western Sahara's representative to the African Union (AU) and its ruling party (the Polisario Front) is recognized by the UN at least as the \"sole legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people\". Mauritania has pulled out from the conflict entirely since 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155836",
"title": "Arab Maghreb Union",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Moreover, traditional rivalries between Morocco and Algeria, and the unsolved question of Western Sahara's sovereignty, have blocked union meetings since the early 1990s despite several attempts to re-launch the political process. Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony south of Morocco that was \"reintegrated\" by the kingdom of Morocco, has declared independence as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The latest top-level conference, in mid-2005, was derailed by Morocco's refusal to meet, due to Algeria's vocal support for Sahrawi independence. Algeria has continuously supported the Polisario Front liberation movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33229",
"title": "Political status of Western Sahara",
"section": "Section::::Positions of the main parties.:United Nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Western Sahara is on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. The UN has been involved since 1988 in trying to find a solution to the conflict through self-determination. In 1988, the Kingdom of Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed to settle the dispute through a referendum under the auspices of the UN that would allow the people of Western Sahara to choose between independence or integration with Morocco. In 1991, the parties agreed upon the \"Settlement Plan\", contingent on the referendum being held the following year. Due to disputes over voter qualification, the vote has still not been held. Lately, the UN has argued for negotiations between Morocco and the Polisario Front to resolve the deadlock, culminating in the Manhasset negotiations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3008883",
"title": "Second Sahrawi Intifada",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Western Sahara, formerly Spanish Sahara, was annexed by Morocco in 1975, as Spain pulled out. A war with the Polisario Front, which according to the UN represent the indigenous Sahrawi population, and was backed by neighboring Algeria, ensued. In 1991 a cease-fire was agreed upon, on the condition of a referendum on self-determination (including the options of independence or integration into Morocco). Since 1991 the terms of a referendum have been subject to years of dispute between the parties, although the cease-fire continues to hold despite remaining tensions. Morocco controls the majority of the territory, with Polisario forces controlling a rump. A UN mission MINURSO mission patrols the demarcation line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15205402",
"title": "1970s in Morocco",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1202,
"text": "A defining theme of Moroccan history and foreign policy is the bitter struggle over Western Sahara. Moroccan claims to Western Sahara date to the 11th century. However, in August 1974, Spain formally acknowledged the 1966 United Nations (UN) resolution calling for a referendum on the future status of Western Sahara and requested that a plebiscite be conducted under UN supervision. A UN visiting mission reported in October 1975 that an overwhelming majority of the Sahrawi people desired independence. Morocco opposed the proposed referendum and took the case to the International Court of Justice at The Hague, which ruled that despite historical “ties of allegiance” between Morocco and some tribes of Western Sahara, there was no legal justification for departing from the UN position on self-determination. Spain, meanwhile, had declared that even in the absence of a referendum, it intended to surrender political control of Western Sahara, and Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania convened a tripartite conference to resolve the territory’s future. But Madrid also announced that it was opening independence talks with the Algerian-backed Sahrawi independence movement known as the Polisario Front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7453160",
"title": "Coat of arms of Western Sahara",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "In the late 19th-century, Western Sahara formally became a Spanish colony. After the Green March pressure and the Madrid Accords of 1975, Spain unilaterally disengaged itself leaving the territory to Morocco and Mauritania, who split the territory, giving two thirds to the former, in a movement that was not recognized by the UN. The Polisario Front rejected this illegal move and declared in Bir Lehlou, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) as the state representing an independent Western Sahara.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8wxgfx
|
Is it possible to detonate a thermonuclear device without a fission primer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. Most current fusion experiments use lasers, no they would not work for a weapon systems. It would be possible to use lasers to detonate a thermonuclear device, but it would be a very big system using lots of power. The energy has to come from somewhere. Fission is nice because it is the most energetic reaction we can produce, it is very high efficiency and puts lasers to shame in terms of pressure and heat. Where you'd need a whole modern physics lab to just get sustained fusion, a small, footlocker sized device with a shaped charge around some fissile material around fusion material would be all it takes, with a control system to kick off the charges right, to achieve thermonuclear fusion.\n\nExtreme magnetic fields can also sustain nuclear fusion, but again, it would be a huge amount of energy to push this anywhere near explosive amounts of energy. So much so that you'd probably need a fission reactor generating electricity to power the magnets (or lasers) thereby effectively just moving the fission out of the simple device and into the complex powerplant.\n\nThere are no chemical ways of generating the incredible amounts of energy required to fuse a meaningful amount of hydrogen rapidly enough to have it all fuse at once, rather than slowly.\n\nFusion's trouble is that as it occurs, it heats things up, and makes it harder for further fusion to occur in a sample, so you need more pressure and energy, which just makes it harder and harder. Achieving sustained positive delta energy fusion has been a subject of international research since, like, the 70s. It would be an incredible tool for generating electricity.\n\nI suppose if something was to work. It could be gravity, if you were to. Make something massive enough that the pressure of the fusion material on itself was enough to fuse, you'd be able to sustain it, maybe even explosively, but then the issue is if it is massive enough to do this how is it transported and aren't we just talking about stars at this point.\n\nThere's no conceivable way to sustain fusion without fission for the purpose of weapons, if it was possible we'd have it in power plants. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idea of using lasers to initiate fusion reactions was explored at length in the 1970s and 1980s. The problem is that the amount of power you need is still huge, so you need [a laser the size of a football field](_URL_0_) to try to ignite a reaction in a pea-sized amount of thermonuclear fuel. So in terms of using that in a weaponized way: it appears not. \n\nChemical explosives do not provide the necessary compression to ignite significant numbers of fusion reactions. \n\nAs for classification, the Department of Energy [declassified the following statement in 1998](_URL_1_):\n\n > Information on the DOE's pure fusion program:\n\n > (1)\tFact that the DOE made a substantial investment in the past to develop a pure fusion weapon\n\n > (2)\tThat the U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon; and\n\n > (3)\tThat no credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment. \n\nIf one had other highly-compact energy sources, like anti-matter weapons, you could imagine using them as a \"primary\" for a thermonuclear weapon. However our ability to collect/use anti-matter is currently pretty primitive. [There is a nice discussion of potential anti-matter thermonuclear weapons here](_URL_2_). Suffice to say this is filed under \"things we don't have to worry about for awhile (and if we have to worry about anti-matter weapons we already have issues separate from thermonuclear weapons to worry about).\" But it is probably the most \"plausible\" way to have a pure fusion weapon currently on the table.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2915617",
"title": "Pure fusion weapon",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1211,
"text": "All current thermonuclear weapons use a fission bomb as a first stage to create the high temperatures and pressures necessary to start a fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium in a second stage. For many years, nuclear weapon designers have researched whether it is possible to create high enough temperatures and pressures inside a confined space to ignite a fusion reaction, without using fission. Pure fusion weapons offer the possibility of generating arbitrarily small nuclear yields because no critical mass of fissile fuel need be assembled for detonation, as with a conventional fission primary needed to spark a fusion explosion. Also there is an advantage of reduced collateral damage stemming from fallout because these weapons would not create the highly radioactive byproducts associated with fission-type weapons. These weapons would be lethal not only because of their explosive force, which could be large compared to bombs based on chemical explosives, but also because of the neutrons they generate. A potentially useful feature of a fissionless weapon would be that no electromagnetic pulse would be produced, because this originates from the gamma rays released by fissioning nuclei.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22133",
"title": "Nuclear chain reaction",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons application of neutron multiplication.:Predetonation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Detonation of a nuclear weapon involves bringing fissile material into its optimal supercritical state very rapidly. During part of this process, the assembly is supercritical, but not yet in an optimal state for a chain reaction. Free neutrons, in particular from spontaneous fissions, can cause the device to undergo a preliminary chain reaction that destroys the fissile material before it is ready to produce a large explosion, which is known as predetonation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2269463",
"title": "Thermonuclear weapon",
"section": "Section::::Basic principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The primary is thought to be a standard implosion method fission bomb, though likely with a core boosted by small amounts of fusion fuel (usually 50/50% deuterium/tritium gas) for extra efficiency; the fusion fuel releases excess neutrons when heated and compressed, inducing additional fission. When fired, the plutonium-239 (Pu-239) or uranium-235 (U-235) core would be compressed to a smaller sphere by special layers of conventional high explosives arranged around it in an explosive lens pattern, initiating the nuclear chain reaction that powers the conventional \"atomic bomb\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18671837",
"title": "Voitenko compressor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1466,
"text": "This method of detonation produces energies over 100 keV (~10 K temperatures), suitable not only for nuclear fusion, but other higher-order quantum reactions as well. The UTIAS explosive-driven-implosion facility was used to produce stable, centered and focused hemispherical implosions to generate neutrons from D–D reactions. The simplest and most direct method proved to be in a predetonated stoichiometric mixture of deuterium and oxygen. The other successful method was using a miniature Voitenko-type compressor, where a plane diaphragm was driven by the implosion wave into a secondary small spherical cavity that contained pure deuterium gas at one atmosphere. In brief, PETN solid explosive is used to form a hemispherical shell (3–6 mm thick) in a 20-cm diameter hemispherical cavity milled in a massive steel chamber. The remaining volume is filled with a stoichiometric mixture of (H or D and O). This mixture is detonated by a very short thin exploding wire located at the geometric center. The arrival of the detonation wave at the spherical surface instantly and simultaneously fires the explosive liner. The detonation wave in the explosive liner hits the metal cavity, reflects, and implodes on the preheated burnt gases, focuses at the center of the hemisphere (50 microseconds after the initiation of the exploding wire) and reflects, leaving behind a very small pocket (1 mm) of extremely high-temperature, high-pressure and high-density plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1429401",
"title": "Integral fast reactor",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons to light-water reactors.:Proliferation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1337,
"text": "Unlike PUREX reprocessing, the IFR's electrolytic reprocessing of spent fuel did not separate out pure plutonium, and left it mixed with minor actinides and some rare earth fission products which make the theoretical ability to make a bomb directly out of it considerably dubious. Rather than being transported from a large centralized reprocessing plant to reactors at other locations, as is common now in France, from La Hague to its dispersed nuclear fleet of LWRs, the IFR pyroprocessed fuel would be much more resistant to unauthorized diversion. The material with the mix of plutonium isotopes in an IFR would stay at the reactor site and then be burnt up practically in-situ, alternatively, if operated as a breeder reactor, some of the pyroprocessed fuel could be consumed by the same or other reactors located elsewhere. However, as is the case with conventional aqueous reprocessing, it would remain possible to chemically extract all the plutonium isotopes from the pyroprocessed/recycled fuel and would be much easier to do so from the recycled product than from the original spent fuel, although compared to other conventional recycled nuclear fuel, MOX, it would be more difficult, as the IFR recycled fuel contains more fission products than MOX and due to its higher burnup, more proliferation resistant Pu-240 than MOX.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175875",
"title": "Critical mass",
"section": "Section::::Criticality in nuclear weapon design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Until detonation is desired, a nuclear weapon must be kept subcritical. In the case of a uranium bomb, this can be achieved by keeping the fuel in a number of separate pieces, each below the critical size either because they are too small or unfavorably shaped. To produce detonation, the pieces of uranium are brought together rapidly. In Little Boy, this was achieved by firing a piece of uranium (a 'doughnut') down a gun barrel onto another piece (a 'spike'). This design is referred to as a \"gun-type fission weapon\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37852",
"title": "Fusion rocket",
"section": "Section::::Confinement concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "A still more speculative concept is antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion, which would use tiny quantities of antimatter to catalyze a fission and fusion reaction, allowing much smaller fusion explosions to be created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fdxmui
|
why do cribs get recalled all the time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Usually because the dimensions between parts (a rail and a mattress for example) can, in rare instances, cause an infant to get caught or suffocate. Decades ago, there were many recalls because of really dangerous designs like latches that are easily opened or will allow a rail to fall on a baby or pinch their fingers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's easy to make a safe crib. Take hard, dense wood, shape it to fit snuggly, and use high quality fasteners.\n\nThe problem is that this is expensive. Given the choice, most people will buy the cheaper option if the product performs the same function. To chase sales, companies have to find ways to make things cheaper.\n\nSo companies try to reduce the cost of their products with cheaper materials and labor so they are barely functional. This generates the most profit (cheaper = more people buy it over expensive options and they make more money per sold piece). Often times, this sacrifices safety because they didn't need to test for it (no regulations) or they didn't want to test for it due to cost. For more unscrupulous companies, recalls cost less than the lost profit if they didn't make the product.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In many cases, the issue was convenience vs safety.\n\nMost cribs have an adjustable mattress height. For tiny infants that barely move, you can keep the mattress high so it's easy to reach them. But when they get to around 9 months and they can pull up and try to crawl over the side, you have to lower the mattress.\n\nThe problem is, in order to lower the mattress enough that the baby can't escape, it's now so low that many adults can't easily reach the baby - especially if the baby is squirming and doesn't want to come out of the crib.\n\nOne solution was the drop-side crib - one of the sides could slide down to make it easy to reach the baby. Unfortunately it was extremely hard to build a mechanism like that and also make it 100% foolproof. [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nThat wasn't the only solution. Dozens of other types of cribs had mechanisms to make things more convenient for parents that compromised safety.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, some defects only become apparent after years of wear and tear, but would still result in liability to the company. New safety standards might also force the recall of certain older models.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've often joked that they are making newer model babies that aren't compatible with the old models. The same thing about cribs can be said about car seats (they even have a six year expiration date stamped on them now).\n\nI wish I knew the answer too. Who wants to chance anything and put their baby at risk?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former news producer here. One issue is you likely just hear about cribs getting recalled a lot more often than the thousands of other products that get recalled all the time. The only time we put recalls in our newscast is if it was particularly spooky, things involving food, babies and medicine are top of the list. \n\nNew mothers get scared about anything that could harm their baby, share it all over Facebook, then you hear about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For everybody saying that making a safe crib costs money, that's not really the case.\n\nMaking a crib that is suitable for safe sleep for infants is actually incredibly easy and cheap to do. All it's all the extra shit costs money, and presents issues. Infants need a flat surface, with a semi-firm mattress, and some walls. It needs to not easily tip over. That's literally it. It's all the extra options that present issues, like trying to make it convert into a toddler bed, have a mobile hanging from it, drop down sides, etc. Those things can present safety issues. These companies spend lots of time on these things, because it appeals to parents. Having these features makes parents feel like they are getting the \"best\" for their baby. But it's really just added cost and possibly even less safe.\n\nA thin mattress in a cardboard box is likely as safe as most popular cribs. Many babies in Finland sleep in government issued boxes, and they don't have problems with SIDS.\n\ntl;dr Cribs are easy and cheap to make. Recalls are usually because of overcomplicated bullshit that was added to market toward anxious parents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1857283",
"title": "Infant bed",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Some older cribs contained a \"drop gate\" (or \"drop side\"), a side which lowers to ease the process of putting the child into the bed, but can be raised again to restore the integrity of the enclosure. However, assembly problems and malfunctioning hardware on drop gates can cause the formation of gaps, which have been attributed to infant deaths and other major injuries. In June 2011, the United States implemented new safety standards requiring all infant beds manufactured and sold in the country to have fixed sides. In June 2016, Canada implemented a similar ban on the sale, importation, or distribution of any infant bed containing drop sides effective December 29, 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4063979",
"title": "Dental emergency",
"section": "Section::::Restorative emergencies.:Lost or broken filling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Reasons for the deterioration of a restoration vary in different cases, the cause may be underlying caries or it could be occlusal trauma, caused from natural dentition during mastication. The longevity of restorative materials could also be a factor; the survival rates of amalgam are usually 10–15 years, composite 7 years, while gold and ceramic fillings have over a 20-year longevity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24554383",
"title": "Privy digging",
"section": "Section::::Items recovered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Most of these items were valueless and intentionally discarded into the privy, others fell through the opening in the outhouse seat, and some were lost at the hands of small children. In each instance the insides of active vaults were very caustic environments, the highly toxic ingredients causing most things to break down and rot very quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14559274",
"title": "Admiralty of Friesland",
"section": "Section::::Destruction of the admiralty archives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "\"A box had been kept, however, by the church guardians, holding old books and manuscripts, among which, according to an elderly inhabitant of the town, the baptismal records should have been present. But that box had some years ago been given to the deacons for safe-keeping, and there — since there was no lock on the lid — the female supervisor of the old people's home had cut up the books she discovered in the box for domestic use, as sewing patterns! And so it came about that, although the box is still there, the papers can no longer be found in them. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337389",
"title": "Domain Name System Security Extensions",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Key management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "In order to allow for replacement keys, a key rollover scheme is required. Typically, this involves first rolling out new keys in new DNSKEY records, in addition to the existing old keys. Then, when it is safe to assume that the time to live values have caused the caching of old keys to have passed, these new keys can be used. Finally, when it is safe to assume that the caching of records using the old keys have expired, the old DNSKEY records can be deleted. This process is more complicated for things such as the keys to trust anchors, such as at the root, which may require an update of the operating system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5835774",
"title": "Memory box",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "A memory box is a box provided by some hospitals in the event of stillbirth, miscarriage, or other problem during or after childbirth. They contain objects belonging to or representing the deceased child to help relatives come to terms with their loss. Memory boxes are usually donated by local charities and organizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17690079",
"title": "Keepsake box",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "A keepsake box or memory box, typically made from wood, is used for storing mementos of a special time, event or person. They are often created or purchased to mark life's major events like a christening, wedding, birthday, or First Holy Communion. They may also be given for sad occasions of bereavement, such as the stillbirth of a child, when a keepsake/memory box helps with the grieving process. This sort of a keepsake box may be personalised with a person's name, design or picture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2g5yle
|
why do laptops use fans -loud, annoying fans- while an iphone/ipad can run processor heavy apps for hours with no fan and not get hot?
|
[
{
"answer": "cause laptop cpu's are more powerful than ipad processors. tablet and smartphone cpu's sacrifice processing power for less heat dissipation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Laptops and desktops have more powerful processors, graphics cards, memory and usually mechanical storage. More powerful processors and graphics can do more, but use more power to do so, more memory requires more power to use, and mechanical storage devices need to spin, which uses power and generates. An average laptop probably *idles* at 20-40W, and a desktop at 50-150W, and that's just when they're sitting there not really doing anything; they'll use more power when they're in use. All that energy being used has to go somewhere, and it's put out in the form of heat. We use fans to move air to move that heat away from the computer.\n\nMobile devices use far less power. They have solid state memory, which requires less power and generates less heat, far less powerful processors, which again generate less heat, and less memory which uses less power. Overall your phone probably uses around 5W, which means far less energy has to be dissipated.\n\nSo your phone/tabletonly has to get rid of a fraction of the heat that laptop/desktop can put out, which is can do by using small heatsinks and just radiating it away, whereas computers usually need far larger heatsinks and decent airflow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Desktops / laptops use processors with much more power and features but this comes at the price of the high power usage and more heat output. These computers also need that extra power because the run more complex programs and more of that any any single given time. The os is generally much more robost as well which requires more power.\n\n Phones use much smaller and weaker processors that only use a little power and can get by off passive cooling. They can get away with this because the programs / apps are much more simple than their desktop counter parts + the os they use is much lighter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "238601",
"title": "Quiet PC",
"section": "Section::::Laptop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In contrast to desktop PC, laptop and notebook typically do not have power supply fans or video card fans, generally use physically smaller hard drives and lower power components. However, laptop CPU fans are usually smaller, so may not necessarily be quieter than their desktop counterparts - and limited space, limited access and proprietary components make silencing them more difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Computer types.:Desktops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Desktop computers typically use one or more fans for cooling. While almost all desktop power supplies have at least one built-in fan, power supplies should never draw heated air from within the case, as this results in higher PSU operating temperatures which decrease the PSU's energy efficiency, reliability and overall ability to provide a steady supply of power to the computer's internal components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Optimization.:Airflow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Fewer fans but strategically placed will improve the airflow internally within the PC and thus lower the overall internal case temperature in relation to ambient conditions. The use of larger fans also improves efficiency and lowers the amount of waste heat along with the amount of noise generated by the fans while in operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33137535",
"title": "ThinkCentre M series",
"section": "Section::::2011.:M75e.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The primary points of criticism were a direct result of the desktop's small form factor. Although the space for cooling was reduced, the M75e did not exceed stable temperatures. However, noise was a concern. The PC's fan would only run for a short duration at a high speed, making it louder than some desktops and workstations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2120540",
"title": "Laptop cooler",
"section": "Section::::Active coolers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Active coolers use small fans to generate additional airflow around the body of the laptop. This helps convect heat away from the device. The number of laptop cooler fans usually range from 1 to 6. Many cooler pads support the use of a power adapter, though they typically run on power drawn through one of the laptop's USB ports. Additionally, many cooler pads come with a built-in USB hub, so as not to consume one of the laptop's often limited number of USB ports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4045710",
"title": "Computer fan",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Multiple purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "A case fan may be mounted on a radiator attached to the case, simultaneously operating to cool a liquid cooling device's working fluid and to ventilate the case. In laptops, a single blower fan often cools a heat sink connected to both CPU and GPU using heat pipes. In rack-mounted servers, a single row of fans may operate to create an airflow through the chassis from front to rear, which is directed by passive ducts or shrouds across individual components' heat sinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "851755",
"title": "Computer fan control",
"section": "Section::::Need for fan control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Processors in most early x86-based computers, up to some of the early 486s, did not need active ventilation. Power supplies needed forced cooling, and power supply fans also circulated cooling air through the rest of the PC with the ATX standard. The byproduct of increased heat generation is that the fan(s) need to move increasing amounts air and thus need to be more powerful. Since they must move more air through the same area of space, fans will become more noisy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xq32e
|
How were the Romans able to replenish so much of their manpower despite devastating losses in battles such as Cannae?
|
[
{
"answer": "I take it your question is less about Roman logistics and more about the specific fact that the forces at Cannae were effective crushed as a standing army, and how did Rome recover from something like that?\n\nFirst thing is first, with Cannae specifically there were very real and very profound consequences. Several city-states defected from Rome and turned to Carthage. Most estimates put Rome's total loss at over 70,000 with almost 40,000 of those being straight up casualties.\n\nThe Second Punic War devastated Rome.\n\nSo what was their response?\n\nWell, for lack of a better term, conscription.\n\nThe Carthaginians attempts to parley after Cannae and it was rejected. Instead, Rome conscripted *everyone* they could get their hands on, including peasants with no ties to land, as well as slaves. Furthermore, Rome flexed its legendary resilience by quickly adapting military doctrine and tactics, developing ways to counter Hannibal's classic flanking technique and changing their strategy to *never put that many people under one command again*, instead relying on much smaller, independent forces to face future foes.\n\nIn short, Rome survived because it was never too proud or too stubborn to find a way to make things work. Making the best of what they could gather, and getting mad rather than despairing. They took on totally new tactics and exploited the weakness of Carthage; attacking everywhere Hannibal was not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Related question, it seemed that Rome the city itself was vulnerable to sacking after Cannae. When his subordinates suggested marching on Rome, why did Hannibal sat on that decision? Was he waiting on Carthage diplomatic manoeuvres?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Roman army at that time was half composed of Latin allies so those losses weren't just being borne by Rome alone. This meant Rome could draw on a much larger base of manpower than other states who could only depend on their own population. \n\nThat said, even Cannae was extremely distressing and Rome was being defended by old men and young boys. They even formed a legion out of freed slaves equipped with captured arms taken from the temples.\n\nLastly they gained a breathing space when Fabius Cunctator was appointed dictator and he did the incredibly un-Roman thing of not fighting. He'd just shadow Hannibal's army and remain on the higher ground (where it'd be disadvantageous for Hannibal to attack). This kept his army intact and gave it time to train and build up cohesion, it hampered Hannibal since he couldn't disperse his army to forage for supplies. This went on for a while allowing Rome to rebuild her armies and let the other armies in Spain and Sicily go on offensive campaigns.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16055980",
"title": "Socii",
"section": "Section::::Historical cohesion of the Roman alliance.:Second Punic War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "Nevertheless, the Hannibalic War stretched Roman military manpower to the limit. Of their 400,000 available manpower, the Romans kept at least 200,000 men in the field, in Italy and overseas, continuously in the period 214–203 (and 240,000 in the peak year). In addition, c. 30,000 were serving in the Roman fleets at the same time. Thus, if one assumes that fresh recruits reaching military age were cancelled out by campaign losses, about 60% of the confederation's available manpower was under arms continuously. This barely left enough to tend the fields and produce the food supply. Even then, emergency measures were often needed to find enough recruits. Livy implies that, after Cannae, the minimum property qualification for legionary service was largely ignored. In addition, the normal ban on criminals, debtors and slaves serving in the legions was lifted. Twice the wealthy class were forced to contribute their slaves to man the fleets and twice boys under military age were enlisted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25994",
"title": "Roman legion",
"section": "Section::::Factors in the legion's success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage and the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns against Pyrrhus of Epirus, illustrate this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Infantry effectiveness.:Assessment of the Roman infantry.:Central factors in Roman success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 225,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Rome's massive manpower supply enabled it to stay in the field and continue fighting after defeats and to launch new campaigns. Against Hannibal for example, Rome suffered huge losses, but still vastly outnumbered Hannibal's forces. This meant not only defensive operations under Fabius, but the aggressive deployment of new armies under Scipio to take the battle to the Carthaginians in Africa. Other enemies of Rome came up against this massive manpower reserve and faltered over time - from small tribes, city-states or kingdoms fighting to maintain their independence, to major empires that confronted the Romans. The huge pool of fighting men gave the Romans much more room for error or setbacks, compared to their opponents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Infantry effectiveness.:Victory through attrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "In their battles against a wide variety of opponents, Rome's ruthless persistence, greater resources and stronger organization wore down their opponents over time. Rome's massive manpower supply was the foundation of this approach. Opponents could be relentlessly weakened and exhausted over the long run. In Spain, resources were thrown at the problem until it yielded over 150 years later—a slow, harsh grind of endless marching, constant sieges and fighting, broken treaties, burning villages and enslaved captives. As long as the Roman Senate and its successors were willing to replace and expend more men and material decade after decade, victory could be bought through a strategy of exhaustion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Infantry effectiveness.:Victory through attrition.:Resource tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The basic principle behind these tactics was to disrupt their enemies' resources while increasing Roman resources. Without a regular supply of food, water, and other commodities, armies would begin to starve or dehydrate, resulting to low morale or killing of fellow soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47569",
"title": "Appian Way",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:The barrier of the Pontine Marshes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "In the First Samnite War (343–341 BC) the Romans found they could not support or resupply troops in the field against the Samnites across the marsh. A revolt of the Latin League drained their resources further. They gave up the attempted alliance and settled with Samnium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393860",
"title": "Pyrrhic War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "A skilled commander, with a strong army fortified by war elephants (which the Romans were not experienced in facing), Pyrrhus enjoyed initial success against the Roman legions, but suffered heavy losses even in these victories. Plutarch wrote that Pyrrhus said after the second battle of the war, \"If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined.\" He could not call up more men from home and his allies in Italy were becoming indifferent. The Romans, by contrast, had a very large pool of military manpower and could replenish their legions even if their forces were depleted in many battles. This has led to the expression \"Pyrrhic victory\", a term for a victory that inflicts losses the victor cannot afford in the long term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4f9jkj
|
if a company has a labor strike, why can't they just fill their positions with temporary workers and let the strikers just continue to strike in perpetuity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those temps are called scabs, and it is not an uncommon occurrence. It definitely undermines their relationship with their regular work force, and often times results in violence, especially towards the scabs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The whole point of a union is that if everyone acts together it's really hard to do stuff like that. \n\nLike if one guy walks out you just fire him and get a new guy, but if every single person walks out all at once the company really needs to do something and get people to come back because totally replacing the entire workforce isn't simple and likely is going to be a huge problem if no one is there to train them or anything. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Typically the guys who train the replacements are in the union too. If not then it's a really weak union. The white collar guys often have no clue how to operate the machinery and even if they did, they'd be striking too if their bosses told them to operate the machines. So then if everyone who has the knowledge to keep the plant running walks out, there really is no way for the management to produce anything during the strike.\nThere's real life experience to what happened. Ask your friends who are 50 and above who tried to fly in the 80s after the [PATCO strike.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They often try to, and if successful, they can destroy the union. \n\nWhy it doesn't work is the stronger unions have members who are skilled. You can't just take someone off the street and have them drive a semi or operate heavy machinery. Training them takes time, so the company is losing money while they are coming up to speed.\n\nThat is why companies like Walmart and McDonald's have largely avoided unionization, their work force isn't very skilled, and could be replaced with people off the street.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2793123",
"title": "Union busting",
"section": "Section::::History.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "In the U.S., unlike the UK and several other countries, the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) provides a legally protected right for private sector employees to strike in order to gain better wages, benefits, or working conditions without the threat of termination. However, striking for economic reasons (i.e., protesting workplace conditions or supporting a union's bargaining demands) allows an employer to hire permanent replacements. If hired, the replacement worker can continue in the job, while the striking worker must wait for a vacancy. But if the strike is due to unfair labor practices, the strikers replaced can demand immediate reinstatement at the end of the strike. If a collective bargaining agreement is in effect, and it contains a \"no-strike clause\", a strike during the life of the contract could result in the firing of all striking employees, and the dissolution of that union. Although legal, it is viewed by labor organizations as union busting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511550",
"title": "Lockout (industry)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "In the United States, under federal labor law, an employer may hire only temporary replacements during a lockout. In a strike, unless it is an unfair labor practice strike, an employer may legally hire permanent replacements. Also, in many US states, employees who are locked out are eligible to receive unemployment benefits, but they are not eligible for such benefits during a strike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155134",
"title": "Strike action",
"section": "Section::::Anti-Strike action.:Union busting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "In the U.S., as established in the National Labor Relations Act there is a legally protected right for private sector employees to strike to gain better wages, benefits, or working conditions and they cannot be fired. Striking for economic reasons (i.e., protesting workplace conditions or supporting a union's bargaining demands) allows an employer to hire permanent replacements. The replacement worker can continue in the job and then the striking worker must wait for a vacancy. But if the strike is due to unfair labor practices (ULP), the strikers replaced can demand immediate reinstatement when the strike ends. If a collective bargaining agreement is in effect, and it contains a \"no-strike clause\", a strike during the life of the contract could result in the firing of all striking employees which could result in dissolution of that union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155134",
"title": "Strike action",
"section": "Section::::Anti-Strike action.:Strike preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "In the U.S., as established in the National Labor Relations Act there is a legally protected right for private sector employees to strike to gain better wages, benefits, or working conditions and they cannot be fired. Striking for economic reasons (like protesting workplace conditions or supporting a union's bargaining demands) allows an employer to hire permanent replacements. The replacement worker can continue in the job and then the striking worker must wait for a vacancy. But if the strike is due to unfair labor practices, the strikers replaced can demand immediate reinstatement when the strike ends. If a collective bargaining agreement is in effect, and it contains a \"no-strike clause\", a strike during the life of the contract could result in the firing of all striking employees which could result in dissolution of that union. Although this is legal it could be viewed as union busting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10473008",
"title": "Employment Relations Act 2000",
"section": "Section::::Strikes and lock-outs.:Strikebreakers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 302,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 302,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In general employers can not use strikebreakers (sometimes referred to by the pejorative term \"scab\"). They can however ask other non-striking employees to do the work that the strikers normally do. If there are health and safety issues, then the employer may employ someone especially to do the work of those on strike but the new worker can only perform duties to alleviate the health and safety issues. (section 97)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315366",
"title": "Flint sit-down strike",
"section": "Section::::The strike.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "In a conventional strike, union members leave the plant and establish a picket line to discourage other employees from entering, thus preventing the employer from operating. In a sit-down strike, the workers physically occupy the plant, keeping management and others out. By remaining inside the factory rather than picketing outside of it, striking workers prevented owners from bringing strikebreakers to resume production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155134",
"title": "Strike action",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "A strike may consist of workers refusing to attend work or picketing outside the workplace to prevent or dissuade people from working in their place or conducting business with their employer. Less frequently workers may occupy the workplace, but refuse either to do their jobs or to leave. This is known as a sit-down strike. A similar tactic is the work-in, where employees occupy the workplace but still continue work, often without pay, which attempts to show they are still useful, or that worker self-management can be successful. For instance, this occurred with factory occupations in the \"Biennio Rosso\" strikes – the \"two red years\" of Italy from 1919 to 1920.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nruno
|
why do the carbons in graphene only have 3 bonds?
|
[
{
"answer": "The carbons form only three bonds because they are sp^2 hybridized (hence the -ene suffix). This means that there are only 3 hybrid orbitals that can form bonds, similar to the carbon in something like ethylene, H2C=CH2 (however, graphene doesn't have a double bond). I think the extra electron sits in a nonbonding p orbital that is perpendicular to the surface of the graphene, but don't quote me. Hybridization is useful to describe bonding in molecules, but isn't a good model for the electrons in graphene.\n\nGraphene can be made many different ways, the simplest is applying scotch tape to a chunk of graphite and pulling it off: layers of graphene like chunks stick to the tape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Each carbon atom in graphene is sp2 hybridized and bonded to three other carbon atoms via sigma bonds. The remaining p orbital is perpendicular to the plane of the carbon atoms, but it is most certainly not non-bonding; in fact, these p orbitals give graphene its remarkable properties. \n\nThe electrons in the aforementioned p orbitals are delocalized due to resonance (or molecular orbitals, according to MO theory), similar to benzene, but on a much greater scale. Thus, there are partial double bonds in addition to the sigma bonds, and overall, each carbon has four bonds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The carbon atoms in graphing only have 3 *sigma* bonds. The fourth bond lies above and below the plane that the sigma bonded hexagons make. This bond actually incorporates all of the carbon atoms in the molecule and is what allows graphene to conduct electricity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone else here has been going on about how it's sp2 hybridised, but I guess I'll try to explain it in an easier way.\n\nElectron orbits the nucleus in \"clouds\" called orbitals. This is an extension of the old \"electron shell\" theory, but electrons are now a \"cloud\", or orbitals, around the nucleus, and there is a higher probability of finding an electron in these orbitals. Atoms form covalent bonds when orbitals overlap, in essence, sharing electrons.\n\nI will skip the basics of orbitals, but I'll jump into the shape of the orbital. Carbon has two kinds of orbitals, s orbitals and p orbitals. Often, outer orbitals (electrons in the valence shell) will \"hybridise\" to form different shapes. I will focus on one particular shape, the sp2 hybridisation of orbitals. \n\nAn sp2 hybridised orbital looks like this: _URL_2_ \n\nAs you can see, there are 3 orbitals outwards at angles of 120 degrees. These orbitals will overlap with each other, so each carbon forms 3 bonds with other carbons to form a hexagonal layer.\n\nNow, do you notice that there are the red orbitals sticking out? These are the remaining unbonded p-orbitals. They overlap with adjacent p-orbitals to form this: _URL_0_\n\nThese electrons can become delocalised and jump from atom to atom.This gives a very important property of graphene and graphite: the ability to conduct electricity.\n\nImages taken from google search, credits here:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "606015",
"title": "Unsaturated hydrocarbon",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Orbital Hybridization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Carbon is known to have electron configuration of 1s 2s 2p. As the only unpaired electrons it has are the two in the 2p orbitals, carbon is theoretically only capable of forming 2 single bonds. However, this is definitely not true as in reality, each carbon in ethene forms 2 single bonds and 1 double bond whereas each carbon in ethyne forms 1 single bond and 1 triple bond. In fact, it is the orbital hybridization that gives rise to this strange phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12366",
"title": "Graphite",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common are diamond and graphite (less common ones include buckminsterfullerene). In diamond the bonds are sp and the atoms form tetrahedra with each bound to four nearest neighbors. In graphite they are sp orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes with each bound to three nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "498228",
"title": "Carbon–carbon bond",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "A carbon–carbon bond is a covalent bond between two carbon atoms. The most common form is the single bond: a bond composed of two electrons, one from each of the two atoms. The carbon–carbon single bond is a sigma bond and is formed between one hybridized orbital from each of the carbon atoms. In ethane, the orbitals are sp-hybridized orbitals, but single bonds formed between carbon atoms with other hybridizations do occur (e.g. sp to sp). In fact, the carbon atoms in the single bond need not be of the same hybridization. Carbon atoms can also form double bonds in compounds called alkenes or triple bonds in compounds called alkynes. A double bond is formed with an sp-hybridized orbital and a p-orbital that is not involved in the hybridization. A triple bond is formed with an sp-hybridized orbital and two p-orbitals from each atom. The use of the p-orbitals forms a pi bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56731778",
"title": "Dirac matter",
"section": "Section::::Fermionic Dirac matter.:Graphene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Each carbon atom forms formula_30-bonds to the three neighboring atoms that lie in the graphene plane at angles of 120formula_31. These bonds are mediated by three of carbon's four electrons while the fourth electron, which occupies a formula_32 orbital, mediates an out-of-plane -bond that leads to the electronic bands at the Fermi level. The unique transport properties and the semimetallic state of graphene are the result of the delocalized electrons occupying these pformula_33 orbitals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2761",
"title": "Alkene",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Bonding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Each carbon of the double bond uses its three sp hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms (the other carbon and two hydrogen atoms). The unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three sp² hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. This bond lies outside the main C–C axis, with half of the bond on one side of the molecule and half on the other. With a strength of 65 kcal/mol, the pi bond is significantly weaker than the sigma bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1252991",
"title": "Orbital hybridisation",
"section": "Section::::Types of hybridisation.:sp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "For this molecule, carbon sp hybridises, because one π (pi) bond is required for the double bond between the carbons and only three σ bonds are formed per carbon atom. In sp hybridisation the 2s orbital is mixed with only two of the three available 2p orbitals,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378994",
"title": "Lone pair",
"section": "Section::::Unusual lone pairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "In Group 14 elements (the carbon group), lone pairs can manifest themselves by shortening or lengthening single (bond order 1) bond lengths, as well as in the effective order of triple bonds as well. The familiar alkynes have a carbon-carbon triple bond (bond order 3) and a linear geometry of 180° bond angles (figure A in reference ). However, further down in the group (silicon, germanium, and tin), formal triple bonds have an effective bond order 2 with one lone pair (figure B) and trans-bent geometries. In lead, the effective bond order is reduced even further to a single bond, with two lone pairs for each lead atom (figure \"C\"). In the organogermanium compound (\"Scheme 1\" in the reference), the effective bond order is also 1, with complexation of the acidic isonitrile (or \"isocyanide\") C-N groups, based on interaction with germanium's empty 4p orbital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vom0g
|
why is it so hard for reddit to keep the site from crashing
|
[
{
"answer": "Buying gold more often keeps it from crashing. And if you've noticed they don't often meet the daily goal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My guess is that they aren't making enough money to pay for the server time required for the number of users. The vast majority of redditors don't ever pay a dime to use the site and judging by the relatively low cost of advertising on reddit users here must be more difficult to convert into sales.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not hitting the daily Gold goal often + Less ads = less revenue = worse servers + heavy load = more crashes. \n \nTL:DR bad servers",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18933122",
"title": "Slashdot effect",
"section": "Section::::Extent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Major news sites or corporate websites are typically engineered to serve large numbers of requests and therefore do not normally exhibit this effect. Websites that fall victim may be hosted on home servers, offer large images or movie files or have inefficiently generated dynamic content (e.g. many database hits for every web hit even if all web hits are requesting the same page). These websites often became unavailable within a few minutes of a story's appearance, even before any comments had been posted. Occasionally, paying \"Slashdot\" subscribers (who have access to stories before non-paying users) rendered a site unavailable even before the story was posted for the general readership.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35507",
"title": "HTTP 404",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The website hosting server will typically generate a \"404 Not Found\" web page when a user attempts to follow a broken or dead link; hence the 404 error is one of the most recognizable errors encountered on the World Wide Web.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18933122",
"title": "Slashdot effect",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Sites such as \"Slashdot\", Digg, Reddit, StumbleUpon and Fark consist of brief submitted stories and a self-moderated discussion on each story. The typical submission introduces a news item or website of interest by linking to it. In response, large masses of readers tend to simultaneously rush to view the referenced sites. The ensuing flood of page requests from readers can exceed the site's available bandwidth or the ability of its servers to respond, and render the site temporarily unreachable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28218781",
"title": "Netdisaster",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Before the website's engine was shut down, users could choose from a list of disasters and the entire internet. Users could type in any URL, select a disaster from a drop-down list, and click \"Go!\". The disasters were divided into six categories, each one containing a variety of different options. Most of the disasters have been made available on the desktop application and the \"Netdisaster-Yourself!\" tool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27476854",
"title": "Tabnabbing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "The attack causes the browser to navigate to the impersonated page after the page has been left unattended for some time. A user who returns after a while and sees the login page may be induced to believe the page is legitimate and enter their login, password and other details that will be used for improper purposes. The attack can be made more likely to succeed if the attacker is able to check for well known websites the user has loaded in the past or in other tabs, and loads a simulation of the same sites. This attack can be done even if JavaScript is disabled, using the \"meta refresh\" meta element, an HTML attribute used for page redirection that causes a reload of a specified new page after a given time interval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11031479",
"title": "Internet Explorer 8",
"section": "Section::::New features.:Automatic tab-crash recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "If a website or add-on causes a tab to crash in Internet Explorer 8, only that tab is affected. The browser itself remains stable and other tabs remain unaffected, thereby minimizing any disruption to the browsing experience. If a tab unexpectedly closes or crashes it is automatically reloaded with the same content as before the crash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18366965",
"title": "Communities.com",
"section": "Section::::Website outages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The site was down for quite some time, as it was being shifted to a new server according to the site's admins. It is again up online as on date (Feb 3, 2016). However many old users are not aware about its status and may never return.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lp8vu
|
How did Polish pilots come to fly in the RAF during the Second World War?
|
[
{
"answer": "After the German and Soviet invasions, substantial numbers of Polish military personnel escaped to neutral countries, primarily Romania, Hungary, Lithuania and Latvia, where they were interned. Air force personnel mostly evacuated to Romania, from where significant numbers made it to France either overland via Yugoslavia and Italy (still neutral at the time), or by boat; the internment camps weren't very closely guarded, and the Polish government in exile worked hard to assist with transport.\n\nPolish air force units were then formed in both France and Great Britain (around 7,500 personnel in the former, 2,500 in the latter), though neither were particularly enthusiastic about it, the French mostly assigning obsolescent aircraft, the RAF forming two bomber squadrons flying Fairey Battles. Following the fall of France, Polish units were evacuated to the UK from western French ports in Operation Aerial, allowing the RAF to form a further two bomber squadrons and two fighter squadrons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10312799",
"title": "Polish Armed Forces in the West",
"section": "Section::::General history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1766,
"text": "After being evacuated after the defeat of France, Polish fliers had an important role in the Battle of Britain. At first, the Polish pilots were overlooked, despite their numbers being high (close to 8,500 by mid-1940). Despite having flown for years, most of them were posted either to RAF bomber squadrons or the RAF Volunteer Reserve. This was due to lack of understanding in the face of Polish defeat by the Germans, as well as language barriers and British commanders' opinion of Polish attitudes. On 11 June 1940, the Polish Government in Exile finally signed an agreement with the British Government to form a Polish Air Force in the UK, and in July 1940 the RAF announced that it would form two Polish fighter squadrons: 302 \"Poznański\" Squadron and 303 \"Kościuszko\" Squadron. The squadrons were composed of Polish pilots and ground crews, although their flight commanders and commanding officers were British. Once given the opportunity to fly, it did not take long for their British counterparts to appreciate the tenacity of the Poles. Even Air Officer Commanding Hugh Dowding, who had been one of the first to voice his doubt of the Poles, said:I must confess that I had been a little doubtful of the effect which their experience in their own countries and in France might have had upon the Polish and Czech pilots, but my doubts were laid to rest, because all three squadrons swung into the fight with a dash and enthusiasm which is beyond praise. They were inspired by a burning hatred for the Germans which made them very deadly opponents.Dowding later stated further that \"had it not been for the magnificent [work of] the Polish squadrons and their unsurpassed gallantry, I hesitate to say that the outcome of the Battle would have been the same.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1182745",
"title": "Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "A total of 145 Polish fighter pilots served in the RAF during the Battle of Britain, making up the largest non-British contribution. By the end of the war, around 19,400 Poles were serving in the Polish Air Force in Great Britain and in the RAF.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10312799",
"title": "Polish Armed Forces in the West",
"section": "Section::::History by formation.:Air force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1361,
"text": "From the very beginning of the war, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had welcomed foreign pilots to supplement the dwindling pool of British pilots. On 11 June 1940, the Polish government in exile signed an agreement with the British government to form a Polish army and Polish air force in the United Kingdom. The first two (of an eventual ten) Polish fighter squadrons went into action in August 1940. Four Polish squadrons eventually took part in the Battle of Britain (300 and 301 Bomber Squadrons; 302 and 303 fighter squadrons), with 89 Polish pilots. Together with more than 50 Poles fighting in British squadrons, about 145 Polish pilots defended British skies. Polish pilots were among the most experienced in the battle, most of them having already fought in the 1939 September Campaign in Poland and the 1940 Battle of France. Additionally, prewar Poland had set a very high standard of pilot training. No. 303 Squadron, named after the Polish-American hero, General Tadeusz Kościuszko, achieved the highest number of kills (126) of all fighter squadrons engaged in the Battle of Britain, even though it only joined the combat on August 30, 1940. These Polish pilots, representing about 5% of total Allied pilots in the Battle, were responsible for 12% of total victories (203) in the Battle and achieved the highest number of kills of any Allied squadron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6623601",
"title": "Non-British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain",
"section": "Section::::Contribution by country.:Poland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1101,
"text": "Following the German invasion of Poland, many Polish pilots escaped and made their way to France and Britain. During the German invasion of France in May 1940, of the 1,600 Polish pilots available to the \"Armée de l'Air\" it is estimated that only about 150 took an active part in combat. By June 1940, the Poles had over 85,000 men in France, including pilots and ground troops. Many of these personnel escaped to the UK around the time of the fall of France. By mid-1940 some 35,000 Polish airmen, soldiers and sailors had made their way to Britain, making up the largest foreign military force in the country after the French, as well as making it the largest Polish army ever formed abroad; of these some 8,500 were airmen. Many were members of the Polish Air Force which had fought the \"Luftwaffe\". However, the Air Ministry and the RAF underestimated their potential value in fighting against the \"Luftwaffe,\" as they felt that the Polish defeat on home soil was due to incompetence and lack of training. Most of the Poles were posted either to RAF bomber squadrons or the RAF Volunteer Reserve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43977",
"title": "Polish contribution to World War II",
"section": "Section::::Polish Forces (West).:Air force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1453,
"text": "Later, Polish pilots fought in the Battle of Britain, where the Polish 303 Fighter Squadron claimed the highest number of kills of any Allied squadron. From the very beginning of the war, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had welcomed foreign pilots to supplement the dwindling pool of British pilots. On 11 June 1940, the Polish Government in Exile signed an agreement with the British Government to form a Polish Army and Polish Air Force in the United Kingdom. The first two (of an eventual ten) Polish fighter squadrons went into action in August 1940. Four Polish squadrons eventually took part in the Battle of Britain (300 and 301 Bomber Squadrons; 302 and 303 Fighter Squadrons), with 89 Polish pilots. Together with more than 50 Poles fighting in British squadrons, a total of 145 Polish pilots defended British skies. Polish pilots were among the most experienced in the battle, most of them having already fought in the 1939 September Campaign in Poland and the 1940 Battle of France. Additionally, prewar Poland had set a very high standard of pilot training. The 303 Squadron, named after the Polish-American hero, General Tadeusz Kościuszko, claimed the highest number of kills (126) of all fighter squadrons engaged in the Battle of Britain, even though it only joined the combat on August 30, 1940 These Polish pilots, constituting 5% of the pilots active during the Battle of Britain, were responsible for 12% of total victories in the Battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1182745",
"title": "Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::History.:In Britain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding later admitted he had been \"a little doubtful\" at first about the Polish airmen. The British government informed General Sikorski that at the end of the war, Poland would be charged for all costs involved in maintaining Polish forces in Britain. Initial plans for the airmen greatly disappointed them: they would only be allowed to join the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve, wear British uniforms, fly British flags and be required to take two oaths, one to the Polish government and the other to George VI; each officer was required to have a British counterpart, and all Polish pilots were to begin with the rank of \"pilot officer\", the lowest rank for a commissioned officer in the RAF. Only after posting would anyone be promoted to a higher grade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1182745",
"title": "Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::History.:In Britain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Because of this, the majority of highly experienced Polish pilots had to wait in training centres, learning English Command procedures and language, while the RAF suffered heavy losses due to lack of experienced pilots. On June 11, 1940, a preliminary agreement was signed by the Polish and British governments and soon the British authorities finally allowed for the creation of two bomber squadrons and a training centre as part of the Royal Air Force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bslycj
|
what is the core of the earth made of, how does it stay molten, and what would the impact of it cooling be?
|
[
{
"answer": "It has a solid iron and nickel core surrounded by a liquid outer core mostly of the same metals. It stays molten due to the immense pressure of all the mass above it, generating heat.\n\nThe liquid core is believed to be the source of the planet's magnetic field. If you were to magically cool it and harden it, the planet would lose much of its magnetic field which would expose the surface to significantly more solar radiation, likely resulting in the planet becoming much less if at all habitable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As best scientists can currently tell, the core is made up of a nickle-iron alloy. There is a solid inner core and a liquid outer core.\n\nThe liquid outer core stays molten simply because it lacks an easy way to cool. The Earth's mantle and crust doesn't provide very effective heat transfer from the core out to space so the outer/liquid core stays hot simply because the heat has nowhere to go.\n\nAs far as what would happen if it cooled, well it's actually a question of when. The earth's core is already cooling, and has been for billions of years. When the core finally cools fully, many things will happen, basically none of them good. The earth would lose its magnetic field and tectonic plates will stop moving are among the two biggest, both would essentially make the planet uninhabitable in the long run.\n\nFortunately we still have several billions years before this occurs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The outer core is liquid iron and nickel (mostly). The inner core is solid and believed to be made of an iron-nickel alloy with some other elements (it's never been directly measured).\n\nIt doesn't \"stay\" molten, it simply takes a long time to cool down. We're talking billions of years. This will likely never happen though, as our Sun will probably turn into a Red Giant and engulf everything up to Mars long before Earth's core manages to cool.\n\nIf it did cool down however, we'd all be dead. The core is what creates Earth's magnetic field, which protects us from things like cosmic radiation and solar winds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The solid core was deduced by seismologists studying earthquakes in New Zealand in the 1930s, because sensitive seismographs around the globe picked up the earthquake, but not as though the shockwave traveled directly point to point in a straight line, but instead it took longer to arrive than that. The delay made sense if the shockwave had to travel across the surface of the solid core as a reflection, and the delay suggests a core of 2400 km in diameter.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe inner Earth, outside the core, is molten due to two sources: primordial heat from the formation of the Earth, and radioactive decay.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41077022",
"title": "Earth's internal heat budget",
"section": "Section::::Primordial heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The early formation of the Earth's dense core could have caused superheating and rapid heat loss, and the heat loss rate would slow once the mantle solidified. Heat flow from the core is necessary for maintaining the convecting outer core and the geodynamo and Earth's magnetic field, therefore primordial heat from the core enabled Earth's atmosphere and thus helped retain Earth's liquid water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46528307",
"title": "Comparative planetary science",
"section": "Section::::Geology and geochemistry.:Differentiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "As a large body, Earth can efficiently retain its internal heat (from its initial formation plus decay of its radioisotopes) over the long timescale of the Solar System. It thus retains a molten core, and has differentiated- dense materials have sunk to the core, while light materials float to form a crust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2939202",
"title": "Earth's inner core",
"section": "Section::::Growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The Earth's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113728",
"title": "Geothermal energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geodynamics.:Solidification of the outer core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "The growth of the inner core may be expected to consume most of the outer core by some 3–4 billion years from now, resulting in a nearly solid core composed of iron and other heavy elements. The surviving liquid envelope will mainly consist of lighter elements that will undergo less mixing. Alternatively, if at some point plate tectonics comes to an end, the interior will cool less efficiently, which may end the growth of the inner core. In either case, this can result in the loss of the magnetic dynamo. Without a functioning dynamo, the magnetic field of the Earth will decay in a geologically short time period of roughly 10,000 years. The loss of the magnetosphere will cause an increase in erosion of light elements, particularly hydrogen, from the Earth's outer atmosphere into space, resulting in less favorable conditions for life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533487",
"title": "Energy development",
"section": "Section::::Renewable sources.:Geothermal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1417149",
"title": "Structure of the Earth",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68eeh5
|
why do we still laugh at jokes we have heard before?
|
[
{
"answer": "If I hide behind your dresser and pop out and scare you, why would I be able to repeat that effect? Your mind or body still transmit information, whether it's new or old information is irrelevant. It still triggers those emotions in the same way. Not to mention mediums of entertainment are usually enjoyed with a heavily suspended disbelief - so we allow ourselves to forget we know what will happen the same way we allow ourselves to forget Johnny Depp is an actor and not actually a pirate or a guy with scissors for hands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234801",
"title": "Laughter",
"section": "Section::::Nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Laughter researcher said: \"Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are thousands of languages, hundreds of thousands of dialects, but everyone speaks laughter in pretty much the same way.\" Babies have the ability to laugh before they ever speak. Children who are born blind and deaf still retain the ability to laugh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "520482",
"title": "Will Hay",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Early career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Hay published a magazine piece entitled \"Philosophy of Laughter\", in which he discussed the psychology of comedy. In the essay he rhetorically asks, \"Why does every one of us laugh at seeing somebody else slapped in the face with a large piece of cold custard pie? Is it because we're all naturally cruel? Or is it because there's something inherently funny in custard pies? Or in faces? Or in throwing things? No. No. and no! The real reason why we laugh is because we are relieved. Because we are released from a sense of fear. Wherever we may happen to be – in the cinema, theatre, or music-hall – we tend to identify with the actors we are watching. So that when a custard pie is thrown we fear for a moment that it has been thrown at us. And then, immediately we realise that it hasn't hit us, we experience a feeling of relief, and we laugh\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24328158",
"title": "Léon Dumont",
"section": "Section::::Dumont's closing thoughts from the last page of \"Des causes du rire\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "One has seen that to laugh is to disarm hate and anger and to extract from some judges indulgence for a sin. In a word, the good joke, applied appropriately to any subject, has the effect of sweetening the deal for us:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2287081",
"title": "Linguistic competence",
"section": "Section::::Related areas of study.:Understanding humour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Language is often implicated in humor. For example, the structural ambiguity of sentences is a key source for jokes. Take Groucho Marx's line from \"Animal Crackers\": \"One morning I shot an elephant in my pyjamas; how he got into my pyjamas I'll never know.\" The joke is funny because the main sentence could theoretically mean either that (1) the speaker, while wearing pajamas, shot an elephant or (2) the speaker shot an elephant that was inside his pyjamas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234801",
"title": "Laughter",
"section": "Section::::Nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Laughter might be thought of as an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy and happiness. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli completely unrelated to psychological state, such as nitrous oxide. One group of researchers speculated that noises from infants as early as 16 days old may be vocal laughing sounds or laughter, however the weight of the evidence supports its appearance at 15 weeks to four months of age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3478581",
"title": "Nathan Ausubel",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "\"First you laugh at a Jewish joke or quip. Then, against your will, you suddenly fall silent and thoughtful. And that is because Jews are so frequently jesting philosophers. A hard life has made them realists, realists without illusion.\" - \"A Treasury of Jewish Humor,\" 1951.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16267",
"title": "Joke",
"section": "Section::::Joke and humour research.:Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "Since the publication of Freud's study, psychologists have continued to explore humour and jokes in their quest to explain, predict and control an individual's \"sense of humour\". Why do people laugh? Why do people find something funny? Can jokes predict character, or vice versa, can character predict the jokes an individual laughs at? What is a \"sense of humour\"? A current review of the popular magazine \"Psychology Today\" lists over 200 articles discussing various aspects of humour; in psychospeak the subject area has become both an emotion to measure and a tool to use in diagnostics and treatment. A new psychological assessment tool, the Values in Action Inventory developed by the American psychologists Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman includes humour (and playfulness) as one of the core character strengths of an individual. As such, it could be a good predictor of life satisfaction. For psychologists, it would be useful to measure both how much of this strength an individual has and how it can be measurably increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
372dew
|
Are there any moons we know of that rotate the planet at the same rate that the planet spins?
|
[
{
"answer": "The term you're looking for is geosynchronous orbit. I don't know of any moons in such an orbit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no planet like this, but [Pluto](_URL_2_) and its moon [Charon](_URL_1_) have this property. They are mutually [tidally locked](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As another commenter said, Pluto and Charon are mutually locked.\n\nThe important thing to note with this question - all planets with one moon will eventually end up in this situation given enough time. The Earth's rotation is continually slowing and eventually it's rotation will match the orbital period of the moon.\n\nHowever in Earth's case the sun will become a red giant and destroy the Earth long before Earth and moon have a chance to reach this state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:Moon–ring systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration. Today, the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth; one of its revolutions around the Earth (currently about 29 days) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis, so it always shows one face to the Earth. The Moon will continue to recede from Earth, and Earth's spin will continue to slow gradually. Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter (as well as many of Jupiter's smaller moons) and most of the larger moons of Saturn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1096809",
"title": "Polar night",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Any planet or moon with a sufficient axial tilt that rotates with respect to its star significantly more frequently than it orbits the star (no tidal locking between the two) will experience the same phenomenon (a nighttime lasting more than one rotation period).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18352021",
"title": "Kepler orbit",
"section": "Section::::Development of the laws.:Simplified two body problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Planets rotate at varying rates and thus may take a slightly oblate shape because of the centrifugal force. With such an oblate shape, the gravitational attraction will deviate somewhat from that of a homogeneous sphere. This phenomenon is quite noticeable for artificial Earth satellites, especially those in low orbits. At larger distances the effect of this oblateness becomes negligible. Planetary motions in the Solar System can be computed with sufficient precision if they are treated as point masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40324370",
"title": "Jumping-Jupiter scenario",
"section": "Section::::Implications for the early Solar System.:Giant planet tilts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1362,
"text": "Jupiter's and Saturn's tilts can be produced by spin-orbit resonances. A spin-orbit resonance occurs when the precession frequency of a planet's spin-axis matches the precession frequency of another planet's ascending node. These frequencies vary during the planetary migration with the semi-major axes of the planets and the mass of the planetesimal disk. Jupiter's small tilt may be due to a quick crossing of a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune while Neptune's inclination was small, for example, during Neptune's initial migration before planetary encounters began. Alternatively, if that crossing occurred when Jupiter's semi-major axis jumped, it may be due to its current proximity to spin-orbit resonance with Uranus. Saturn's large tilt can be acquired if it is captured in a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune as Neptune slowly approached its current orbit at the end of the migration. The final tilts of Jupiter and Saturn are very sensitive to the final positions of the planets: Jupiter's tilt would be much larger if Uranus migrated beyond its current orbit, Saturn's would be much smaller if Neptune's migration ended earlier or if the resonance crossing was more rapid. Even in simulations where the final position of the giant planets are similar to the current Solar System, Jupiter's and Saturn's tilt are reproduced less than 10% of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16631363",
"title": "3288 Seleucus",
"section": "Section::::Physical parameters.:Rotation period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "It has a relatively long rotation period of 75 hours with a brightness variation of 1.0 magnitude, indicative of a non-spheroidal shape (). While most minor planets have spin rate between 2 and 20 hours, \"Seleucus\" still rotates faster than a typical slow rotator, which have periods above 100 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46884197",
"title": "Chaotic rotation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Examples of chaotic rotation include Hyperion, a moon of Saturn, which rotates so unpredictably that the Cassini probe could not be reliably scheduled to pass by unexplored regions, and Pluto's Nix, Hydra, and possibly Styx and Kerberos, and also Neptune's Nereid. According to Mark R. Showalter, author of a recent study, \"Nix can flip its entire pole. It could actually be possible to spend a day on Nix in which the sun rises in the east and sets in the north. It is almost random-looking in the way it rotates.\" Another example is that of galaxies; from careful observation by the Keck and Hubble telescopes of hundreds of galaxies, a trend was discovered that suggests galaxies such as our own Milky Way used to have a very chaotic rotation, with planetary bodies and stars rotating randomly. New evidence suggests that our galaxy and other have settled into an orderly, disk-like rotation over the past 8 billion years and that other galaxies are slowly following suit over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145381",
"title": "Ellipsoid",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Dynamical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "One practical effect of this is that scalene astronomical bodies such as generally rotate along their minor axes (as does Earth, which is merely oblate); in addition, because of tidal locking, moons in synchronous orbit such as Mimas orbit with their major axis aligned radially to their planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
o6j0o
|
how does clicking a pen to the "closed" position prevent it from drying out?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ball point pens don't dry out. Are you talking about ball point pens?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're put in the \"closed\" position to prevent them accidentally writing all over you. The ink comes out when the ball (in the ball-point) rolls and exposes it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other than protecting the ink from getting all over the place, I believe having the pen in the closed position only serves to prevent anything from clogging the ball-point mechanism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As people have mentioned, ball point pens don't dry out (quickly anyway). Pens that are effected like gel, have a lid. Markers also have a lid, but are basically a sponge in ink",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't. However, the sound and feel of clicking a pen is enjoyable. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just there so the ink doesn't go everywhere. Ballpoint pens don't dry out because they use oil based ink. Other kinds of pens-gel pens, markers and fountain pens- do dry out because their inks are water based (though sharpie markers are alcohol based). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because there are tiny, invisible-to-the-eye pen goblins in the body of the pen. They continually lick the tip of the pen, which keeps it moist and lubricated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ball pens don't dry. Cool huh? \n\nIf you open a ball pen of any kind, you'll see that the other end is open too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35564018",
"title": "Retractable pen",
"section": "Section::::Habitual pen-clicking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Pen clicking is repeated pressing of the button of a retractable pen which produces a clicking sound. In its normal use, the button is only pressed when someone wants the nib of the pen to be exposed so they can write with it. This makes a noise, which varies in tone, dynamic and timbre depending on the size and make of the pen. When the noise is heard repeatedly it can have a psychological effect on the doer or anyone in the vicinity. The action can be either conscious or subconscious. It is often associated with boredom, inattentiveness thinking, hiding something, or nervousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35564018",
"title": "Retractable pen",
"section": "Section::::How a retractable pen works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "A click pen has several parts to it: the frame, a thruster, two cams, a guide pin, a spring, an ink cartridge with ink, a ballpoint at the end of the cartridge, and other parts that may vary. The spring provides the tension required to retract the ink cartridge. The cams provide a bistable system where in one position the ink cartridge is retracted and in the other it is extended. When the button end of the pen is pressed, the system moves from one position to the other. The guide pin is typically molded into the frame of the pen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35564018",
"title": "Retractable pen",
"section": "Section::::Habitual pen-clicking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Clicking a pen can be a type of autistic stimming behavior, but it is unique in that \"a person can do in public without drawing much attention to themselves,\" as opposed to some others which are not socially acceptable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1509916",
"title": "Tipp-Ex",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The \"Tipp-Ex\" correction fluid is a white liquid. It is used for painting over mistakes in a piece of writing. A brush (which was later replaced by a foam applicator) is attached to the cap, so when the bottle is closed, the brush is immersed in the \"Tipp-Ex\". When unscrewed, the brush is covered in liquid \"Tipp-Ex\" which is then painted over the mistake. However, it is still possible to see that \"Tipp-Ex\" has been used, and also the original content if the paper is held up to a light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13811356",
"title": "Palm-leaf manuscript",
"section": "Section::::Preparation and preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The palm leaves are first cooked and dried. The writer then uses a knife pen to inscribe letters. Natural colourings are applied to the surface so the ink will stick in the grooves. This process is similar to intaglio printing. Afterwards, use a clean cloth to wipe out the excess ink and the leaf manuscript is done. Details can be found in videos listed in the external links section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312810",
"title": "Mathematical morphology",
"section": "Section::::Binary morphology.:Basic operators.:Opening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Example application: Let's assume someone has written a note on a non-soaking paper and that the writing looks as if it is growing tiny hairy roots all over. Opening essentially removes the outer tiny \"hairline\" leaks and restores the text. The side effect is that it rounds off things. The sharp edges start to disappear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4098193",
"title": "Blotting paper",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "When used to remove ink from writings, the writing may appear in reverse on the surface of the blotting paper, a phenomenon which has been used as a plot device in a number of detective stories, such as in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rw1gf
|
what is a "mainframe" and why are people always trying to hack into it in movies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mainframes are what we'd think of as big corporate servers or supercomputers. \n\nIf you roll the clock back not that many years anything important was stored on a company mainframe - usually they were custom built for big database applications. The same basic role still exists and IBM and HP and Dell and a few others sell equipment for this, but it no longer requires custom hardware to run on, so the terminology has largely fallen out of use. Now we just call them 'servers' because they're just a particular case of 'server', of which there are many varieties. \n\nThe IBM zEnterprise series are still occasionally branded as 'mainframes', or called servers, and then run in the 100k - > multiple millions price range. \n\nedit: Big database servers don't *require* custom hardware, but IBM produces custom CPU's and there are things like custom casings and cooling for it. That's generally beneficial, but you can get by using generic server parts too. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5524246",
"title": "List of ReBoot characters",
"section": "Section::::Main villains.:The User.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The human operator of Mainframe is perceived by its denizens as a distant, impersonal, deity-like figure. Often destructive, it subjects the city to Game Cubes and assumes various avatars to do deadly battle with the unfortunates trapped within them. In layman's terms, the User is a computer owner that enjoys playing PC games, blissfully unaware of the havoc he/she is causing. Nonetheless, Mainframers dutifully petition the User to bestow upon them gifts such as increased memory and software upgrades, prayers which are sometimes answered despite the User's sadly limited means. Of all the characters depicted, only Fax Modem openly professed to deny the existence of the User, a position roundly regarded as wildly unorthodox and borderline insane. The User never appears on screen, although in the third season finale its keystrokes could be heard as it entered the command to reboot the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20057931",
"title": "IT infrastructure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "A mainframe is the central data repository, or \"hub\", in a corporation's data processing center, linked to users through less powerful devices such as workstations or terminals. The presence of a mainframe often implies a centralized form of computing, as opposed to a distributed form of computing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5220650",
"title": "Centralized computing",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In addition, mainframes are still being used for some mission-critical applications, such as payroll, or for processing day-to-day account transactions in banks. These mainframes will typically be accessed either using terminal emulators (real terminal devices are not used much any more) or via modern front-ends such as web applications – or (in the case of automated access) protocols such as web services protocols.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13451",
"title": "Horror film",
"section": "Section::::Subgenres.:Cyber horror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 212,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 212,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "A cyber horror film which is either has its narrative told all through a computer or any other form of technology, or that utilizes technology as a key plot element. Examples include \"Unfriended\", \"Friend Request\", and \"The Den\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376475",
"title": "The Matrix Online",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Combat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "There are three main classes in \"The Matrix Online\": Coder, Hacker, and Operative. Coders create a special \"simulacrum\" that fights for them. Hackers manipulate the code of the Matrix to affect friends and enemies from a distance, either damaging them, downgrading their combat abilities, or healing them and upgrading their powers. Operatives are the common soldiers seen from the movies - Martial Artists, Gunmen, and the new Spy class, which revolves around stealth fighting and knife throwing. Magazines never seem to run out of bullets and knife throwers also have an unlimited supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1003781",
"title": "QuickTime VR",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Panoramas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "A single panorama, or node, is captured from a single point in space. Several nodes and object movies can be linked together to allow a viewer to move from one location to another. Such multinode QuickTime VR movies are called scenes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8118416",
"title": "Tony Hawk in Boom Boom Sabotage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "In Mainframe's early productions, the film was titled \"Tony Hawk in 'Boom Boom Goes the Circus\"', which used cel-shaded characters. Some of the early designs can still be seen in Mainframe's web site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4v6h8y
|
how do sea creatures manage to live in water that others regularly poop in, without getting sick or dying?
|
[
{
"answer": "As an analogy how do we manage to not getting sick breathing the air that someone somewhere is sneezing in?\n\n\nThere are creatures in the water who eat that poop and break it down so eventually the poop becomes harmless. \n\nIn the short time : there is dilution (even humans swimming in the river that collects poop water ) don't get sick. \n\nAnd there is biochemistry. Bacteria in human poop isn't as damaging to some sea creatures as it is to humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2858897",
"title": "Demersal fish",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Benthic fish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Benthic fish, sometimes called groundfish, are denser than water, so they can rest on the sea floor. They either lie-and-wait as ambush predators, at times covering themselves with sand or otherwise camouflaging themselves, or move actively over the bottom in search for food. Benthic fish which can bury themselves include dragonets, flatfish and stingrays. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2127046",
"title": "Marine pollution",
"section": "Section::::Types of pollution.:Plastic debris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals. Especially when evolutionary adaptions make it impossible for the likes of turtles to reject plastic bags, which resemble jellyfish when immersed in water, as they have a system in their throat to stop slippery foods from otherwise escaping. Thereby blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25598151",
"title": "Red River mudpuppy",
"section": "Section::::Diet and behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "It eats mainly small underwater animals. Its feathery gills mean that it can breathe only underwater not on land. It and many other mudpuppies can still go on land, but not for a very long time. They go on land only if the water is too dirty so they can find cleaner water in another part of the river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203047",
"title": "Wandering albatross",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "They are night feeders and feed on cephalopods, small fish, and crustaceans and on animal refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such excess at times that they are unable to fly and rest helplessly on the water. They are prone to following ships for refuse. They can also make shallow dives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17169979",
"title": "Wild fisheries",
"section": "Section::::Pollution.:Plastic waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating particles also resemble zooplankton, which can lead filter feeders to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean food chain. In samples taken from the North Pacific Gyre in 1999 by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton by a factor of six. More recently, reports have surfaced that there may now be 30 times more plastic than plankton, the most abundant form of life in the ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439021",
"title": "Mysida",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Some species are benthic (living on the seabed) and others pelagic (living in mid-water), but most are found close to, crawling on or burrowing into the mud or sand. Most marine species are benthic by day but leave the seabed at night to become planktonic. Locomotion is mostly by swimming, the pleopods being used for this purpose. Some mysids live among algae and seagrasses, some are solitary while many form dense swarms. Mysids form an important part of the diet of such fish as shad and flounder. In general, they are free-living, but a few species, mostly in the subfamily Heteromysinae, are commensal and are associated with sea anemones and hermit crabs. Several taxa have also been described from different freshwater habitats and caves. \"Mysis relicta\" and its close relatives inhabit cold, deep lakes and have a diurnal cycle of vertical migrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28819243",
"title": "Crickets as pets",
"section": "Section::::Pet crickets in the West.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Drinking water is supplied by offering crickets a wet sponge or spraying their container, but never directly: crickets easily drown even in small dishes of water. Crickets feed on all kinds of fresh fruit and greens; industrial breeders also feed bulk quantities of dry fish food – \"Daphnia\" and \"Gammarus\". Contrary to the Eastern approach of keeping males in solitary cells, keeping males together is acceptable: According to Amato, protein-rich diet reduces the males' drive to fight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12igv2
|
Who did the U.S./Nato support in the Bosnian War?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: this is lay person experience \n\n > Vice-versa, which countries despise America for their role?\n\nI don't know if you went in or not but the military museum in Belgrade has a section on the 99 Kosovo Crisis at the end proudly showing part of a US bomber along with images of wounded Serbian civilians and a detailed map of NATO bombings and which countries allowed their airspace to be used, that came across as very resentful to the point that you would think that Serbia was happily sat by itself when NATO came to bomb it for no reason. But otherwise everyone was very friendly to me too (UK so also NATO) and there was no signs of such feeling anywhere else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Why did the US/NATO chose the sides they did?\n\nYou had a well equipped army/force (various kinds of armored vehicles, artillery, even a small airforce, etc) on one side, the Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS), which were essentially the units of the previous state force, the Yugoslav Peoples Army (JNA), in which Serbs from Bosnia and Herzegovina served, against lightly armed Bosniaks and Croats, who in the beginning didn't even have real defence forces. Now the VRS was able to conquer about 70% of the whole of Bosnia in the course of several months. The VRS conducted ethnic cleansing, genocide and various other crimes against humanity on their territorry against Croats and Bosniaks. The pressure for the western governments to intervent grew over the course of the war. In 1995 they had finally to do something in Bosnia (in this year there were several big massacres which got a lot of publicity in the western media e. g. Srebrenica with 8000 civilians dead). So they helped the recently formed Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosniak and Croat forces) with a bombing campaign.\n\n2. Why does Kosovo not join Albania?\n\nWell for the moment this is impossible, because Serbia views it still as a rebellious province. And culturally/religiously Kosovo was an important serbian region, with the oldest churches and monasteries. Maybe at some point in the future Kosovo will join Albania, but that's just speculation.\n\n3. Why does not the same happen in the US?\n\nWell the situation is completely different. Yugoslavia was a multinational/ -ethnic/ -religious state that was only held together through the charisma of Tito and nothing else. It was not really a natural construct and every now and then bloody wars were fought in the Balkans between the ethnic groups and the nations (1912, 1913, 1914-1918, 1942-1945 and finally 1991-1999). Now as soon as Tito died in 1980, the problems came to the surface and it started to break apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am a political scientist and this is my regional specialty. As such, I am not a historian but I think I can help. \n\nFirst, many Americans treat the wars in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo as all one war. The first three arguably could be, but Kosovo is a very different situation. If you want to get into why, let me know and I will elaborate. This is an important distinction for many of these questions. \n\n1. Kosovo is the only formed country that feels completely that way, however the Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) are quite happy with the US, as evidenced by the response Secretary Clinton got there just this week. Interestingly though, that sentiment in Kosovo is waning as they feel they were promised independence, and in practice, they are not all the way there yet. \n\n2. No one despises America for their role as a country. The Republika Srpska (Serb part of Bosnia) would probably be the most likely to despise the US, but most of the displeasure I have heard is with the international response post-conflict. The Serbs were consistently called the \"bad guys\" in the conflict and in both conflicts, Croats/Bosniaks and Kosovo Albanians did some pretty nasty stuff to Serbs as well. However, there are some infamous war criminals (especially Croatians and Kosovo Albanians) who managed to not got prosecuted and this has lead to resentment towards the international community for demonizing one side in the wars. \n\n3. The EU did not see this as an opportunity to expand. Instead, the only EU foreign policy inducement tool they have is dangling the carrot of EU ascension. As such, they have since tried to get major political reform (working in Croatia, Slovenia, arguably in Macedonia), but not working too well in Bosnia and Serbia. If they could get these countries to reform how they want without offering ascension, I think they would. \n\n4. The EU/NATO/US would have never allowed it. There has been a constant concern about greater Balkans rhetoric, and if Kosovo joined with Albania to create greater Albania, the worry was that Serbia and Croatia would split up Bosnia, Greece may grab Macedonia, Bulgaria may grab some territory etc... Even if they want to, I doubt they would ever be allowed to in the foreseeable future with such an international presence there. \n\n5. That is a very simplistic view of the conflict and not why it started at all. In the Balkans, religion was simply a proxy used for ethnic identity. There are many different theories about why the wars occurred and if you have specific questions about the two different conflicts I can answer. \n\nEdit: This is my personal favorite book that explains the events in the 80s that lead to the situations we are discussing. I think understanding what happened in the 80s with the insurgency in Kosovo, the rise of Milosevic, and other factors is important in understanding all the questions you ask. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The breakup of Yugoslavia is not an easy topic. Basically Yugoslavia was a federation consisting of several different regions and population. Although ethnic and language similarities those regions had sometimes very different histories. I don't want to go into details but the region was largely ruled by foreign countries with a major influence from the Ottomans, Austrian, Hungarians. Especially the long and slowly fading rule of the Ottomans had a lasting influence. While Slovenia and Croatia ended up under Austrian influence. That's why Slovenia and Croatia are largely Catholics and Serbs are largely Orthodox.\n\nBut to make matters worse there were rarely strict boundaries and people not only moved but maybe a village refused to switch religion. Croatia has large parts with a Serbian minority. Bosnia was an even more complicated situation with Bosnians (Muslim), Croats (Catholic), Serbs (Orthodox).\n\nWhile Tito ruled Yugoslavia it all held together. But after his death Yugoslavia declined and nationalism was growing.\n\nSlovenia and Croatia were the first to declare independence in June 1991. But the Yugoslavian government wanted to use force to prevent it. This resulted in a short war in Slovenia (10 days war). Ironically the first casualty was a Slovenian pilot in the Yugoslav army killed when his helicopter was shot down by the Slovenian military. The war was quickly over because Slovenia was ethnically much more homogeneous. The situation in Croatia was much more dramatic. The Serbian minority in Croatia in turn declared themselves independent (Serbian Krajina). In 1992 Bosnia declared independence. The Croats declared themselves independent from Bosnia as the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and the Serbs declared themselves independent as Republika Srpska.\n\nAll of the new republics wanted to create ethnic homogeneous regions in such a highly mixed place. This resulted in the so called 'ethnic cleansing'. Former neighbours started to do really evil things to each other. The Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs all started operating concentration camps and committing atrocities.\n\nInitially the Serbs had the upper hand because the Yugoslav military was leaving them their heavy weapons. But the Croats were supported mainly by the US and Western Europe (Germany was a major contributor) and the Bosnians were also heavily supported by Arab countries and Mujahideen. The Croatian army eventually broke the Serbian resistance and occupied the Serbian Krajina.\n\nNATO intervened eventually with air strikes in Bosnia. Forcing all sides to negotiate. This resulted in the Dayton Agreement. Bosnia now consists of the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (the Croat and Bosnian parts) and Republika Srpska (Serb part). There is still a Representative from the EU in place who's allowed to veto political decisions.\n\nTo answer why the US decided to support the Bosnians and Croats is not so easy. Some claim because of the human right violations committed by the Serbs. But then again the Bosnians and Croats committed human right violations on their own. Others of course claim that the US had an interest in destroying socialist Yugoslavia. But then again the US first favoured the status quo in Yugoslavia and was reluctant to support the independence.\n\n > Are there any newly formed countries, as a result of the war, that admire America the way Kosovo does?\n\nWell \"admiration\"... But Croats and Bosnians are of course grateful for US support. This does not mean that everyone will love you because you are an American. Last year a Kosovar shot at US soldiers in Frankfurt and killed two of them. There were Mujahideen fighting in Bosnia which are now considered to be close to Al Qaeda. And on the other hand just because a person is a Serb doesn't mean he'll hate you. The large majority of the people there are very decent and it doesn't really matter what their or your ethnicity is.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why does not the same happen in the US?\n\nNationalism directed at the country as a whole, rather than along ethnic lines. Also, \"protestantism\" in the United States refers to a number of distinct groups. There's about as much in common between a Baptist and a Lutheran as there is between a Methodist and a Catholic.\n\nRemember that our army is sworn to defend the country as a whole, and that the thought process behind our military (especially the National Guard) is geared toward the concept of the \"citizen soldier\". Soldiers are an extension of the people of our country, not a separate group in their own right, and no single group dominates our military.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1138091",
"title": "Scott O'Grady",
"section": "Section::::Career.:NATO: Operation Deny Flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between April 1992 and December 1995. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), after popular pressure, had decided to intervene in the Bosnian War after allegations of war crimes against civilians were made by various media organizations. NATO military involvement primarily involved enforcement of a \"No Fly Zone\" code named Operation Deny Flight to discourage military aircraft of the Bosnian-Serb Armed Forces from attacking Bosnian civilians and Bosniak and Croat forces. As part of that operation, two F-16s from the 555th Fighter Squadron based at Aviano Air Base, Italy, were patrolling the skies above Bosnia on June 2, 1995.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1102537",
"title": "Club of Madrid",
"section": "Section::::Members.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "BULLET::::- U.S. President Bill Clinton was instrumental in pushing NATO to intervene in Bosnia and Kosovo. In 1995, his efforts produced \"Operation Deliberate Force\", resulting in the Dayton Accords which ended the Bosnian War. In 1999, the U.S. and other NATO powers sought to end the Kosovo War with the Rambouillet Agreement, but Yugoslavia felt that the agreement forced them to concede too much and refused to sign. This refusal resulted in \"Operation Allied Force\", during which NATO utilized air supremacy and strategic bombing to cripple Serbian forces and force them to withdraw from Kosovo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21710997",
"title": "NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a series of actions undertaken by NATO whose stated aim was to establish long-term peace during and after the Bosnian War. NATO's intervention began as largely political and symbolic, but gradually expanded to include large-scale air operations and the deployment of approximately 60,000 soldiers under Operation Joint Endeavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1797421",
"title": "Operation Deliberate Force",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1 April 1992 and 14 December 1995. After popular pressure, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was asked by the United Nations to intervene in the Bosnian War after allegations of war crimes against civilians were made. In response to the refugee and humanitarian crisis in Bosnia, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 743 on 21 February 1992, creating the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). The UNPROFOR mandate was to keep the population alive and deliver humanitarian aid to refugees in Bosnia until the war ended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21710997",
"title": "NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "Section::::Early involvement and monitoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "NATO involvement in the Bosnian War and the Yugoslav Wars in general began in February 1992, when the alliance issued a statement urging all the belligerents in the conflict to allow the deployment of United Nations peacekeepers. While primarily symbolic, this statement paved the way for later NATO actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27070381",
"title": "Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to NATO",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The 1995 NATO bombing of Bosnia and Herzegovina targeted the Bosnian Serb Army and together with international pressure led to the resolution of the Bosnian War and the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995. Since then, NATO has led the Implementation Force and Stabilization Force, and other peacekeeping efforts in the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3631268",
"title": "Operation Deny Flight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "The operation played an important role in shaping both the Bosnian War and NATO. The operation included the first combat engagement in NATO's history, a 28 February 1994 air battle over Banja Luka, and in April 1994, NATO aircraft first bombed ground targets in an operation near Goražde. These engagements helped show that NATO had adapted to the post-Cold War era and could operate in environments other than a major force on force engagement on the plains of Central Europe. Cooperation between the UN and NATO during the operation also helped pave the way for future joint operations. Although it helped establish UN-NATO relations, Deny Flight led to conflict between the two organizations. Most notably, significant tension arose between the two after UN peacekeepers were taken as hostages in response to NATO bombing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lfwln
|
human consumption of other animal's milk.
|
[
{
"answer": "\nWe've been eating animal milk far longer than any \"scientific process\" existed. For most of our history it was milk the goat/cow/buffalo and then drink the milk, period. Notably, milk is the _only_ thing that we eat that _is_ from humans, so...it seems strange that we'd call out a special case of a food-product that is externally generated, just because we have an internally generated analogue. \n\nThe vast majority of evidence suggests that animal milk is good and nutritious. Lactose intolerance would apply to both human milk and animal milk - it's the lactose in the milk, not the cow-in-the-milk that we have trouble with if we are lactose intolerant. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, cow milk (and other milks that aren't human) is really just another choice of beverage if your body produces the right enzymes to digest them. \n\nHumans used to all lose their ability to produce lactase (the enzyme that breaks down lactose) once they got older, though the mutation to allow for continuous lactase production occurred multiple times in different human populations in the past. \n\nThere's nothing \"special\" about the milk that makes it harmful in the way that people going \"oh, it's *unnatural*! We weren't meant to do it!\" say, though excessive milk consumption does have negative effects for some people. In children, too much milk can sometimes cause intestinal bleeding, for example. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Milk is pasteurized (heated quickly to kill germs) before being sent out to market. This has nothing to do with lactose intolerance. Lactose is a type of sugar naturally present in milk, and it's that sugar that gives some people stomach problems when they drink it. \n\nFor most of history, all mammals became lactose intolerant after being weaned. Several thousand years ago some human developed the ability to keep drinking milk after being weaned, which gave them a new, calorie rich food source that decreased their chances of starving, therefore increasing their chances to reproduce. \n\nSo milk isn't bad for you, but it's also not necessarily good, especially whole milk, which is high in fat. If you're eating a balanced diet you don't *need* milk, but if you like it and budget for the calories it's fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to provide more information, the genetic mutation (natural) that allowed certain human populations to continue to produce the enzyme lactase (natural) into adult hood are known as [lactase persistent](_URL_0_). This particular mutation was selected for in cultures which already consumed milk and milk products (naturally part of the peoples culture) and arose about 10,000 years ago (way before modern food industry got involved in milk production).\n\nIt is natural for some people to be ABLE to consume milk into adulthood without any consequence, it is equally natural for some people to be UNABLE to consume milk into adulthood and they typically experience the symptoms associated with lactose intolerance.\n\nIf you are concerned about the by-products associated with modern industrial milk production (e.g. hormones, pus, contaminants) then try different brands which advocate for better animal welfare and alternative milk production practices. It is really important to understand that these human production issues are inherently different then those associated with milk itself (e.g. being unable to digest lactose sugar in milk). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "Humans first learned to consume the milk of other mammals regularly following the domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the development of agriculture. This development occurred independently in several global locations from as early as 9000–7000 BC in Mesopotamia to 3500–3000 BC in the Americas. People first domesticated the most important dairy animals – cattle, sheep and goats – in Southwest Asia, although domestic cattle had been independently derived from wild aurochs populations several times since. Initially animals were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt has suggested that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair and labor, began much later in a separate secondary products revolution in the fourth millennium BC. Sherratt's model is not supported by recent findings, based on the analysis of lipid residue in prehistoric pottery, that shows that dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture in Southwest Asia, by at least the seventh millennium BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575131",
"title": "Raw milk",
"section": "Section::::History of raw milk and pasteurization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Humans first learned to regularly consume the milk of other mammals following the domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the development of agriculture. This development occurred independently in several places around the world from as early as 9000–7000 BC in Mesopotamia to 3500–3000 BC in the Americas. The most important dairy animals—cattle, sheep and goats—were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, although domestic cattle had been independently derived from wild aurochs populations several times since. From there dairy animals spread to Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but not reaching Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC), and South Asia (7000–5500 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219640",
"title": "Animal husbandry",
"section": "Section::::Branches.:Dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Other animal-based sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56228",
"title": "Dairy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years. Initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them. Protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5558520",
"title": "Milk allergy",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Avoiding dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Milk from other mammalian species (goat, sheep, etc.) should not be used as a substitute for cow's milk, as milk proteins from other mammals are often cross-reactive. Nevertheless, some people with cow's milk allergy can tolerate goat’s or sheep’s milk, and vice versa. Milk from camels, pigs, reindeer, horses, and donkeys may also be tolerated in some cases. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk proteins which were not always indicated on the labels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kb1ex
|
how are new "4k" tv's able to plat 4k content with old processors, but my new i5 computer lags with 4k content?
|
[
{
"answer": "My guess would be graphics performance of the chips. On your computer your GPU rather than your CPU will handle, by and large, the rendering of the images whereas TVs will have chips designed for rendering images and little else. If you set them both to find the billionth prime number your laptop would win hands down. If you had a animators/video editors' PC then the rendering would be no problem. \n\nThat's my guess anyway. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same way consoles run games years after they release after the hardware becomes inferior to their PC counterpart, dedication.\n\n\nYou see there is no clunky windows to run and the programming is lean and streamlined. Thus the most is made out of the power that's at hand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286567",
"title": "5K resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In comparison to 4K UHD (38402160), the 16:9 5K resolution of 51202880 offers 1280 extra columns and 720 extra lines of display area, an increase of 33.% in each dimension. This additional display area can allow 4K content to be displayed at native resolution without filling the entire screen, which means that additional software such as video editing suite toolbars will be available without having to downscale the content previews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27892242",
"title": "HDBaseT",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "It supports TV and PC video formats, including standard, enhanced, high-definition, ultra-HD (4K), and 3D video. Due to bitrate limitations of 10.2 Gbit/s instead of the required 18 Gbit/s in the HDMI 2.0 specification, HDBaseT 2.0 can only support uncompressed 4K at 30 Hz with 4:4:4 color coding, or 4K at 60 Hz with 4:2:0 color coding, but not the full 60 Hz with 4:4:4 color. However, using either very light visually-transparent compression or color space conversion (CSC), it is possible to pass 4K/60/4:4:4 formats over an HDBaseT 2.0 link. The visually-transparent compression also provides support for HDR10 formats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27168879",
"title": "4K resolution",
"section": "Section::::History.:Home video projection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The 4K UHD standard doesn't specify how large the pixels are, so a 4K UHD projector (Optoma, BenQ, Dell, et al.) counts because these projectors have a 2718×1528 pixel structure. Those projectors process the true 4K of data and project it with overlapping pixels, which is what pixel shifting is. Unfortunately, each of those pixels is far larger: each one has 50% more area than true 4K. Pixel shifting projectors project a pixel, shift it up to the right, by a half diameter, and project it again, with modified data, but that second pixel overlaps the first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27168879",
"title": "4K resolution",
"section": "Section::::4K standards and terminology.:2160p resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Some 4K resolutions, like , are often casually referred to as \"2160p\". This name follows from the previous naming convention used by HDTV and SDTV formats, which refer to a format by the number of pixels/lines along the vertical axis (such as \"1080p\" for progressive scan, or \"480i\" for the 480-line interlaced SDTV formats) rather than the horizontal pixel count (≈4000 or \"4K\" for ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286567",
"title": "5K resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "5K resolution refers to display formats with a horizontal resolution of around 5,000 pixels. The most common 5K resolution is 51202880, which has an aspect ratio of 16:9 with around 14.7 million pixels (just over seven times as many pixels as 1080p Full HD), with four times the linear resolution of 720p. This resolution is typically used in computer monitors to achieve a higher dpi, and is not a standard format in digital television and digital cinematography, which feature 4K resolutions and 8K resolutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27168879",
"title": "4K resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "4K resolution, also called 4K, refers to a horizontal display resolution of approximately 4,000 pixels. Digital television and digital cinematography commonly use several different 4K resolutions. In television and consumer media, 38402160 (4K UHD) is the dominant 4K standard, whereas the movie projection industry uses 40962160 (DCI 4K).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52875487",
"title": "10K resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "10K resolution is horizontal resolution of around 10,000 pixels. This resolution is expected to be used in computer monitors, and is not a standard format in digital television and digital cinematography, which feature 4K and 8K resolutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2r7f1r
|
why can't divers fly after diving?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're right: the main gas involved is nitrogen. Basically, when we dive very deep, there's more pressure on our entire body, including our blood. More nitrogen dissolves into our blood than it would at a lower pressure (e.g. at sea level). If we come up too quickly from very deep, we can get \"the bends,\" which is a syndrome of pain and potentially organ damage from all that extra nitrogen un-dissolving and forming bubbles in our blood vessels. Blood has trouble flowing past those bubbles.\n\nThe problem with flying is that it lowers the pressure much more than just being at sea level (our ears popping is another effect of the pressure drop). This means there's another chance for nitrogen to un-dissolve and create bubbles in our blood vessels and tissues. Basically, you're creating a situation just like if you went from very deep in the water to the surface too quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read that question completely wrong... I was imagining a high diver jumping and then soaring off...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3543130",
"title": "Underwater diving",
"section": "Section::::Risks and safety.:Diving hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 1418,
"text": "Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The hazards include the aquatic environment, the use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, which include strong water movement and local pressure differentials, and hazards related to access to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions and the personal behaviour and competence of the individual. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56137525",
"title": "Diving safety",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1348,
"text": "Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The hazards include the aquatic environment, the use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, and hazards related to access to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions and the personal behaviour and competence of the individual. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1266475",
"title": "Scuba diving",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1348,
"text": "Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The hazards include the aquatic environment, the use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, and hazards related to access to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions and the personal behaviour and competence of the individual. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40501944",
"title": "Scuba skills",
"section": "Section::::Basic open circuit scuba equipment skills.:Breathing from the demand valve.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Scuba divers are often taught never to hold their breath underwater, as in some circumstances this can result in lung overpressure injury. In reality, this is only a risk during ascent, as that is the only time that a fixed amount of air will expand in the lungs, and even then, only if the airways are closed. A relaxed and unobstructed airway will allow expanding air to flow out freely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1266475",
"title": "Scuba diving",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "Scuba divers by definition carry their breathing gas supply with them during the dive, and this limited quantity must get them back to the surface safely. Pre-dive planning of appropriate gas supply for the intended dive profile lets the diver allow for sufficient breathing gas for the planned dive and contingencies. They are not connected to a surface control point by an umbilical, such as surface-supplied divers use, and the freedom of movement that this allows, also allows the diver to penetrate overhead environments in ice diving, cave diving and wreck diving to the extent that the diver may lose their way and be unable to find the way out. This problem is exacerbated by the limited breathing gas supply, which gives a limited amount of time before the diver will drown if unable to surface. The standard procedure for managing this risk is to lay a continuous guide line from open water, which allows the diver to be sure of the route to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286359",
"title": "Pneumothorax",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Traumatic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Divers who breathe from an underwater apparatus are supplied with breathing gas at ambient pressure, which results in their lungs containing gas at higher than atmospheric pressure. Divers breathing compressed air (such as when scuba diving) may suffer a pneumothorax as a result of barotrauma from ascending just while breath-holding with their lungs fully inflated. An additional problem in these cases is that those with other features of decompression sickness are typically treated in a diving chamber with hyperbaric therapy; this can lead to a small pneumothorax rapidly enlarging and causing features of tension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38814223",
"title": "Decompression theory",
"section": "Section::::Decompression model concepts.:Residual inert gas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "A considerable amount of inert gas will remain in the tissues after a diver has surfaced, even if no symptoms of decompression sickness occur. This residual gas may be dissolved or in sub-clinical bubble form, and will continue to outgas while the diver remains at the surface. If a repetitive dive is made, the tissues are preloaded with this residual gas which will make them saturate faster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qgxok
|
the revolutionary war; what caused it, and how was it regarded from an english perspective?
|
[
{
"answer": "It started because King George was taxing the colonies above and beyond reason. The English people thought the colonists were being ungrateful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "201908",
"title": "Axel von Fersen the Younger",
"section": "Section::::Life.:The American Revolutionary War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In the 1770s, the American Revolutionary War began with the passage of the Intolerable acts, and the battles of Lexington and Concord, and Bunker Hill. von Fersen told Beaumont that in France \"it is the fashion to rhapsodize over the Americans' rebelliousness against England\". France had officially declared war against her \"natural enemy\" (Great Britain) in February 1778, but in the beginning of 1780, a French contingent was finally being outfitted to fight with the rebels on North American soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1055471",
"title": "Northwest Indian War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1333,
"text": "One of the causes of the American Revolutionary War was the dispute between the British government and the British colonials who wanted to settle in the region. During the course of the war, American forces captured outposts in the lower areas of the territory, but British forces maintained control of Fort Detroit. Additional actions in the Western theater of the American Revolutionary War further damaged relations between the United States and many of the region's native inhabitants. In 1780, British and Native American forces swept across the Midwest to clear the territories of rebels and Spanish forces, attacking St. Louis and Cahokia and Kentucky, but were repulsed in both battles. Within months, General George Rogers Clark retaliated by crossing the Ohio River and attacking Shawnee towns Chillicothe and Piqua. Two of the last battles of the Revolutionary War include the 1782 Siege of Fort Henry and Battle of Blue Licks, both attacks by British and Native Americans on settlers across the Ohio River in Virginia and Kentucky. In the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain ceded control of the region, but the native nations were not party to these negotiations. Many preferred to trade with the British rather than the young United States, and British agents continued to operate in the region and influence the residents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39021885",
"title": "Raid on Genoa",
"section": "Section::::Mediterranean in 1793.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "The French Revolutionary Wars, which began in 1792 as a conflict between the new French Republic and the Austrian Empire following the French Revolution, spread in 1793 to involve a number of other European nations, including Spain and Great Britain. In addition to these external threats, political tensions within France led to a series of uprisings against the Republic in the summer of 1793, particularly in the south of the country. One of the centres of Royalist activity was the city of Toulon, the major naval base and home port for the powerful French Mediterranean Fleet. On 28 August, after fighting between Republican forces and British troops for control of the heights overlooking the city, Toulon surrendered to Lord Hood, commander of the British Royal Navy's Mediterranean Fleet. Hood's forces occupied the city, seized the French fleet in harbour and called for reinforcements to defend Toulon against the inevitable Republican counterattack, receiving Spanish, Neapolitan and Sardinian contingents over the following weeks as the Siege of Toulon developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Napoleonic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars that followed revolutionized military strategy. The impact of this period was still to be felt in the American Civil War and the early phases of World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11881789",
"title": "Krummenau",
"section": "Section::::History.:French Revolutionary and Napoleonic times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Immediately affected by the French Revolutionary Wars in the late 18th century was the Hunsrück. Great havoc was wrought as French, Prussian and Austrian troops marched on through, taking their toll by demanding supplies and by encamping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434750",
"title": "United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Independence and expansion (1776–1865).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The American Revolutionary War was the first successful colonial war of independence against a European power. Americans had developed an ideology of \"republicanism\" asserting that government rested on the will of the people as expressed in their local legislatures. They demanded their rights as Englishmen and \"no taxation without representation\". The British insisted on administering the empire through Parliament, and the conflict escalated into war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12794680",
"title": "Revolution Controversy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "The Revolution Controversy was a British debate over the French Revolution, lasting from 1789 through 1795. A pamphlet war began in earnest after the publication of Edmund Burke's \"Reflections on the Revolution in France\" (1790), which surprisingly supported the French aristocracy. Because he had supported the American colonists in their rebellion against England, his views sent a shock-wave through the country. Many writers responded, defending the revolution in France, among them Thomas Paine, Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin. Alfred Cobban calls the debate that erupted \"perhaps the last real discussion of the fundamentals of politics\" in Britain. The themes articulated by those responding to Burke would become a central feature of the radical working-class movement in Britain in the 19th century and of Romanticism. Most Britons celebrated the storming of the Bastille in 1789, believing that France's monarchy should be curtailed by a more democratic form of government. However, by December 1795, after the Reign of Terror and war with France, there were few who still supported the French cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tkopg
|
Were there any economic interactions between the United States and the USSR during the Cold War?
|
[
{
"answer": "In 1972 the USSR bought 440 million bushels of wheat from the US, with more purchases in following years. Here's a paper from the St Louis Fed -\n_URL_0_ . I'll never find the link, but in the late 80s/early 90s The Economist made an editorial comment about Russia being in the grain market again, due to \"70 years of worse-than-expected winter weather in the Ukraine.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tacking on another question: I've heard that we had to buy titanium from Russia through intermediaries to build the SR-71. Is that true?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't have a general answer to your question, but I can relate some specific details about how the USSR was part of the global trading system. \n\nI work in trade law, and there is an important case, Georgetown Steel Corp v. United States, from the Federal Circuit Court of Appeal in the context of anti-dumping and countervailing duty investigations. The decision was from 1987 if I'm not mistaken. \n\nBefore explaining the decision, I'll explain those terms. In trade, you sometimes have goods that are being imported at low prices and this is harming the domestic industry of the country, either because exporters are \"dumping\" goods because of excess supply, to gain market share, etc; or because the goods are subsidized unfairly by the government of the exporting country. (There are rules about what exactly is \"unfair\" subsidizing that I won't get into.) The remedy to these types of unfair trading practices is for the customs agency of the importing country to conduct an investigation into whether there is dumping and/or subsidizing and then impose anti-dumping duties or countervailing (anti-subsidy) duties on the specific type of goods under investigation (usually it's a very narrow range of goods) to counteract the injurious effect of the low-priced imports. All these rules existed under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the predecessor to the World Trade Organization (which was created in 1995).\n\nNow, in the Georgetown case, the context was a subsidy investigation against steel imported from Czechoslovakia. The court mentioned that there had been anti-dumping investigations against goods imported from the USSR and other so-called \"non-market economies\" - one I can remember off the top of my head, since you asked specifically about the USSR, is potash - however a subsidy investigation against such a country was new territory. \n\nThe court ultimately decided that the US couldn't conduct subsidy investigations against non-market economies since it was impossible to determine what constituted a subsidy in a centrally planned economy. \n\nAll that is to say that there was at least some normal trade going on between the US and eastern bloc countries, including the USSR. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4542392",
"title": "Diplomatic history of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Communism and the Cold War era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Although the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the United States co-operated during World War II, the tensions between the two superpowers over economics (Communism versus capitalism), political authority (totalitarianism versus liberalism) and the fate of Europe (East versus West) escalated into the Cold War by 1947. Australia unequivocally stood on the American side and the Cold War became the preponderant influence on Australian foreign policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46002",
"title": "Pax Americana",
"section": "Section::::Modern period.:Late 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1160,
"text": "In the second half of the 20th century, the USSR and US superpowers were engaged in the Cold War, which can be seen as a struggle between hegemonies for global dominance. After 1945, the United States enjoyed an advantageous position with respect to the rest of the industrialized world. In the Post–World War II economic expansion, the US was responsible for half of global industrial output, held 80 percent of the world's gold reserves, and was the world's sole nuclear power. The catastrophic destruction of life, infrastructure, and capital during the Second World War had exhausted the imperialism of the Old World, victor and vanquished alike. The largest economy in the world at the time, the United States recognized that it had come out of the war with its domestic infrastructure virtually unscathed and its military forces at unprecedented strength. Military officials recognized the fact that Pax Americana had been reliant on the effective United States air power, just as the instrument of Pax Britannica a century earlier was its sea power. In addition, a \"unipolar moment\" was seen to have occurred following the collapse of the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4511448",
"title": "Cold War (1962–1979)",
"section": "Section::::\"Détente\" and changing alliance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "The Soviet Union achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated. China, Japan, and Western Europe; the increasing nationalism of the Third World, and the growing disunity within the communist alliance all augured a new multipolar international structure. Moreover, the 1973 world oil shock created a dramatic shift in the economic fortunes of the superpowers. The rapid increase in the price of oil devastated the U.S. economy leading to \"stagflation\" and slow growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571390",
"title": "Sociocultural evolution",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary perspectives.:Political perspectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The Cold War period was marked by rivalry between two superpowers, both of which considered themselves to be the most highly evolved cultures on the planet. The USSR painted itself as a socialist society which emerged from class struggle, destined to reach the state of communism, while sociologists in the United States (such as Talcott Parsons) argued that the freedom and prosperity of the United States were a proof of a higher level of sociocultural evolution of its culture and society. At the same time, decolonization created newly independent countries who sought to become more developed—a model of progress and industrialization which was itself a form of sociocultural evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41585753",
"title": "Economy of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::History.:1970–1990.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in the 1973–1974 and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. During this period, the Soviet Union had the lowest per-capita incomes among the other socialist countries. At one point, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin told the head of oil and gas production that \"things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5788461",
"title": "History of science policy",
"section": "Section::::1945–2000.:Cold War science policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1689,
"text": "During the Cold War era, the former Soviet Union invested heavily in science, attempting to match American achievements in nuclear science and its military and industrial applications. At the same time, the United States invested heavily in advancing its own nuclear research and development activities through a system of National laboratories managed by the newly formed Atomic Energy Commission in collaboration with the University of California, Berkeley and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This era of competition in science and weapons development was known as the arms race. In October 1957, the Soviet Union's successful launch of Sputnik spurred a strong reaction in the United States and a period of competition between the two new world superpowers in a space race. In reaction to Sputnik, President Eisenhower formed the President's Science Advisory Commission (PSAC). Its November 1960 report, \"Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Government,\" was also known as the \"Seaborg Report\" after University of California, Berkeley Chancellor Glenn T. Seaborg, the 1951 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry. The Seaborg Report, which emphasized federal funding for science and pure research, is credited with influencing the federal policy towards academic science for the next eight years. PSAC member John Bardeen observed: \"There was a time not long ago when science was so starved for funds that one could say almost any increase was desirable, but this is no longer true. We shall have to review our science budgets with particular care to [maintaining] a healthy rate of growth on a broad base and not see our efforts diverted into unprofitable channels.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "420956",
"title": "Origins of the Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Wartime alliance (1941–1945).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "Even before the war came to an end, it seemed highly likely that cooperation between the Western powers and the USSR would give way to intense rivalry or conflict. This was due primarily to the starkly contrasting economic ideologies of the two superpowers, now quite easily the strongest in the world. Whereas the USA was a liberal, two-party democracy with an advanced capitalist economy, based on free enterprise and profit-making, the USSR was a one-party Marxist–Leninist State with a state-controlled economy where private wealth was all but outlawed. Nevertheless, the origins of the Cold War should also be seen as a historical episode that demarcated the spheres of interests of the United States and the Soviet Union. Lewkowicz argues that \"the origins of the Cold War should not be seen from the perspective of a magnified spectrum of conflict. Instead, it should be regarded as a process by which the superpowers attempted to forge a normative framework capable of sustaining their geopolitical needs and interests in the postwar scenario.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ftzoq
|
how does germany not have a crazy high rate of alcoholism and related crime when it has relaxed liquor laws?
|
[
{
"answer": "People who are happy and secure generally don't drink to excess, or when they do, don't commit crimes. Germany has a strong economy, a strong social safety net, widely available substance abuse treatment, and a rather effective police and judiciary.\n\nAs various attempts at alcohol prohibition worldwide have proved, people will always get alcohol if they want it. It's a simple chemical any idiot can make at home. The way to reduce alcohol-related crime and health problems is to attack the things that cause problem drinking. Namely insecurity, anxiety, and untreated mental/psychological disorders.",
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},
{
"answer": "Because they’re responsible about it. Germany is like the weird uncle who likes brandy after dinner while the US is your underage little brother getting hammered on Colt 45",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An important aspect of this is that young people are introduced to alcohol as a perfectly normal thing, and are taught to drink responsibly. Since you don't have to hide away and drink in secret, it's much easier for people to keep an eye on you -- a bartender can say, \"I think you've had enough sir, and I'm going to call a cab,\" which your rebellious friends at your secret party probably won't.\n\nAt 16, you're allowed to buy beer and wine, but not spirits. The thinking here is that beer and wine have much lower alcohol content, and it's far more difficult to give yourself alcohol poisoning. It's not even possible to drink enough beer to become ill: you'll throw up first, and unless you're unfortunate enough to choke on your own vomit, you'll simply wake up feeling terrible and smelling bad, having hopefully learned a lesson before you develop a dependency.\n\nThere is also a prevailing cultural attitude that approves of drinking, but not of drunkenness.\n\nA few years ago, there was some concern about what appeared to be a fashion among youngsters for binge drinking. Those fears were probably exaggerated, but it was a hot topic for quite some time. The government and police responded not by clamping down, but with a PR campaign: ads featured graphic pictures of teenagers passed out in pools of their own vomit and urine, and they were even printed on beer mats -- [here's an example, not for the faint-hearted and probably NSFW](_URL_0_). The subliminal message was: \"Are you sure this is a cool thing to do?\"\n\nI don't have any statistics on how effective this campaign was, but I haven't seen any discussion about binge drinking for ages. But it demonstrates how the focus is always more on awareness than demonization: notice the slogan, \"Don't drink too much,\" as opposed to \"Don't drink.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The causality runs the other direction. Stricter alcohol laws are usually the result of widespread alcohol abuse, not cause of responsible drinking. They also rarely work.\n\nIts economic stability, cultural focus on beer rather than harder liquor, and any number of other reasons, Germany has not had enough of a problem to have to enact such laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11280044",
"title": "Alcohol laws in Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The German laws regulating alcohol use and sale are mostly focused on youth protection. In contrast to many other countries, the legislation is not designed to keep young people away from alcohol completely, but rather to teach them an appropriate approach to alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption of all sorts, including consumption of beer and wine, has been prohibited in Germany for those under 16 since 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272204",
"title": "Tavern",
"section": "Section::::Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "A common German name for German taverns or pubs is \"Kneipe\". Drinking practices in 16th-century Augsburg, Germany, suggest that the use of alcohol in early modern Germany followed carefully structured cultural norms. Drinking was not a sign of insecurity and disorder. It helped define and enhance men's social status and was therefore tolerated among men as long as they lived up to both the rules and norms of tavern society and the demands of their role as householder. Tavern doors were closed to respectable women unaccompanied by their husbands, and society condemned drunkenness among women, but when alcohol abuse interfered with the household, women could deploy public power to impose limits on men's drinking behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3680556",
"title": "Light beer",
"section": "Section::::Reduced alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Light beers with significantly lower alcohol content allow consumers to drink more beers in a shorter period without becoming intoxicated. Low alcohol content can also mean a less expensive beer, especially where excise is determined by alcohol content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11280044",
"title": "Alcohol laws in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Other legislation.:Alcohol consumption in public.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Beyond this, Germany has very few restrictions on alcohol consumption in public. Exceptions are sometimes made in the context of football (soccer) matches involving rival teams, where police executives may ban the sale of alcoholic drinks inside stadiums and deny entrance to drunk fans. In 2009, the private railway company Metronom, which operates in parts of Northern Germany, introduced a much-discussed complete ban on alcohol in its trains. Some cities have banned alcohol consumption in certain areas and at certain times, such as Göttingen in Nikolaistraße on Saturdays and Sundays between midnight and 8:00 am, or in Hannover Hauptbahnhof (outside the existing bars and restaurants).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318497",
"title": "Liquor",
"section": "Section::::Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. Beer and wine, which are not distilled, are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20% ABV, as most yeasts cannot metabolise when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, fermentation ceases at that point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22418955",
"title": "Prohibition in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Research indicates that alcohol consumption substantially declined due to Prohibition. Rates of liver cirrhosis, alcoholic psychosis and infant mortality declined due to Prohibition. Prohibition has been tied to a growth in organized crime and violence. As an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1745155",
"title": "Beer in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The alcohol-by-volume, or ABV, content of beers in Germany is usually between 4.7% and 5.4% for most traditional brews. Bockbier or Doppelbock (double Bockbier) can have an alcohol content of up to 16%, making it stronger than many wines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31m1nh
|
what does it mean to "soft reboot" my android device?
|
[
{
"answer": "Soft reboot is when you actually go through the OS and choose the \"Reboot\" or \"Restart\" option, as opposed to a hard reboot, which is physically(or using the 5 second switch that is standard on most computing devices now) cutting the power and then turning it back on again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27985126",
"title": "HTC Aria",
"section": "Section::::Sideloading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The official Android 2.2 update prevents rooting the device, disallowing loading of custom ROMs. Root access can be restored through a multi-step process that requires the device to be connected to a computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188371",
"title": "Reconfigurable computing",
"section": "Section::::Partial re-configuration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Normally, reconfiguring an FPGA requires it to be held in reset while an external controller reloads a design onto it. Partial reconfiguration allows for critical parts of the design to continue operating while a controller either on the FPGA or off of it loads a partial design into a reconfigurable module. Partial reconfiguration also can be used to save space for multiple designs by only storing the partial designs that change between designs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47915029",
"title": "Juice jacking",
"section": "Section::::Mitigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Android devices commonly prompt the user before allowing the device to be mounted as a hard drive when plugged in over USB. Since release 4.2.2, Android has implemented a whitelist verification step to prevent attackers from accessing the Android Debug Bridge without authorization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12610483",
"title": "Android (operating system)",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Memory management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Since Android devices are usually battery-powered, Android is designed to manage processes to keep power consumption at a minimum. When an application is not in use the system suspends its operation so that, while available for immediate use rather than closed, it does not use battery power or CPU resources. Android manages the applications stored in memory automatically: when memory is low, the system will begin invisibly and automatically closing inactive processes, starting with those that have been inactive for the longest amount of time. Lifehacker reported in 2011 that third-party task killer applications were doing more harm than good.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7649384",
"title": "Self-reconfiguring modular robot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "By saying \"self-reconfiguring\" or \"self-reconfigurable\" it means that the mechanism or device is capable of utilizing its own system of control such as with actuators or stochastic means to change its overall structural shape. Having the quality of being \"modular\" in \"self-reconfiguring modular robotics\" is to say that the same module or set of modules can be added to or removed from the system, as opposed to being generically \"modularized\" in the broader sense. The underlying intent is to have an indefinite number of identical modules, or a finite and relatively small set of identical modules, in a mesh or matrix structure of self-reconfigurable modules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53557242",
"title": "Android Oreo",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Platform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Android Oreo introduces a new automatic repair system known as \"Rescue Party\"; if the operating system detects that core system components are persistently crashing during startup, it will automatically perform a series of escalating repair steps. If all automatic repair steps are exhausted, the device will reboot into recovery mode and offer to perform a factory reset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188371",
"title": "Reconfigurable computing",
"section": "Section::::Partial re-configuration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"static partial reconfiguration\" - the device is not active during the reconfiguration process. While the partial data is sent into the FPGA, the rest of the device is stopped (in the shutdown mode) and brought up after the configuration is completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9wpjp
|
tesla’s fascination with the numbers 3 6 9
|
[
{
"answer": "I remember from my studies that in middleage the 3 was a link to Catholic God (the trinity) and so 6 because is two times 3 and 9 because is three times 3, You can find this obsession with number in Dante's Divina commedia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it leads to a quite attractive female per se Little Jonathan and the East Side Gentlemen",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "173457",
"title": "9",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "9 is a composite number, its proper divisors being and . It is 3 times 3 and hence the third square number. Nine is a Motzkin number. It is the first composite lucky number, along with the first composite odd number and only single-digit composite odd number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15435445",
"title": "Mythology of Heroes",
"section": "Section::::Number 9.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Writers/producers Aron Coliete and Joe Pakaski have suggested that the number 9 is very important. Although fans have theorized on the number, including its appearance on several objects and its summation of number combinations within the series, Coliete and Pakaski have stated that, \"...the number 9 is pretty important in the grand scheme of things\". They later expanded their statement and encouraged fans to research the number 9, \"...That being said, we did lots of research in crafting our stories - some of which came from Hindu and Indian mythology. Remember how we've said the number 9 is important? Has anyone looked into that yet? If you haven't, start digging.\" As of the end of Volume 2, the significance of nine has either been minimal or hidden. Coliete and Pakaski have credited the story of Ashoka the Great and the \"Nine Unknown Men\" as one of the many influences for the series and as a clue to the mystery surrounding the number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1025490",
"title": "Heinz 57",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Henry J. Heinz introduced the marketing slogan \"57 pickle Varieties\" in 1896. He later claimed he was inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"). The reason for \"57\" is unclear. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number and the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number. However, Heinz also said the number \"7\" was selected specifically because of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages\". Whatever the reasons, Heinz wanted the company to advertise the greatest number of choices of pickles. In fact by 1892, four years before the slogan was created, the Heinz company was already selling more than 60 products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239794",
"title": "Count von Count",
"section": "Section::::Description and personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "According to BBC News, during an interview with the \"More or Less\" team's Tim Harford, the Count said his favorite number is 34,969. The Count was quoted as saying, \"It's a square-root thing.\": 34,969 is a perfect square, being 187.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54558894",
"title": "Sixth power",
"section": "Section::::Squares and cubes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In the archaic notation of Robert Recorde, the sixth power of a number was called the \"zenzicube\", meaning the square of a cube. Similarly, the notation for sixth powers used in 12th century Indian mathematics by Bhāskara II also called them either the square of a cube or the cube of a square.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169570",
"title": "Sierpinski number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In number theory, a Sierpinski or Sierpiński number is an odd natural number \"k\" such that formula_1 is composite, for all natural numbers \"n\". In 1960, Wacław Sierpiński proved that there are infinitely many odd integers \"k\" which have this property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17052377",
"title": "888 (number)",
"section": "Section::::In mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "888 is a repdigit (a number all of whose digits are equal), and a strobogrammatic number (one that reads the same upside-down on a seven-segment calculator display). 888 = 700227072 is the smallest cube in which each digit occurs exactly three times, and the only cube in which three distinct digits each occur three times. 888 the smallest multiple of 24 whose digit sum is 24, and as well as being divisible by its digit sum it is divisible by all of its digits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49z1rc
|
In what ways were European states forced to reform in order to defeat Napoleonic France?
|
[
{
"answer": "The biggest change, militarily speaking, was in the size of militaries involved before the Wars of the French Revolution and after. To give you an example, the British army, on the eve of the American Revolution in 1775 was something like 48,000 soldiers over its entire empire. For a sense of comparison, Wellington had about 30,000 British soldiers (Not counting allied soldiers) just for the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. At the [Battle of Leipzig](_URL_1_) in 1813, the French army alone suffered more casualties than soldiers existed in the British army only a few decades prior. The French concept was called the [levee en masse](_URL_0_)\n\nBasically, war on this scale was completely unprecedented in history, and the necessity of raising such large military forces required changes in the states that supported them. In Britain, you see more influence going to the House of Commons along with greater governmental centralization. Soldiers also had to be supplied, so you needed vastly increased industrial output to produce the weapons, ammunition, clothing, and so on that they all required. \n\nAll in all, I've always thought that the Napoleonic Wars did away with the last real vestiges of European feudalism, at least in Great Britain, and after 1815, we see something approaching what we could consider the modern centralized state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45420",
"title": "Napoleonic Wars",
"section": "Section::::Political effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "The Napoleonic Wars brought radical changes to Europe, but the reactionary forces returned to power and tried to reverse some of them by restoring the Bourbon house on the French throne. Napoleon had succeeded in bringing most of Western Europe under one rule. In most European countries, subjugation in the French Empire brought with it many liberal features of the French Revolution including democracy, due process in courts, abolition of serfdom, reduction of the power of the Catholic Church, and a demand for constitutional limits on monarchs. The increasing voice of the middle classes with rising commerce and industry meant that restored European monarchs found it difficult to restore pre-revolutionary absolutism and had to retain many of the reforms enacted during Napoleon's rule. Institutional legacies remain to this day in the form of civil law, with clearly defined codes of law—an enduring legacy of the Napoleonic Code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24557193",
"title": "France–Asia relations",
"section": "Section::::Colonial era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Through its defeat in the Napoleonic wars, France lost most of its colonial possessions, but the 19th century brought an era of Industrial revolution combined with European expansionism that saw France expand anew to form a second colonial empire in Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5756685",
"title": "Monarchies in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Current monarchies.:Calls for abolition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Calls for the abolition of Europe's monarchies have been widespread since the development of republicanism in the 17th to 18th centuries during the Enlightenment. During the French Revolution, the Ancien Régime in France was abolished, and in all territories the French First Republic conquered during the following Coalition Wars, sister republics were proclaimed. However, after Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, all of these (except Switzerland) were converted back to monarchies headed by his relatives. The post-Napoleonic European Restoration reaffirmed the monarchical balance of power on the continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21010846",
"title": "History of Tunisia under French rule",
"section": "Section::::French regime.:French context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "France was not unfamiliar with rule over foreign lands, i.e., two distinct phases of expansion outside Europe, and one within: the 16th–18th century ventures in North America and in India, which lands were lost by the monarchy in 1763 prior to the French Revolution; the Napoleonic conquests over most of western and central Europe, lost in 1815; and then the 19th and 20th century colonialism in Africa, Asia, and Oceania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23055919",
"title": "Polignac Memorandum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "During this time period, the European states had formed the Quintuple Alliance after the 1815 Congress of Vienna to restore balance to Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Spain was having trouble with its colonies in Latin and South America, and was fighting a losing battle to remain an empire. Villele, the French Prime Minister under Louis XVIII viewed the Polignac Memorandum as a way to refuse to aid Ferdinand VII in his attempts to regain his colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23013573",
"title": "Corsican Crisis",
"section": "Section::::British response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Great Britain in the 1760s was unable to build a system of alliances with other European states as it had done in the past, a problem that became acute during the Corsican crisis and the later American War of Independence. France's invasion had been unpopular with Spain and Sardinia and, prodded into action by the public attacks on them, the British government began tentative negotiations to try to build a coalition of states that would oppose French annexation of the island. However, with a lack of will on either side, these soon collapsed. Despite calls in Parliament, Grafton refused to consider sending troops to Corsica or mobilising the navy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215994",
"title": "Hundred Days",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Napoleon's rise and fall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars pitted France against various coalitions of other European nations nearly continuously from 1792 onward. The overthrow and subsequent public execution of Louis XVI in France had greatly disturbed other European leaders, who vowed to crush the French Republic. Rather than leading to France's defeat, the wars allowed the revolutionary regime to expand beyond its borders and create client republics. The success of the French forces made a hero out of their best commander, Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1799, Napoleon staged a successful coup d'état and became First Consul of the new French Consulate. Five years later, he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3s20u1
|
How did nobility/royalty prove who they were while traveling?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you specify what time period you're thinking of? It would vary a lot from civilization to civilization, and era.\n\nThere were a lot of things that could be used to distinguish people that would not have been easily replicated. Certain insignia like a signet ring, sceptre, or crown. Or official papers bearing the seal of their government, monarch, or whatever. Other times the size of a person's retinue would make it clear that they were a person of note.\n\nNow adays a diplomat presents his credentials to the other country's head of state, who then acknowledges them and accepts that diplomat as an emissary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Before the invention of the steam ship and the railroad, travel was rather limited and it was mostly the upper classes that did it, bar some special circumstances such as going on the hajj, a pilgrimage or a military campaign or crusade.\n\nAn upper class person would travel in style, often with a large following, and people mostly trusted the claim that they were who they said they were.\n\nThe upper classes often travelled to their own estates or to allies, relatives or friends, who would be informed beforehand and prepared to recieve them - and be able to vouch for the arriving guests in case anyone thought to challenge them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29050",
"title": "Szlachta",
"section": "Section::::Privileges.:Real and false nobles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 1194,
"text": "Nobles were born into a noble family, adopted by a noble family - this was abolished in 1633 - or achieved noble rank through Ennoblement by a king or Sejm for reasons such as, bravery in combat, services to the state, etc. Yet this proved to be the rarest means of gaining noble status. Many nobles were, in fact, usurpers since, as commoners, they would have moved to another part of the country and falsely claimed noble status. Hundreds of such \"false nobles\" were denounced by Hieronim Nekanda Trepka in his \"\"Liber generationis plebeanorum\"\", or \"\"Liber chamorum\"\", in the first half of the 16th century. The law forbade non-nobles to own \"folwarks\" and promised such estates as a reward to the would-be denouncers. Trepka was himself an impoverished nobleman who lived a town dweller's life and assembled hundreds of such false claims hoping to take over any one of the usurped estates. He does not seem to have succeeded in his quest, despite his employment as the king's secretary. Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower orders' of society, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36890804",
"title": "Conditional noble",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "The emerging self-consciousness of the royal servants is demonstrated by their adoption of the \"noble\" denomination from the 1250s, in a period when the \"exact nature of noble status and the basic privileges of the noble order were definitely laid down\" (Pál Engel). Their newly confirmed status distinguished \"true nobleman of the realm\" from those who owned their estates in return for services to be rendered to the monarch or other lords. On the other hand, some groups of castle warriors began to call themselves \"the freemen of the Holy King\" \"(liberi Sancti Regis)\", suggesting that their liberties could be traced back to the time of St Stephen, the first king of Hungary Furthermore, certain groups of landowners who were obliged to render services to their lords received collective liberties in the second half of the 13th century. Even new groups of landowners with similar obligations appeared in the northern Carpathian regions and other border territories of the kingdom in the same period or some decades later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435800",
"title": "Tournament (medieval)",
"section": "Section::::Tournaments during the Late Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Royalty also held tournaments to stress the importance of certain events and the nobility's loyalty. Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York presided over a series of tournaments when their son Henry was created Duke of York. These tournaments were noted for their display of wealth. On the first day, the participants showed their loyalty by wearing the King's colours on their bodies and the Queen's colours on their helmets. They further honoured the royal family by wearing the colours of the King's mother, Margaret Beaufort, on the next day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470045",
"title": "Viscount Dillon",
"section": "Section::::In France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "What's more, they were acknowledged as being of \"\"extraction chevaleresque\"\" (very old nobility), having been noble since 1347, and so allowed to the by the King of France in 1750, 1769, 1770, 1775, 1777, 1785 and 1788.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33030715",
"title": "Grand National Treasure",
"section": "Section::::Royal Regalia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Vehicles were presented to royalty and noblemen for their convenience and to signify their rank. These vehicles included a stretcher (called “Salieng”), a palanquin (called “Krae Kanya”), and a barge (called “Rua Kanya”).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159918",
"title": "Margaret Leijonhufvud",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Queen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The members of the royal household are only fragmentarily known during her tenure, but she hosted a great number of maids-of-honour, who were successively married to the king's male courtiers in order to carefully balance the power among the noble families of the realm. One of the most well-known of such marriages is that of the great heiress Ebba Lilliehöök. Among the most prominent members of her own staff was the cunning woman Birgitta Lass Andersson, a trusted favorite and confidante with medical knowledge, who was entrusted many of her private affairs and also saw to the health of herself, her sister Martha and children. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13883240",
"title": "Turco (family)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Their accession to noble status can be traced to their increased wealth through banking, lending and property investment, starting in the 11th and 12th centuries. They were renowned as Ghibelline supporters throughout the Middle Ages. Their economic prestige dropped at the end of the 16th century and the family eventually fell from nobility. They are currently regaining their status as upper-class individuals through high education and hard work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wxp89
|
when did most people in England start thinking of the royal family as their native leaders instead of foreign invaders?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a very tricky question because it's not clear which royal family you're discussing. The last time the dynasty changed by foreign invasion was in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and there was a *very* widespread effort among the elites in England, especially the Whig faction, to invite in the House of Orange and conspire against the Stuarts. Stuart loyalists, or Jacobites, were the main group that thought of the House of Orange and, later, the House of Hanover as foreign, but the Jacobites were deeply limited in their support due to the House of Stuart's association with A. Catholicism and B. Scottish nationalism and C. the French monarchy (the Bourbons were *very* close cousins to the Stuarts and Louis XIV would become the Stuarts' biggest sponsors), which meant that even the English Tories that might have had closet sympathy with them would find the sort of people that backed the Stuarts very difficult to work with. The House of Hanover, which inherited the throne after Queen Anne died childless, was not very popular at first: George I barely spoke English and had little interest in this distant island.\n\nBoth France and Spain continued to recognize James II's son \"James III\" as the rightful king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and James \"The Old Pretender\" attempted an invasion of Scotland in 1715 to reclaim the throne, but was swiftly driven off. During the reign of George II, James's son Charles, or \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\" or \"The Young Pretender,\" attempted his own somewhat more credible invasion in 1745 that attracted support from disaffected Scottish people and Catholics across the United Kingdom, but they were decisively smashed at the Battle of Culloden. After Culloden in 1745 the idea of a Jacobite Stuart restoration became utterly implausible and the House of Hanover was clearly not going anywhere. There were still sympathetic old Jacobites, and there are even a few today, but there hasn't been a serious prospect of a restoration of the Stuart monarchy since 1745 (and, more realistically, since 1689).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "300632",
"title": "Symbols of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Pater Europae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Later monarchs who also have carried sobriquets as \"relatives\" of Europe include Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (\"grandmother of Europe\"), Christian IX of Denmark and Nicholas I of Montenegro (both respectively \"father-in-law of Europe\"). These late 19th and early 20th century sobriquets are however purely on account of the marriage of these monarchs' offspring to foreign princes and princesses, and involve no wider symbolism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1211527",
"title": "History of the United Kingdom during the First World War",
"section": "Section::::Monarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "The British Royal Family faced a serious problem during the First World War because of its blood ties to the ruling family of Germany, Britain's prime adversary in the war. Before the war, the British royal family had been known as the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In 1910, George V became King on the death of his father, King Edward VII, and remained king throughout the war. He was the first cousin of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who came to symbolise all the horrors of the war. Queen Mary, although British like her mother, was the daughter of the Duke of Teck, a descendant of the German Royal House of Württemberg. During the war H. G. Wells wrote about Britain's \"alien and uninspiring court\", and George famously replied: \"I may be uninspiring, but I'll be damned if I'm alien.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1572901",
"title": "Nine Years' War (Ireland)",
"section": "Section::::War breaks out.:Irish victory at Yellow Ford.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Only a handful of native lords remained consistently loyal to the crown and even these found their kinsmen and followers defecting to the rebels. However all the fortified cities and towns of the country sided with the English colonial government. Hugh O'Neill, unable to take walled towns, made repeated overtures to inhabitants of the Pale to join his rebellion, appealing to their Catholicism and to their alienation from the Dublin government and the provincial administrations. For the most part, however, the Old English remained hostile to their hereditary Gaelic enemies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18108523",
"title": "Isabel de Clare, 4th Countess of Pembroke",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Within a few generations their descendants included much of the nobility of Europe, including all the monarchs of Scotland since Robert I (1274-1329) and all those of England, Great Britain and the United Kingdom since Henry IV (1367-1413); and, apart from Anne of Cleves, all the queen consorts of Henry VIII.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10105582",
"title": "The Canadian Crown and the Canadian Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Colonies and Confederation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "As the colonial population increased, those loyal to the Crown served as regular members of local militia groups under the command of the relevant governor, who exercised the authority of either the French or British monarch. These groups would fight alongside First Nations who had offered their allegiance to the king back in Europe, often in order to wage war on their own enemy tribes who had allied themselves with the other sovereign. Once King Louis XV surrendered his Canadian territories, members of the British Royal Family began to serve in military postings in the colonies; from 1786 to 1887, Prince William Henry (later King William IV) ventured to Canada's east coast as captain of HMS \"Pegasus\" in a Royal Navy contingent and his younger brother, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58818512",
"title": "Gascon campaign (1294–1303)",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The recurring problems of the King of England doing homage for lands to the King France, added to issues of the succession to French crown, upon the failure of the Capetian line. King Edward III, the child of King Edward II and Isabella of France, claimed the crown of France of his grandfather Philip IV, as the only male descendant. The outbreak of the Hundred Years' War in 1337 was a result of the tension between the two nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3203604",
"title": "Sayajirao Gaekwad III",
"section": "Section::::Heritage and views.:A demonstration of independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "At the grand and historic 1911 Delhi Durbar, attended by George V— the first time that a reigning British monarch had travelled to India, each Indian ruler or \"native prince\" was expected to perform proper obeisance to the King-Emperor by bowing three times before him, then backing away without turning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ipu5g
|
why do dogs like tummy rubs but cats tease you with it but then attack you?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lot of cats (not all - I've got one that rolls on her back and meows at me if I *don't* rub her belly) don't like having their belly rubbed.\n\nThem rolling on the back is a trust thing - they're exposing their most vulnerable parts to you and trusting you not to take advantage of that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cats are usually attacking things that enter that area of their body. They jump on prey, bite around the head and kick with their back feet to quickly damage the prey. Dogs don't attack in that way. They tend to bite and cause trauma by shaking their heads. That's why dogs like play tug-of-way with their toys. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because dogs are fully domesticated pack animals that touch each other naturally and have also learned/evolved to appreciate the touch of a human. \nCats are not as \"domesticated\". They are basically a really lazy wild animal. They are supposed to live the majority of their life alone and so they have instincts to kill any food that comes by (because nobody else is going to feed them). The only reason cats are pets is because they are too small to kill us and they are good at rodent extermination. \nA full grown 500lb tiger acts EXACTLY like a house cat. The difference comes when you make your hand look like a dying bird, the tiger will murder you and eat your corpse. The house cat will just bite and scratch until you are in too much pain to keep \"playing\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27071784",
"title": "Cat massage",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Touching, petting, and stroking a cat can stimulate the release of chemicals called cytokines, which in turn signal the brain to release natural painkilling chemicals called endorphins. Cats may show their pleasure during massage by purring and gently kneading their paws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5741167",
"title": "Cat communication",
"section": "Section::::Tactile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Cats sometimes repeatedly tread their front paws on humans or soft objects with a kneading action. This is instinctive to cats and in adults, is presumably derived from the action used to stimulate milk let-down by the mother during nursing. Cats often purr during this behaviour, usually taken to indicate contentment and affection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3987221",
"title": "Lick granuloma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Lick granuloma is a form of self-trauma and skin disorder in which most commonly dogs, but also cats, continuously lick a small area of their body until it becomes raw and inflamed. The most common areas affected are the lower (distal) portions of their legs, such as the carpus (wrist), or sometimes another part of their body such as the base of their tail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6678",
"title": "Cat",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.:Cat bites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Cats may bite humans when provoked, during play or when aggressive. Complications from cat bites can develop. A cat bite differs from the bites of other pets. This is because the teeth of a cat are sharp and pointed causing deep punctures. Skin usually closes rapidly over the bite and traps microorganisms that cause infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5741167",
"title": "Cat communication",
"section": "Section::::Tactile.:Biting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Gentle biting (often accompanied by purring and kneading) can communicate affection or playfulness, directed at the human owner or another cat; however, stronger bites that are often accompanied by hissing or growling usually communicate aggression. When cats mate, the tom bites the scruff of the female's neck as she assumes a lordosis position which communicates that she is receptive to mating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3987221",
"title": "Lick granuloma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "A lick granuloma, also known as acral lick dermatitis, is a skin disorder found most commonly in dogs, but also in cats. In dogs, it results typically from the dog's urge to lick the lower portion of one of their legs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56276347",
"title": "Scent rubbing",
"section": "Section::::Species.:Felidae.:Domestic cat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Domestic cats will more frequently rub against an object that is new to their environment. When an object is induced with the scent of another animal it causes an increase in rubbing as it contains sensory properties that are not familiar to the cat. When a cat is presented with an object treated with scent gland secretions from both a rat and snake, the cat will forcefully scent rub its head against it. Mutual face rubbing behaviour between cats in groups and cats rubbing against their owners may be a form of social bonding. During rubbing against humans, cats tend to use the temporal gland area which consists of the cheek, between the eye and the ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
51f659
|
Why did it take semi automatic weapons so long to be developed?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main problem is the difficulties inherent in gunsmithing. You need some very precise metallurgy and engineering to produce a semi-automatic firearm, and mass-production requires a very advanced level of machining and metalwork to produce something that won't explode in your hand.\n\nDuring the heyday of black-powder firearms, double-barrelled weapons were often used, and some manufacturers experimented with even more barrels, producing things like the Nock Volley Gun. However, these were expensive and required careful manufacture, which made them impractical as military firearms. Similarly, breech-loading mechanisms were developed, but they generally required hand-crafting and were delicate, meaning that they also could not be mass-produced. Further, black powder produces a great amount of byproduct, in the form of thick smoke and leftovers that can foul the workings of a firearm. \n\nThat byproduct was the main point preventing the development of semi-automatic weaponry after the widespread adoption of practical breech-loading rifles, although many models were produced. The development of 'smokeless' propellants around the close of the 19th century which produced a much smaller amount of fouling allowed the development of the mechanisms for practical semiautomatic firearms on a mass scale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Self loading rifles (firearms callable of firing a round, extracting and loading a new one by itself) are a very complex mechanical enterprise that requires high tolerances and advanced knowledge of metallurgy. There are a few thing you need for a self loader. Firstly you need a method of loading the next round which the nature of muzzle loading muskets made this task impossible, plus powder had to be loaded in separately from the round adding additional complexity to self loading. A magazine with a spring-loaded follower may seem obvious to you but this took time to develop. Many repeater rifles used tubular magazines in the gun which prevented the use of pointed bullets.\n\nAnother must is a strong receiver that can withstand high pressures. One shot produces a lot of pressure but automatic or even semi-automatic fire prevents the pressure in the chamber from having time to lower. This is why modern rifles use intermediate cartridges (7.62x39, 5.45x39, 5.56x45) and not the large beefy rifle cartridges of older rifles like the Mosin or Lee-Enfeild (7.62x54, .303); those cartridges produce pressure that too high for controllable, useful automatic fire. \n\nAnother reason independent from mechanical problems was the beliefs of most armed forces until The First World War. It was a common belief that soldiers with access to magazine fed bolt action rifles would fire wildly and waste ammunition. Now try to convince them that soldiers with weapons that load rounds by themselves are a good idea. Self loaders may seem like the obvious way to go but their development took a lot more then the simple idea of rapid fire weapons.\n\nSources\nT.L. McNaugher \"M-16 Controversy\":\nSkennerton, Ian \"Small Arms Identification Series\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "390237",
"title": "Automatic rifle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cei-Rigotti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The world's first automatic rifle was the Italian Cei-Rigotti. Introduced in 1900, these 6.5mm Carcano or 7.65×53mm gas-operated, selective-fire, carbines attracted considerable attention at the time. They used 10-, 20- and 50-round box magazines. The Cei-Rigotti had several failings, including frequent jams and erratic shooting. In the end, no Army took an interest in the design and the rifle was abandoned before it could be further developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19690",
"title": "Machine gun",
"section": "Section::::History.:Maxim and World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Another fundamental development occurring before and during the war was the incorporation by gun designers of machine gun auto-loading mechanisms into handguns, giving rise to semi-automatic pistols such as the Borchardt (1890s), automatic machine pistols and later submachine guns (such as the Beretta 1918).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13057",
"title": "Gatling gun",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Although the first Gatling gun was capable of firing continuously, it required a person to crank it; therefore it was not a true automatic weapon. The Maxim gun, invented and patented in 1883, was the first true fully automatic weapon, making use of the fired projectile's recoil force to reload the weapon. Nonetheless, the Gatling gun represented a huge leap in firearm technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11966",
"title": "Firearm",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolution.:Repeating, semi-automatic, and automatic firearms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 1703,
"text": "The first \"rapid firing\" firearms were usually similar to the 19th century Gatling gun, which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank. Eventually, the \"rapid\" firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from firing could be used to operate it, thus the operator needed only to pull a trigger (which made the firing mechanisms truly \"automatic\"). An automatic (or \"fully automatic\") firearm is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed. An automatic firearm is capable of firing multiple rounds with one pull of the trigger. The Gatling gun may have been the first automatic weapon, though the modern trigger-actuated machine gun was not widely introduced until the First World War with the German \"Spandau\" and British Lewis Gun. Automatic rifles such as the Browning Automatic Rifle were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired handgun rounds, known as submachine guns, also appeared in this time. Many modern military firearms have a selective fire option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the firearm be fired either in the semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made M16, continuous fully automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges (this conserves ammunition and increases controllability). Automatic weapons are largely restricted to military and paramilitary organizations, though many automatic designs are infamous for their use by civilians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375767",
"title": "Semi-automatic firearm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher produced the first successful design for a semi-automatic rifle in 1885, and by the early 20th century, many manufacturers had introduced semi-automatic shotguns, rifles and pistols. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3238121",
"title": "Industrial warfare",
"section": "Section::::Land warfare.:Technological advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "\"Machine guns\" are fully automatic guns. In this era of warfare they only existed as mounted support weapons, as automatic firearms were not yet developed. Early machine guns as invented by Gatling, were hand cranked but evolved into truly automatic machine guns by Maxim at the end of the era. Machine guns were valued for their ability to smash infantry formations, especially attacking enemy formations when they were dense. This, along with effective field artillery, changed tactics drastically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6096310",
"title": "Service pistol",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The first service handguns were revolvers, but the development of semi-automatic pistols (the first practical example being the Mauser C96 \"Broomhandle\") gradually led to their replacement by semi-automatic handguns, such as the well-known German P08 Luger, the first semi-automatic service pistol to be widely adopted by an industrialised nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cb1tcq
|
why can cows and other animals constantly produce milk but humans cannot?
|
[
{
"answer": "They can. That's what a wet nurse does. Milk supply stops when the demand stops, same for all mammals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dairy farmer here: cows reach peak production generally within 60 days after calving. From there continued production depends on a number of factors. She needs adequate food. She needs to be milked out 2+ times a day. Another pregnancy will reduce production, and it will usually slowly decline over the next seven months. Then there's a two month 'dry period' when the cow produces no milk. \n\n\nWoman (and cows) can lactate for years on end, however there will be ever decreasing amounts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't. They only produce after becoming pregnant, and produce until the demand stops. This is true for all mammals. While a mother nurses, the draw of milk produces hormones which continues milk production. When she stops, these hormones are no longer released and milk production ceases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All female mammals only produce milk after being pregnant. If you're thinking of dairy cows, they \"constantly\" produce milk because they are constantly being inseminated, going through pregnancy, giving birth, then having their babies taken away (and killed if male), and being artificially milked for human consumption. Then the cycle repeats until they aren't seen as being productive anymore, then they're killed. The same thing *could* be done to human women, but it would break a whole bunch of different laws (plus, you know, ethics) ....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don’t, milk supply eventually dries up and have to be forcefully impregnated to keep the dairy industry afloat. Even wet-nurses eventually dry up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "219640",
"title": "Animal husbandry",
"section": "Section::::Branches.:Dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5558520",
"title": "Milk allergy",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Avoiding dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Milk from other mammalian species (goat, sheep, etc.) should not be used as a substitute for cow's milk, as milk proteins from other mammals are often cross-reactive. Nevertheless, some people with cow's milk allergy can tolerate goat’s or sheep’s milk, and vice versa. Milk from camels, pigs, reindeer, horses, and donkeys may also be tolerated in some cases. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk proteins which were not always indicated on the labels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "It is often argued that it is unnatural for humans to drink milk from cows (or other animals) because mammals normally do not drink milk beyond the weaning period, nor do they drink milk from another species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56228",
"title": "Dairy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years. Initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them. Protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Other animal-based sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "795199",
"title": "Breast milk",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to other milks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "All mammalian species produce milk, but the composition of milk for each species varies widely and other kinds of milk are often very different from human breast milk. As a rule, the milk of mammals that nurse frequently (including human babies) is less rich, or more watery, than the milk of mammals whose young nurse less often. Human milk is noticeably thinner and sweeter than cow's milk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
87j90s
|
How is action potential measured in a cell?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi there, as a biochemist studying ion channels I hope I can provide enough information to satisfy you and your student, or even better, whet your curiosity for more.\n\nAs to your question about how we measure membrane potentials. We take a glass electrode and stab a cell with it, then measure the voltage between the electrode (now continuous with the inside of the cell, and a reference electrode outside the cell. There is a lot more sophistication to the technique and many many variations that allow for extremely careful and accurate measurements of cells all the way down to the activity of a single protein in the membrane, but basically that's what we do. This technique is called \"Patch Clamp\" (technically what I described is a subset that technique called \"Whole cell\" patch clamp). [ref1](_URL_0_)\n\nThe technique was first developed in squid because they had a giant (meaning visible to the naked eye) axon that could be patch clamped using the tools available at the time. \n\nit isn't exactly that there are more ions outside the cell than inside the cell. What is more strictly true, is that for each different type of ion (at least the major ones used to generate action potentials: K+ Na+ Ca2+ and Cl-) the cell uses up some of its energy in the form of ATP to establish an electro-chemical gradient across the membrane.\n\nThe gradients established are: \n\nFor Sodium (Na+) about 14 mM (millimolar) inside, and about 145 mM outside.\n\nFor Potassium (K+) basically the opposite, about 150 mM inside and 4 mM outside\n\nFor Calcium (Ca2+) about 70 nM (that's 0.00007 mM) inside, and 2 mM outside.\n\nFor Chloride (Cl-) about 10 mM inside and 110 mM outside. \n\nThe concept that you need to grasp for action potentials in cells is that it is all controlled by proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane itself is made up of lipids and are extremely impermeable to ions. Ions only cross from inside to outside (or vice versa) if there is a protein called an ion channel in the membrane that opens to allow ions through. Additionally these ion channels can be extremely selective, meaning that when they open, only one type of ion can go through them.\n\nSo thinking about the system. We have a charged species separated by an impermeable membrane, that sets up an electrical potential, and when an ion channel opens current flows according to that potential.\n\nI'll keep the context to the action potential in a neuron. [ref2](_URL_1_)The rules of electrical impulses in biology follow the same laws as in physics, ohms law (voltage = current x resistance), but with a couple twists to make the units/scale and conditional factors (temperature, gas constant, Faraday constant) to fit the range that works best in biology. Ultimately we use these factors in an equation called the Nernst equation. This give us: Membrane potential of a given ion = -((temperature x gas constant)/(Faraday Constant x Charge on ion)) x natural log((concentration of ions outside the cell)/(concentration of ions inside the cell). [ref3](_URL_2_)\n\nIf you take the concentrations of ions I listed above and plug them into the Nernst equation, you'll see that for Na, the membrane potential is about +60 mV (millivolts), for K+ the membrane potential is about -98 mV and for Ca2+ the potential is about 137 mV. Since at \"rest\" most/all of the Na+ and Ca2+ channels are closed, the resting membrane potential is controlled mostly by K+ channels (which are open), and thus the cell membrane potential is around -60. \n\nAction potentials are triggered when a chemical stimulus (such as presence of a ligand (something that binds to a protein and turns on its activity) or a neurotransmitter (a specific subset of ligands) binds to an ion channel (in this case a Na+ or Ca2+ channel) and triggers it to open. When that happens, lets say for Na+ channels, the Na+ will now be able to cross the membrane and the membrane potential will move towards that of Na (+60 mV). At some threshold, the membrane potential becomes different enough from the resting potential, that other channels which are sensitive to changes in voltage, also activate. Suddenly many many channels (Na+ and Ca2+ type) are open and the the membrane potential rapidly depolarizes in what we refer to as an action potential. \n\nI did skip over a HUGE amount of detail, caveats, and specifics for this background, so please feel free to ask follow up questions, or for clarification (also if I didn't actually answer your question let me know and I'll try again). \n\n*edit, added refs",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are more contemporary variations on it in use today but good old-fashioned [patch clamp recording](_URL_1_) is how ion currents and action potentials are measured in a cell. \n\nThe basic idea, which was developed in the '60s-'70s, and for which several Nobel Prizes have been awarded, is that a very finely glass pipette tip is applied to a small patch of membrane, isolating a single ion channel (see the [image here](_URL_0_)). Ions fluxing through the channel generate a current that can be measured by an electrode in the pipette tip. This can be done in two modes: voltage-clamp and current-clamp. In the former case the voltage is held constant in order to measure ion flux through a channel. In the latter case the current is held constant, permitting the measurement of action potentials over time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "156998",
"title": "Action potential",
"section": "Section::::Phases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1047,
"text": "The course of the action potential is determined by two coupled effects. First, voltage-sensitive ion channels open and close in response to changes in the membrane voltage \"V\". This changes the membrane's permeability to those ions. Second, according to the Goldman equation, this change in permeability changes the equilibrium potential \"E\", and, thus, the membrane voltage \"V\". Thus, the membrane potential affects the permeability, which then further affects the membrane potential. This sets up the possibility for positive feedback, which is a key part of the rising phase of the action potential. A complicating factor is that a single ion channel may have multiple internal \"gates\" that respond to changes in \"V\" in opposite ways, or at different rates. For example, although raising \"V\" \"opens\" most gates in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel, it also \"closes\" the channel's \"inactivation gate\", albeit more slowly. Hence, when \"V\" is raised suddenly, the sodium channels open initially, but then close due to the slower inactivation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2408",
"title": "Analytical chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Instrumental methods.:Electrochemical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Electroanalytical methods measure the potential (volts) and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the transferred charge is measured over time), amperometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "962174",
"title": "Node of Ranvier",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Action potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "An action potential is a spike of both positive and negative ionic discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell. The creation and conduction of action potentials represents a fundamental means of communication in the nervous system. Action potentials represent rapid reversals in voltage across the plasma membrane of axons. These rapid reversals are mediated by voltage-gated ion channels found in the plasma membrane. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10339",
"title": "Electrochemical cell",
"section": "Section::::Half-cells.:Cell potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The cell potential can be predicted through the use of electrode potentials (the voltages of each half-cell). These half-cell potentials are defined relative to the assignment of 0 volts to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). (See table of standard electrode potentials). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured. When calculating the difference in voltage, one must first rewrite the half-cell reaction equations to obtain a balanced oxidation-reduction equation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563188",
"title": "Graded potential",
"section": "Section::::EPSPs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Graded potentials that make the membrane potential less negative or more positive, thus making the postsynaptic cell more likely to have an action potential, are called excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). Depolarizing local potentials sum together, and if the voltage reaches the threshold potential, an action potential occurs in that cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2821615",
"title": "Electrochemical gradient",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The term is typically applied in contexts wherein a chemical reaction is to take place, such as one involving the transfer of an electron at a battery electrode. In a battery, an electrochemical potential arising from the movement of ions balances the reaction energy of the electrodes. The maximum voltage that a battery reaction can produce is sometimes called the standard electrochemical potential of that reaction (see also Electrode potential and Table of standard electrode potentials). In instances pertaining specifically to the movement of electrically charged solutes, the potential is often expressed in units of volts. See: Concentration cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156998",
"title": "Action potential",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1343,
"text": "Action potentials are generated by special types of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in a cell's plasma membrane. These channels are shut when the membrane potential is near the (negative) resting potential of the cell, but they rapidly begin to open if the membrane potential increases to a precisely defined threshold voltage, depolarising the transmembrane potential. When the channels open, they allow an inward flow of sodium ions, which changes the electrochemical gradient, which in turn produces a further rise in the membrane potential. This then causes more channels to open, producing a greater electric current across the cell membrane and so on. The process proceeds explosively until all of the available ion channels are open, resulting in a large upswing in the membrane potential. The rapid influx of sodium ions causes the polarity of the plasma membrane to reverse, and the ion channels then rapidly inactivate. As the sodium channels close, sodium ions can no longer enter the neuron, and they are then actively transported back out of the plasma membrane. Potassium channels are then activated, and there is an outward current of potassium ions, returning the electrochemical gradient to the resting state. After an action potential has occurred, there is a transient negative shift, called the afterhyperpolarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2no258
|
what happens when a banana is bruised
|
[
{
"answer": "When part of the fruit starts to decay it releases a chemical called ethylene which signals other parts of the fruit that it's time to die as in the natural process of nature. Bananas also contain an enzyme called polyphenol oxidase, and the oxygen present in the air readily reacts with the enzyme found in the bananas. This oxidation reaction is seen as a rusting or browning of the banana's surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12264317",
"title": "Banana streak virus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Banana streak was first identified in 1958 in Côte d’Ivoire and is now in many countries in the tropics. The primary symptoms of disease are chlorotic streaks on the banana leaves and splitting of their pseudostem. In later stages of the disease, these streaks may become necrotic, and the heart of the pseudostem may rot, ultimately leading to death of the plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49800624",
"title": "Banana streak MY virus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Banana streak MY virus (BSMYV) is a plant virus that causes banana streak disease of banana (\"Musa\") species, which results in chlorotic streaks in the leaves and a reduced crop. The virus has been recovered from Australia, India and Tonga. It is composed of a double-stranded DNA genome and may exist in either an infectious episomal form or an endogenous form which is integrated into the host DNA. It is spread by several species of mealy bug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211857",
"title": "Banana slug",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Banana slugs have a single lung (on the right side) which opens externally via a pneumostome. The pneumostome lung cavity is heavily vascularized to allow gas exchange. Dehydration is a major problem for the mollusk; to combat this, banana slugs excrete a thick coating of mucus around their bodies and can also aestivate. To do so, they secrete a protective layer of mucus and insulate themselves with a layer of soil and leaves. They remain inactive in this state until the environment becomes moist again. Due to their susceptibility to desiccation, they are more commonly active at night, but also appear during cool, moist days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12264210",
"title": "Banana bunchy top virus",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Banana bunchy top disease is the most serious virus disease of banana worldwide. Diseased plants rarely produce fruit and when they do, the fruit is stunted and twisted. However, in the rare scenario that a diseased plant does produce fruit that reaches maturity, it is edible. The banana bunchy top disease has had a huge impact on the banana industry in Hawaii and Australia and among other areas of the world. The disease was first seen on the Hawaiian island of Oahu in 1989 and by 2002, only 13 years later, it was a major disease on four of the Hawaiian islands (Hawaii, Oahu, Kauai and Maui). The movement of BBTD was mostly facilitated by human movement of diseased plant material and banana aphids from island to island. In the 1920s it almost completely destroyed the banana growing industry in Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44169882",
"title": "Banana freckle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1024,
"text": "Banana Freckle is a disease caused by the fungus \"Guignardia musae\" (telomorph) or \"Phyllosticta musarum\" (anamorph). Generally, the causal agent of disease is referred to as Guignardia-Phyllosticta sp. There are several different strains of the fungus that exist to infect different banana varieties around the globe. Symptoms include yellowing of the tissue and formation of small dark brown spots on the leaves and fruit. Within the spots, conidia or pycnidia can be found. Banana Freckle is easily propagated and spread from plant to plant by rain splash and movement of infected tissue or fruit. Management of the disease consists of cutting out infected leaves, the paper bag method, fungicide application, and proper sanitation techniques. This devastating disease is extremely relevant for the major banana exporting countries of the world. In the absence of chemical control, there is about a 78% yield loss. Banana Freckle disease needs to be carefully monitored in order to prevent further spread of the disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11979055",
"title": "Banana peel",
"section": "Section::::Peeling methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Most people peel a banana by cutting or snapping the stem and divide the peel into sections while pulling them away from the bared fruit. Another way of peeling a banana is done in the opposite direction, from the end with the brownish floral residue—a way usually perceived as \"upside down\". This way is also known as the \"monkey method\", since it is how monkeys are said to peel bananas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44169882",
"title": "Banana freckle",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Banana Freckle was first identified in Hawaii in 1917 and then soon after in the Philippines. The disease is most common in Hawaii, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, and New Guinea to name a few. This devastating fungal disease can infect the leaves during any stage of the plant’s life cycle . A number of pathogenic species in north Queensland and the Northern Territory were found infecting Cavendish bananas since 1979 and 1991, respectively. It is believed that the pathogen is mutating rapidly and needs to be closely monitored . Further testing and quarantine notices have been placed on infected areas to prevent movement of disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5l7vbp
|
are fabrics like linen really anti-microbial?
|
[
{
"answer": "An educated guess is that either the fabric has been treated with something, or that the fibers are woven tightly enough together that bacteria and microbes have difficulty passing through it. So while it is \"anti-bacterial\" it doesn't kill them on contact. \n\nHere is an album of someone showing the difference of a lab coat's weaving and a shirt, with enough magnification that you would be able to see individual skin cells. You can see how bacteria would have difficulty passing through something finely woven. \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18802785",
"title": "Finishing (textiles)",
"section": "Section::::Special finishes for natural fibers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "BULLET::::- Anti-microbial finish causes a fabric to inhibit the growth of microbes. The humid and warm environment found in textile fibers encourages the growth of the microbes. Infestation by microbes can cause cross-infection by pathogens and the development of odor where the fabric is worn next to skin. In addition, stains and loss of fiber quality of textile substrates can also take place. With an aim to protect the skin of the wearer and the textile substrate itself, an anti-microbial finish is applied to textile materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10837961",
"title": "Biotextile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Medical textiles are a broader group which also includes bandages, wound dressings, hospital linen, preventive clothing etc. Antiseptic biotextiles are textiles used in fighting against cutaneous bacterial proliferation. Zeolite and triclosan are at the present time the most used molecules. This original property allows to fightinhibits the development of odours or bacterial proliferation in the diabetic foot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530255",
"title": "Microfiber",
"section": "Section::::Apparel.:Accessories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Another advantage of Microfiber fabric (compared to leather) is that it can be coated with various finishes or can be treated with antibacterial chemicals. Fabric can also be printed with various designs, embroidered with colored thread, or heat-embossed to create interesting textures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25279085",
"title": "Arthrospira",
"section": "Section::::Present and future uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Also in the creation of textiles it harbors some advantages, since it can be used for the production of antimicrobial textiles. And paper or polymer materials may be produced with this versatile small organism.This microalga is also known for its antioxidant activity and it maintains the ecological balance in aquatic bodies and reduces various stresses in the aquatic environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4208402",
"title": "Nonwoven fabric",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Nonwoven fabrics are engineered fabrics that may be single-use, have a limited life, or be very durable. Nonwoven fabrics provide specific functions such as absorbency, liquid repellence, resilience, stretch, softness, strength, flame retardancy, washability, cushioning, thermal insulation, acoustic insulation, filtration, use as a bacterial barrier and sterility. These properties are often combined to create fabrics suited for specific jobs, while achieving a good balance between product use-life and cost. They can mimic the appearance, texture and strength of a woven fabric and can be as bulky as the thickest paddings. In combination with other materials they provide a spectrum of products with diverse properties, and are used alone or as components of apparel, home furnishings, health care, engineering, industrial and consumer goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56212",
"title": "Linen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Linen is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant. Linen is laborious to manufacture, but the fiber is very strong, absorbent and dries faster than cotton. Garments made of linen are valued for their exceptional coolness and freshness in hot and humid weather. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56212",
"title": "Linen",
"section": "Section::::Flax fiber.:Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Linen fabrics have a high natural luster; their natural color ranges between shades of ivory, ecru, tan, or grey. Pure white linen is created by heavy bleaching. Linen fabric typically varies somewhat in thickness and is crisp and textured, but it can in some cases feel stiff and rough, and in other cases feel soft and smooth. When properly prepared, linen fabric has the ability to absorb and lose water rapidly. Linen can absorb a fair amount of moisture without feeling unpleasantly damp to the skin, unlike cotton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yove7
|
If no information can be transmitted via quantum entanglement, how did we discover it in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "Quantum entanglement was first hypothesized in a thought experiment originally thought out as an argument against the Copenhagen Interpretation of quantum mechanics. This thought experiment is now known as the [EPR paradox](_URL_1_) named Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen after the three people that proposed it. The thought experiment wasn't in direct disagreement with quantum mechanics, but it seemed to defy physical causality with by what Einstein famously referred to as \"spooky actions at a distance\". This thought experiment ultimately led to the discovery of quantum entanglement and it has later been directly or indirectly confirmed by for example [Bell's Inequality](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would like to sidestep the argument between Platypuskeeper, *et al.*\n\nInformation is only transferred if the actions by one person (B) will, in a predictable way, affect the results of measurements made by the other (A). Neither quantum nor classical correlation makes this possible. \n\nTo be specific, when B measures the color of his token, A does not know this, and cannot find out by making his own measurement. In fact, A cannot even determine that B exists. Information is transferred only when B reports his result to A by a conventional channel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364025",
"title": "Asher Peres",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Peres claimed that the resolution to the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen puzzle of quantum entanglement, often called \"spooky action at a distance\", lies in the fact that quantum states are information. Peres wrote, \"Information is not just an abstract notion. It requires a physical carrier, and the latter is (approximately) \"localized.\" After all, it was the business of the Bell Telephone Company to transport information from one telephone to another telephone, in a different location. [...] When Alice measures her spin, the information she gets is localized at her position, and will remain so until she decides to broadcast it. Absolutely \"nothing\" happens at Bob's location. [...] It is only when Alice informs Bob of the result she got (by mail, telephone, radio, or by means other than material carrier, which is naturally restricted to the speed of light) that Bob realizes that his particle has a definite pure state.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18743251",
"title": "Teleportation",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Quantum teleportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "In 2014, researchers Ronald Hanson and colleagues from the Technical University Delft in the Netherlands, demonstrated the teleportation of information between two entangled quantumbits three metres apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43555365",
"title": "Margaret Reid (scientist)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "In the 1990s, scientists realised one can securely transmit a message through encrypting and using a shared key generated by Einstein's strange entanglement to decode the message from the sender and receiver. Using the quantum key meant the message was completely secure from interception during transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "886766",
"title": "Bell test experiments",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "In 1935, Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen published a claim that quantum mechanics predicts that more information about a pair of entangled particles could be observed than Heisenberg's principle allowed, which would only be possible if information were travelling instantly between the two particles. This produces a paradox which came to be known as the \"EPR paradox\" after the three authors. It arises if any effect felt in one location is not the result of a cause that occurred in its past, relative to its location. This action at a distance would violate the theory of relativity, by allowing information between the two locations to travel faster than the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Quantum mechanics.:EPR paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "An experiment performed in 1997 by Nicolas Gisin has demonstrated non-local quantum correlations between particles separated by over 10 kilometers. But as noted earlier, the non-local correlations seen in entanglement cannot actually be used to transmit classical information faster than light, so that relativistic causality is preserved. The situation is akin to sharing a synchronized coin flip, where the second person to flip their coin will always see the opposite of what the first person sees, but neither has any way of knowing whether they were the first or second flipper, without communicating classically. See No-communication theorem for further information. A 2008 quantum physics experiment also performed by Nicolas Gisin and his colleagues has determined that in any hypothetical non-local hidden-variable theory, the speed of the quantum non-local connection (what Einstein called \"spooky action at a distance\") is at least 10,000 times the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25202",
"title": "Quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Entanglement, as demonstrated in Bell-type experiments, does not, however, violate causality, since no transfer of information happens. Quantum entanglement forms the basis of quantum cryptography, which is proposed for use in high-security commercial applications in banking and government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1624482",
"title": "Charles H. Bennett (computer scientist)",
"section": "Section::::Teleportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "In 1993 Bennett and Brassard, in collaboration with others, discovered \"quantum teleportation\", an effect in which the complete information in an unknown quantum state is decomposed into purely classical information and purely non-classical Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR paradox) correlations, sent through two separate channels, and later reassembled in a new location to produce an exact replica of the original quantum state that was destroyed in the sending process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
705s2a
|
How high can roller coasters be built?
|
[
{
"answer": "roller coasters are already being limited in the max Gs they induce \n\n4-6 Gs more than briefly can result in loss of consciousness ) \n\ncreating a taller one increases the cost a lot for support - with no \"real\" benefit beyond a \"wow\" factor (which, admittedly, IS something) \n\nsomewhat credible link about max Gs on various coasters\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually the G force are linked to the curvature and the speed (which relate on height). So if you build a high roller coaster you can reduce the radius of curvature. \n\nThat said untrained person are pretty sensitive to G-force so you want to keep them low (no idea on the acceptable number for general public) \n\nThe problem would be construction and maintenance cost which would switch the question to the engineering category",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "roller coasters are already being limited in the max Gs they induce \n\n4-6 Gs more than briefly can result in loss of consciousness ) \n\ncreating a taller one increases the cost a lot for support - with no \"real\" benefit beyond a \"wow\" factor (which, admittedly, IS something) \n\nsomewhat credible link about max Gs on various coasters\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually the G force are linked to the curvature and the speed (which relate on height). So if you build a high roller coaster you can reduce the radius of curvature. \n\nThat said untrained person are pretty sensitive to G-force so you want to keep them low (no idea on the acceptable number for general public) \n\nThe problem would be construction and maintenance cost which would switch the question to the engineering category",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19875575",
"title": "Jubilee Odyssey",
"section": "Section::::History.:Initial plans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Original plans for the ride showed a SLC ride 265 feet (81 metres) in height, which would have made it the tallest Inverted roller coaster in the world and seventh tallest overall. The plans were scrapped due to complaints from local residents, limiting the height to a maximum of 180' (54.60m).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11804390",
"title": "High Roller (Valleyfair)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "High Roller is a wooden roller coaster located at Valleyfair in Shakopee, Minnesota. High Roller is Valleyfair's oldest roller coaster, being built in 1976 when the park opened. It is an out-and-back type coaster, and is 70 feet (21 m) at the highest peak with a top speed of 50 mph (80 km/h).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33787366",
"title": "Blackpool Pleasure Beach",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The park is host to many records, including the largest number of roller coasters of any park in the United Kingdom with ten, of which four are wooden: the Big Dipper, Blue Flyer, Grand National and Nickelodeon Streak. Many of the roller coasters in the park are record breaking attractions. When it opened in 1994, the Big One was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world. It was also the steepest, with an incline angle of 65° and one of the longest, measuring . Currently, the ride holds the record as the tallest roller coaster in the United Kingdom, standing at , with a first drop of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5479098",
"title": "The Wild One (roller coaster)",
"section": "Section::::Records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- When \"The Giant Coaster\" opened in 1917, at 98 feet tall, it was the tallest roller coaster in the world. Its record was not surpassed until 1925 when the 100' tall Revere Beach Cyclone opened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43632853",
"title": "Cannibal (roller coaster)",
"section": "Section::::Ride experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The roller coaster features a elevator lift, enclosed in a huge tower structure, a 116° beyond vertical drop, inversions including an Immelman-like loop as well as an inversion unique to the park, a water feature, and a tunnel underground. It is the tallest roller coaster in the state and the longest ride in the park. The ride cars accommodate 12 passengers (3 rows of 4), and the duration of the ride lasts approximately two and a half minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50591129",
"title": "Kikkerachtbaan",
"section": "Section::::Information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The capacity of the roller coaster amounts to about 1250 persons per hour. Children are allowed from a height of 1,20 meter unaccompanied in the attraction. Smaller children only if an adult (parent) accompanies them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30864813",
"title": "SheiKra",
"section": "Section::::History.:Original attraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Mark Rose, vice-president of design and engineering at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay, proposed a roller coaster that would be tall; the experience would be \"like riding a barrel over Niagara Falls...straight down into water.\" Busch Gardens executives rejected the proposal, saying it was not interesting enough. Rose changed his concept, adding another in height to the roller coaster and adding more features to the ride, which led to the executives' approval of the plans. Peckham Guyton Albers & Viets Inc (PGAV) also helped plan and design the roller coaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8o3oxv
|
When did people start snorting cocaine?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know when people started snorting cocaine. In the late 19th century, the drug would either be taken orally, or injected intravenously. Think Sherlock Holmes, with this famous scene from the Sign of Four:\n\n > Sherlock Holmes took his bottle from the corner of the mantel\\-piece and his hypodermic syringe from its neat morocco case. With his long, white, nervous fingers he adjusted the delicate needle, and rolled back his left shirt\\-cuff. For some little time his eyes rested thoughtfully upon the sinewy forearm and wrist all dotted and scarred with innumerable puncture\\-marks. Finally he thrust the sharp point home, pressed down the tiny piston, and sank back into the velvet\\-lined arm\\-chair with a long sigh of satisfaction.\n\nThis is the famous \"seven percent solution,\" though a three percent solution became preferred as it was thought to have fewer side effects.\n\nSigmund Freud was one of cocaine's most ardent popularizers. Freud himself did not snort the drug, but rather drank it in a solution. Freud's famous essay is called Über Coca, and he's very explicit about how he took the drug. From section V \\(the Effect of Coca on the Healthy Human Body\\):\n\n > The first time I took 0.05cg. of *cocaïnum muriaticum* in a 1 & #37; water solution was when I was feeling slightly out of sorts from fatigue. This solution is rather viscous, somewhat opalescent, and has a strange aromatic smell. At first it has a bitter taste, which yields afterwards to a series of very pleasant aromatic flavors. Dry cocaine salt has the same smell and taste, but to a more concentrated degree.\n\nHe notes that later in the essay, higher concentrations cause some stomach upset, so he dissolved his cocaine in soda water.\n\nI should not that experimenting with medications on yourself in this period was not unusual \\-\\- John Snow would regularly inhale his own anesthetics and mark their effects \\(which likely led to his early death\\), and to make another Holmes connection, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first academic publication was in the BMJ on self\\-poisoning with escalating doses of gelsemium.\n\nCocaine was purified in the 1850s, and in the first half century of its existence, there was considerable excitement about its effects \\(and lack of side effects\\). It was thought to be particularly useful to treat morphine addiction \\(think William Halstead, who basically switched from morphine to cocaine\\). Cocaine was found in a number of over\\-the\\-counter products, most notably coca cola.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14210",
"title": "Harrison Narcotics Tax Act",
"section": "Section::::History.:Domestic background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "At the beginning of the 20th century, cocaine began to be linked to crime. In 1900, the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" published an editorial stating, \"Negroes in the South are reported as being addicted to a new form of vice – that of 'cocaine sniffing' or the 'coke habit.'\" Some newspapers later claimed cocaine use caused blacks to rape white women and was improving their pistol marksmanship. Chinese immigrants were blamed for importing the opium-smoking habit to the U.S. The 1903 blue-ribbon citizens' panel, the Committee on the Acquirement of the Drug Habit, concluded, \"If the Chinaman cannot get along without his dope we can get along without him.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Popularization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "In early 20th-century Memphis, Tennessee, cocaine was sold in neighborhood drugstores on Beale Street, costing five or ten cents for a small boxful. Stevedores along the Mississippi River used the drug as a stimulant, and white employers encouraged its use by black laborers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Popularization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In 1885 the U.S. manufacturer Parke-Davis sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user's veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would \"supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and render the sufferer insensitive to pain.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36838106",
"title": "Cocaine in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Before 1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Hyperbolic reports of the effect of cocaine on African Americans went hand-in-hand with this hysteria. In 1901, the \"Atlanta Constitution\" reported that \"Use of the drug [cocaine] among negroes is growing to an alarming extent\". The \"New York Times\" reported that under the influence of cocaine, \"sexual desires are increased and perverted...peaceful negroes become quarrelsome, and timid negroes develop a degree of 'Dutch courage' that is sometimes almost incredible\". A medical doctor even wrote “cocaine is often the direct incentive to the crime of rape by the negroes.” To complete the characterization, a judge in Mississippi declared that supplying a “negro” with cocaine was more dangerous than injecting a dog with rabies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29398333",
"title": "Dominic Streatfeild",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Streafeild's second book \"Cocaine: An Unauthorised Biography\" (, Virgin Books, 2002) described the fascinating and disturbing rise and rise of cocaine from the chewing of coca leaves by the South American peoples to the illegal trade in cocaine today. The life of George Jung one of the more colourful characters in the book, was dramatised in the film \"Blow\" starring Johnny Depp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36838106",
"title": "Cocaine in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Before 1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Fears of coerced cocaine use, and in particular that young girls would become addicted and thereby enter prostitution, were widespread. Tales of the corruption of the youth by cocaine were common but there is little evidence to support their veracity. Mainstream media reported cocaine epidemics as early as 1894 in Dallas, Texas. Reports of the cocaine epidemic would foreshadow a familiar theme in later so-called epidemics, namely that cocaine presented a social threat more dangerous than simple health effects and had insidious results when used by blacks and members of the lower class. Similar anxiety-ridden reports appeared throughout cities in the South, leading some to declare that \"the cocaine habit has assumed the proportions of an epidemic among the colored people\". In 1900, state legislatures in Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee considered anti-cocaine bills for the first time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166911",
"title": "Stevie Ray Vaughan",
"section": "Section::::Music career.:Double Trouble.:Drugs and alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "While Vaughan asserted that he first experienced the effects of cocaine when a doctor prescribed him a liquid solution of the stimulant as a nasal spray, according to Patoski and Crawford, the earliest that Vaughan is known to have ingested the drug is in 1975, while performing with the Cobras. Before that, Vaughan had briefly used other drugs such as cannabis, methamphetamine, and Quaaludes, the brand name for methaqualone. After 1975, he regularly drank whiskey and used cocaine, particularly mixing the two substances together. According to Hopkins, by the time of Double Trouble's European tour in September 1986, \"his lifestyle of substance abuse had reached a peak, probably better characterized as the bottom of a deep chasm.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gv0gt
|
Why are African Americans usually lighter skinned than Africans?
|
[
{
"answer": " > My thought is that it is a result of interbreeding with light skinned people\n\nYup.\n\n([ref](_URL_0_))",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What makes you think that this is actually true? I'm not saying it isn't, but has this been approached scientifically?\n\nAlso, it is possible and likely that the genetic diversity throughout the African dark-skinned races is much much larger than in America. It would make sense that the slave trade \"imported/kidnapped\" people only from a few specific locations in Africa. That means you can't really make a general statement about the skin color of all Africans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145031",
"title": "Miscegenation",
"section": "Section::::Genetic admixture.:Admixture in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 282,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 282,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Within the African-Americans population, the amount of African admixture is directly correlated with darker skin since less selective pressure against dark skin is applied within the group of \"non-passing\" individuals. Thus, African-Americans may have a much wider range of African admixture (0–100%), whereas European-Americans have a lower range (2–20%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2811532",
"title": "Employment discrimination",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Europe.:United States.:Ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Within each race, darker complexion is also discriminated against. Multiple studies have found that lighter skin blacks \"tend to have superior incomes and life chances\". \"Chicanos with lighter skin color and more european features had higher socioeconomic status\" and \"black Hispanics suffer close to ten times the proportionate income loss due to differential treatment of given characteristics than white Hispanics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33462899",
"title": "Minority stress",
"section": "Section::::Evidence of key concepts.:Health outcomes.:Health outcomes among African Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "African Americans have been shown to suffer notable health disparities compared to their White peers. For example, they suffer higher rates of morbidity due to stroke, perinatal disease, and diabetes mellitus compared to Whites. They also suffer high rates of colorectal, pancreatic, and stomach cancers. In terms of mental health, African Americans report lower rates of overall life satisfaction, as well as heightened depressive symptoms and substance abuse compared to Whites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354224",
"title": "Discrimination based on skin color",
"section": "Section::::United States.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1111,
"text": "African-Americans with a partial white heritage were seen to be smarter and superior to dark-skinned blacks, giving them broader opportunities for education and the acquisition of land and property. Colorism was a device used by the white colonist in order to create a division between the Africans and further the idea that being as close to white as possible was the ideal image. One of the first forms of colorism was the white slave owners deciding that only the light skinned slaves would work in the house while the darker ones were subjected to the harsh conditions of the fields. This led to a clear division between the slaves There were tests to determine who was light enough to work in the house and sometimes get special privileges. One of these tests was the brown paper bag test. If a person's skin was darker than a brown paper bag, they were deemed too dark to work in the house. The skin tests were not just used by white people trying to differentiate between black people, but also by the black people themselves. In addition to the bag test, the comb test and the door test were also used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2649767",
"title": "Social stigma",
"section": "Section::::Current research.:Research on self-esteem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Over the last two decades, many studies have reported that African Americans show higher global self-esteem than whites even though, as a group, African Americans tend to receive poorer outcomes in many areas of life and experience significant discrimination and stigma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154",
"title": "African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The term \"African American\" carries important political overtones. Earlier terms used to describe Americans of African ancestry referred more to skin color than to ancestry, and were conferred upon the group by colonists and Americans of European ancestry; people with dark skins were considered inferior in fact and in law. Other terms (such as \"colored\", \"person of color\", or \"negro\") were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which some thought were being used as tools of white supremacy and oppression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354224",
"title": "Discrimination based on skin color",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 1338,
"text": "African Americans possessing lighter skin complexion and \"European features,\" such as lighter eyes, and smaller noses and lips have more opportunities in the media industry. For example, film producers hire lighter-skinned African Americans more often, television producers choose lighter skinned cast members, and magazine editors choose African American models that resemble European features. A content analysis conducted by Scott and Neptune (1997) shows that less than one percent of advertisements in major magazines featured African American models. When African Americans did appear in advertisements they were mainly portrayed as athletes, entertainers or unskilled laborers. In addition, seventy percent of the advertisements that features animal print included African American women. Animal print reinforces the stereotypes that African Americans are animalistic in nature, sexually active, less educated, have lower income, and extremely concerned with personal appearances. Concerning African American males in the media, darker skinned men are more likely to be portrayed as violent or more threatening, influencing the public perception of African American men. Since dark-skinned males are more likely to be linked to crime and misconduct, many people develop preconceived notions about the characteristics of black men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18bpb5
|
I've always heard that in the middle ages, people drank beer/mead instead of water because the water wasn't clean. Is this true, and if so, why wasn't everyone drunk/dehydrated all the time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not a historian, but a homebrewer and history enthusiast. The water is boiled in the process of making beer so this is why it was safer to drink than the water as any nasties in the water would be killed during this process. As for being drunk/dehydrated all the time this didn't happen because most of the beer consumed daily would have been small beer which would have been of a much lower alcohol content. It would have been made from the second or possibly third runnings from the grains. The first runnings would extract the largest amount of sugars from the grains and would have been used for making beer for export or special occasions (Belgian Tripel, Imperial Stouts, etc.). The grains would then be mashed again and the runnings from this would contain significantly less sugar. The amount of sugar in your wort is directly proportional to the amount of alcohol in you finished beer as this is what the yeast will eat and produce alcohol and CO2 as waste products. With the lower sugar content you end up with a much lower alcohol content suitable for everyday drinking without becoming too inebriated or dehydrated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a pretty thorough discussion about alcohol/drunkenness and beer from a few months back:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nLike FrictionGnome mentions, beer then wasn't what we think of as beer now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10928780",
"title": "Early modern European cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Water as a neutral table beverage did not appear in Europe until well into the Industrial era, when efficient water purification could ensure safe drinking water. All but the poorest drank mildly alcoholic drinks on a daily basis, for every meal; wine in the south, beer in the north, east, and middle Europe. Both drinks came in many varieties, vintages, and at varying qualities. Those northerners who could afford to do so drank imported wines, and wine remained an integral part of the Eucharist, even for the poor. Ale had been the most common form of beer in England through most of the Middle Ages, but was mostly replaced with hopped beer from the Low Countries in the 16th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28785",
"title": "Small beer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Before the 19th century, drinking water had the potential to make one sick because of poor sanitation. Practical experience showed that fermented beverages were less likely to produce illness. At mealtimes in the Middle Ages, everyone could drink small beer, including children, while eating a meal at the table. Table beer was around this time typically less than 1% ABV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2701591",
"title": "History of alcoholic drinks",
"section": "Section::::Medieval period.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "At times and places of poor public sanitation (such as Medieval Europe), the consumption of alcoholic drinks was a way of avoiding water-borne diseases such as cholera. Small beer and faux wine in particular, were used for this purpose. Although alcohol kills bacteria, its low concentration in these beverages would have had only a limited effect. More important was that the boiling of water (required for the brewing of beer) and the growth of yeast (required for fermentation of beer and wine) would kill dangerous microorganisms. The alcohol content of these beverages allowed them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling. For this reason, they were commonly kept aboard sailing vessels as an important (or even the sole) source of hydration for the crew, especially during the long voyages of the early modern period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7029997",
"title": "Medieval cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "While in modern times, water is often drunk with a meal, in the Middle Ages, however, concerns over purity, medical recommendations and its low prestige value made it less favored, and alcoholic beverages were preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content. Wine was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the bourgeoisie and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or ale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "858511",
"title": "Butler",
"section": "Section::::Origin and history.:Ancient through medieval eras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "From ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15115768",
"title": "Ancient Greece and wine",
"section": "Section::::Greek wine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Wine was almost always diluted, usually with water (or snow when the wine was to be served cold). The Greeks believed that only barbarians drank unmixed or undiluted wine and that the Spartan king Cleomenes I was once driven insane after drinking wine this way. They also believed that undiluted wine could even kill the drinker: the Gallic chieftain Brennus was recorded as having committed suicide by drinking wine full-strength. Greeks asserted that the dilution of wine with water was a mark of civilized behavior, whose contrast was embodied in the myth of the battle of Lapiths with the Centaurs, inflamed to rape and mayhem because of wine drunk undiluted with water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404063",
"title": "Drinking culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Alcohol and its effects have been present in societies throughout history. Drinking is documented in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles, in the Qur'an, in art history, in Greek and Roman literature as old as Homer and in Confucius's \"Analects\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14qf8y
|
How did Cavendish avoid/account for the gravitational attraction of the Earth affecting his experiment to determine G?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's rather easy to make the rods perfectly tangential to earths gravity by making them level. Just adjust the setup so that the weights don't rotate at all when left alone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "318577",
"title": "Cavendish experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The Cavendish experiment, performed in 1797–1798 by British scientist Henry Cavendish, was the first experiment to measure the force of gravity between masses in the laboratory and the first to yield accurate values for the gravitational constant. Because of the unit conventions then in use, the gravitational constant does not appear explicitly in Cavendish's work. Instead, the result was originally expressed as the specific gravity of the Earth, or equivalently the mass of the Earth. His experiment gave the first accurate values for these geophysical constants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "318577",
"title": "Cavendish experiment",
"section": "Section::::The experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The accuracy of Cavendish's result was not exceeded until C. V. Boys's experiment in 1895. In time, Michell's torsion balance became the dominant technique for measuring the gravitational constant (\"G\") and most contemporary measurements still use variations of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102338",
"title": "Henry Cavendish",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Density of the Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Cavendish's work led others to accurate values for the gravitational constant (\"G\") and Earth's mass. Based on his results, one can calculate a value for G of 6.754 × 10N-m/kg, which compares favourably with the modern value of 6.67428 × 10N-m/kg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102338",
"title": "Henry Cavendish",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Density of the Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Using this equipment, Cavendish calculated the attraction between the balls from the period of oscillation of the torsion balance, and then he used this value to calculate the density of the Earth. Cavendish found that the Earth's average density is 5.48 times greater than that of water. John Henry Poynting later noted that the data should have led to a value of 5.448, and indeed that is the average value of the twenty-nine determinations Cavendish included in his paper. What was extraordinary about Cavendish's experiment was its elimination of every source of error and every factor that could disturb the experiment, and its precision in measuring an astonishingly small attraction, a mere 1/50,000,000 of the weight of the lead balls. The result that Cavendish obtained for the density of the Earth is within 1 percent of the currently accepted figure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "318577",
"title": "Cavendish experiment",
"section": "Section::::Whether Cavendish determined \"G\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "In Cavendish's time, physicists used the same units for mass and weight, in effect taking \"g\" as a standard acceleration. Then, since \"R\" was known, \"ρ\" played the role of an inverse gravitational constant. The density of the Earth was hence a much sought-after quantity at the time, and there had been earlier attempts to measure it, such as the Schiehallion experiment in 1774.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102338",
"title": "Henry Cavendish",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Density of the Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The experimental apparatus consisted of a torsion balance with a pair of 2-inch 1.61-pound lead spheres suspended from the arm of a torsion balance and two much larger stationary lead balls (350 pounds). Cavendish intended to measure the force of gravitational attraction between the two. He noticed that Michell's apparatus would be sensitive to temperature differences and induced air currents, so he made modifications by isolating the apparatus in a separate room with external controls and telescopes for making observations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102338",
"title": "Henry Cavendish",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Density of the Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Books often describe Cavendish's work as a measurement of either \"G\" or the Earth's mass. Since these are related to the Earth's density by a trivial web of algebraic relations, none of these sources are wrong, but they do not match the exact word choice of Cavendish, and this mistake has been pointed out by several authors. Cavendish's stated goal was to measure the Earth's density, although his result obviously calculates \"G\" to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17um5r
|
Is it possible for an earth-like planet to have a ring around it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, terrestrial planets can have rings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, just imagine breaking our moon into pebbles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24718",
"title": "Ring system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "A ring system is a disc or ring orbiting an astronomical object that is composed of solid material such as dust and moonlets, and is a common component of satellite systems around giant planets. A ring system around a planet is also known as a planetary ring system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30643750",
"title": "Astronomical engineering",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Science fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the Ringworld series by Larry Niven, a ring a million miles wide is built and spun (to simulate gravity) around a star roughly one astronomical unit away. The ring can be viewed as a functional version of a Dyson sphere with the interior surface area of 3 million Earth-sized planets. Because it is only a partial Dyson sphere, it can be viewed as a construction of a civilization intermediary between Type I and Type II. Both Dyson spheres and the Ringworld suffer from gravitational instability, however—a major focus of the Ringworld series is coping with this instability in the face of partial collapse of the Ringworld civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1945739",
"title": "Orbital ring",
"section": "Section::::Birch's model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "A simple unsupported hoop about a planet is unstable: it would crash into the Earth if left unattended. The orbital ring concept requires cables to the surface to stabilize it, with the outward centrifugal force providing tension on the cables, and the tethers stabilizing the ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1945739",
"title": "Orbital ring",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "An orbital ring is a concept of an enormous artificial ring placed around the Earth that rotates at an angular rate that is faster than the rotation of the Earth. It is a giant formation of astroengineering proportions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46326758",
"title": "Satellite system (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Features and interactions.:Ring systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Ring systems are collections of dust, moonlets, or other small objects. The most notable examples are those around Saturn, but the other three gas giants (Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune) also have ring systems. Studies of exoplanets indicate that they may be common around giant planets. The 90 million km (0.6 AU circumplanetary ring system discovered around J1407b has been described as \"Saturn on steroids\" or “Super Saturn” Luminosity studies suggest that an even larger disk exists in the PDS 110 system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12837452",
"title": "Ilium/Olympos",
"section": "Section::::Miscellaneous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"E-ring\"/\"P-ring\": short for \"equatorial ring\" or \"polar ring\" respectively. The rings described are not solid, but rather similar to the rings around Jupiter or Saturn: hundreds of thousands of large individual solid elements, built and occupied by the post-humans before Caliban and Prospero were stranded there and Caliban began murdering the post-humans. The rings are visible from the Earth's surface, but the old-style humans do not know exactly what they are.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17037094",
"title": "Non-rocket spacelaunch",
"section": "Section::::Dynamic structures.:Orbital ring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "An orbital ring is a concept for a giant artificially constructed ring hanging at low Earth orbit that would rotate at slightly above orbital speed that would have fixed tethers hanging down to the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4tjcz7
|
Did JFK actually say he wanted to "Shatter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Vincent Bugliosi (former prosecutor in the Charles Manson trial, author of a careful, skeptical book about the Kennedy assassination), writes:\n\n > Whatever the CIA's short laundry list of dissatisfactions (some merely illusory, some real) with Kennedy, as I discuss later in the anti-Castro Cuban exile section of this book, Kennedy was highly disturbed with the CIA for its incompetence and its having misled him on the probable success of the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961. Perhaps the most famous alleged quote from Kennedy about his animus toward the CIA after the Bay of Pigs debacle was that he wanted \"to splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds.\" But in the two and a half years after the attempted invasion he never did anything remotely close to this, and it is not known to whom he supposedly said these words. The New York Times only said that Kennedy made this statement \"to one of the highest officials of his administration.\"\n \nVincent Bugliosi, _Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy_, page 1189.\n\nThe New York Times article in question is: \"[C.I.A.: Maker of Policy, or Tool?](_URL_0_)\", New York Times (April 25, 1966). It is on the second page of the article, under the heading of \"Kennedy's bitterness,\" and the specific quote there is \"splinter the C.I.A. in a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds.\" \n\nThis appears to be the original source of the quote in print? In any case, it is an interesting round-about: the article is really about public perceptions of the CIA, and how they get blamed for lots of things there isn't any evidence for. Not entirely ironic that this quote is most used by people trying to establish a CIA motivation for killing JFK.\n\nWhich is to say: the quote's origins appear to be an anonymous source in the New York Times in 1966, which credits it (without saying whether it is direct or indirect credit) to a high-level administration official. It's not entirely implausible. But it's got a lot of gauze around it, as far as quotes go.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15270049",
"title": "Plausible Denial",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Plausible Denial: Was the CIA Involved in the Assassination of JFK? is a 1991 book by American attorney, Mark Lane that outlines his theory that former Watergate figure E. Howard Hunt was involved with the Central Intelligence Agency in the assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy. Published by Thunder's Mouth Press, the book chronicles Lane's legal defense of Liberty Lobby, a right-wing political group that was sued for libel by Hunt after it published an article in its weekly paper, \"The Spotlight\", linking Hunt — a former CIA operative — to the assassination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19538916",
"title": "Chauncey Marvin Holt",
"section": "Section::::Claims of involvement in JFK assassination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "In a 1991 \"Newsweek\" article about Oliver Stone's \"JFK\", Holt received national attention for various claims he made regarding the assassination of President Kennedy. According to Holt, he was a CIA operative sent to Dallas to deliver phony Secret Service credentials. He also claimed to have worked as an accountant for Meyer Lansky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39311",
"title": "JFK (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "JFK is a 1991 American political thriller film directed by Oliver Stone. It examines the events leading to the assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy and alleged cover-up through the eyes of former New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner). Garrison filed charges against New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw (Tommy Lee Jones) for his alleged participation in a conspiracy to assassinate the President, for which Lee Harvey Oswald (Gary Oldman) was found responsible by the Warren Commission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23658402",
"title": "CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::Proponents and believers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "Jim Garrison said anti-Communist and anti-Castro extremists in the CIA plotted the assassination of Kennedy to maintain tension with the Soviet Union and Cuba, and to prevent a United States withdrawal from Vietnam. James Douglass wrote in \"JFK and the Unspeakable\" that the CIA, acting upon the orders of conspirators with the \"military industrial complex\", killed Kennedy and in the process set up Lee Harvey Oswald as a patsy. Like Garrison, Douglass stated that Kennedy was killed because he was turning away from the Cold War and pursuing paths of nuclear disarmament, rapprochement with Fidel Castro, and withdrawal from the war in Vietnam. Mark Lane—author of \"Rush to Judgment\" and \"Plausible Denial\" and the attorney who defended Liberty Lobby against a defamation suit brought by former CIA agent E. Howard Hunt—has been described as a leading proponent of the theory that the CIA was responsible for the assassination of Kennedy. Others who believe the CIA was involved include authors Anthony Summers and John M. Newman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15270337",
"title": "Victor Marchetti",
"section": "Section::::Later writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In 1978 Marchetti published an article about the JFK assassination in the far-right newspaper of the antisemitic Liberty Lobby, \"The Spotlight.\" Marchetti, a proponent of the organized crime and the CIA conspiracy theory, claimed that the House Select Committee on Assassinations revealed a CIA memo from 1966 that named E. Howard Hunt, Frank Sturgis and Gerry Patrick Hemming in the JFK assassination. Marchetti also claimed that Marita Lorenz offered sworn testimony to confirm this. The HSCA reported that it had not received such a memo and rejected theories that Hunt was involved in a plot to kill Kennedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1969514",
"title": "Guy Banister",
"section": "Section::::JFK assassination and trial of Clay Shaw.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "As Garrison continued his investigation, he became convinced that a group of right-wing activists, including Banister, Ferrie and Clay Shaw, were involved in a conspiracy with elements of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to kill Kennedy. Garrison would later claim that the motive for the assassination was anger over Kennedy's attempts to obtain a peace settlement in both Cuba and Vietnam. Garrison also believed that Banister, Shaw, and Ferrie had conspired to set up Oswald as a patsy in the JFK assassination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16028068",
"title": "CIA in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Films and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "BULLET::::- In \"JFK\", the CIA's connections to Anti-Castro Cuban freedom fighters, far right extremists, and the Mafia are portrayed, as well as the CIA's alleged participation in President John F. Kennedy's assassination, the assassination's cover-up, and the CIA's attempted sabotage of the prosecution by Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner) of former CIA domestic contact agent Clay Shaw (Tommy Lee Jones).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mk7x0
|
why is it still not commonplace to install antivirus software on on mac computers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simple. It's already integrated in the OS.\n\n All versions of OS X since 10.6.7 have been able to detect known Mac malware in downloaded files, and to block insecure web plugins. This feature is transparent to the user. Internally Apple calls it \"XProtect.\"\n\nRead [this](_URL_0_) thread on _URL_1_ for further information.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8198246",
"title": "Kernel Patch Protection",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.:Third-party applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Some computer security software, such as McAfee's McAfee VirusScan and Symantec's Norton AntiVirus, worked by patching the kernel on x86 systems. Anti-virus software authored by Kaspersky Lab has been known to make extensive use of kernel code patching on x86 editions of Windows. This kind of antivirus software will not work on computers running x64 editions of Windows because of Kernel Patch Protection. Because of this, McAfee called for Microsoft to either remove KPP from Windows entirely or make exceptions for software made by \"trusted companies\" such as themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2450846",
"title": "Hackintosh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "Apple's software license for macOS only permits the software's use on computers that are \"Apple-branded.\" However, because modern Macintosh computers use Intel-based hardware, there are few limitations keeping the software from running on other types of Intel-based PCs. Notably, companies such as Psystar have attempted to release products using macOS on non-Apple machines, though many Hackintosh systems are designed solely by macOS enthusiasts of various hacking forums and communities. While the methods Apple uses to prevent macOS from being installed on non-Apple hardware are protected from commercial circumvention in the United States by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), specific changes to the law regarding the concept of jailbreaking have placed circumvention methods like these into a legal grey area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26027549",
"title": "MS Antivirus (malware)",
"section": "Section::::Malicious actions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "Most variants of this malware will not be overtly harmful, as they usually will not steal a user's information (as spyware) nor critically harm a system. However, the software will act to inconvenience the user by frequently displaying popups that prompt the user to pay to register the software in order to remove non-existent viruses. Some variants are more harmful; they display popups whenever the user tries to start an application or even tries to navigate the hard drive, especially after the computer is restarted. It does this by modifying the Windows registry. This can clog the screen with repeated pop-ups, potentially making the computer virtually unusable. It can also disable real antivirus programs to protect itself from removal. Whichever variant infects a computer, MS Antivirus always uses system resources when running, potentially making an infected computer run more slowly than before.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8198246",
"title": "Kernel Patch Protection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Since patching the kernel is possible in 32-bit (x86) editions of Windows, several antivirus software developers use kernel patching to implement antivirus and other security services. These techniques will not work on computers running x64 editions of Windows. Because of this, Kernel Patch Protection resulted in antivirus makers having to redesign their software without using kernel patching techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994196",
"title": "Computer virus",
"section": "Section::::Countermeasures.:Antivirus software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Many users install antivirus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses when the computer attempts to download or run the executable file (which may be distributed as an email attachment, or on USB flash drives, for example). Some antivirus software blocks known malicious websites that attempt to install malware. Antivirus software does not change the underlying capability of hosts to transmit viruses. Users must update their software regularly to patch security vulnerabilities (\"holes\"). Antivirus software also needs to be regularly updated in order to recognize the latest threats. This is because malicious hackers and other individuals are always creating new viruses. The German AV-TEST Institute publishes evaluations of antivirus software for Windows and Android.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4473",
"title": "BIOS",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "As a result, as of 2008, CIH has become essentially harmless, at worst causing annoyance by infecting executable files and triggering antivirus software. Other BIOS viruses remain possible, however; since most Windows home users without Windows Vista/7's UAC run all applications with administrative privileges, a modern CIH-like virus could in principle still gain access to hardware without first using an exploit. The operating system OpenBSD prevents all users from having this access and the grsecurity patch for the Linux kernel also prevents this direct hardware access by default, the difference being an attacker requiring a much more difficult kernel level exploit or reboot of the machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20901",
"title": "Malware",
"section": "Section::::Anti-malware strategies.:Anti-virus and anti-malware software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Examples of Microsoft Windows antivirus and anti-malware software include the optional Microsoft Security Essentials (for Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7) for real-time protection, the Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool (now included with Windows (Security) Updates on \"Patch Tuesday\", the second Tuesday of each month), and Windows Defender (an optional download in the case of Windows XP, incorporating MSE functionality in the case of Windows 8 and later). Additionally, several capable antivirus software programs are available for free download from the Internet (usually restricted to non-commercial use). Tests found some free programs to be competitive with commercial ones. Microsoft's System File Checker can be used to check for and repair corrupted system files.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mt5i9
|
How did men study during the Enlightenment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: I'm a history student, but probably not much more knowledgeable about this subject than a layman. Anyway, I'm not sure whether this answers your question exactly, but hopefully you'll find it interesting. \n\nWhat differentiates academic study during the enlightenment from the middle ages, is the abandonment of universities in favor of a decentralized community of scholars, often called [the republic of letters.](_URL_0_) The \"natural philosophers\" found in Stephenson's book lived during the heyday of this intellectual community. \n\nMy understanding is that the republic of letters emerged because people became dissatisfied with how things worked at the universities. During the middle ages (from the 12th century or so), universities starting popping up all over Europe. These universities organized subjects into *trivium* and *quadrivium*, terms taken from Roman times. Trivium consisted of grammar, logic and rhetoric, whilst quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music. These subjects were studied by all students, similarly to how all American university students study liberal arts today. After the introductory studies, students would go on to study either medicine, law or theology. Universities largely became institutions for educating civil servants and the clergy. \n\nIn addition, a academic tradition developed at the medieval universities, which is known as scholasticism, with representatives like Thomas Aquinas. They basically studied authors like Aristotle, and tried to fit the texts into an orthodox christian perspective. \n\nAs you see, there wasn't much room for actual scientific thought, and this explains why enlightenment scholars established themselves outside of the established universities. In regards to information about the republic of letters, I suggest reading the Wikipedia article I linked, as it seems pretty good. \n\n\n",
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"answer": "Not exactly what you asked, but relevant enough I think.\n\n[This article](_URL_0_) discussing the google book agreements a couple of years ago deals with the republic of letters, the use and abuse of copyright stemming from this, and knowledge for the public good in the digital world. It is *very* long. \n\nWhile the article is very cautious about it, I do think there is something in the comparison between the revolutionary utopian idealism of enlightenment in the 18th Century, and the idealism of the power of the internet.\n\n > The eighteenth century imagined the Republic of Letters as a realm with no police, no boundaries, and no inequalities other than those determined by talent. Anyone could join it by exercising the two main attributes of citizenship, writing and reading. Writers formulated ideas, and readers judged them. Thanks to the power of the printed word, the judgments spread in widening circles, and the strongest arguments won.\n\n > The word also spread by written letters, for the eighteenth century was a great era of epistolary exchange. Read through the correspondence of Voltaire, Rousseau, Franklin, and Jefferson—each filling about fifty volumes—and you can watch the Republic of Letters in operation. All four writers debated all the issues of their day in a steady stream of letters, which crisscrossed Europe and America in a transatlantic information network.\n\n...\n\n > You cannot legislate Enlightenment, but you can set rules of the game to protect the public interest. Libraries represent the public good. They are not businesses, but they must cover their costs. They need a business plan. Think of the old motto of Con Edison when it had to tear up New York’s streets in order to get at the infrastructure beneath them: “Dig we must.” Libraries say, “Digitize we must.” But not on any terms. We must do it in the interest of the public, and that means holding the digitizers responsible to the citizenry.\n\n > It would be naive to identify the Internet with the Enlightenment. It has the potential to diffuse knowledge beyond anything imagined by Jefferson; but while it was being constructed, link by hyperlink, commercial interests did not sit idly on the sidelines. They want to control the game, to take it over, to own it. They compete among themselves, of course, but so ferociously that they kill each other off. Their struggle for survival is leading toward an oligopoly; and whoever may win, the victory could mean a defeat for the public good.\n",
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"answer": "I should be doing a history essay right now, so this response will be short, but I just thought I'd stop by to suggest an author that you might find interesting.\n\n[Steven Shapin](_URL_1_)\n\nHe is an academic who has taken a sociological approach to the study of how scientific knowledge is formed. He's written a number of things, his last publication was [last year.](_URL_0_)\n\nSome of it can appear fairly polemical, but this is largely his response to arguments he manages to get into with scientists who misunderstand him and think he is discrediting their work. He isn't. And the points he raises do serve to challenge your understanding of what exactly 'science' and 'learning' actually are. \n\nSorry I don't have time to go into it more myself, but I hope you find this as interesting as I do.\n\n[edit] I just realised, this comment may seem off topic - he talks often about the Enlightenment and the transmission of knowledge - books, etc. - so, relevant in that sense. Hope that helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: I'm a history student, but probably not much more knowledgeable about this subject than a layman. Anyway, I'm not sure whether this answers your question exactly, but hopefully you'll find it interesting. \n\nWhat differentiates academic study during the enlightenment from the middle ages, is the abandonment of universities in favor of a decentralized community of scholars, often called [the republic of letters.](_URL_0_) The \"natural philosophers\" found in Stephenson's book lived during the heyday of this intellectual community. \n\nMy understanding is that the republic of letters emerged because people became dissatisfied with how things worked at the universities. During the middle ages (from the 12th century or so), universities starting popping up all over Europe. These universities organized subjects into *trivium* and *quadrivium*, terms taken from Roman times. Trivium consisted of grammar, logic and rhetoric, whilst quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music. These subjects were studied by all students, similarly to how all American university students study liberal arts today. After the introductory studies, students would go on to study either medicine, law or theology. Universities largely became institutions for educating civil servants and the clergy. \n\nIn addition, a academic tradition developed at the medieval universities, which is known as scholasticism, with representatives like Thomas Aquinas. They basically studied authors like Aristotle, and tried to fit the texts into an orthodox christian perspective. \n\nAs you see, there wasn't much room for actual scientific thought, and this explains why enlightenment scholars established themselves outside of the established universities. In regards to information about the republic of letters, I suggest reading the Wikipedia article I linked, as it seems pretty good. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not exactly what you asked, but relevant enough I think.\n\n[This article](_URL_0_) discussing the google book agreements a couple of years ago deals with the republic of letters, the use and abuse of copyright stemming from this, and knowledge for the public good in the digital world. It is *very* long. \n\nWhile the article is very cautious about it, I do think there is something in the comparison between the revolutionary utopian idealism of enlightenment in the 18th Century, and the idealism of the power of the internet.\n\n > The eighteenth century imagined the Republic of Letters as a realm with no police, no boundaries, and no inequalities other than those determined by talent. Anyone could join it by exercising the two main attributes of citizenship, writing and reading. Writers formulated ideas, and readers judged them. Thanks to the power of the printed word, the judgments spread in widening circles, and the strongest arguments won.\n\n > The word also spread by written letters, for the eighteenth century was a great era of epistolary exchange. Read through the correspondence of Voltaire, Rousseau, Franklin, and Jefferson—each filling about fifty volumes—and you can watch the Republic of Letters in operation. All four writers debated all the issues of their day in a steady stream of letters, which crisscrossed Europe and America in a transatlantic information network.\n\n...\n\n > You cannot legislate Enlightenment, but you can set rules of the game to protect the public interest. Libraries represent the public good. They are not businesses, but they must cover their costs. They need a business plan. Think of the old motto of Con Edison when it had to tear up New York’s streets in order to get at the infrastructure beneath them: “Dig we must.” Libraries say, “Digitize we must.” But not on any terms. We must do it in the interest of the public, and that means holding the digitizers responsible to the citizenry.\n\n > It would be naive to identify the Internet with the Enlightenment. It has the potential to diffuse knowledge beyond anything imagined by Jefferson; but while it was being constructed, link by hyperlink, commercial interests did not sit idly on the sidelines. They want to control the game, to take it over, to own it. They compete among themselves, of course, but so ferociously that they kill each other off. Their struggle for survival is leading toward an oligopoly; and whoever may win, the victory could mean a defeat for the public good.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I should be doing a history essay right now, so this response will be short, but I just thought I'd stop by to suggest an author that you might find interesting.\n\n[Steven Shapin](_URL_1_)\n\nHe is an academic who has taken a sociological approach to the study of how scientific knowledge is formed. He's written a number of things, his last publication was [last year.](_URL_0_)\n\nSome of it can appear fairly polemical, but this is largely his response to arguments he manages to get into with scientists who misunderstand him and think he is discrediting their work. He isn't. And the points he raises do serve to challenge your understanding of what exactly 'science' and 'learning' actually are. \n\nSorry I don't have time to go into it more myself, but I hope you find this as interesting as I do.\n\n[edit] I just realised, this comment may seem off topic - he talks often about the Enlightenment and the transmission of knowledge - books, etc. - so, relevant in that sense. Hope that helps.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "17914517",
"title": "Women in the Enlightenment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The role of women in the Enlightenment is debated. It is acknowledged that women during this era were not considered of equal status to men, and much of their work and effort were suppressed. Even so, salons, coffeehouses, debating societies, academic competitions and print all became avenues for women to socialize, learn and discuss enlightenment ideas. For many women, these avenues furthered their roles in society and created stepping stones for future progress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10512779",
"title": "Iatrophysics",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "The Age of Enlightenment was an era of radically changing ways of thought in Western politics, philosophy, and science. Major sociological changes occurred in the Enlightenment, as well as industrial and scientific. In medicine, the Enlightenment brought several discoveries and studies that were impacted by changing ways of thought. For example, discovery of capillaries were made by Marcello Malpighi. Jean Baptiste von Helmonni (1577-1644) also was the first to consider digestion a fermentation process. He also identified hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Pathological anatomy and clinical observation were also being integrated into the medical curriculum. The Enlightenment also directly influenced the field of Iatrophysics through the development of Antonie von Leeuwenhoek's microscope, the advancement of the field of ophthalmology through the use of physics by René Descartes, and Newton's law of universal gravitation and idea of gravitational force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "30758",
"title": "Age of Enlightenment",
"section": "Section::::Historiography.:Modern study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11394933",
"title": "History of the Székely people",
"section": "Section::::Grand Principality of Transylvania.:Enlightment and absolutism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The ideas of Enlightenment spread in Transylvania from the 1770s. The polymath József Benkő (who was a Calvinist priest) wrote a trilingual botanical dictionary and a manual of caves. He also promoted tobaccoo growing and the use of sumac in the leather industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17914517",
"title": "Women in the Enlightenment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "The Enlightenment came to advance ideals of liberty, progress, and tolerance. For those women who were able to discuss and advance new ideals, discourse on religion, political and social equality, and sexuality became prominent topics in the salons, debating societies, and in print. While women in England and France gained arguably more freedom than their counterparts in other countries, the role of women in the Enlightenment was typically reserved for those of middle and upper class families, able to access money to join societies and the education to participate in debate. Therefore the women in the Enlightenment only represented a small class of society and not the entire female sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6538595",
"title": "Outline of transhumanism",
"section": "Section::::History of transhumanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "BULLET::::- Age of Enlightenment – elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2824497",
"title": "Enlightenment in Poland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Constitution of 1791.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Important institutions of the Enlightenment included the National Theatre founded in 1765 in Warsaw by King Stanisław August Poniatowski; and in the field of advanced learning: the Commission of National Education established by the Sejm in 1773; the Society for Elementary Books; as well as the Corps of Cadets (Knight's military school) among others. In expanding the field of knowledge, there was the Society of Friends of Science set up in 1800 soon after the Partitions. Popular newspapers included Monitor and Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne (Games Pleasant and Useful).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
ssw92
|
Can someone explain the validity of this claim? Using microwaved water vs. purified water to water your plants
|
[
{
"answer": "Previously discussed: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To address the first paragraph of the claim, this describes ionizing radiation. Microwaves do not have enough energy to ionize substances. \n\nIf any nutrients are destroyed, it is due to heat and cooking time. The interesting thing is that microwaves use less heat than an oven, and have shorter cooking times, so things cooked in microwaves will retain most of their nutrients unlike things fried or sautéed, which will have a good bit of their nutrients destroyed.\n\nWatering plants with microwaved water (which I assume is allowed time to cool) should be no different than non microwaved water. Water is H2O no matter how many times you microwave. And there are no nutrients in water to be denatured even if microwaves could do that.\n\nAnother thing. They say radiolytic compounds are formed by radiation. This radiation does not refer to electromagnetic radiation, which is what microwaves emit, but radioactive decay. Microwaves will not produce radiolytic compounds.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm interested to hear more from an engineer, but from a quick wiki read of it it sounds pretty unfounded. I'd want to know more about the experiment. Was the water poured in hot? warm? room-temp? Where is the before picture? Was the microwaved water from the same source (purified)?\n\n[Wikipedia](_URL_0_)\n > Microwaves do not contain sufficient energy to chemically change substances by ionization, and so are an example of nonionizing radiation. The word \"radiation\" refers to energy radiating from a source and **not to radioactivity**.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Even if you're not a plant scientist, you can tell that the plant on the left has been cut :/",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "185259",
"title": "Germ theory of disease",
"section": "Section::::Development.:John Snow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Snow's 1849 recommendation that water be \"filtered and boiled before it is used\" is one of the first practical applications of germ theory in the area of public health and is the antecedent to the modern boil-water advisory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18626487",
"title": "Biomedical waste",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "Microwave disinfection can also be employed for treatment of Biomedical wastes. Microwave irradiation is a type of non-contact heating technologies for disinfection. Microwave chemistry is based on efficient heating of materials by microwave dielectric heating effects. When exposed to microwave frequencies, the dipoles of the water molecules present in cells re-align with the applied electric field. As the field oscillates, the dipoles attempts to realign itself with the alternating electric field and in this process, energy is lost in the form of heat through molecular friction and dielectric loss. Microwave disinfection is a recently developed technology which provides advantage over old existing technologies of autoclaves as microwave based disinfection has less cycle time, power consumption and it requires minimal usage of water and consumables as compared to autoclaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41926823",
"title": "Vani Hari",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Promotion of pseudoscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "In a July 2012 post (which has since been removed), Hari quoted the ideas of Masaru Emoto that microwave ovens cause water molecules to form crystals that resemble crystals exposed to negative thoughts or beliefs, such as when the words \"Hitler\" and \"Satan\" were exposed to the water. Steven Novella calls Emoto's claims \"pure pseudoscience\" and states that \"Hari's conclusions about microwaves are all demonstrably incorrect and at odds with the scientific evidence\". She later described the post as not her \"most impressive piece of work\" and noted that it was written when she had first started blogging. In a widely discredited 2011 post, Hari warned readers that the air pumped into aircraft cabins was not pure oxygen, complaining it was \"mixed with nitrogen, sometimes almost at 50 per cent\" despite ambient air being 78% nitrogen. Hari deleted the post, later claiming it contained an \"inadvertent error\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4044047",
"title": "Boil-water advisory",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "John Snow's 1849 recommendation that water be \"filtered and boiled before it is used\" is one of the first practical applications of the germ theory of disease in the area of public health and is the antecedent to the modern boil water advisory. Snow demonstrated a clear understanding of germ theory in his writings. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay \"On the Mode of Communication of Cholera\", in which he correctly suggested that the fecal-oral route was the mode of communication, and that the disease replicated itself in the lower intestines. Snow later went so far as to accurately propose in his 1855 edition of the work that the structure of cholera was that of a cell. Snow's ideas were not fully accepted until years after his death. He died in 1858.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42246351",
"title": "Microwave volumetric heating",
"section": "Section::::Thermal processing using microwaves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The FDA accepts that microwaves can be used to heat food for commercial use, pasteurization and sterilization. The main mechanism of microbial inactivation by microwaves is due to thermal effect; the phenomenon of lethality due to 'non-thermal effect' is controversial, and the mechanisms suggested include selective heating of micro-organisms, electroporation, cell membrane rupture, and cell lysis due to electromagnetic energy coupling. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Heating characteristics.:Use in cleaning kitchen sponges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Studies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean non-metallic domestic sponges which have been thoroughly wetted. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) removed 99% of coliforms, \"E. coli\" and MS2 phages. \"Bacillus cereus\" spores were killed at four minutes of microwaving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14011666",
"title": "Electromagnetic absorption by water",
"section": "Section::::Microwaves and radio waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Liquid water has a broad absorption spectrum in the microwave region, which has been explained in terms of changes in the hydrogen bond network giving rise to a broad, featureless, microwave spectrum. The absorption (equivalent to dielectric loss) is used in microwave ovens to heat food that contains water molecules. A frequency of 2.45 GHz, wavelength 122 mm, is commonly used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bez16
|
what happens to a wasp when i hit it with raid?
|
[
{
"answer": "You must have hit the wasp with RAID 0, which is why it worked so fast. RAID 1 was still effective on the beetle, it just didn't have the same level of performance (but was safer for you, incidentally). \n\n...I'm so sorry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insecticides are neurotoxins, they're the insect equivalent of satin of VX. They work by interfering with the operation of the insect's nervous system. In addition to the actual neurotoxins, insecticides will also include compounds that break down the insect's waxy coating, allowing the neurotoxins to enter more quickly and compounds that inhibit enzymes that would break down the neurotoxins, making the required amount tof neurotoxins smaller.\n\nWithout knowing the composition of the spray, it's difficult to say, but it's almost certain intentional. Spraying a wasp and having it die minutes later is not good, because that allows time for the wasp to attack you, while battles can't do that much. It could be that the wasp spray is more concentrated or contains a neurotoxin that is more effective on wasps or could be any number of variables in the formula. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30447879",
"title": "List of The Asylum monsters",
"section": "Section::::Floater Bug Aliens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 204,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 204,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The Floater Bug Aliens appear in the 2012 movie \"American Warships\". They are cockroach-like aliens capable of hovering and are armed with a trigger-less flamethrower that launches radioactive fire balls. Using wreckage from sunken ships, they use a stealth ship with an LCD screen for camouflage armed with EMP missiles. The aliens thrive in radioactive environments and have a set of jaws on their abdomen that can chomp a human in half with little effort and have an exoskeleton strong enough to survive bazooka shells. They were eventually defeated by the crew of the USS \"Iowa\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47213916",
"title": "Neotibicen dorsatus",
"section": "Section::::Natural predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Cicada killer wasps frequently attack Neotibicen cicadas. The female wasp's keen eye scans trees and vegetation in search of prey. After locating a cicada, the wasp stings the cicada, injecting paralyzing venom. The wasp will then drag the paralyzed victim up a tree or post and fly away with it back to her nest. The cicada is buried in an underground burrow along with the wasp's eggs. The wasp's larvae emerge and feed on the living but paralyzed prey, pupate, and emerge the following spring. There is usually one generation of wasps a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51665214",
"title": "Neotibicen dealbatus",
"section": "Section::::Natural predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Cicada killer wasps frequently attack Neotibicen cicadas. The female wasp's keen eye scans trees and vegetation in search of prey. After locating a cicada, the wasp stings the cicada, injecting paralyzing venom. The wasp will then drag the paralyzed victim up a tree or post and fly away with it back to her nest. The cicada is buried in an underground burrow along with the wasp's eggs. The wasp's larvae emerge and feed on the living but paralyzed prey, pupate, and emerge the following spring. There is usually one generation of wasps a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3991228",
"title": "Emerald cockroach wasp",
"section": "Section::::Reproductive behavior and lifecycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Female wasps of this species were reported to sting a cockroach (specifically a \"Periplaneta americana\", \"Periplaneta australasiae\", or \"Nauphoeta rhombifolia\") twice, delivering venom. Researchers using radioactive labeling demonstrated that the wasp stings precisely into specific ganglia of the roach. It delivers an initial sting to a thoracic ganglion and injects venom to mildly and reversibly paralyze the front legs of its victim. A biochemically-induced transient paralysis takes over the cockroach, where the temporary loss of mobility facilitates the second venomous sting at a precise spot in the victim's head ganglia (brain), in the section that controls the escape reflex. As a result of this sting, the roach will first groom extensively, and then become sluggish and fail to show normal escape responses. The venom is reported to block receptors for the neurotransmitter octopamine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3991228",
"title": "Emerald cockroach wasp",
"section": "Section::::Reproductive behavior and lifecycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Once the host is vanquished, the wasp proceeds to chew off half of each of the roach's antennae, after which it carefully feeds from exuding hemolymph. The wasp, which is too small to carry the roach, then leads the victim to the wasp's burrow, by pulling one of the roach's antennae in a manner similar to a leash. In the burrow, the wasp will lay one or two white eggs, about 2 mm long, between the roach's legs. It then exits and proceeds to fill in the burrow entrance with any surrounding debris, more to keep other predators and competitors out than to keep the roach in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37854745",
"title": "Neotibicen tibicen",
"section": "Section::::Natural predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Cicada killer wasps frequently attack \"Neotibicen\" cicadas. The female wasp's keen eye scans trees and vegetation in search of prey. After locating a cicada, the wasp stings the cicada, injecting paralyzing venom. The wasp will then drag the paralyzed victim up a tree or post and fly away with it back to her nest. The cicada is buried in an underground burrow along with the wasp's eggs. The wasp's larvae emerge and feed on the living but paralyzed prey, pupate, and emerge the following spring. There is usually one generation of wasps a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44127241",
"title": "Mischocyttarus flavitarsis",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Mating behavior.:Male defense of perch site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "When another wasp attempts to land on an occupied perch site, the owner is alerted to the intruder. If the intruder does not fly away right away, then the owner will lunge and grapple the other wasp. Typically the two wasps will fight on the perch site and often fall off the site and land on the ground to finish fighting. Following the fight, the owner returns to its perch site, and again, rubs its abdomen to secrete its scent and ward off future intruders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2korzl
|
why does netflix regularly remove movies instead of increasing the size of their library when adding new titles?
|
[
{
"answer": "When Netflix buys the rights to distribute certain content they are ALWAYS time limited. Meaning, Netflix has the rights to a show like The Magic School Bus for a certain period of time. Once that time is over, Netflix must renegotiate the contract with whomever owns the rights to The Magic School Bus. \n\nIf it were fully Netflix's choice, I'm sure they would never remove content. but it's not. So most of the time this happens it's because the rights holder wanted more money than Netflix was willing to pay for the content. They could not come to an agreement so the old contract was allowed to expire. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Netflix doesn't own the movies we see there it \"rents\" them from the companies who do, so they are removed when the contract is over. In most cases these are renewed when the contract is over, but not every time, and not immediately ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When Netflix \"gets\" a movie or show what is actually happening is they are buying a contract that grants them the privilege of showing it to their customers. Sometimes when the contract expires they do not re-negotiate so they are no longer allowed to air that show. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Netflix pays for a license to provide a show for a set amount of time. So if for whatever reason they don't renew the license, they can no longer legally provide it. It's definitely annoying, as a parent with young kids, they lost Sesame Street just as my 3-year-old was starting to enjoy it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They removed all of their Discovery channel content earlier this month (because Discovery wants to do their own streaming service). No Mythbusters (except for what ends up on youtube before being DMCA'd)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "175537",
"title": "Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Film and television deals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "In 2014, opinion web blogger Felix Salmon wrote that Netflix couldn't \"afford the content that its subscribers most want to watch.\" He cited as evidence the company's loss of rights to stream several major movies. According to journalist Megan McArdle, the loss of these movies was extremely problematic for the company; specifically, she said that \"[Netflix's] movie library is no longer actually a good substitute for a good movie rental place\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175537",
"title": "Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Film distribution model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 206,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 206,
"end_character": 1136,
"text": "Netflix's distribution model for original films has led to conflicts with the legacy film industry. Some cinemas have refused to screen films distributed theatrically by Netflix (primarily to insure awards eligibility), as it defies the standard three-month release window, and releases them simultaneously on its streaming platform (although \"Roma\" was instead given a three-week run before being added to the streaming service). Steven Spielberg—governor of the directors branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), has been critical of the streaming model over the \"communal\", cinema experience, but later stated that viewers should be able to \"find their entertainment in any form or fashion that suits them\", and that \"what really matters to me is a great story and everyone should have access to great stories.\" In April 2019, AMPAS voted against the possibility of changes to the Academy Awards eligibility criteria to account for streaming services such as Netflix, although AMPAS president John Bailey did state that the organization would \"further study the profound changes occurring in our industry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50276542",
"title": "Criticism of Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Throttling of DVDs by mail.:Releasing this week.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "On January 1, 2008, a Netflix employee unofficially stated on the Netflix Community Blog that customers used the RTW page to add newly released movies to the top of their queues, then complained about delays in receiving them after demand outstripped the supply of DVDs on hand. By removing the page, Netflix sought to quell complaints that these movies were not readily available. Critics, however, have suggested this was just another Netflix attempt at throttling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38228585",
"title": "Event cinema",
"section": "Section::::History and development.:Expanding markets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Some low-budget films that would normally not have a theatrical release because of distribution costs might be shown in smaller engagements than the typical large release studio pictures. The cost of duplicating a digital \"print\" is very low, so adding more theaters to a release has a small additional cost to the distributor. Movies that start with a small release could scale to a much larger release quickly if they were sufficiently successful, opening up the possibility that smaller movies could achieve box office success previously out of their reach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175537",
"title": "Netflix",
"section": "Section::::History.:Video on demand introduction, declining DVD sales, global expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "Another contributing factor for the company's online DVD rental success was that they could offer a much larger selection of movie titles to choose from than Blockbuster's rental outlets. But when they started to offer streaming content for free to its subscribers in 2007, it could offer no more than about 1000 movies and TV-shows, just 1% compared to its more than 100,000 different DVD titles. Yet as the popularity kept growing, the number of titles available for streaming was increasing as well, and had reached 12,000 movies and shows in June 2009. One of the key things about Netflix was that it had a recommendation system known as cinematch, which not only got viewers to remain attached to the service, by creating a switching cost, but it also brought out those movies which were underrated so that customers could view those movies too from their recommendations. This was an attribute that not only benefited Netflix, but also benefited its viewers and those studios which were minor compared to others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175537",
"title": "Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Film and television deals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "On September 1, 2011, Starz ceased talks with Netflix to renew their streaming arrangement. As a result, Starz's library of films and series were removed from Netflix on February 28, 2012. Titles available on DVD were not affected and can still be acquired from Netflix via their DVD-by-mail service. However, select films broadcast on Starz continue to be available on Netflix under license from their respective television distributors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1870203",
"title": "Production company",
"section": "Section::::Type.:Book to film unit.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Films have been using books as a prime source for films for years. In 2012, six out of the nine best picture Oscar nominees were originally books. Previously, publishers did not develop their books into movie nor receive any of the profits. Neither Scholastic or Little Brown, get any box office revenue from the Harry Potter and Twilight movies just through book sales. As the publishers faced decreasing revenue due to increased competition from self-published e-books, or Amazon.com moving into the publishing field, publishers have started to enter the film and TV production business to boost their net income with Amazon attempting to compete there too. More screenwriters are turning to book publishers to get their screenplay published as a book, so as to have a boost in their attempt to have the screenplay turned into a movie, given that it is a known product after the book.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jt07r
|
Zoo animals getting excited before earthquakes?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are two things at work here. The first is for the events that happen mere seconds to a minute before the Earthquake hits. There are two types of waves that travel through the earth during an earthquake, p-waves and s-waves. P waves travel faster but are hard to detect, s-waves travel slower and are the ones that cause all the damage. Some animals are better at detecting these small p-wave vibrations than humans and they start freaking out because of it. \n\nNow, what about the animals that start freaking out hours before, or even a day before, the earthquake? Selection bias, pure and simple. Any given day in the zoos around the world, animals are going to start freaking out and acting strange for no apparent reason. However, no one really pays it any mind because animals do weird crap all the time. However, when they happen to do weird crap, and then an earthquake comes, people say \"oh yeah, I remember. The monkeys were all huddled in a corner yesterday, and they looked scared. And then today an earthquake came\" However, if the earthquake hadn't come, no one would have paid it any mind. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two things at work here. The first is for the events that happen mere seconds to a minute before the Earthquake hits. There are two types of waves that travel through the earth during an earthquake, p-waves and s-waves. P waves travel faster but are hard to detect, s-waves travel slower and are the ones that cause all the damage. Some animals are better at detecting these small p-wave vibrations than humans and they start freaking out because of it. \n\nNow, what about the animals that start freaking out hours before, or even a day before, the earthquake? Selection bias, pure and simple. Any given day in the zoos around the world, animals are going to start freaking out and acting strange for no apparent reason. However, no one really pays it any mind because animals do weird crap all the time. However, when they happen to do weird crap, and then an earthquake comes, people say \"oh yeah, I remember. The monkeys were all huddled in a corner yesterday, and they looked scared. And then today an earthquake came\" However, if the earthquake hadn't come, no one would have paid it any mind. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32844266",
"title": "2011 Virginia earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Zoo animal reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Staff at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., reported that some of the animals in the park appeared to show behavior suggesting that they anticipated the earthquake from seconds to minutes before it was felt in the area. The earthquake was felt at the great ape exhibits during afternoon feeding time. About three to ten seconds before the quake, many of the apes abandoned their food and climbed to the top of a tree-like structure in the exhibit. The red ruffed lemurs sounded an alarm call about 15 minutes before the quake, and the flock of 64 flamingos rushed about and grouped themselves together just before the quake. During the quake, some animals vocalized, some ran or dove for cover, and some stood up and stared at the walls of their enclosures. Some of the animals remained agitated for the rest of the day, while others calmed quickly. The Zoo's giant pandas did not appear to respond to the quake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231137",
"title": "Earthquake prediction",
"section": "Section::::Prediction methods.:Precursors.:Animal behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "For centuries there have been anecdotal accounts of anomalous animal behavior preceding and associated with earthquakes. In cases where animals display unusual behavior some tens of seconds prior to a quake, it has been suggested they are responding to the P-wave. These travel through the ground about twice as fast as the S-waves that cause most severe shaking. They predict not the earthquake itself — that has already happened — but only the imminent arrival of the more destructive S-waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826318",
"title": "Cheyenne Mountain Zoo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "On August 6th, 2018, the zoo was hit by fast-moving and unexpected severe weather that brought with it baseball-sized hail. The staff was praised in national media and by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums for their use of the incident command system to swiftly move animals and visitors indoors. But just as some humans were confused and didn’t know where to go, many animals stayed outside in confusion despite having on-exhibit dens as required by the AZA. Three zoo employees were hospitalized following efforts to save animals and guests from the unusually large hail. Several guests were hospitalized as well and five animals including two peafowl, a cape vulture and Muscovy duck died of their injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2063011",
"title": "Love wave",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In the past, it was often thought that animals like cats and dogs could predict an earthquake before it happened. However, they are simply more sensitive to ground vibrations than humans and able to detect the subtler body waves that precede Love waves, like the P-waves and the S-waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7693273",
"title": "Exmoor Zoo",
"section": "Section::::In the news.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "In September 2006 the zoo acquired a pair of howler monkeys, called \"Greeb\" and \"Wing\", to act as a 'burglar alarm'. This move was prompted by the theft of the marmosets earlier in the year. The zookeepers are hoping that the noisy monkeys will be enough to scare off intruders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19968880",
"title": "2008 Nord-Kivu campaign",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency of humanitarian and peacekeeping efforts.:Wildlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Animals have also felt the impact, with 200 of the world's 700 mountain gorillas living in a rebel-held park. A spokeswoman for the Virunga National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, stated that the gorillas were \"threatened\" due to the gorillas' tendencies not to avoid gunfire or loud sounds, putting the nearly extinct animals at risk. Also, the inability of park rangers to get to the gorillas due to the rebel occupation was cited as dangerous, as the gorillas could not receive aid. On November 25, park rangers were allowed back into the park due to terms of the peace treaty, and plan to spend a month surveying the gorillas to assess their condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2405753",
"title": "Southern Nevada Zoological-Botanical Park",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) inspected the zoo and found that Dingle was not in compliance with the law, in relation to the ape's death. Dingle subsequently said that the younger ape may have been poisoned by radical animal rights activists with the hope of shutting the zoo down. In July 1993, approximately 25 protesters, mostly former employees, staged a weekend demonstration outside the zoo calling for Dingle's involvement to be terminated. Following the ape's death and the negative publicity, the zoo had a 30 percent increase in ticket sales. For the next several years, critics would continue to hold protest rallies outside the zoo each year to mark the death of the ape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sdivn
|
When did Christendom forbid slavery? Did the church have anything to do with it? Were there any exceptions to the ban?
|
[
{
"answer": "What exactly do you mean by Christendom forbidding slavery? Do you mean as in a bible verse, a decree from the Pope, or what? \n\nI'm asking because there are arguably pretty late instances of individual Christians practicing slavery (in the United States for example), and I don't know if they considered it to be forbidden at the time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can only speak of Catholicism and slavery.\n\nThe first Pope to publicly condemn slavery was Benedict XIV in 1741. That being said, the church did not come down hard on slavery until Pius VII in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.\n\nWell into the 16th century the Church publicly supported slavery. Pope Paul III authorized the purchase of Muslim slaves in 1548. \n\nFrom a religious standpoint, 1839 is generally considered the year the slavery was \"banned\" by the Catholic Church. Gregory XVI's *In Supremo Apostolatus* was a papal bull officially condemning slavery. It was followed by the Church working to end colonial slavery, most famously in Brazil.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8654403",
"title": "Proslavery",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.:Proslavery Christians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "Passages in the Bible on the use and regulation of slavery have been used throughout history as justification for the keeping of slaves, and for guidance on how it should be done. Therefore, when abolition was proposed, many Christians spoke vociferously against it, citing the Bible's acceptance of slavery as 'proof' that it was part of the normal condition. George Whitefield, famed for his sparking of the \"Great Awakening\" of American evangelicalism, campaigned, in the Province of Georgia, for the legalisation of slavery, joining the ranks of the slave owners that he had denounced in his earlier years, while contending that they had souls and opposing mistreatment and owners who resisted his evangelism of slaves. Slavery had been outlawed in Georgia, but it was legalised in 1751 due in large part to Whitefield's efforts. He bought enslaved Africans to work on his plantation and the orphanage he established in Georgia. Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, who played a major role in financing and guiding early Methodism, inherited these slaves and kept them in bondage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430415",
"title": "Christian views on slavery",
"section": "Section::::Christianity's view.:Opposition to abolitionism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1017,
"text": "Passages in the Bible on the use and regulation of slavery have been used throughout history as justification for the keeping of slaves, and for guidance in how it should be done. Therefore, when abolition was proposed, some Christians spoke vociferously against it, citing the Bible's acceptance of slavery as 'proof' that it was part of the normal condition. George Whitefield, famed for his sparking of the \"Great Awakening\" of American evangelicalism, campaigned, in the Province of Georgia, for the legalisation of slavery, joining the ranks of the slave owners that he had denounced in his earlier years, while contending they had souls and opposing mistreatment and owners who resisted his evangelism of slaves. Slavery had been outlawed in Georgia, but it was legalised in 1751 due in large part to Whitefield's efforts. He bought enslaved Africans to work on his plantation and the orphanage he established in Georgia. Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon inherited these slaves and kept them in bondage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15587087",
"title": "Role of Christianity in civilization",
"section": "Section::::Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "The Church initially accepted slavery as part of the Greco-Roman social fabric of society, campaigning primarily for humane treatment of slaves but also admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters. Historian Glenn Sunshine says, \"Christians were the first people in history to oppose slavery systematically. Early Christians purchased slaves in the markets simply to set them free. Later, in the seventh century, the Franks..., under the influence of its Christian queen, Bathilde, became the first kingdom in history to begin the process of outlawing slavery. ...In the 1200's, Thomas Aquinas declared slavery a sin. When the African slave trade began in the 1400's, it was condemned numerous times by the papacy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8571001",
"title": "Fifth Council of Orléans",
"section": "Section::::Enactments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "It censured all who attempted to subject slaves who had been emancipated within the church to any servitude whatsoever, and those who dared take, retain, or dispose of church property (Canon XXII). It stated however that bishops should not ordain slaves, and that a slave who was freed should not be ordained without the consent of his former master (Canon VI). It threatened with excommunication all who embezzled or appropriated funds given by King Childebert for the foundation of a hospital of Lyon (Canon XV), and it placed lepers under the special charge of each bishop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24305980",
"title": "Catholic Church and slavery",
"section": "Section::::Development of Church teaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The development of [the Church's teaching regarding slavery] over the span of nearly five centuries was occasioned by the unique and illicit form of servitude that accompanied the Age of Discovery. The just titles to servitude were not rejected by the Church, but rather were tolerated for many reasons. This in no way invalidates the clear and consistent teaching against the unjust slavery that came to prevail in Africa and the Western Hemisphere, first in Central and South America and then in the United States, for approximately four centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52413830",
"title": "Mormonism and slavery",
"section": "Section::::Teachings on slavery.:Relationship between master and slave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Slave owners complained that the Mormons were interfering with slaves, but the LDS Church denied such claims. In 1835, the Church issued an official statement that, because the United States government allowed slavery, the Church would not \"interfere with bond-servants, neither preach the gospel to, nor baptize them contrary to the will and wish of their masters, nor meddle with or influence them in the least to cause them to be dissatisfied with their situations in this life, thereby jeopardizing the lives of men.\" This was later adopted as scripture.(D&C ) This policy was changed in 1836, when Smith wrote that slaves should not be taught the gospel at all until after their masters were converted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59620069",
"title": "Civil rights and Mormonism",
"section": "Section::::Slavery.:Statements on slavery from early church leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Because of slave owners who were converting to the church in Missouri, there was much confusion regarding the church's position on slavery. These same feelings arose during the migration to Utah. In 1851, apostle Orson Hyde stated that there was no law in Utah prohibiting or authorizing slavery, and that the decisions on the topic were to remain between slaves and their masters. He also clarified that individuals' choices on the matter were not in any way a reflection of the church as a whole or its doctrine. Brigham Young taught that slavery was \"of Divine institution, and not to be abolished until the curse pronounced on Ham shall have been removed from his descendants.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kth1e
|
How can a person remain "themself" after undergoing a hemispherectomy?
|
[
{
"answer": "if you need a hemispherectomy, probably because of epilepsy, then that hemisphere is probably already very damaged, and much of its function has probably been taken up by the healthy hemisphere. and this is the real answer to the question; the cerebral cortex is very adaptable, especially early in life. if you lose a hemisphere early in life, you can attain surprisingly close-to-normal function in most domains. but if you lose a hemisphere late in life, and there was no long-term cause for reorganization (e.g. relative unusability of much of the lost hemisphere due to epilepsy), then you will have many, many problems: paralysis or paresis of half the body, blindness in half the visual field, problems with language, memory, attention, etc.\n\nif you're getting at a more philosophical question about the unity of consciousness - the sensation you have of being a thing, a self, with all this simultaneous access to sights and sounds and feelings and memories and volitions - there are good theories of how it works. my favorite is Giulio Tononi's \"[information integration theory] (_URL_0_)\", which says that consciousness corresponds to the subset of structures in the brain that are all informative about one another in a certain (mathematically-defined) way. two properly connected hemispheres (Tononi and most other researchers think that consciousness mostly subsists in the cerebral cortex, and disagree about which parts precisely are included) constitute a single, highly-complex, integrated structure that corresponds to your subjective consciousness or \"self\". if you remove a hemisphere, then the size of this structure decreases, but it is still integrated, and so the self remains. interestingly, if you leave both hemispheres alone but *cut* the connections between them, you can have a \"split brain\" patient, someone who effectively has two parallel consciousnesses, without access to one another but sharing the same body (and same sub-cortical brain structures).\n\nso there is science out there to get at your question, and it's really a hot topic these days, but the short answer boils down to.. we don't know but we have lots of good ideas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196674",
"title": "Hemispherectomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "Hemispherectomy is a very rare neurosurgical procedure in which a cerebral hemisphere (half of the brain) is removed, disconnected, or disabled. This procedure is used to treat a variety of seizure disorders where the source of the epilepsy is localized to a broad area of a single hemisphere of the brain, notably Rasmussen's encephalitis. About one in three patients with epilepsy will continue to have persistent seizures despite epileptic drug therapy. Hemispherectomy is reserved for the most extreme cases of this one-third in which the individual’s seizures are irresponsive to medications or other less invasive surgeries and significantly impair functioning or put the patient at risk of further complications. The procedure successfully cures seizures in about 85%-90% of patients. Additionally, it is also known to often markedly improve the cognitive functioning and development of the individual. Subtotal hemispherectomy sparing sensorimotor cortex can be performed with successful seizure control expected in 70-80% of patients. Even with the presence of widespread unilateral epileptogenicity or anatomic/functional imaging abnormalities, complete hemispherectomy can often be avoided, particularly when there is little hemiparesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196674",
"title": "Hemispherectomy",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Overall, hemispherectomy is a successful procedure. A 1996 study of 52 individuals who underwent the surgery found that 96% of patients experienced reduced or completely ceased occurrence of seizures post-surgery. Studies have found no significant long-term effects on memory, personality, or humor, and minimal changes in cognitive function overall. For example, one case followed a patient who had completed college, attended graduate school and scored above average on intelligence tests after undergoing this procedure at age 5. This patient eventually developed \"superior language and intellectual abilities\" despite the removal of the left hemisphere, which contains the classical language zones. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7215046",
"title": "Epilepsy surgery",
"section": "Section::::Hemispherectomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "Hemispherectomy or hemispherotomy involves removal or a functional disconnection of most, or all of, one half of the brain typically leaving the basal ganglia and thalamus. It is reserved for people with the most catastrophic epilepsies, such as those due to Rasmussen's encephalitis. If the surgery is performed on very young patients (2–5 years old), then the remaining hemisphere may acquire some motor control of the ipsilateral body due to neuroplasticity; in older patients, paralysis results on the side of the body opposite to the part of the brain that was removed with less prospect for recovery. A visual field defect is an unavoidable side effect, typically involving a homonymous hemianopia involving loss of the half of the visual field on the same side of the disconnected brain. Because of these and other side-effects, it is usually reserved for patients having exhausted other treatment options.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41561486",
"title": "John M. Freeman",
"section": "Section::::Medical career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The hemispherectomy, the removal of part or all of one of the hemispheres of the brain, had also fallen almost completely out of use after its development in the 1920s, and it was reintroduced under Freeman when he returned to Hopkins. It was used when patients suffered from any of three conditions—Rasmussen's encephalitis, irregular brain development or stroke—and had failed to respond to less-drastic treatments. The technique was used and to some degree brought to public awareness by neurosurgeon Ben Carson in the 1980s. According to Carson, Freeman \"helped work out many of the techniques and problems associated with the cerebral hemispherectomy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196674",
"title": "Hemispherectomy",
"section": "Section::::History and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "In the 1960s and early 1970s, hemispherectomy involved essentially removing an entire half of the brain. This procedure is known as anatomical hemispherectomy. Anatomical hemispherectomy decreases the likelihood that seizures will return, as there is no longer any part of the identified epileptic brain area left to cause seizures. A second type of hemispherectomy, known as functional hemispherectomy, has become more prevalent in recent years. In this procedure, only the epileptic portions of that side of the brain are removed, as opposed to the entire hemisphere. If a functional hemispherectomy is chosen over an anatomical hemispherectomy, it is likely because it allows for less blood loss and greater chance of resilience for the patient. Additionally, functional hemispherectomy is less likely to cause hydrocephalus, the “excessive accumulation of (cerebrospinal) fluid in the brain,” which leads to complications from harmful pressure on brain tissues. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51547559",
"title": "Management of drug-resistant epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Surgery.:Functional hemispherectomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "This procedure is a modern adaptation of the radical hemispherectomy in which one brain hemisphere is removed to prevent the spread of seizures from one brain hemisphere to the other. In the functional version only a part of the hemisphere is removed but the connections to the other brain hemisphere are cut through. This procedure is only performed on a small group of patients under the age of 13 that have severe damage or malformation of one hemisphere, patients with Sturge Weber syndrome or patients with Rasmussen's encephalitis. The functional hemispherectomy can achieve long-term seizure freedom in over 80% of patients however often at the price of hemiplegia and hemianopsy. The death rate is around 1 to 2% and 5% of patients develop a hydrocephalus that needs to be treated with a shunt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21698047",
"title": "Hemispherectomy Foundation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The Hemispherectomy Foundation was founded in 2008, when a six-year-old girl, Jessie Hall, was hospitalized with Rasmussen's Encephalitis at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Jessie was undergoing hemispherectomy surgery (removal or disconnection of one-half of the brain) to control continuous seizures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uhodj
|
Circumstances surrounding the Death of Ludwig II of Bavaria
|
[
{
"answer": "His death was quite mysterious and there are many conspiracy theories, but he died in 1886 and the unification was already accomplished in 1871.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "148597",
"title": "History of Bavaria",
"section": "Section::::Kingdom of Bavaria.:German Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Ludwig II, whose passion for building palaces and near-total neglect of his governmental duties were becoming a serious crisis, was declared insane and on 10 June 1886, his uncle, Prince Luitpold, became the regent. Three days later on 13 June, Ludwig II was found dead in Lake Starnberg. The question of whether his death was self-imposed, accidental or the result of malicious conspirators remains unanswered. However, it was reported at the time and today is widely accepted that it was a suicide. Due to the insanity of Ludwig's brother, King Otto I, Prince Luitpold continued as regent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37995273",
"title": "Ludwig II, King of Bavaria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Ludwig II, King of Bavaria (German: Ludwig der Zweite, König von Bayern) is a 1929 German silent historical film directed by William Dieterle and starring Dieterle, Theodor Loos and Eugen Burg. It portrays the life and reign of the monarch Ludwig II who ruled Bavaria from 1864 to 1886. It was made at the Bavaria Studios in Geiselgasteig, Munich. The production company was the German subsidiary of the American studio Universal Pictures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357913",
"title": "Ludwig III of Bavaria",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "In 1866, Bavaria was allied with the Austrian Empire in the Austro-Prussian War. Ludwig held the rank of Oberleutnant. He was wounded at the Battle of Helmstedt, taking a bullet in his thigh. The incident contributed to the fact that he was rather averse to the military. He received the Knight's Cross 1st Class of the Bavarian Military Merit Order\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148597",
"title": "History of Bavaria",
"section": "Section::::Kingdom of Bavaria.:German Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Following Prince Luitpold's death in 1912, his son, Prince Ludwig, became the regent. A year later, Ludwig deposed his cousin, Otto, and proclaimed himself King Ludwig III of Bavaria. During the First World War, Ludwig's eldest son, Crown Prince Rupprecht, commanded the Bavarian army and became one of the leading German commanders on the Western Front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043377",
"title": "Kingdom of Bavaria",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I and the end of the Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "On 7 November 1918, Ludwig fled from the Residenz Palace in Munich with his family. He was the first of the monarchs in the German Empire to be deposed. A few days later William II abdicated the throne of Germany. Ludwig took up residence in Austria for what was intended to be a temporary stay. On 12 November, he issued the Anif declaration, which released his soldiers and officials from their oath to him. Although he never formally abdicated, the socialist-led government of Kurt Eisner took Ludwig's declaration as such and declared the Wittelsbachs deposed. With this the 700-year rule of the Wittelsbach dynasty came to an end, and the former Kingdom of Bavaria became the People's State of Bavaria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1915794",
"title": "Louis I, Grand Duke of Baden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Ludwig's death in 1830 led to many rumors. His death also meant the extinction of his line of the Baden family. The succession then went to the children of the morganatic second marriage of Grand Duke Karl Friedrich and Louise Karoline Geyer von Geyersberg, who was created Countess of Hochberg in the Austrian nobility at the personal request of Karl Friedrich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1426211",
"title": "Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Luitpold Karl Joseph Wilhelm Ludwig, Prince Regent of Bavaria (12 March 1821 – 12 December 1912), was the \"de facto\" ruler of Bavaria from 1886 to 1912, due to the incapacity of his nephews, King Ludwig II for three days and King Otto for 26 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qkbd9
|
if frozen yogurt comes from cow dairy and ice cream comes from cow dairy, how is frozen yogurt "healthier"?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not really. Yogurt is viewed as a healthy snack, so people assume frozen yogurt is healthy, when frozen yogurt is just as full of sugar as regular ice cream. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Traditionally, yogurt is made with less fat than ice cream. That's really the only way in which it could be described as healthier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43476737",
"title": "List of frozen yogurt companies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "This is a list of notable frozen yogurt companies. Frozen yogurt is a frozen dessert made with yogurt and sometimes other dairy products including non-dairy products. It varies from slightly to much more tart than ice cream, as well as being lower in fat (due to the use of milk instead of cream). It is different from ice milk (more recently termed low-fat or light ice cream) and conventional soft serve. Unlike yogurt, frozen yogurt is not regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), but is regulated by some U.S. states. Frozen yogurt may or may not contain live and active bacteria cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369832",
"title": "Frozen yogurt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Frozen yogurt (also known as frogurt or by the tradename Froyo ) is a frozen dessert made with yogurt and sometimes other dairy and non-dairy products. Usually more tart than ice cream, as well as lower in fat (due to the use of milk instead of cream), it is different from ice milk (more recently termed low-fat or light ice cream) and conventional soft serve. Unlike yogurt, frozen yogurt is not regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) but is regulated by some U.S. states. Frozen yogurt may contain live and active bacteria cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369832",
"title": "Frozen yogurt",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Frozen yogurt consists of milk solids, some kind of sweetener, milk fat, yogurt culture (commonly \"Lactobacillus bulgaricus\" and \"Streptococcus thermophilus\"), plus flavorings and sometimes coloring (natural or artificial).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379723",
"title": "Dairy Queen",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Frozen yogurt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In 1990, Dairy Queen began offering frozen yogurt as a lower-calorie alternative to its soft serve ice cream. According to a company representative, Dairy Queen's regular soft serve has 35 calories per ounce and is 95% fat-free, whereas the frozen yogurt was 25 calories per ounce. However, in 2001, the company phased out the frozen yogurt option in all its stores, citing a lack of demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369832",
"title": "Frozen yogurt",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Frozen yogurt is served in a large variety of flavors and styles. It also has sugar-free, thus healthier alternatives. Frozen yogurt shops usually offer a multitude of toppings, from fruit to nuts, popular cookie brands and candies. Some companies offer a more tart version considered closer to the original recipe, whereas others focus on making their own taste more like ice cream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369832",
"title": "Frozen yogurt",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Major companies often use assembly lines specifically dedicated to frozen yogurt production. Milk products and stabilizing agent(s) are combined and homogenized. At 32°C, the yogurt culture is added. The mix remains at this temperature until it sets and is ready for cooling. After that, the mix is cooled at a temperature of 0 to 4°C. Once it has reached the desired temperature and viscosity, the yogurt is allowed to sit in aging tanks for up to four hours. Sweeteners, flavorings and colorings are then mixed in, and the yogurt mixture is cooled at a temperature of −6 to −2°C. To create extra volume and smooth consistency, air is incorporated into the yogurt as the mixture is agitated. With sufficient amount of air in it, the yogurt gets rapidly frozen to prevent formation of large ice crystals, and then stored in a cold place to be shipped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26802703",
"title": "Maypole Dairy Products",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "This company is known for its frozen yogurt, sherbet, no-sugar-added ice cream, and ice cream products. Maypole has stuck to an old-fashioned way of producing their products. This company uses a slow method of pasteurization in small batches to make sure the quality and flavors that are derived from places around the world is good. Maypole Dairy Products sells over 70 various flavors. They are known to deliver their products to businesses and restaurants who then sell it. They do not sell their product to grocery stores. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dw9vx
|
as people get older, why does it become harder to consume large quantities of food in one sitting?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not a hard and fast rule, although *appetite* tends to peak during and shortly after puberty. What can certainly alter your ability to eat a lot in one sitting would be obesity; you have less room for your internal organs, and that includes stomach and intestines. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2684023",
"title": "Geriatric dentistry",
"section": "Section::::Medical Conditions affecting Oral Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The elderly usually develop a decrease in appetite, leading to a lower intake of vitamins and minerals. However, many nutrients are recommended at the same amounts as younger people. Another reason why inadequate nutrition levels are more prominent with elders is if their dental status is poor, with missing teeth or ill fitting dentures, it can negatively affect their taste and ability to chew on food. Even well-fitted dentures are less efficient than natural teeth in terms of chewing, so changes in diet to softer foods often happen. Such foods often contain more fermentable carbohydrates, which raise individuals’ risk to developing dental caries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44472220",
"title": "Food choice of older adults",
"section": "Section::::Influences on food preference.:By age: younger and older adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "These physical changes can explain why someone of an older age might not be getting the nutrition they need. As taste buds change with age, certain foods might not be seen as appetizing. For example, a study done by Dr. Phyllis B. Grzegorcyzk says that as we age, our sense for tasting salty foods goes away slowly. When elderly people in care homes eat often frozen meals that contain large amounts of salt, they will not enjoy it. This could lead to depression, anxiety, or thoughts of suicide. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44472220",
"title": "Food choice of older adults",
"section": "Section::::Influences on food preference.:By personal health.:Physical health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "At the 2010 \"Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age\" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat. Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing dietary requirements, one study developed a modified food pyramid for adults over 70.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44472220",
"title": "Food choice of older adults",
"section": "Section::::Influences on food preference.:By social environment and conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The environment can greatly impact food preferences of older adults. Those around 75-years old and older tend to have limited mobility due to health conditions and rely on others for food shopping and preparation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44472220",
"title": "Food choice of older adults",
"section": "Section::::Influences on food preference.:By personal health.:Physical health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "With age, some people tend to avoid food and are unwilling to modify their diets due to oral health problems. These oral health problems, like dentures (false teeth) not fitting properly or gum disease, are associated with significant differences in dietary quality, which is a measure of the quality of the diet using a total of eight recommendations regarding the consumption of foods and nutrients from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). Approaches to minimize food avoidance and promote changes to the diets of people that have eating difficulties due to oral health conditions are needed desperately because without being able to chew or take in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865979",
"title": "Freshman 15",
"section": "Section::::Malnutrition.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Malnutrition can affect people of every age. Though infants, children, and adolescents suffer more from malnutrition because of their need for critical nutrients for their normal development, older people may have problems because of aging or illness. People of college age have issues with malnutrition as well, though it may not be as severe as with the younger kids or the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258979",
"title": "Malnutrition",
"section": "Section::::Special populations.:Elderly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Malnutrition and being underweight are more common in the elderly than in adults of other ages. If elderly people are healthy and active, the aging process alone does not usually cause malnutrition. However, changes in body composition, organ functions, adequate energy intake and ability to eat or access food are associated with aging, and may contribute to malnutrition. Sadness or depression can play a role, causing changes in appetite, digestion, energy level, weight, and well-being. A study on the relationship between malnutrition and other conditions in the elderly found that malnutrition in the elderly can result from gastrointestinal and endocrine system disorders, loss of taste and smell, decreased appetite and inadequate dietary intake. Poor dental health, ill-fitting dentures, or chewing and swallowing problems can make eating difficult. As a result of these factors, malnutrition is seen to develop more easily in the elderly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28mu4q
|
Why is 2^1024 the limit of so many web calculators?
|
[
{
"answer": "A limit has to be chosen, since we only have a certain number of bits at our disposal to represent a number. The choice is somewhat arbitrary.\n\nHowever, there are a few standard representations that are commonly used and implemented as low-level instructions within the FPU, so it's common to use one of them in order to make the calculations go faster.\n\na [double](_URL_0_) is the standard way of representing real numbers using 64 bits.\n\nYou have 1 bit of sign, 52 bits of \"data\" and 11 bits of exponent (1 for sign and 10 for value).\n\nUsing that representation, a number takes the form:\n\n +/- [0 1] * 2^[-2 ^ 10 2 ^ 10[ \n\nWhere [0 1] is quantized using 52 bits. \n\n2^10 is 1024, so the maximum representable value is \n\n 1 * 2 ^ ( 2 ^ 10 - 1 )\n\nwhich is 2 ^ 1023\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Calculators such as the ones mentioned use a standard representation of numbers, specified by an [IEEE](_URL_0_) standard ([IEEE-754](_URL_2_)), that uses 64 bits (64 1s and 0s) to represent a value. This limits the total number of possible values, and thus the *range* of values, that may be represented.\n\nIf you are familiar with [scientific notation](_URL_1_), i.e. expressing a number using a *mantissa* and *exponent*, the format is relatively simple to describe. One of those bits indicates the sign of the number (0=positive, 1=negative), 11 of the bits are used to express the exponent (but in base 2, not 10), and the remaining 52 bits are used to express the mantissa.\n\nIt turns out that the largest possible value that can be represented exactly is just a little shy of 2^1024, or about 1.8x10^308... or more precisely:\n179769313486231570814527423731704356798070567525844996598917476803157260780028538760589558632766878171540458953514382464234321326889464182768467546703537516986049910576551282076245490090389328944075868508455133942304583236903222948165808559332123348274797826204144723168738177180919299881250404026184124858368.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "416793",
"title": "Physical Address Extension",
"section": "Section::::Page table structures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Enabling PAE (by setting bit 5, codice_4, of the system register codice_5) causes major changes to this scheme. By default, the size of each page remains as 4 KB. Each entry in the page table and page directory becomes 64 bits long (8 bytes), instead of 32 bits, to allow for additional address bits. However, the size of each table \"does not\" change, so both table and directory now have only 512 entries. Because this allows only one half of the entries of the original scheme, an extra level of hierarchy has been added, so CR3 now points physically to a \"Page Directory Pointer Table\", a short table containing four pointers to page directories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400296",
"title": "Additive Schwarz method",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Domain decomposition.:Size of the problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "We see that this system has only 4 important pieces of information. This means that a computer program will have an easier time solving two 1×1 systems than solving a single 2×2 system, because the pair of 1×1 systems are simpler than the single 2×2 system. While the 64×64 and 32×32 systems are too large to illustrate here, we could say by analogy that the 64×64 system has 4160 pieces of information, while the 32×32 systems each have 1056, or roughly a quarter of the 64×64 system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21564294",
"title": "Bcrypt",
"section": "Section::::User input.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Note that the quote above mentions passwords \"up to 56 bytes\" even though the algorithm itself makes use of a 72 byte initial value. Although Provos and Mazières do not state the reason for the shorter restriction, they may have been motivated by the following statement from Bruce Schneier's original specification of Blowfish, \"The 448 [bit] limit on the key size ensures that the every bit of every subkey depends on every bit of the key.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449077",
"title": "Run-length limited",
"section": "Section::::Coding.:GCR: (0,2) RLL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1335,
"text": "Note that to meet the definition of (0,2) RLL, it is not sufficient only that each 5-bit code contain no more than two consecutive zeros, but it is also necessary that any pair of 5-bit codes as a combined sequentially not contain more than two consecutive zeros. That is, there must not be more than two zeros between the last one bit in the first code and the first one bit in the second code, for any two arbitrarily chosen codes. This is required because for any RLL code, the run length limits—0 and 2 in this case—apply to the overall modulated bitstream, not just to the components of it that represent discrete sequences of plain data bits. (This rule must hold for any arbitrary pair of codes, without exception, because the input data may be any arbitrary sequence of bits.) The IBM GCR code above meets this condition, since the maximum run length of zeros at the beginning of any 5-bit code is one, and likewise the maximum run length at the end of any code is one, making a total run length of two at the junction between adjacent codes. (An example of the maximum run length occurring between codes can be seen in the example given above, where the code for the data \"0010\" ends with a zero and the code for the next data, \"1101\", begins with a zero, forming a run of two zeros at the junction of these two 5-bit codes.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80503",
"title": "Decimal separator",
"section": "Section::::Digit grouping.:Data versus mask.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "In some programming languages, it is possible to group the digits in the program's source code to make it easier to read; see Integer literal: Digit separators. Ada, C# (from version 7.0), D, Haskell (from GHC version 8.6.1), Java, OCaml, Perl, Python (from version 3.6), Ruby, Rust, and Swift use the underscore (_) character for this purpose. All these languages allow seven hundred million to be entered as 700_000_000. Fixed-form Fortran ignores whitespace (in all contexts), so 700 000 000 is permissible. C++14 allows the use of an apostrophe for digit grouping, so 700'000'000 is permissible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369166",
"title": "Elias omega coding",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "A googol to the hundredth power (10) is a 33220-bit binary number. Its omega encoding is 33,243 bits long: 11 1111 1000000111000100 (22 bits), followed by 33,220 bits of the value, and a trailing 0. Under Elias delta coding, the same number is 33,250 bits long: 000000000000000 1000000111000100 (31 bits) followed by 33,219 bits of the value. As log(10) = 33219.28, so in this instance, omega and delta coding are, respectively, only 0.07% and 0.09% longer than optimal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24364",
"title": "PDP-8",
"section": "Section::::Memory control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "A 12-bit word can have 4,096 different values, and this is the maximum number of words the original PDP-8 can address indirectly through a word pointer. As programs became more complex and the price of memory fell, it became desirable to expand this limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o51gn
|
how come perfect eyesight is 20/20?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eye doctors have decided what a \"normal\" human being should be able to see when standing 20 feet away from an eye chart. If you have 20/20 vision, it means that when you stand 20 feet away from the chart you can see what the \"normal\" or average human being can see. In other words, your vision is \"normal\" -- most people can see what you see at 20 feet. \n\nIf you have 20/40 vision, it means that when you stand 20 feet away from the chart you can see what a normal human can see when standing 40 feet from the chart. That is, if there is a normal person standing 40 feet away from the chart and you are standing only 20 feet away from it, you and the normal person can see the same detail. 20/100 means that when you stand 20 feet from the chart you can see what a normal person standing 100 feet away can see. 20/200 is the cutoff for legal blindness in the United States.\n\n\nSource\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "20/20 isn't perfect vision, it's average vision. What it essentially says is you can see something at 20 feet what the average person can see at 20 feet. \n\nIf you had, say, 200/20 vision, you would have amazing vision: you could see at 200 feet what the average person could see at 20.\n\nLikewise, if you had 20/200 vision, you'd have terrible vision, because you could only see something at 20 feet what the average person could see at 200 feet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "great explanations from others, so I won't add much other than 20/20 can't be perfect since people have the capability of eyesight such as 20/15, which would be 'better' eyesight than someone with 20/20",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't perfect, it's normal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ophthalmologist here. \nFrom 20 feet, or 6 meters, the light rays entering the eye are essentially parallel. There is no need to accommodate (change the focusing power of the lens of the eye). That is why we use the 20/20, or 6/6. Light rays that are from a closer object would be diverging when they hit your eye, and would require focusing effort. Light rays from farther than 20 feet are indistinguishable from those 20 feet away.\n\nThe limit of human vision is calculated to be around 20/08. If you think of it in terms of pixels, the cone photoreceptors are packed most tightly in our fovea (center of our retina). If the rest of the eye were perfect, i.e. no cataract or refractive error, you could see 20/08. \n\nThose young adults who can read the 20/10 line without glasses have close to perfect vision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "20/10 Vision Master race reporting in. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've got 20/10, pretty much double vision. The world to me is completely flat with no blurred vision of anything at any distance. From a personal standpoint I think its 'perfect vision' just because almost anyone with any other vision can't even see what I'm talking about or describing. You'd be surprised at how many people have terrible vision and can't even read fine print off the tv.\n\nEdit: For the down voters, I can walk back an extra 10 ft (30 ft total) and still read the bottom line of an eye chart. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "20/10 after lasik. Feels good man.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So if my right eye is -5.50 with contacts and my left eye is -3.50 what does that make me?? Other than blind as shit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think 20/20 actually means that you have normal / average vision.\n\nThe ratio means: You can see something at 20 feet away, that the average person would have to be 20 feet away to see.\n\nI can't remember which way round the ratio works, but say you were almost blind, your eyesight might be 20/200 for instance. This would mean:\n\nYou have to be 20 feet away from something that the average person can see at 200 feet away.\n\nThat means that you can also have eyesight that is better than 20/20. If you had 20/15, it would mean you could see something from 20 feet away that somebody has to be 15 feet away from.\n\nI may have gotten the ratio the wrong way round, but the principle is right I believe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just out of curiosity OP, did you listen to the JRE with bryan callen? I just listened to it on my run and thought to myself \"I am going to look up how 20/20 vision works when i get home\", and then this is the first reddit thread I see.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe this is *slightly* above a \"five-year-old\" level, but I'm just adding info for anyone else interested.\n\nYou know the Snellen eye chart:\n\n E\n F P\n T O Z\n L P E D (etc...)\n\nThe letters above the red line, \"D E F P O T E C\" 8 lines down, that's 20/20, and each little branch of each letter (like the middle line of the E) is one second of arc, if you're standing 20 feet away.\n\nWhat's a second of arc? Well, you know if you look all around you, that's 360°? Each degree is broken up into 60 minutes, and each minute is broken up into 60 seconds. (For comparison, the Moon is about 900 seconds big).\n\nSo, the idea is that if you're seeing 20/20, if means you're able to see something as small as one second of arc. That's also why you can go \"under,\" like 20/15. It means you can see even smaller detail. If you are 20/25, that's still pretty \"clear\" vision. You can be up to 20/40 before the DMV says you needs glasses to drive.\n\n > \"Do they use the same system for nearsightedness and farsightedness?\"\n\nYes and no. For a farsighted person, we can put a miniaturized eye chart at the proper distance away from them (say 18 inches), and measure their visual acuity in terms of 20/20 (can the differentiate 1 second of arc from that distance). Although the whole \"twenty feet\" application doesn't fit, you would still describe a patient as having 20/20 acuity at 18 inches.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Optometrist here. This topic is confusing because people use the word \"perfect.\" 20/20 eyesight is not \"perfect\" vision. It is just what vision specialists have \"standardized\" as being normal. It is a useful convention for eye care specialists, because If you are seeing less than 20/20, there is almost always a reason (whether it be need for glasses, a problem with which you were born, or some disease process). Some people have better than 20/20- that is 20/15 or 20/10. The differences for these higher levels of vision can be accounted for with the size and density of the photoreceptor layer. In humans, this maximum ability appears to approach a limit around 20/08. You could call this \"perfect,\" but as soon as we create a way to more densely pack your photoreceptor layer, a new \"perfect\" will be created. Interesting fact, eagles crush human resolving ability as they see somewhere around 20/05. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, studying optometry at the moment in 3rd year. \n\n20/20 eyesight is a measurement of the smallest objects you can see. The first 20 stands for the distance you are reading the chart/object, where in America it's 20 feet but in Australia we call it 6/6 since it's 6 metres. The other 20 is used to describe the size of the letter, but it's essentially something to do with seconds of arc subtending over a 1m (if you have done trigonometry it's like the triangle with the 20 corresponding something with the angle [sorry I forgot about this part, might have to look into my notes about this]\n\nThe grade increases as eyesight capability decreases since as the second number gets bigger, something like 20/40, the letters get bigger. So if you are only able to resolve larger letter, obviously your vision is poorer.\n\nNearsightedness also known as myopia, is when you can't see things far away and Farsightedness, hyperopia is when you can't see things up close. Since 20/20 is an measurement of visual acuity, resolving power of your eyes it will be used for both. However your condition being nearsightedness or farsightedness will be noted by the type of lens you need for your spectacles, -ve lenses for myopia and +ve lenses for hyperopia.\n\nI would also like to note that 20/20, or 6/6 in Aus is the general standard of visual acuity that the average individual should have or be corrected to. So it's a standard optometrists follow to know if we are giving the correct prescription. It's not especially good vision or anything special, just a norm we use. It can be seen that some people have better than 20/20 vision, like 20/10 which are a small percentage of the population but isn't that strange since there are fluctuations in almost everything\n\nHope this clears this up for you,\n\nCheers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I have -5.00 on each eye, what would that make me? The different systems confuse me",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When my son finally got glasses in fourth grade, he said he had no idea that people could actually see farther than 3 feet away from them. I felt like the worst mom ever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What does -5.25 for both eyes for contacts what does that make me and can I get laser eye surgery for that? I'm 18 btw.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, look at the ratio.\n\n20/20 = 1 = normal\n20/40 = 1/2 = 0.5 = your vision is worse than normal.\n20/10 = 2 = really good - you see twice the detail of a normal person.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "20/20 means \"you can see at 20 feet what a normal person can see at 20 feet.\"\n\n20/20 is not \"perfect,\" but \"normal\". \n\nThe value 20 is arbitrary, though probably based on the practical dimensions of optometrists' offices.\n\n20/10 is actually better than normal. 20/1 would be astronomically good.\n\nNearsightedness is indicated by the numerator being less than the denominator. 20/40 means you must be 20 feet distance to see what most people can see from 40 feet, therefore, \"near\"sighted. Meanwhile, a numerator higher than the denominator, e.g. 20/10, means you can see at 20 feet what most people see at 10 feet (the implication being that you can't see it at 20 feet), therefore \"far\"sighted.\n\nAn eye exam starts from the expectation that you (that is to say, your eyes) are 20 feet away from the chart, and should be able to read everything from the 20/200 line to the 20/20 line. If you can't read the 20/20 line from 20 feet, but you can read the 15/20 line, you're nearsighted.\n\nOn the other hand, if you can see from 20 feet what most people can see at 15 feet, but *cannot* see at 20 feet what most people can see at 20 feet, you have 20/15, which is farsightedness. The idea here is that the number you get is the closest you can get to 20/20. If you can see 20/20 *and* 20/15, then you have better than normal vision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, 20/10 vision is perfect vision. I have 20/15 vision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Personally, my hindsight is 20/10",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Human visual acuity follows a bell curve. The curve is shifted past 20/20 however. Most people think that 20/20 is perfect vision. 20/20 is the norm that we look for, otherwise we look for an explanation for the decreased vision. People can see much better than 20/20 though. Many younger people, if not most are capable of 20/15 (which is effectively an ability to an object at 15 feet where someone who is 20/20 could only see the same object at 20 feet). There are also some, but fewer people cable of seeing 20/10 or even 20/8.\n\nThe above is all in reference to with an optical correction (glasses or contacts for example). Without it, then people's vision is much more all over the place. Several factors come into play when looking at the best vision possible. First is the optical correction above. Next is to make sure the neurological connections are capable of good vision. eg. Amblyopia is when the eye itself is healthy, but the neurological connections never developed for one of several reasons, so the person is not capable of 20/20. The next is how tightly packed the photoreceptors are in the eye. The closer the spacing, the more capable that eye is holding all other factors equal.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its not perfect. I have 20/15 vision. \nWhat normal people see at 15 feet. I can see at 20. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "that's not perfect, it's normal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "208259",
"title": "20 (number)",
"section": "Section::::In science.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "BULLET::::- In some countries, the number 20 is used as an index in measuring visual acuity. 20/20 indicates normal vision at 20 feet, although it is commonly used to mean \"perfect vision\". (Note that this applies only to countries using the Imperial system. The metric equivalent is 6/6.) When someone is able to see only after an event how things turned out, that person is often said to have had \"20/20 hindsight\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143822",
"title": "Supplemental Security Income",
"section": "Section::::Eligibility.:Aged, disabled, or blind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "\"central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which has a limitation in the field of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees should also be considered as having a central visual acuity of 20/200 or less.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648954",
"title": "Visual acuity",
"section": "Section::::Expression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Healthy young observers may have a binocular acuity superior to 6/6; the limit of acuity in the unaided human eye is around 6/3–6/2.4 (20/10–20/8), although 6/3 was the highest score recorded in a study of some US professional athletes. Some birds of prey, such as hawks, are believed to have an acuity of around 20/2; in this respect, their vision is much better than human eyesight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1099280",
"title": "Eye examination",
"section": "Section::::Basic examination.:Visual acuity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "The standard definition of normal visual acuity (20/20 or 6/6 vision) is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc. The terms 20/20 and 6/6 are derived from standardized sized objects that can be seen by a \"person of normal vision\" at the specified distance. For example, if one can see at a distance of 20 ft an object that normally can be seen at 20 ft, then one has 20/20 vision. If one can see at 20 ft what a normal person can see at 40 ft, then one has 20/40 vision. Put another way, suppose you have trouble seeing objects at a distance and you can only see out to 20 ft what a person with normal vision can see out to 200 feet, then you have 20/200 vision. The 6/6 terminology is more commonly used in Europe and Australia, and represents the distance in metres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27653752",
"title": "Retina display",
"section": "Section::::Detractors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Apple fan website \"CultOfMac\" stated that the resolution the human eye can discern at 12 inches is 900 PPI, concluding \"Apple's Retina Displays are only about 33% of the way there.\" On the topic of 20/20 vision, they said \"most research suggests that normal vision is actually much better than 20/20. In fact, people with normal vision usually won't see their eyesight degrade to 20/20 until they are 60 or 70 years of age\" (confirmed by vision testing experts Precision Vision). \"CultOfMac\" also noted that people do not always view displays at a constant distance, and will sometimes move closer, at which point the display could no longer be classed as Retina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "BULLET::::2. It gives a wider field of view. For example, humans have a maximum horizontal field of view of approximately 190 degrees with two eyes, approximately 120 degrees of which makes up the binocular field of view (seen by both eyes) flanked by two uniocular fields (seen by only one eye) of approximately 40 degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648954",
"title": "Visual acuity",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "A reference value above which visual acuity is considered normal is called 6/6 vision, the USC equivalent of which is 20/20 vision: At 6 metres or 20 feet, a human eye with that performance is able to separate contours that are approximately 1.75 mm apart. Vision of 6/12 corresponds to lower, vision of 6/3 to better performance. Normal individuals have an acuity of 6/4 or better (depending on age and other factors).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jrty1
|
does earth appear as a bright planet?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here is a picture and a speech](_URL_0_). The answer is no - the earth is not particularly luminous. No more than the other planets in our solar system. You lose sight of us before you leave the solar system. Long before then, we're nothing but a pale blue dot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few million light years away? That is an insane distance. Our entire galaxy is only ~100,000 light years in diameter. Even one lightyear away would be too far, not only is our planet not that bright, it is minuscule in comparison to the sun so anyone trying to look for us would just see our big, bright sun. This is a struggle we have in our search for planets outside of our solar system, no telescope is powerful enough to see them, however we are able to detect them by other methods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "273679",
"title": "Astronomical spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Planets, asteroids, and comets.:Planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The reflected light of a planet contains absorption bands due to minerals in the rocks present for rocky bodies, or due to the elements and molecules present in the atmosphere. To date over 3,500 exoplanets have been discovered. These include so-called Hot Jupiters, as well as Earth-like planets. Using spectroscopy, compounds such as alkali metals, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane have all been discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23490621",
"title": "Chew (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Locations.:Altilis-738.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Altilis-738 is the third planet in a small solar system more than 24 light years away. It is populated by a species of purple people. 24 years ago strange writing appeared in the sky causing panic and then 24 years later, when the light reaches Earth, it is revealed the planet exploded. The same writing appeared above the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:View from nearby stars (0 – 10 ly).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 1322,
"text": "A planet around either α Centauri A or B would see the other star as a very bright secondary. For example, an Earth-like planet at 1.25 astronomical units from α Cen A (with a revolution period of 1.34 years) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen B would appear 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes dimmer (−21.0 to −18.2), 190 to 2,700 times dimmer than α Cen A but still 150 to 2,100 times brighter than the full Moon. Conversely, an Earth-like planet at 0.71 AU from α Cen B (with a revolution period of 0.63 years) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen A would appear 4.6 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer (−22.1 to −19.4), 70 to 840 times dimmer than α Cen B but still 470 to 5,700 times brighter than the full Moon. In both cases the secondary sun would, in the course of the planet's year, appear to circle the sky. It would start off right beside the primary and end up, half a period later, opposite it in the sky (at \"full\"). After another half period, it would complete the cycle. Other planets orbiting one member of a binary system would enjoy similar skies. The angular separation between the two stars would not be exactly the same after one orbit of the planet however, because during that time the parent star will have completed part of its orbit around the other star in the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29486469",
"title": "Phase curve (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Earth as seen from Venus near opposition from the Sun would be extremely bright at magnitude −6. To an observer outside the Earth's orbit on Mars our planet would appear most luminous near the time of its greatest elongation from the Sun, at about magnitude −1.5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "815504",
"title": "Ulalume",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Allusions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The bright star they see is Astarte, a goddess associated with Venus and connected with fertility and sexuality. The \"sinfully scintillant planet\" in the original final verse is another reference to Venus. Astarte may represent a sexual temptress or a vision of the ideal. Mount Yaanek, with its \"sulphurous currents\" in the \"ultimate climes of the pole\", has been associated with Mount Erebus, a volcano in Antarctica first sighted in 1841, although Yaanek's location is specified as being in \"the realms of the boreal pole\", indicating an Arctic location rather than an Antarctic one for the fictional counterpart. The Auber and Weir references in the poem may be to two contemporaries of Poe: Daniel François Esprit Auber, a composer of sad operatic tunes, and Robert Walter Weir, a painter of the Hudson River School famous for his landscapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49312114",
"title": "Geology of Ceres",
"section": "Section::::Faculae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Several bright surface features were discovered on the dwarf planet Ceres by the \"Dawn\" spacecraft in 2015. The brightest spot is located in the middle of Occator crater, and is called \"bright spot 5\". 130 bright areas have been discovered on Ceres, which are thought to be salt or ammonia-rich clays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004014",
"title": "Pale Blue Dot",
"section": "Section::::Pale blue color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Earth's reflectance spectrum from the far-ultraviolet to the near-infrared is unlike any other observed planet's and is partially due to the presence of life on Earth. Rayleigh scattering, which causes Earth's blueness, is enhanced in an atmosphere that does not substantially absorb visible light, unlike, for example, the orange-brown color of Titan, where organic haze particles absorb strongly at blue visible wavelengths. Earth's plentiful atmospheric oxygen, which comes from photosynthetic life forms, causes the atmosphere to be transparent to visible light, which allows for substantial Rayleigh scattering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7coqv6
|
thinking about probability, how is it possible that one and only puzzle piece fits in another in a jigsaw puzzle?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's not probability that's design. Jig saw puzzles arent random. Someone actually sat down and drew out the lines specifically so that they only fit one place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have a discrete probability space, then you would have a non-zero chance that two or more pieces would be the same, but when you have a continuous probability space (like the shape of all jigsaw knobs), then the chances that two random pieces would have the same knob shape is zero. \n\nprecisely, the subset of all similar pieces has measure zero in the probability space. To break down that jargon a bit: what is the length of a point on a line? Zero. What is the length of two points on a line? Also zero. If we make that idea more precise (which is not easy, and outside the scope of this comment, but this is what I mean by \"measure\"), we can have an infinite number of points whose length is zero. For example: rational numbers between 0 and 1. Now, the interval from 0 to 1 has length 1 (we haven't gone that crazy), but the \"length\" of all rational points added up is still zero. That's a set of measure zero.\n\nOf course, things get more complicated when you allow for tolerances. What defines fit? How far off do those shapes need to be before they don't fit?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A puzzle isn't really a good example, since a piece is obviously wrong if the details on that piece don't make the details of its neighbors.\n\nImagine a picture of a rainbow. You're not going to try and fit a blue piece in the red band. It *may* fit there, but it doesn't *belong* there.\n\nThere really aren't that many different shapes for the pieces. The number of images on the pieces can be anything you want, but a manufacturer is going to have a limited number of dies that cut out the shapes.\n\nA \"truly\" difficult puzzle would be a 5,000-piece puzzle, and each piece is a the same solid color.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The inserts and the holes are each unique. \n\nAnd while some prices can fit within a certain tolerances they are not the perfect fit. It's actually fairly common for pieces to be able to be set together so that not \"one and only one\" piece fits into another - but here you might have to \"force\" the two together. \n\nFurthermore, perhaps two pieces do match identically, that is only 1 of 4 sides, so would their intended boarder pieces also match so that 4 or 6 of the two sets would still match? Afterall, each piece has 4 sides of its own. And then each boarder piece will have its own boarder pieces and so on. \n\nEven furthermore, each puzzle is limited to a set number of pieces. In a 10,000 piece puzzle, your chances of finding a perfect fit between two unintentionally fitting pieces is higher than in a 100 piece puzzle. \n\nBut in terms of \"possibility\" so that \"one and only one piece\" could fit perfectly, one would need to make a computer algorithm to adjust the size and shape of each piece. Then a wire electronic discharge machine could easily cut some metal pieces that have tolerances well under half of a millimeter, meaning the variance between pieces only need to scale by the tolerances. Easily and realistically done. \n\nBut since most puzzles are paper products, we can't have this precision. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "133877",
"title": "Jigsaw puzzle",
"section": "Section::::Puzzle pieces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Many puzzles are termed \"fully interlocking\". This means that adjacent pieces are connected in such a way that if one piece is moved horizontally, the other pieces move with it, preserving the connection. Sometimes the connection is tight enough to pick up a solved part by holding one piece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2390407",
"title": "Dogic",
"section": "Section::::Number of combinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Due to different numbers of visually identical pieces in the two versions of the puzzle, they each have a different number of possible combinations. There are 60 tip pieces and 20 centres with 3 orientations, giving a theoretical maximum of 60!·20!·3 positions. This limit is not reached on either puzzle, due to reducing factors detailed below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29138951",
"title": "Board puzzles with algebra of binary variables",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "These puzzles are based on algebra with binary variables taking a pair of values, for example, (no, yes), (false, true), (not exists, exists), (0, 1). It invites the player quickly establish some equations, and inequalities for the solution. The partitioning can be used to reduce the complexity of the problem. Moreover, if the puzzle is prepared in a way that there exists a unique solution only, this fact can be used to eliminate some variables without calculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12229416",
"title": "Eternity II puzzle",
"section": "Section::::History and puzzle construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Like the original Eternity puzzle, it is easy to find large numbers of ways to place substantial numbers of pieces on the board whose edges all match, making it seem that the puzzle is easy. However, given the low expected number of possible solutions, it is presumably astronomically unlikely that any given partial solution will lead to a complete solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14977455",
"title": "Combination puzzle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "A combination puzzle is solved by achieving a particular combination starting from a random (scrambled) combination. Often, the solution is required to be some recognisable pattern such as \"all like colours together\" or \"all numbers in order\". The most famous of these puzzles is the original Rubik's Cube, a cubic puzzle in which each of the six faces can be independently rotated. Each of the six faces is a different colour, but each of the nine pieces on a face is identical in colour, in the solved condition. In the unsolved condition colours are distributed amongst the pieces of the cube. Puzzles like the Rubik's Cube which are manipulated by rotating a layer of pieces are popularly called twisty puzzles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37611846",
"title": "Petals Around the Rose",
"section": "Section::::Puzzle play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The puzzle is commonly presented as a game in which one person rolls the dice and announces a numerical result for each roll. Players are instructed to work out the pattern and announce the result of each roll themselves, but they are supposed to keep the formula for that result to themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6752064",
"title": "Five room puzzle",
"section": "Section::::Solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "By bending the rules, a related puzzle could be solved. For instance, by permitting passage through more than one wall at a time (that is, through a corner of a room), or by solving the puzzle on a torus (doughnut) instead of a flat plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gyceu
|
How did Mohammed and his followers--and, for that matter, his immediate predecessors and fellow Arab people of the time--come to believe in a bunch of the same stuff as the Jews did?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may also be interested in reading some of the answers in this fairly recent [AMA on Pre-Islamic Arabia](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I asked a very similar [question](_URL_0_) recently, that received some informative responses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pre-Islamic Arabia was a mix of a few religions at this time. The main religions in this region were Judaism, Christianity, and a form of Pagan tribal religion. While there is some evidence to suggest that some of the Pagan people believed that there was only one God, most believed in multiple deities and had a personal/family deity that that individually worshipped. Overall the Pagan people were non-Abrahamic and polytheistic. Other traits of theirs would be incorporated into Islam but not their polytheistic traditions.\n\nWhen you examine early Islam it is important to remember that Muhammed saw himself as worshipping the same God as Jews and Christians but that they had gone astray and God talked to him to show these people how they had gone astray. The reason why you see many similarities with Judaism and Christianity is that Islam believes that these religions were founded by the same God that talked to Muhammed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24778784",
"title": "Natan'el al-Fayyumi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "There were Jews, such as Natan'el, who accepted this model of religious pluralism, leading them to view Muhammad as a legitimate prophet, albeit not Jewish, sent to preach to the Arabs, just as the Hebrew prophets had been sent to deliver their messages to Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8386524",
"title": "Muhammad's views on Jews",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The Islamic prophet Muhammad's views on Jews were informed through the contact he had with Jewish tribes living in and around Medina. His views on Jews include his theological teaching of them as People of the Book (\"Ahl al-Kitab\"), his description of them as earlier receivers of Abrahamic revelation; and the failed political alliances between the Muslim and Jewish communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8386524",
"title": "Muhammad's views on Jews",
"section": "Section::::Muhammad and the Jewish tribes of Medina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "As Muhammad taught of new \"Islamic prophets\" (such as Lot, and Jesus) and that his message was identical to those of Abraham and Moses, the Jews were furthermore in the position to make some Muslims doubt about his prophethood. Judaism does not list Lot, nor Jesus as Prophets in Judaism, and the Talmud (Sanhedrin 11a) states that Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, all of whom lived at the end of the 70-year Babylonian exile, and nowadays only the \"Bath Kol\" (בת קול, lit. \"daughter of a voice\", \"voice of God\") exists. The Jews, according to Watt, could argue that \"some passages in the Qur'an contradicted their ancient scriptures\". Watt also states that many of the Jews had close links with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, \"the potential prince of Medina\" who \"is said that but for the arrival of Muhammad, had not become\" the chief arbitrator of the community. The Jews may have hoped for greater influence if Ubayy had become a ruler. Watt writes that the Islamic response to these criticisms was:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5752945",
"title": "Muhammad in Medina",
"section": "Section::::Hijra to Medina.:Relationship with followers of Abrahamic religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In the course of Muhammad proselytizing in Mecca, he viewed Christians and Jews (both of whom he referred to as \"People of the Book\") as natural allies, part of the Abrahamic religions, sharing the core principles of his teachings, and anticipated their acceptance and support. Muslims, like Jews, were at that time praying towards Jerusalem. In the Constitution of Medina, Muhammad demanded the Jews' political loyalty in return for religious and cultural autonomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8386524",
"title": "Muhammad's views on Jews",
"section": "Section::::Muhammad and the Jewish tribes of Medina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Many Medinans converted to the faith of the Meccan immigrants both before and after Muhammad's emigration, but only a few came from Jewish backgrounds because most of the Jewish community rejected Muhammad's status as a prophet. Their opposition \"may well have been for political as well as religious reasons\". According to Watt, \"Jews would normally be unwilling to admit that a non-Jew could be a prophet.\" Mark Cohen adds that Muhammad was appearing \"centuries after the cessation of biblical prophecy\" and \"couched his message in a verbiage foreign to Judaism both in its format and rhetoric.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8386524",
"title": "Muhammad's views on Jews",
"section": "Section::::Muhammad and the Jewish tribes of Medina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In the course of Muhammad's proselytizing in Mecca, he viewed Christians and Jews, both of whom he referred to as \"People of the Book\", as natural allies, sharing the core principles of his teachings, and anticipated their acceptance and support. Muslims, like Jews, were at that time praying towards Jerusalem. During the height of Muslim persecution in Mecca, Muhammad was offered the position of arbitrator in the highly diverse Medina, which had a large Jewish community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34716559",
"title": "Sallam ibn Mishkam",
"section": "Section::::Debate with Muhammad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "When Muhammad arrived in Medina in 622, he was eager to convince the local Jewish tribes that he was a prophet like the ones in their own Scriptures. Two Muslim converts, Muaz ibn Jabal and Bishr ibn al-Baraa, urged Sallam to become a Muslim: “When we were pagans, you used to pray for the Prophet’s help to defeat us and warn us that he was coming, and you described him to us.” Sallam, like the majority of Jews, was unimpressed by Muhammad’s claims. He replied that Muhammad “has brought us nothing we recognize and he is not [the Messiah] about whom we used to tell you.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7d1xda
|
if carbon dioxide is bad for you to inhale, and people provide it when you breath out, wouldn't the carbon dioxide do any damage to the person getting mouth to mouth?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not enough to cause harm. Your exhaled air is still quite high in oxygen, and is *much* better for the other person than no breathing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Carbon dioxide doesn't hurt you. A lack of oxygen hurts you, and carbon monoxide hurts you.\n\nYou don't convert all the oxygen you inhale into carbon dioxide, so CPR is still effective. However, these days, heartsaver CPR is recommended (unless you have special training and two people). This uses the chest compressions to move some air through the lungs while also working the heart. It doesn't involve breathing into the person's lungs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pure carbon dioxide would be bad to inhale, especially for a prolonged time. OTOH, if a person is not breathing, the air you exhale contains carbon dioxide but it also contains some oxygen, which is good. So, some oxygen is better than no oxygen (i.e., no air at all - they're not breathing). If you could arrange to blow ordinary air (or even oxygen enriched air) instead of what you are exhaling, that would be better, but probably would require a hospital or some such. So, net, net, using your exhaled breath is better than nothing. Still, when they can breathe on their own, let them.\n\nBTW, pure nitrogen, pure laughing gas, pure helium, are all unsustainable for breathing. But you can do them for a bit. In the case of helium, folks do it since their voice sounds strange.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26083160",
"title": "Throat irritation",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Home remedies for throat irritation include gargling with warm water twice a day, sipping honey and lemon mixture or sucking on medicated lozenges. If the cause is dry air, then one should humidify the home. Since smoke irritates the throat, stop smoking and avoid all fumes from chemicals, paints and volatile liquids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23527304",
"title": "Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "In people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, carbon dioxide toxicity can be prevented by careful control of the supplemental oxygen. Just enough oxygen is given to maintain an oxygen saturation of 88 - 92%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508455",
"title": "Oxygen therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Oxygen is required for normal cell metabolism. Excessively high concentrations can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. Higher oxygen concentrations also increase the risk of fires, particularly while smoking, and without humidification can also dry out the nose. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94–96% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88–92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest they should be as high as possible. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume while oxygen therapy increases this by some amount up to 100%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459471",
"title": "Breathing gas",
"section": "Section::::For diving and other hyperbaric use.:Unwelcome components of breathing gases for diving.:Carbon dioxide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Carbon dioxide (CO) is produced by the metabolism in the human body and can cause carbon dioxide poisoning. When breathing gas is recycled in a rebreather or life support system, the carbon dioxide is removed by scrubbers before the gas is re-used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459471",
"title": "Breathing gas",
"section": "Section::::Medical breathing gases.:Oxygen therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "High concentrations of oxygen can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. It can also dry out the nose and increase the risk of fires in those who smoke. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94-98% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88-92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest the saturation should be as high as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56795521",
"title": "Investigation of diving accidents",
"section": "Section::::Causes of diving accidents.:Equipment issues.:Breathing gas quality problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1136,
"text": "Contamination of the breathing gas will have effects that depend on the concentration, the ambient pressure, and the specific contaminants present. Carbon monoxide produced by overheating of the compressor, or by contamination of the intake air by internal combustion engine exhaust gas is a well known risk, and can be mitigated by using hopcalite catalyst in the high pressure filter. Contamination by carbon dioxide is unusual in open circuit breathing apparatus, as natural air usually has a low enough content not to be a problem at the ambient pressures of most dives. It is a relatively common problem for rebreathers, as the metabolically produced carbon dioxide in the exhaled gas must be removed chemically by the scrubber before the gas can be breathed again. Scrubber breakthrough can occur for a variety of reasons, most of them connected to user error, but some more likely due to design details of the specific unit. A slow buildup of carbon dioxide can usually be noticed by the diver in time to bail out, but sometimes the concentration can rise so rapidly that the diver is incapcitated before being able to bail out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5638",
"title": "Combustion",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Complete and incomplete.:Incomplete.:Problems associated with incomplete combustion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Breathing carbon monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods of time are positively correlation with risk of heart disease. People who survive severe CO poisoning may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells. This would reduce the capacity of red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kllzy
|
Theory
|
[
{
"answer": " > A scientific theory means that it has been tested and *proven* without fail MANY times.\n\nThis is incorrect - theories are never *proven*. They can only be accepted or rejected based on an ever-growing (hopefully) pile of evidence. It would be more accurate to say that an accepted theory has been tested and scientists recognize that it has passed all tests so far.\n\nGravity itself is not a theory but an observed force; our current *understanding* of that force, including the equations we use to describe our observations, is a theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be fair, a theory just needs to be falsifiable. It doesn't need to be \"tested and proven without fail.\" A _bad_ theory is still a theory by virtue of scientific rigor and logical validity.\n\nEvolution just happens to be a _good_ theory - as with most well-known theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See the links [here](_URL_0_). Great synopses of theory, hypothesis, etc.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > A scientific theory means that it has been tested and *proven* without fail MANY times.\n\nThis is incorrect - theories are never *proven*. They can only be accepted or rejected based on an ever-growing (hopefully) pile of evidence. It would be more accurate to say that an accepted theory has been tested and scientists recognize that it has passed all tests so far.\n\nGravity itself is not a theory but an observed force; our current *understanding* of that force, including the equations we use to describe our observations, is a theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be fair, a theory just needs to be falsifiable. It doesn't need to be \"tested and proven without fail.\" A _bad_ theory is still a theory by virtue of scientific rigor and logical validity.\n\nEvolution just happens to be a _good_ theory - as with most well-known theories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See the links [here](_URL_0_). Great synopses of theory, hypothesis, etc.\n\n",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "30746",
"title": "Theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking often is associated with such processes like observational study, research. Theories may either be scientific or other than scientific (or scientific to less extent). Depending on the context, the results might, for example, include generalized explanations of how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several related meanings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9423860",
"title": "Theory-theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Theory-theory (or theory theory) is a scientific theory relating to the human development of understanding about the outside world. This theory asserts that individuals hold a basic or 'naïve' theory of psychology (\"folk psychology\") to infer the mental states of others, such as their beliefs, desires or emotions. This information is used to understand the intentions behind that person's actions or predict future behavior. The term 'perspective taking' is sometimes used to describe how one makes inferences about another person's inner state using theoretical knowledge about the other's situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "186023",
"title": "Unifying theories in mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The term \"theory\" is used informally within mathematics to mean a self-consistent body of definitions, axioms, theorems, examples, and so on. (Examples include group theory, Galois theory, control theory, and K-theory.) In particular there is no connotation of \"hypothetical\". Thus the term \"unifying theory\" is more like a sociological term used to study the actions of mathematicians. It may assume nothing conjectural that would be analogous to an undiscovered scientific link. There is really no cognate within mathematics to such concepts as \"Proto-World\" in linguistics or the Gaia hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "30746",
"title": "Theory",
"section": "Section::::Scientific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In science, the term \"theory\" refers to \"a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.\" Theories must also meet further requirements, such as the ability to make falsifiable predictions with consistent accuracy across a broad area of scientific inquiry, and production of strong evidence in favor of the theory from multiple independent sources (consilience).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "484764",
"title": "Process theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A process theory is a system of ideas that explains how an entity changes and develops. Process theories are often contrasted with variance theories, that is, systems of ideas that explain the variance in a dependent variable based on one or more independent variables. While process theories focus on how something happens, variance theories focus on why something happens. Examples of process theories include evolution by natural selection, continental drift and the nitrogen cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17181902",
"title": "Everything",
"section": "Section::::In theoretical physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In theoretical physics, a \"theory of everything\" (TOE) is a hypothetical theory that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena. Initially, the term was used with an ironic connotation to refer to various overgeneralized theories. For example, a great-grandfather of Ijon Tichy—a character from a cycle of Stanisław Lem's science fiction stories of 1960s—was known to work on the \"General Theory of Everything\". Over time, the term stuck in popularizations of quantum physics to describe a theory that would unify or explain through a single model the theories of all fundamental interactions of nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9423860",
"title": "Theory-theory",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other theories.:Theory of mind (ToM).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 270,
"text": "\"Theory-theory\" is closely related to theory of mind (ToM), which concerns mental states of people, but differs from ToM in that the full scope of \"theory-theory\" also concerns mechanical devices or other objects, beyond just thinking about people and their viewpoints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
gafqa
|
Is there any science behind why elderly people often die close to the death of their significant other? It also seems to happen frequently with pets.
|
[
{
"answer": "increased stress and depression in the immediate period after\n\nhere's one showing heart problems associated with bereavement [link](_URL_1_)\n\nEdit: heres a [link](_URL_0_) to the original infamous Finnish study",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I work in a hospital and I've seen numerous people come in for various procedures, some mundane procedures some for some serious work. Sometimes people will arrive with a pessimistic view, I've heard a few patients say \"I'm going to die\". These patients have an **overwhelmingly** worse time recovering, not just in terms of healing but in things like sepsis, how their body handles infection. The placebo effect is real, there is actual science there. I would bet there are numerous reasons why elderly people die at a higher rate after their partner has passed on (Less pressure to survive, changes in lifestyle, no one to help with challenges, etc) but I think that a good portion of it has to do with the mind directly effecting the persons health.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6376907",
"title": "Lotosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Paleoecology and taphonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The large number of individuals within a small area indicate that all of the animals died at around the same time. However, their bones are well preserved and minimally scattered, indicating that the cause of death was not a catastrophic event such as a flood or mudslide. It has been suggested that the group perished due to thirst or sickness during the dry season, perhaps while gathered around an evaporating or contaminated watering hole. Their rotting carcasses would have soon afterwards been covered in water and sediment upon the arrival of the wet season, which would explain the apparent but slight scattering of bones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5160376",
"title": "Animal loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The death of a pet or an animal to which one has become emotionally bonded can be an intense loss, comparable with the death of a human loved one, or even greater depending on the individual. The death can be felt more intensely when the owner has made a decision to end the pet's life through euthanasia. While there is strong evidence that animals can feel such loss for other animals, this article focuses on human feelings, when an animal is lost, dies or otherwise is departed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "586558",
"title": "Trap–neuter–return",
"section": "Section::::A Controversial Practice.:The Debate - the pros and cons of free-roaming cats and TNR.:Improving the cats' health and welfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alleviating unnecessary suffering of kittens. 75% of the kittens born to free-roaming cats being studied died or disappeared before 6 months of age. Trauma was found to be the most common cause of death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34000843",
"title": "Death in children's literature",
"section": "Section::::20th century to present.:Introduction of death concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1549,
"text": "The death of animals with or without human personalities is a popular way to introduce the topic to younger children. The death of an animal or inanimate object such as a plant made up 2% of the deaths in literature for children ages three to eight written in the 1970s and 1980s. In Hemery's \"Not Just a Fish\", a young girl's fish dies and the girl deals with both her grief and the sympathy or disregard of others. This book actually shows a new trend that exists in society: adults disregard for, or ignorance of, the grief of children. In \"Tough Boris\" by Fox, a character shown previously as a gruff, fearless pirate is grief-stricken when his parrot dies. In Viorst's \"The Tenth Good Thing About Barney\", a child is challenged to think of good things about a lost pet named Barney, while he and his family prepare for memorial activities. The use of animals allows the authors to broach the subject of replacing a loved one, such as in \"Charlotte’s Web\" when Charlotte's memory lives on through her children. More examples are available in \"The Yearling\" by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, \"The Black Stallion\" by Walter Farley, \"Old Yeller\" by \"Fred Gipson\" and \"Where the Red Fern Grows\" by Wilson Rawls. One hypothesis for shielding children from death is that with the advent of modern medicine and changing attitudes about family, death is more removed from our lives than ever before. For example, in Zolotow's \"My Grandson Lew\", a mother must admit to her six-year-old son that his grandfather and namesake has died and she did not tell him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210128",
"title": "Schipperke",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The Schipperke has no particular health problems. The UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of the breed at 13 years old, with about 20% living to 15 years or more. Of the 36 deceased dogs in the survey, the oldest dog was years old. Nonetheless, inactivity, lack of exercise and over-feeding are very harmful, and can lead to joint and skeletal problems and tooth, heart, lung or digestive conditions. Schipperke's primary orthopedic problem tends to be luxating patella and Legg-Perthes syndrome. Some Schipperkes have demonstrated tendencies to epilepsy, although there are no tests: these seem to be related to genetic transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5818044",
"title": "Cerebellar abiotrophy",
"section": "Section::::Clinical Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Most affected animals have normal intelligence and mildly affected animals can, in theory, live out a normal lifespan. However, affected animals are quite accident-prone, and for this reason many animals that develop cerebellar abiotrophy, particularly horses, are euthanized for humane reasons. Horses may experience difficulty stepping up and over objects, run into fences, fall easily, and even if allowed to mature to full growth, are generally considered unsafe to ride. Dogs may need lifetime assistance with tasks such as climbing stairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59263270",
"title": "Extrinsic mortality",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary theories of aging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- Mutation Accumulation Theory of Aging - Because extrinsic mortality is so high in the natural world, few animals survive to old age. As a result, random harmful germ line mutations accumulate with little to no selective disadvantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
r035l
|
What is "chemistry" between two people actually? What is the logical explaination? Why is it so instant?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was thought for a while that there may be some kind of pheromone exchange responsible for this effect. That idea has been largely dismissed though as no Vomeronasal organ which would be sensative to such pheromones has been identified on adults even though some fetuses have been thought to show the organ. Even in it did appear in adults however there is no evidence that human beings have active sensory neurons like those in working vomeronasal systems of other animals. \n\nThe current discussion on the subject generally involves the principles of and the basic physiology behind interpersonal relationships. Most papers I've read on the subject tend to take it to the idea of like attracts like. [According to some evolutionary psychologists](_URL_0_) we select for a mate simply by scanning the environment and quickly filtering out those deemed unworthy, including those that are considered by us to be unattractive. From those not filtered out we select a potential mate. Love in this case is simply a transitory physiological experience caused when the body excretes epinephrine, dopamine, phenylethylamine, and other endorphins into our bloodstream.\n\nIn short there is no \"chemistry\" between you really, but there is a large amount within yourself as a kind of psychological response.",
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"answer": "The sweaty t-shirt experiment. Girls seemed to be more attracted to sweaty t-shirts from males with the most diverse HLA molecules from their own. HLAs, or their mouse equivalent MHCs, are molecules that present antigen from cells to the immune system, mainly helper T-cells. The theory is that the most divergent HLAs serve best to promote variance during mating, thus creating immunologically \"strong\" offspring. \n\nEdit: [Here](_URL_0_) is more information on the study.",
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"answer": "Your brain is very, very complicated. It does a lot of stuff unconsciously and then only tells you the result. Anything which is important to survival or reproduction is going to have massive evolutionary pressure to be as efficient as possible, and mate choice is obviously super important to reproduction, so the brain regions associated with mate evaluation are big, complicated, and fast. The 'chemistry' is just your brain going through a very large calculation (which includes an estimate of current or potential reciprocal attraction) and then says \"HEY LOOK AT HER!\"\n\nAs to why you identify the most attractive person in the room but then are not attracted to them, that's probably partially due to game theory concerns. Humans don't just need to find a mate, they generally want to keep their mate. It's therefore important to consider both how attractive that person is in general, how attractive they are to you, and how attractive they are relative to how attractive you are. If someone is waaaay more desirable as a mate than you, the relationship is unlikely to be stable (they won't give you the time of day or they'll dump you when something better comes along). IE, most guys don't have a chance with the hottest girl in the room. \n\nHowever, that's a rating of general attractiveness, based on generic tastes, and not everyone has the same tastes. Maybe you really like blondes, or maybe your brain smells the person and notes that you have very different Major Histocompatibility Complexes (having two different MHCs in your kids gives them much better disease resistance, so people with different MHCs tend to like each other's smells). If someone is unusually suited to your particular tastes, then they are a very good mate, because they are comparatively more desirable to you and thus a better mate than someone who is generically attractive. Your brain can do these sorts of estimates almost instantly as well.\n\nYou also want a mate who is interested in you (more efficient than chasing girls who won't give you the time of day). So, your brain also estimates a girl's interest in you. In the case where they are more attractive to you than they are in general, and where they're unusually interested in you for how attractive they are (implying you're more attractive to them than you are in general), your brain puts all those together and starts screaming at you. That causes you to show interest, which their brain notices and ups your attractiveness again, causing them to show interest, in a positive feedback loop. \n\nAnd this can all occur ridiculously fast, unconsciously, based on a large list of factors/criteria, with you only being aware of the result of the calculations, which results in the feeling of chemistry.",
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"answer": "When my wife and I met it was instant love and ever since that day (10 Years) whenever I am around her I instantly feel so much happier. I recently had a bought of PST and depression and the only time of the day I felt OK was when I was touching or close to her. Even when I am normal, if she is gone too long I start to feel different and painfully miss her. I swear she is like a natural drug for me. \non the pheromone exchange aspect discussed elsewhere, I think it may/ have something to /do with the fact I am Irish and /she is Korean and studies show that the more genetically diverse someone's pheromones are, the more a individual is attracted to that person. Not the study I was thinking of but this is good enough: _URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36980738",
"title": "Chemistry (relationship)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 354,
"text": "In the context of relationships, chemistry is a simple \"emotion\" that two people get when they share a special connection. It is the impulse making one think \"I need to see this [other] person again\" - that feeling of \"we click\". It is very early in one's relationship that they can intuitively work out whether they have positive or negative chemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36980738",
"title": "Chemistry (relationship)",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "While the actual definition of chemistry, its components, and its manifestations are fairly vague, this is a well documented concept. Some people describe chemistry in metaphorical terms, such as \"like peanut butter and jelly\", or \"like a performance\". It can be described in the terms of mutual feelings - \"a connection, a bond or common feeling between two people\", or as a chemical process - \"[it] stimulates love or sexual attraction...brain chemicals are definitely involved\". While chemistry has been described as \"that romantic spark between [two people]\", the term \"spark\" in the context of relationships is as vague as \"chemistry\", and therefore is not particularly useful in a definition. It has also been described as \"intangible, unspoken [and] energetic\". Chemistry is an unconscious decision, informed by a complex blend of criteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36980738",
"title": "Chemistry (relationship)",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Research by Kelly Campbell, Ph.D., suggests that \"not everyone experiences chemistry\". She decided that \"chemistry occurred most often between people who are down-to-earth and sincere\". This is because \"if a person is comfortable with themselves, they are better able to express their true self to the world, which makes it easier to get to know them...even if perspectives on important matters differed.\" Sharing similarities is also deemed essential to chemistry as \"feeling understood is essential to forming relational bonds.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Chemistry addresses topics such as how atoms and molecules interact via chemical bonds to form new chemical compounds. There are four types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds, in which compounds share one or more electron(s); ionic bonds, in which a compound donates one or more electrons to another compound to produce ions (cations and anions); hydrogen bonds; and Van der Waals force bonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8761205",
"title": "Compatibility (chemical)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Chemical compatibility is a measure of how stable a substance is when mixed with another substance. If two substances can mix together and undergo a chemical reaction, they are considered incompatible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36980738",
"title": "Chemistry (relationship)",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Some of the core components of chemistry are: \"non-judgment, similarity, mystery, attraction, mutual trust, and effortless communication\" Chemistry can be described as the combination of \"love, lust, infatuation, and a desire to be involved intimately with someone\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11092324",
"title": "The central science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences, which include chemistry, with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering. The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics. The phrase was popularized by its use in a textbook by Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay, titled \"Chemistry: The Central Science\", which was first published in 1977, with a thirteenth edition published in 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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8zmn0a
|
what is chemotherapy, and what happens during it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The elimination of fast cell reproduction. \nHair cells grow at a quick rate and is the reason why your hair falls out as well. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It kills a LOT of cells in the body. As another comment mentions, it effects fast-growing or fast *reproducing* cells the most. Cancer is cells reproducing quickly (out of control), so it kills cancer cells.\n\nHair is affected which is the most visible side-effect. The digestive system also has cells that are quickly/often replaced so that's affected too. Skin can become irritated or more susceptible to injury.\n\nIt's basically nasty poison which badly harms or kills people. The idea is that it kills the cancer first. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "it's chemical treatment to combat (usually) cancer growth. most are in liquid form and are administered intravenously (through a drip in your arm). a single treatment of chemo may involve receiving several different chemicals in one session, commonly over quite a while (an hour or more). usually you sit on the ward with others while receiving it or there are some you can receive at home. depending on the length of course this may be done weekly or fortnightly for several months. on ward most people chat / read / watch tv while receiving treatment. the combination of chemicals are designed to slow down cell reproduction in your body. others are designed to kill cancer cells or types of cell in your body. there are lots of different kinds of chemo for lots of different kinds of cancer. the side effects usually stem from the slowing cell growth and killing of certain cells : hair loss, nausea/vomiting, constipation, thirst and so on. it's common to have additional courses of medicine that combat the side effects specifically.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Chemotherapy involves giving you drugs that inhibit DNA replication. If the DNA of a cell cannot replicate, the cell cannot divide. Do this to enough cells and the cancer growth can be significantly slowed or even stopped.\n\nChemotherapy drugs sometimes target the DNA directly. They might alter the chemical structure of the DNA so it can't be unwound. Or they might block the end of a growing DNA chain so it can't grow any further.\n\nSometimes the drugs target the enzymes involved in DNA replication. If the enzymes can't even attach to the DNA in the first place, or are altered so that they don't work properly, then no replication can take place. \n\nIf you are targeting cell division, then it makes sense that cells which divide quickly are the ones most heavily targeted. Cancer cells grow and divide quickly, which is why chemotherapy does more damage to cancer cells than to most of our 'normal' cells. However, a few types of 'normal' cells do actually grow very quickly, and so chemotherapy will sometimes accidentally target them too. These cells include:\n\nBlood cells: which is why anemia and immune suppression are common side effects.\n\nCells of the stomach lining and digestive system: which is why vomiting, diarrhoea, and nausea are common side effects.\n\nHair cells: which is why hair thinning and loss is a common side effect.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "chemotherapy is like nuking your own body (literally nuking?) in an attempt to kill cancer cells faster than you. it can work.\n\nsometimes they kill all the cancer cells (as well as doing lots of damage to your human tissue) and you are cured. sometimes they kill all the noticeable cancer cells. in which case the cancer remains and reproduces again, but this time it is much more resistant to chemotherapy (because the only cells that survived are the ones that can survive lots of radiation).\n\nsometimes they don't even shrink the cancer but just slow its growth a little.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60330200",
"title": "CNS tumour",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and chances of cure.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Chemotherapy is a treatment that injects a drug into a vein (IV) or that is given via the mouth to prevent the growth of cancer cells by stopping them from dividing. It is often used after surgery or as the first line of treatment. The drug injected flows through the bloodstream and destroys cancer cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized regimen. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as alkylating agents and antimetabolites. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25081142",
"title": "Treatment of cancer",
"section": "Section::::Types of treatments.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs (\"anticancer drugs\") that can destroy cancer cells. In current usage, the term \"chemotherapy\" usually refers to \"cytotoxic\" drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with \"targeted therapy\" (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25350412",
"title": "Childhood leukemia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemicals to interfere with the cancer cells ability to grow and reproduce. Chemotherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Chemotherapy can be given either as a pill to swallow orally, an injection into the fat or muscle, through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60385615",
"title": "Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prevention.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Lastly, the chemotherapy can be defined as a treatment towards the cancer by using the medication to destroy the malignant cells. The chemotherapy is usually used before the surgery and radiation therapy or after the treatment of surgery and radiation therapy. The chemotherapy can be implemented by using the drugs to stop the spread of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. The chemotherapy could make contribution to destroy the cancer cells or stop them from division. The chemotherapy could have effect on the cancer cell of the whole body by injecting into vein or taken by patient. The chemotherapy could influence a specific area by placing it into a specific area. Evidence shows that the chemotherapy could make also contribution to the treatment of sinonasal cancer which is a sub-branch of the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. Infection, loss of hair might occur after the implementation of chemotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent (which almost always involves combinations of drugs), or it may aim to prolong life or to reduce symptoms (palliative chemotherapy). Chemotherapy is one of the major categories of the medical discipline specifically devoted to pharmacotherapy for cancer, which is called \"medical oncology\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8553095",
"title": "Urethral cancer",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2b031v
|
How was honey harvested in ancient times? Were bees kept like they are today or was all honey harvested from the wild?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! Could you specify which region/culture you're interested in - e.g. Greece, Nepal, the Maya, etc. That will help the appropriate historian(s) provide a meaningful response. Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bees were kept, but not like today. Today, bees are kept in movable-comb beehives, which enables harvesting the honey without harming the bee colony. In ancient times, bees were kept in immovable-comb beehives, which were simply appropriately-sized vessels where the bees would build they comb naturally, and harvesting the honey would often mean destruction of the entire colony.\n\nAlso, before honey extractors were invented, people would eat comb honey, or honey would be pressed out from the comb.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "322091",
"title": "Beekeeping",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 10,000 years ago. Beekeeping in pottery vessels began about 9,000 years ago in North Africa. Domestication of bees is shown in Egyptian art from around 4,500 years ago. Simple hives and smoke were used and honey was stored in jars, some of which were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. It wasn't until the 18th century that European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be harvested without destroying the entire colony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14361",
"title": "Honey",
"section": "Section::::History and culture.:Ancient times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The oldest known honey remains were found in the country of Georgia. Archaeologists found honey remains on the inner surface of clay vessels unearthed in an ancient tomb, dating back some 4,700–5,500 years. In ancient Georgia, several types of honey were buried with a person for their journey into the afterlife, including linden, berry, and meadow-flower varieties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4654",
"title": "Bee",
"section": "Section::::Bees and humans.:Beekeeping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years ago; efforts to domesticate them are shown in Egyptian art around 4,500 years ago. Simple hives and smoke were used; jars of honey were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. From the 18th century, European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be harvested without destroying the colony. Among Classical Era authors, beekeeping with the use of smoke is described in the \"History of Animals\" Book 9. The account mentions that bees die after stinging; that workers remove corpses from the hive, and guard it; castes including workers and non-working drones, but \"kings\" rather than queens; predators including toads and bee-eaters; and the waggle dance, with the \"irresistible suggestion\" of άpοσειονται (aroseiontai, it waggles) and παρακολουθούσιν (parakolouthousin, they watch).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322091",
"title": "Beekeeping",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Honeybees were kept in Egypt from antiquity. On the walls of the sun temple of Nyuserre Ini from the Fifth Dynasty, before 2422 BCE, workers are depicted blowing smoke into hives as they are removing honeycombs. Inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 650 BCE), depicting pouring honey in jars and cylindrical hives. Sealed pots of honey were found in the grave goods of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44760",
"title": "Confectionery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Before sugar was readily available in the ancient western world, confectionery was based on honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Ancient India, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create sweetmeats. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, made contact with the Indian subcontinent and its \"reeds that produce honey without bees\". They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14361",
"title": "Honey",
"section": "Section::::History and culture.:Ancient times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Honey collection is an ancient activity. Humans apparently began hunting for honey at least 8,000 years ago, as evidenced by a cave painting in Valencia, Spain. The painting is a Mesolithic rock painting, showing two honey hunters collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bee nest. The figures are depicted carrying baskets or gourds, and using a ladder or series of ropes to reach the wild nest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5514195",
"title": "Agriculture in ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Agricultural products.:Other products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Beekeeping provided honey, the only source of sugar known to the Greeks. It also was used in medicines and in the production of mead. The Ancient Greeks did not have access to sugarcane. The Hymettus region of Attica was known for the quality of honey produced there. Wax was also produced, used in the lost wax process to produce bronze statues as well as in medicines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
flxqj0
|
how can plants turn sun and water (and dirt) into wood, leavies and pretty much anything they need?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are actually missing out a critical part: air\n\nYes, most of a mass a plant actually comes from carbon dioxide within the air. They can convert it into plants with the Calvin cycle, which is a cycle made up of several chemical reactions that takes in carbon dioxide and converts it into glucose, which is essentially sugar\n\nThe energy to do this comes from the sun, chloroplasts receive solar energy and store it to be used for the Calvin cycle \n\nLots of molecules of glucose can then be chained together in order to form more complex molecules like cellulose that makes up most plants",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The air is full of CO2, Carbon Dioxide. The ground is full of water.\n\nPlants use the energy of the sun to strip the Oxygen atoms and replace them with hydrogen from Water. This creates sugars (C6H12O6). \n\n6 molecules of CO2 + 6 Molecules of H2O = 1 sugar and leaves 3 Oxygen molecules (O2).\n\nOnce the plant has sugars it has energy the same way we do. Instead of changing sugars to fats the way animals do for storage it can also change them to starches. Starches are chains of sugars usually stored in roots, or seeds for the new plant to get started.\n\nPlants also need Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. Farmers sometimes add this through fertilizer, but these and other minerals are common in soil and absorbed by the roots. \n\nPlants have a very strong cell wall with very tight bonds between them for stability. They do this with either rigid walls or high internal water pressure. You can tell the difference by what happens when you take away the water. The plant either stays rigid or it wilts. Rigidity is done with wood or at the cellular level, Lignin. \n\nLignin is made up of the same types of atoms as sugars, but instead of being easy to take apart, the molecules are big and bind tightly together. \n\nThe cells that form wood are also very long fibers like our muscles, except the plant grows these cells with the intent that they die every year leaving another layer around the branch of the plant so it can support itself getting bigger and longer next year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25097823",
"title": "Bowiea",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The plants prefer gritty well-drained soil in partial sun to shade. Water regularly during the growing season, and rarely if at all during dormancy. Propagate from seed, divisions, or from individual scales which once removed, will eventually form numerous bulbils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42129873",
"title": "Climate-friendly gardening",
"section": "Section::::Reducing greenhouse gas emissions.:Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from gardens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Climate-friendly gardeners may use deep-rooted plants such as comfrey to bring nutrients closer to the surface topsoil, but will do so without making the leaves into a liquid feed, because the rotting leaves in the anaerobic conditions under water may emit methane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637102",
"title": "Plant physiology",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for hydroponics, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106001",
"title": "Soil pH",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting soil pH.:Sources of acidity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "BULLET::::- Plant growth: Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (e.g. , , , ), and they often take up more cations than anions. However plants must maintain a neutral charge in their roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release ions from the root. Some plants also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such as iron (Fe).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19828134",
"title": "Plant",
"section": "Section::::Structure, growth and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "Plants usually rely on soil primarily for support and water (in quantitative terms), but they also obtain compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and other elemental nutrients from the soil. Epiphytic and lithophytic plants depend on air and nearby debris for nutrients, and carnivorous plants supplement their nutrient requirements, particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus, with insect prey that they capture. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they also require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots (soil gas) for respiration. Plants use oxygen and glucose (which may be produced from stored starch) to provide energy. Some plants grow as submerged aquatics, using oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water, and a few specialized vascular plants, such as mangroves and reed (\"Phragmites australis\"), can grow with their roots in anoxic conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12917265",
"title": "Pilea microphylla",
"section": "Section::::Propagation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "\"Pilea microphylla\" can be propagated by dividing the root ball, or taking herbaceous cuttings and rooting them with rooting hormone. The plant enjoys a thorough watering after the soil has been allowed to dry, and misting has been shown to be beneficial. Direct sunlight causes the leaves to turn brown and fall off, so it prefers filtered light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37738",
"title": "Soil",
"section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Uptake processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 295,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 295,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil. Hydrogen H is exchanged for other cations, and carbonate (HCO) and hydroxide (OH) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions. As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution, they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus (by ion exchange or desorption), are added from the weathering of soil minerals, and are released by the decomposition of soil organic matter. Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter, which typically holds about 95 percent of the soil nitrogen, 5 to 60 percent of the soil phosphorus and about 80 percent of the soil sulfur. Where crops are produced, the replenishment of nutrients in the soil must usually be augmented by the addition of fertilizer or organic matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61gsol
|
welfare and food stamps
|
[
{
"answer": "Welfare is sometimes called TANF or temporary assistance for needy families. Those who fall under federal guidelines for poverty may apply and are given money for rent, bills and other necessities. Typically, there is a work requirement and the recipient must comply to continue to be eligible. Food stamps are similar although the money can only be used for food. There is usually a misconception that people that receive the benefits are lazy but many have jobs and use these programs to stay afloat so to speak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anyone can apply for government assistance(welfare/foodstamps), but I assume you mean who can actually receive them. In many cases, if you can't get one form of assistance, you an get some other form of assistance. There are other forms of assistance not typically associated with welfare and foodstamps, like disability benefits, that serve a similar role but require medical examination.\n\nFor SNAP(food stamps) in my state you need to make less than 15k a year as a single person with no dependents. My family of 5 could get these benefits making less than 36k. The amount you receive scales on income and dependents, here's the WA state calculator.\n_URL_0_\n\nWelfare is broader and can cover things like heating during winter, rent, emergency housing for people displaced by abusive households, and many other services. All these are needs based and can for some people provide too little benefit to offset the effort in maintaining the flow of information to these various groups to continue gaining these benefits.\n\nThere are also some really niche ones that are mostly the gov helping itself, such as paying people to live in rural areas rather than congesting cities.\n\nShort answer: people that have dependents, make little money, live in undesirable locations, are at risk of harm due to environment, or are incapable of helping themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5219904",
"title": "Ration stamp",
"section": "Section::::The United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Government funds provided to poverty stricken individuals by the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program are often referred to colloquially as \"food stamps\". The parallels between these \"food stamps\" and ration stamps as used in war time rationing is limited, however, since food can be purchased in the United States on the regular market without the use of stamps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "659087",
"title": "Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly and commonly known as the Food Stamp Program, provides food-purchasing assistance for low- and no-income people living in the United States. It is a federal aid program, administered by the United States Department of Agriculture, under the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), though benefits are distributed by each U.S. state's Division of Social Services or Children and Family Services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283361",
"title": "New Deal",
"section": "Section::::First New Deal (1933–1934).:Relief.:Farm and rural programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The Food Stamp Plan—a major new welfare program for urban poor—was established in 1939 to provide stamps to poor people who could use them to purchase food at retail outlets. The program ended during wartime prosperity in 1943, but was restored in 1961. It survived into the 21st century with little controversy because it was seen to benefit the urban poor, food producers, grocers and wholesalers as well as farmers, thus it gained support from both liberal and conservative Congressmen. In 2013, Tea Party activists in the House nonetheless tried to end the program, now known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, while the Senate fought to preserve it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21109533",
"title": "Social programs in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Food assistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "In the U.S., financial assistance for food purchasing for low- and no-income people is provided through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp Program. This federal aid program is administered by the Food and Nutrition Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, but benefits are distributed by the individual U.S. states. It is historically and commonly known as the Food Stamp Program, though all legal references to \"stamp\" and \"coupon\" have been replaced by \"EBT\" and \"card,\" referring to the refillable, plastic Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) cards that replaced the paper \"food stamp\" coupons. To be eligible for SNAP benefits, the recipients must have incomes below 130 percent of the poverty line, and also own few assets. Since the economic downturn began in 2008, the use of food stamps has increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3766266",
"title": "Food policy",
"section": "Section::::Elements of federal food policy.:Nutrition assistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Ensuring adequate food for families and individuals living in poverty is also a centerpiece of any nation's food policy efforts. In the United States, this aid primarily takes the form of monthly benefits that are calculated based on family income, adjusted for certain deductible living expenses and household size, and can only be used for the purchase of foods. The program known for decades as \"food stamps\" was revamped and renamed Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in 2008 to acknowledge the change from paper food stamps to electronic benefit transfer or EBT cards. SNAP is a mandatory spending program; the government must designate funds for the program sufficient to cover benefits for all who meet the eligibility requirements. The farm bill also authorizes funding for SNAP and other nutrition assistance programs, projected to cost $772 billion over the 10-year-period from 2013 to 2022.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39934699",
"title": "Second Harvest North Florida",
"section": "Section::::Programs.:SNAP Outreach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The Federal Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides an average of $134.29 worth of food for 47.5 million people per month in the United States as of April, 2013. It provides low-income households with an Electronic Benefit Transfer card that can be used like cash at most grocery stores. This is the replacement for food stamps that were demonetized in 2008. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216361",
"title": "Food security",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:By the United States Agency for International Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Since the 1960s, the U.S. has been implementing a food stamp program (now called the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) to directly target consumers who lack the income to purchase food. According to Tim Josling, a Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford University, food stamps or other methods of distribution of purchasing power directly to consumers might fit into the range of international programs under consideration to tackle food insecurity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sr6hn
|
What is a good book to read that will give me a survey history of modern European history?
|
[
{
"answer": "The trouble is that there are very few survey histories which aren't textbooks. The only one I can think of off the top of my head is [A Concise History of Modern Europe](_URL_1_), but I can't vouch for its quality since I haven't actually read it myself (one of my friends did).\n\nMy history classes often use readers from the [Bedford Series of History & Culture](_URL_0_) - they have a lot of selected documents from the period and varying amounts of commentary about the events. You can usually find them on Amazon, and they're really, really cool if you're into primary documents.\n\nIf you'd like recommendations for any specific periods in modern Europe, though, I'm happy to help! And also, your username has me intrigued.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Postwar](_URL_0_), by Tony Judt, is the definitive guide to Europe after 1945. It's over 900 pages, but he has a wonderfully readable and sometimes entertaining style. I can't recommend it enough... even if you don't read every page, it will definitely keep you interested in history. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Robert Palmer's *A History of the Modern World* is an old classic which is not especially textbook-ish, though night-hawks is absolutely right that any survey of so broad a topic will be more textbook than not. You're better off, I think, finding more specific topics an getting into them more deeply. Wikipedia can fill in the big picture stuff as well as anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mark Mazower's [Dark Continent](_URL_0_) provides a very unique look at European history, it is a bit dry in places, but overall I found it incredibly stimulating. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*Europe: A History* by Norman Davies is a very good overview, although it's quite long. And I second the suggestion of *Dark Continent*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20623953",
"title": "Leibniz Institute of European History",
"section": "Section::::Library.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The library offers approximately 90,000 printed titles and 900,000 licensed online resources on the history of Europe from the mid-15th century. There is an emphasis on general European history and international history, as well as on church history and the history of theology since the period of Humanism and the Reformation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10097663",
"title": "Geoffrey Bruun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "He was the author of several books on European history, including \"Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814,\" published in 1938; \"Europe in Evolution,\" (1945) and \"Europe and America Since 1492\" (1954), as well as a biography of Georges Clemenceau, the French statesman, published in 1943.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13977719",
"title": "Treaty of Reichenbach (1790)",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lodge, Richard. \"The Student's Modern Europe: A History of Modern Europe. From the Capture of Constantinople, 1453, To The Treaty of Berlin, 1878\". American Book Company, 1885 (Originally from Harvard University).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36640212",
"title": "A History of the University in Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "A History of the University in Europe is a four-volume book series on the history and development of the European university from the medieval origins of the institution until the present day. The series was directed by the European University Association and published by Cambridge University Press between 1992 and 2011. The volumes consist of individual contributions by international experts in the field and is considered the most comprehensive and authoritative work on the subject to date. It has been fully or partly translated into several languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4150331",
"title": "Institute of Historical Research",
"section": "Section::::Activities.:Wohl Library.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "From its inception, the founders of the Institute of Historical Research envisaged a combination of scholarship and library. This tradition is continued in that many seminars still take place in the rooms of the library. The library itself collects sources for the History of Western Europe and areas affected by the European expansion. It now contains over 190,000 volumes. There are sizable holdings for the British Isles, as well as for Germany, Austria, France, the Low Countries, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Latin America, the US and colonial history, ecclesiastical, Byzantine and crusader history as well as small holdings for Eastern Europe, Switzerland and Scandinavia. The library is particularly good for sources on local history both of the British Isles and Europe. It contains the largest collection of Low Countries material outside of the region (due to gifts from the Netherlands and research interests of scholars working there), the most complete collection of French cartularies outside France as well as collections of poll books for the United Kingdom and a complete run of the Victoria County History books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57847407",
"title": "The Oxford History of Modern Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The Oxford History of Modern Europe is a series of books on the history of Modern Europe published by the Clarendon Press (an imprint of Oxford University Press) from 1954. The most recent volume appeared in 2012. The series was originally edited by Alan Bullock and F.W.D. Deakin and covered the period from the French Revolution to the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885795",
"title": "Modern history",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.:20th-century sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 340,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 340,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- Robinson, James Harvey, and Charles Austin Beard. \"Readings in Modern European History; A Collection of Extracts from the Sources Chosen with the Purpose of Illustrating Some of the Chief Phases of Development of Europe During the Last Two Hundred Years\". Boston: Ginn & Co, 1908.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dlj8bw
|
why are some atoms "easier" to become ions than others?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of their Electronegativity (hope thats the right translation) and their size. The Electronegativity basically is a force (Noted in the Periodic table) which defines how strong they are able to \"suck\" other electrons to themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ionizing an atom is adding or removing electrons. The position of the electron you want to add or remove is very important. Electrons are arranged in an odd way similar to seats in a movie theater. The front row has 2, the second third and fourth row have 8 which are partitioned into sets of 2 and 4, and as you go down the periodic table you add more partitions. The ionization energy depends on which seat you're trying to add or remove an electron from.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2072281",
"title": "Ionic radius",
"section": "Section::::Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Ions may be larger or smaller than the neutral atom, depending on the ion's electric charge. When an atom loses an electron to form a cation, the other electrons are more attracted to the nucleus, and the radius of the ion gets smaller. Similarly, when an electron is added to an atom, forming an anion, the added electron increases the size of the electron cloud by interelectronic repulsion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Ions and salts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "An \"ion\" is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na and Cl ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH) and phosphate (PO).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17063328",
"title": "Ion beam lithography",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Fast-moving ions interact differently with matter than electrons do, and, owing to their higher momentum, their optical properties are different. They have much shorter range in matter and move straighter through it. At low energies, at the end of the range, they lose more of their energy to the atomic nuclei, rather than to the atoms, so that atoms are dislocated rather than ionized. If the ions don't defuse out of the resist, they dope it. The energy loss in matter follows a Bragg curve and has a smaller statistical spread. They are \"stiffer\" optically, they require larger fields or distances to focus or bend. The higher momentum resists space charge effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5094808",
"title": "Bond valence method",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:The valence matching rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "Atoms with non-bonding valence electrons, i.e., with lone pairs, have more flexibility in their bonding strength than those without lone pairs depending on whether the lone pairs are stereoactive or not. If the lone pairs are not stereoactive, they are spread uniformly around the valence shell, if they are stereoactive they are concentrated in one portion of the coordination sphere preventing that portion from forming bonds. This results in the atom having a smaller coordination number, hence a higher bonding strength, when the lone pair is stereoactive. Ions with lone pairs have a greater ability to adapt their bonding strength to match that of the counter-ion. The lone pairs become stereoactive when the bonding strength of the counter-ion exceeds twice the bonding strength of the ion when its lone pairs are inactive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666",
"title": "Alkali metal",
"section": "Section::::Compounds.:Oxides and chalcogenides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 2043,
"text": "The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.) In addition, the small size of the Li and O ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents. Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers; the presence of water vapour, naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides MO, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184881",
"title": "Reducing agent",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "Strong reducing agents easily lose (or donate) electrons. An atom with a relatively large atomic radius tends to be a better reductant. In such species, the distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons is so long that these electrons are not strongly attracted. These elements tend to be strong reducing agents. Good reducing agents tend to consist of atoms with a low electronegativity, the ability of an atom or molecule to attract bonding electrons, and species with relatively small ionization energies serve as good reducing agents too. \"The measure of a material to oxidize or lose electrons is known as its oxidation potential\". The table below shows a few reduction potentials that could easily be changed to oxidation potential by simply reversing the sign. Reducing agents can be ranked by increasing strength by ranking their oxidation potentials. The reducing agent is stronger when it has a more positive oxidation potential and weaker when it has a negative oxidation potential. The following table provides the reduction potentials of the indicated reducing agent at 25 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666",
"title": "Alkali metal",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Physical and chemical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar ionic radii; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li ion has a very high hydration energy in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3squye
|
what's the difference between a $10 bottle of wine compared to a $100 bottle?
|
[
{
"answer": "A person who has developed the palette for it could tell the difference, and appreciate it. \nI think the subtleties of the $100 bottle would be lost on me, but I have tasted some $30/bottle wines, and they have been far richer and better-tasting than the $10 ones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are four different issues in wine pricing.\n\nDifferent people like different things about wine. Some people like a specific set of flavors that you can really only find in wine, and other people like wine that is, #1, very sweet and #2, alcoholic (yay booze). It's very easy to make grape juice ferment into a sweet alcoholic beverage but very difficult to make it produce those special flavors. As a result, the wines that produce the special flavors are much more expensive.\n\nSecond, even people who know what they are doing (kind of) can't get grapes that will make nice wine every year. Most fancy vineyards will sell thousands of gallons of bad wine at rock-bottom prices to wine factories every year. The owners taste what they have to work with, decide that it's not up to their standards and selling it will damage their brand, and sell it to a factory which mixes it with bad wine from a million other vineyards to produce a nice, generic, sweet wine that is inexpensive.\n\nThird, while you judge the quality of the wine early on from the tannins in it, you continue to age it in the bottle. Every year you age a wine, you have to raise the price proportionately to account for the rate of return you need on your investment, the cost of storage (you can't just chuck it in a cardboard box in a back room like at the local liquor room), and the fact that the longer you age it, the more bottles will be lost due to storage problems.\n\nFourth, buying wine is a little complicated. It's hard to store and expensive to ship. That makes it relatively easy for retailers to charge a markup, and for restaurants to charge a huge markup.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are paying for particular flavors and other qualities that you expect of the particular region, grape or style. The biggest houses have their signature styles. \n\nBecause they have particular styles, they might not be quite what you wanted or expected so price is not a good indicator of what you're going to like. My recommendation is to start off cheap. Once you figure out a broad category of wines (red/white, dry/sweet, fresh/aged) you can explore slightly more expensive wines in that category. There are lots of great wines at almost every price range. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "244433",
"title": "Robert M. Parker Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Impact of Parker on the world of wine.:Impact on the market.:Impact on prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to one Bordeaux shipper cited by McCoy, \"the difference between a score of 85 and 95 [for one wine] was 6 to 7 million Euro\", and a \"bottle rated 100 can multiply its price fourfold.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20866938",
"title": "Harlan Estate",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Described by Jancis Robinson as \"one of the ten best wines of the twentieth century\", and consistent acclaim from \"Wine Spectator\", and Robert Parker, including four scores of 100 \"parker points\", have further contributed to the wine's high prices and long waiting lists. Released at $850 per bottle, the price soon rises on the speculative market, and the cost may range from $1200 and up. A 10-vintage vertical selection of magnum bottles sold at the 2000 Napa Valley Wine Auction for $700,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34399019",
"title": "Investment wine",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle, though the broader term \"\"fine wine\"\" covers bottles typically retailing at over about US$30–50. Investment wines are considered by some to be \"Veblen goods\"; that is, demand for them increases instead of decreases as the price rises. The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux, Burgundy, cult wines from Europe and elsewhere, and Vintage port.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1946",
"title": "Unit of alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Thus, a 750 ml bottle of wine at 12% ABV contains 75 cl × 12% = 9 units. Alternatively, the serving size in litres multiplied by the alcohol content as a number, the above example giving 0.75 × 12 = 9 units:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6032951",
"title": "Wine from the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Effect on the British economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Currently, most English wines have a £7 – £12 pricetag, with sparkling wines likely to cost up to as much as £45. However, there are still several small vineyards around the country that continue to produce on a small scale, sourcing local markets and farm shops, where one can expect to pay as little as £6 for a bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32961",
"title": "Wine",
"section": "Section::::Collecting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle, though the broader term \"fine wine\" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50. \"Investment wines\" are considered by some to be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14284167",
"title": "Christopher Forbes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1137,
"text": "On December 5, 1985, Kip Forbes paid the highest price ever recorded for a single bottle of wine. Hardy Rodenstock (Meinhard Görke) put one of the 'recently discovered' \"Th. J.\" (Thomas Jefferson) bottles up for auction at Christie's in London: a bottle of 1787 Château Lafite engraved \"1787 Lafitte Th. J.\". The bottles had been found in a walled-up old cellar, and were engraved with vintage years from the late eighteenth century. This had in itself been an interesting find for a collector of old wines, but the bottles also were engraved with the initials, \"Th. J.\", which was taken as an indication that they had belonged to Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was an active oenophile and wine collector, who spent much time in France during the 1780s and whose interest in wine is well documented. The auction catalogue simply listed the value as \"inestimable\", and it was sold for 105,000 pound sterling, which as of 2007, still remains the worldwide auction record for a single bottle of wine. Christopher Forbes was bidding against Marvin Shanken of \"Wine Spectator\" Magazine, with Michael Broadbent handling the gavel at the auction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
84slxr
|
animal pain, human pain
|
[
{
"answer": "Other mammals experience pain pretty much as humans do. But they don't have language or facial expressions to describe their suffering. And they need to get up and walk away, if the alternative is to sit around forever and die. No paramedic or doctor is coming.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adrenaline.\n\nSame reason people can walk away from a car crash or a fall and not realize they've broken something right away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans are definitely capable of this behavior. You don't go anywhere or do anything when injured if you are in safety, but people who suffer serious injuries don't just wait around if their stranded away from safety. Your survival instict tells you to relax and rest if you have food and shelter while injured, but if you don't have food and shelter your survival instict tells you to ***get off your ass and find some or die***.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24261150",
"title": "Pain in animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "According to the U.S. National Research Council Committee on Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory Animals, pain is experienced by many animal species, including mammals and possibly all vertebrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24261150",
"title": "Pain in animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1195,
"text": "Pain negatively affects the health and welfare of animals. \"Pain\" is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain as \"an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage.\" Only the person experiencing the pain can know the pain's quality and intensity, and the degree of suffering. However, for non-human animals, it is harder, if even possible, to know whether an emotional experience has occurred. Therefore, this concept is often excluded in definitions of pain in animals, such as that provided by Zimmerman: \"an aversive sensory experience caused by actual or potential injury that elicits protective motor and vegetative reactions, results in learned avoidance and may modify species-specific behaviour, including social behaviour.\" Non-human animals cannot report their feelings to language-using humans in the same manner as human communication, but observation of their behaviour provides a reasonable indication as to the extent of their pain. Just as with doctors and medics who sometimes share no common language with their patients, the indicators of pain can still be understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48376645",
"title": "Pain in amphibians",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48376645",
"title": "Pain in amphibians",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The possibility that amphibians and other non-human animals may experience pain has a long history. Initially, pain in non-human animals was based around theoretical and philosophical argument, but more recently has turned to scientific investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24332386",
"title": "Pain in crustaceans",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Scientific investigation.:Argument by analogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "In 2012 the American philosopher Gary Varner reviewed the research literature on pain in animals. His findings are summarised in the following table. Arguing by analogy, Varner claims that any animal which exhibits the properties listed in the table could be said to experience pain. On that basis, he concludes that all vertebrates, including fish, probably experience pain, but invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans) apart from cephalopods probably do not experience pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24261150",
"title": "Pain in animals",
"section": "Section::::In different species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The ability to experience pain in an animal, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined directly but it may be inferred through analogous physiological and behavioral reactions. Although many animals share similar mechanisms of pain detection to those of humans, have similar areas of the brain involved in processing pain, and show similar pain behaviours, it is notoriously difficult to assess how animals actually experience pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50558073",
"title": "Pain in cephalopods",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Pain in cephalopods is a contentious issue. Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10yjhm
|
Who were the great administrators?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you're looking into US history I strongly recommend you examine Andrew Jackson's contest with the [Second Bank of the United States](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12621591",
"title": "Government of the Han dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The highest officials in the central bureaucracy, who provided advisory, censorial, executive, and judicial roles in governing the empire, consisted of cabinet members known as the Excellencies, heads of large specialized ministries known as the Nine Ministers, and various metropolitan officials of the capital region. Distinguished salary-ranks were granted to officials in the bureaucracy, nobles of the imperial family, concubines of the harem, and military officers of the armed forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "587618",
"title": "Public administration",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity to the 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favouritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a \"spoils system\". Public administrators have long been the \"eyes and ears\" of rulers. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092507",
"title": "Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"section": "Section::::Central non-\"Senat\"-related offices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The most important such officials were the Great Secretaries (singular: \"sekretarz wielki\"), Crown and Lithuanian. Only a man of the cloth could be a Great Secretary. These functionaries were considered more consequential than any district or court official, with the exception of the Court Marshal. They could act as Chancellors when no Chancellor was in attendance. They dealt with secret letters; in \"Senat\" they read out letters of the King's and resolutions of the Sejm. The Great Secretaries often acted as Assessors and were called \"innate Assessors.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242409",
"title": "Vizier",
"section": "Section::::Anachronistic historical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "BULLET::::- In ancient Egypt the highest-ranking government official, appointed by the pharaoh and acting as his chancellor (chief administrator; Egyptian: \"taty\"), is called \"vizier\" by modern researchers. The term is also used for the chief administrators of Upper and Lower Egypt during the times when the administration of the country was headed by two officials, thus there was a \"vizier\" for the North (Lower Egypt, the Nile Delta), and a \"vizier\" for the South (Upper Egypt). However at times the viceroy of Nubia (a military governor general, sometimes a prince of the Pharaoh's blood) and/or the High Priest of Amun (the temple complex at Thebes gradually amassed sufficient possessions and income to rival the crown) rose to equal or even superior power; some pharaohs are even believed to have lost real political preeminence to the 'kingmakers'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1526718",
"title": "Kayastha",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Since as early as the dawn of Medieval India, Kayasthas have occupied the highest government offices, serving as ministers and advisors of the middle kingdoms of India and the Mughal Empire, and holding important administrative positions during the British Raj.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159806",
"title": "Anglo-Irish people",
"section": "Section::::Anglo-Irish social class.:Prominent members.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Others were prominent officials and administrators in the British Empire, such as: Frederick Matthew Darley, the Chief Justice of New South Wales; Henry Arthur Blake, Antony MacDonnell and Gavan Duffy. Others were involved in finding better ways of managing it, heading the Donoughmore Commission or the Moyne Commission. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180708",
"title": "Viceroy",
"section": "Section::::Ancient antecedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "An equivalent office, called the Exarch, was created in the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire towards the end of the sixth century for governors of important areas too far from the imperial capital of Constantinople to receive regular instruction or reinforcement. The chosen governors of these provinces were empowered to act in place of the monarch (hence ex-arch) with more discretion and autonomy than was granted other categories of governor. This was an extraordinary break from the centralized traditions of the Roman Empire and was an early example of the principle of Viceroyalty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6o86e9
|
Planets can have rings. Can stars have the same sort of rings?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is definitely possible. \n\nFirst, a solid celestial body would have to enter the star's sphere of gravitational influence. Then, it would have to pass through the Roche limit. That's the distance where the tidal forces will rip the object apart. \n\nIf the object wasn't on a collision trajectory with the star before disentegration, then it will form a ring around the star.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you don't think the asteroid belt counts as a ring (it *is* the actual solar equivalent of having a ring), then not really. The reason it can't have a dense ring of small particles in very close proximity like Saturn is because of how stars are born. Once the accretion disc has built a body large enough to begin fusion, the star \"lights up\" and blows away the rest of the disc, except for things that are a combination of too far and too massive. This would be the planets and the asteroid belt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Protoplanetary disks](_URL_0_) have similarities with rings. They don't live long, as the matter inside forms planets and asteroids and the star disperses whatever is left afterwards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They would be much rarer and have shorter lifetimes, at least around actual stars (versus brown dwarfs). A ring forms inside the [roche limit](_URL_2_) of an object, which is where tidal forces from the more massive object are larger than the object's own self-gravitation. This doesn't mean that objects break apart there necessarily, but it does mean that objects that are mostly held together by gravity can be easily disrupted. It's somewhat more challenging to get objects into mostly circular orbits inside the roche limit of a star than to a planet, but it is possible.\n\nThe bigger issue is radiation pressure. Dust, pebbles, and rocks in close orbit around a star will experience strong orbital dynamics perturbations due to the [Poynting-Robertson](_URL_0_) and [Yarkovsky](_URL_1_) effects. These will tend to deorbit or blow away most of the stuff in the ring at a much faster pace than if it were around an outer planet like Saturn, because the solar radiation flux is so much higher.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably not. Here's why:\n\nThe principle people are referring to so far is the Roche limit, the closest a planet can venture towards the body it's orbiting before the force of gravity on the front-facing side differs from the force of gravity on the rear-facing side by *so much* that it exceeds the gravitational self-attraction of the planet. So now the net force of gravity is no longer attractive for that planet. As most of the rocky bodies in the solar systems are merely loosely-held balls of gravel rather than hard spheres - notable exceptions being the 4 inner planets - these balls of gravel will just pull apart as they orbit.\n\nIn fact, we can calculate the Roche limit for the sun when orbited, by, say one of those loosely-packed balls of gravel, more of less. Let's pick Ceres, the largest asteroid:\n\n > d = 1.26 R*_S_* * ( ρ*_S_* / ρ*_C_* )^1/3\n\n...where R*_S_* is the radius of the sun, and ρ*_S_* and ρ*_C_* are the densities of the sun & Ceres, respectively.\n\n > d = 1.26 * 6.96 * 10^8 m * ( 1.41 / 2.16 )^1/3 = 7.61 * 10^8 m\n\nYou see the problem? For a body that is denser than the object it's orbiting, the Roche limit ends up being dreadfully close to the surface of the larger body. In this case, the Roche limit's at 1.09 solar radii. By comparison Mercury's orbit is about 100 solar radii away from the sun.\n\nAt that distance I would imagine several things would happen: First the planet would likely melt. If it were torn apart by tidal forces then the little bits of rock and ice would likely melt, and/or vaporize. In fact, we can calculate the thermodynamic equilibrium temperature at that distance:\n\n > T*_eq_* = T*_sun_* * ( 1 - a )^0.25 * ( R*_sun_* / 2R*_orbit_* )^0.5\n\n > T*_eq_* = 5,770° K * ( 0.5 )^0.25 * ( 6.96 / 15.2 )^0.5 = 3,280° K\n\nThat's high enough that almost everything you're going to find in a rocky body is going to vaporize. It's higher than the boiling points of Gold, Nickle, Iron, Chromium, and Copper. So instead of forming a ring I would expect a body that close just to burn up and find it's bits & pieces scattered to the (solar) winds, so to speak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24718",
"title": "Ring system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The most prominent and most famous planetary rings in the Solar System are those around Saturn, but the other three giant planets (Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune) also have ring systems. Recent evidence suggests that ring systems may also be found around other types of astronomical objects, including minor planets, moons, and brown dwarfs, and as well, the interplanetary spaces between planets such as Venus and Mercury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24718",
"title": "Ring system",
"section": "Section::::Rings around exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Because all giant planets of the Solar System have rings, the existence of exoplanets with rings is plausible. Although particles of ice, the material that is predominant in the rings of Saturn, can only exist around planets beyond the frost line, within this line rings consisting of rocky material can be stable in the long term. Such ring systems can be detected for planets observed by the transit method by additional reduction of the light of the central star if their opacity is sufficient. As of January 2015, no such observations are known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24718",
"title": "Ring system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "A ring system is a disc or ring orbiting an astronomical object that is composed of solid material such as dust and moonlets, and is a common component of satellite systems around giant planets. A ring system around a planet is also known as a planetary ring system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "Section::::Attributes.:Secondary characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The four giant planets are also orbited by planetary rings of varying size and complexity. The rings are composed primarily of dust or particulate matter, but can host tiny 'moonlets' whose gravity shapes and maintains their structure. Although the origins of planetary rings is not precisely known, they are believed to be the result of natural satellites that fell below their parent planet's Roche limit and were torn apart by tidal forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46326758",
"title": "Satellite system (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Features and interactions.:Ring systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Ring systems are collections of dust, moonlets, or other small objects. The most notable examples are those around Saturn, but the other three gas giants (Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune) also have ring systems. Studies of exoplanets indicate that they may be common around giant planets. The 90 million km (0.6 AU circumplanetary ring system discovered around J1407b has been described as \"Saturn on steroids\" or “Super Saturn” Luminosity studies suggest that an even larger disk exists in the PDS 110 system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24718",
"title": "Ring system",
"section": "Section::::Ring systems of planets.:Saturn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Saturn's rings are the most extensive ring system of any planet in the Solar System, and thus have been known to exist for quite some time. Galileo Galilei first observed them in 1610, but they were not accurately described as a disk around Saturn until Christiaan Huygens did so in 1655. With help from the NASA/ESA/ASI Cassini mission, a further understanding of the ring formation and active movement was understood. The rings are not a series of tiny ringlets as many think, but are more of a disk with varying density. They consist mostly of water ice and trace amounts of rock, and the particles range in size from micrometers to meters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977592",
"title": "Rings of Saturn",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ring theory, observations and exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The rings are named alphabetically in the order they were discovered. The main rings are, working outward from the planet, C, B and A, with the Cassini Division, the largest gap, separating Rings B and A. Several fainter rings were discovered more recently. The D Ring is exceedingly faint and closest to the planet. The narrow F Ring is just outside the A Ring. Beyond that are two far fainter rings named G and E. The rings show a tremendous amount of structure on all scales, some related to perturbations by Saturn's moons, but much unexplained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4nv0it
|
why did linux get more popular then unix?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was free. It had no support guarantee, but the lack of cost made up for it. And because it was open source it could be ported to anything it could be compiled for, and there wasn't a big company making budgeting decisions based on volume sales potential keeping that from happening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unix was expensive (usually expensive as hell), and most variants required expensive (usually expensive as hell) hardware.\n\nThen, Linux cane along, and it was free or cheap (depending on which flavour you prefered). It gained a huge amount of traction, and soon become the leading Unix variant (yes, Linux is a full Unix).\n\nNow, there is no reason to go for some other Unix, as Linux has, by far, surpassed them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unix wasn't one thing, but a family of operating systems based on the original operating system developed by Bell Labs (Later AT & T). In the 80s/90s there was BSD, AIX, Solaris (SunOS), UnixWare, Xenix, HP-UX, IRIX, A/UX among others. There was the 'unix wars' where each vendor struggled to become the 'standard' unix. Compatibility between unixes was poor and each unix implementation was usually tied to a specific brand of hardware.\n\nNot only was Linux free, but it promised compatibility between hardware. Programs would need to be recompiled, but the tools etc would be the same, so it should just work.\n\nFreeBSD was also free, but it came too late. By the time all the legal issues were resolved, Linux had already 'won'\n\nHere is a good chart that shows the history of the unixes: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40601008",
"title": "History of software",
"section": "Section::::Early days of computer software (1948–1979).:Unix (1970s–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Unix was an early operating system which became popular and very influential, and still exists today. The most popular variant of Unix today is macOS (previously called OS X and Mac OS X), while Linux is closely related to Unix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347364",
"title": "Unix",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmers. The system grew larger as the operating system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system and shared them with colleagues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9374064",
"title": "History of free and open-source software",
"section": "Section::::1980s and 1990s.:Linux (1991–).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Linux adoption grew among businesses and governments in the 1990s and 2000s. In the English-speaking world at least, Ubuntu and its derivatives became a relatively popular group of Linux distributions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347364",
"title": "Unix",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The Unix system had significant impact on other operating systems. It achieved its reputation by its interactivity, by providing the software at a nominal fee for educational use, by running on inexpensive hardware, and by being easy to adapt and move to different machines. Unix was originally written in assembly language, but was soon rewritten in C, a high-level programming language. Although this followed the lead of Multics and Burroughs, it was Unix that popularized the idea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22194",
"title": "Operating system",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Unix and Unix-like operating systems.:Linux.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smart-watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only 1.82% of all \"desktop\" (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most supercomputers including the top 385. Many of the same computers are also on Green500 (but in different order), and Linux runs on the top 10. Linux is also commonly used on other small energy-efficient computers, such as smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android, Chrome OS, and Chromium OS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2397236",
"title": "Linux adoption",
"section": "Section::::Hardware platforms without graphical user interface.:Supercomputers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Linux is the most popular operating system among supercomputers due to the general advantages and benefits of free and open-source software, like superior performance, flexibility, speed and lower costs. In November 2008 Linux held an 87.8 percent share of the world's top 500 supercomputers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6097297",
"title": "Linux",
"section": "Section::::History.:Commercial and popular uptake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Today, Linux systems are used throughout computing, from embedded systems to virtually all supercomputers, and have secured a place in server installations such as the popular LAMP application stack. Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing. Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their own Chrome OS designed for netbooks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36h00f
|
how come i can remember a certain moment from my childhood, yet i can't remember a maths equation i learned today?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have two forms of memory - short-term and long-term. The first is far from perfect but can get better with the proper training. So just after you learn it, your math equation is in short term memory.\n\nWhen you sleep, some of the long-term memories are created from the short-term memory experiences you had during that day, particularly when it really stood out. (For example, an afternoon playing will likely not be as long-term memorable as a trip to Disney). But if you got swamped with new information that day, not everything is permanently written down and so you forget some stuff like your equation.\n\nWhen you're younger and learning lots, you're pretty good at this conversion process, so many long-term memories exist and can be recalled well into adulthood. But the short-term ones that didn't get transcribed into long-term form are lost, just like that equation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "524233",
"title": "Brodmann area 45",
"section": "Section::::Research findings.:Prefrontal cortex and the cognitive control of memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Pars triangularis has been shown to have a role in cognitive control of memory. There are more ways than one to remember something. When a person remembers, (s)he retrieves information from storage in a memory center of the brain. This information may be the muscle contraction sequence for shoe-tying, the face of a loved one, or anything in between. When someone remembers something automatically, without concentrating on it and without trying, it is called \"bottom-up\" processing. But sometimes, people really have to struggle to remember something. A student taking a test and trying to remember the answer to a question is concentrating their attention on retrieving the memory. The student is exhibiting cognitive control over their memory. This type of processing is directed, in part, by the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC). Pars triangularis is found in this region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717129",
"title": "Explicit memory",
"section": "Section::::Neuropsychology.:Normal brain function.:Hippocampus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "When experiencing an event for the first time, a link is formed in the hippocampus allowing us to recall that event in the future. Separate links are also made for features related to that event. For example, when you meet someone new, a unique link is created for them. More links are then connected to that person's link so you can remember what colour their shirt was, what the weather was like when you met them, etc. Specific episodes are made easier to remember and recall by repeatedly exposing oneself to them (which strengthens the links in the memory space) allowing for faster retrieval when remembering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31133385",
"title": "Misattribution of memory",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Source confusion in later life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "To usefully remember something, people must later recognize that they've seen it before and correctly remember the context in which it was seen. With age, the ability to discriminate between new and previous events starts to fail, and errors in recalling experiences become more common. Larry Jacoby of New York University completed a study in 1999 showing how common these errors can become and giving a better understanding why recognition errors are particularly common in Alzheimer's disease. In Jacoby's study, participants were given two lists of words: one to read and one that would be said out loud to them. All subjects were then given a \"test\" list which contained some words they had read, some they had heard, and some new words; the subjects had to determine which words were which. Jacoby found that university students and 75-year-olds were equally likely to correctly recognize whether or not the word had been presented, but 75-year-olds are much more likely to mistake whether the word was spoken or read.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4476769",
"title": "Hyperthymesia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Their memorization of events tends to exceed their ability to memorize given facts; for example, if you told a hyperthymesiac a fact about the world, they may not remember what you said, but they will more likely remember what you wore and other details of the situation when you told them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14069848",
"title": "Principles of learning",
"section": "Section::::Recency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5879939",
"title": "Memory span",
"section": "Section::::As a functional aspect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Experiments in memory span have found that the more familiar a person is with the type of subject matter presented to them, the more they will remember it in a novel setting. For example, a person will better remember a sequence in their first-language than their second-language; a person will also remember a sequence of words better than they would a sequence of nonsense syllables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32639051",
"title": "Google effect",
"section": "Section::::Phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "The original 2011 study concluded with three main findings. First, people are primed to think of computers when asked general knowledge questions, even when they know the correct answer. In addition, this effect is especially pronounced if the question is difficult and the answer is unknown. Secondly, people do not tend to remember information if they believe it will be available to look up later. By contrast, an explicit instruction to remember the material does not have a significant effect on recall. Lastly, if the information is saved, people are much more likely to remember where the information is located than to recall the information itself. In addition, people tend to remember either the fact or the location, but not both; this effect persists even when the information is more memorable than the name of the location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1acpia
|
Why are there 3 different names for meteoroids/meteorites/meteors?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they are different by definition.\n\n**Meteoroid**: A small body moving in the solar system that would become a meteor if it entered the earth's atmosphere.\n\n**Meteor**: A small body of matter from outer space that enters the earth's atmosphere, becoming incandescent as a result of friction and appearing as a streak of light.\n\n**Meteorite**: A meteor that survives its passage through the earth's atmosphere such that part of it strikes the ground.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I should think this is something you can simply look up in a dictionary.\n\nA meteoroid is a particle from a comet or asteroid. A meteor is the glowing wake made in the atmosphere by particles being shed.. A meteorite is a chunk that makes landfall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "157819",
"title": "Meteor shower",
"section": "Section::::Naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Meteor showers are named after the nearest constellation or bright star with a Greek or Roman letter assigned that is close to the radiant position at the peak of the shower, whereby the grammatical declension of the Latin possessive form is replaced by \"id\" or \"ids\". Hence, meteors radiating from near the star Delta Aquarii (declension \"-i\") are called the Delta Aquariids. The International Astronomical Union's Task Group on Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the IAU's Meteor Data Center keep track of meteor shower nomenclature and which showers are established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19937",
"title": "Meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Meteorites are always named for the places they were found, usually a nearby town or geographic feature. In cases where many meteorites were found in one place, the name may be followed by a number or letter (e.g., Allan Hills 84001 or Dimmitt (b)). The name designated by the Meteoritical Society is used by scientists, catalogers, and most collectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23225193",
"title": "Spore Hero",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "There are two types of meteors: the blue one whose rocks give the player more DNA, and the red one whose rocks make most creatures go crazy. The creature, a Sporeling, starts as a small, blue, bipedal creature hatched from its egg in the blue meteor. Meejee the Striped Bird offers the creature a fruit, but it doesn't have a mouth. Littly shows the creature a nest, one of several scattered across the planet, where it hatched that resembles the sun, and where the creature can evolve itself. The evil Zarkhator, hatched from his egg in the red meteor, has used red rocks to corrupt almost every creature on the planet. The Sporeling must destroy every red rock. At the Creature Beach, they must have the final battle, so that Zarkhator can be evolved into a weaker creature. He gets laughed at by everyone, and doesn't cause any more harm to the planet. The Ancient Guardian needs 5 parts from each world. The Sage is the one who looks after the Guardian. He is an elderly Striped Bird who is good friends with the Yeti.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38052107",
"title": "Northwest Africa 3009",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Meteorites are usually named after the village nearest their place of discovery. Those found in the deserts of Northwest Africa have mostly been called NWA (for Northwest Africa) followed by a serial number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5095558",
"title": "Meteoric water",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The word \"meteoric\" (as in the sense of direct atmospheric origin) is used here from the same root as meteorology. The term is from a Greek word which originally referred to astronomical discussions. However, after the publication of Aristotle's book \"Meteorology,\" which discussed what we today call earth sciences, the term was eventually used to describe any notable changes appearing in the sky (including meteors, originally thought to be weather phenomena).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55807375",
"title": "Meteorinae",
"section": "Section::::Genera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Two genera are found in North America, \"Meteorus\" and \"Zele\". Recent evidence suggests that \"Meteorus\" may be paraphyletic with respect to \"Zele\", but synonymyzing the two genera could potentially cause great confusion in the scientific literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63793",
"title": "Meteoroid",
"section": "Section::::Meteoroids.:In the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Most meteoroids come from the asteroid belt, having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from comets, giving rise to meteor showers. Some meteoroids are fragments from bodies such as Mars or our moon, that have been thrown into space by an impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vp22s
|
why do mobile video games have so many commercials on tv all of a sudden?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mobile phones, and thus mobile games are so popular now that it makes financial sense for big-name games to spend the big TV money in order to sell more games.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mobile games have the best potential to be profitable because they cost far less to develop than traditional PC or console games and everyone has a phone. A few companies have figured it out (including those people at Candy Crush who sue anyone that uses the word \"saga.\" They're the new monster cable of frivolous lawsuits)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Free to play\" is a very effective advertising tool and the \"cinematic\" aspect of these commercials are much better lures than screenshots. Of course once you are in the game, you quickly realize it's not so free. But I am sure they have a target retention rate, so even with the loss of players, they are making more than enough money to offset the cost of Kate Upton.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "932935",
"title": "False advertising",
"section": "Section::::Puffing.:Misleading illustrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Commercials for certain video games include trailers that are essentially CGI short-films - with graphics of a much higher caliber than the actual game. This practice has been used more in recent years and has led to major backlash from video gaming communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12109912",
"title": "Densetsu no Stafy (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "In order to make the game successful, Nintendo and Tose aired animated television commercials, as well as selling some promotional merchandise, such as a music album that includes a few songs sung by Becky. The animated television commercials contain the game's exposition, though it differs in some respects. For instance, in the game, Starfy was walking inside the Pufftop Palace while carrying some stuff (including the Magic Jar holding the antagonist, Ogura), until he trips and drops what he is carrying, causing the Magic Jar to fall into the ocean below the Pufftop Palace. In one of the commercials, however, Starfy was walking outside of Pufftop Palace while \"only\" carrying the Magic Jar, until he tripped and \"he\" fell in the ocean (along with the Magic Jar). Another television commercial shows Starfy sleeping on the whale seen in the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115260",
"title": "Mobile marketing",
"section": "Section::::In-game mobile marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "This kind of advertisement is not only interesting, but also brings some benefits to marketers. As this kind of in-gaming mobile marketing can create more effective conversion rates because they are interactive and have faster conversion speeds than general advertising. Moreover, games can also offer a stronger lifetime value. They measure the quality of the consumer in advance to provide some more in-depth experience，So this type of advertising can be more effective in improving user stickiness than advertising channels such as stories and video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115260",
"title": "Mobile marketing",
"section": "Section::::In-game mobile marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "One form of in-game mobile advertising is what allows players to actually play. As a new and effective form of advertising, it allows consumers to try out the content before they actually install it. This type of marketing can also really attract the attention of users like casual players. These advertising blur the lines between game and advertising, and provide players with a richer experience that allows them to spend their precious time interacting with advertising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424542",
"title": "Advertising in video games",
"section": "Section::::Categories.:In-game advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Another video game advertising technique consists of advertising within a game itself. Since the intent of in-game advertising is typically commercial rather than political, some consider such advertisements to make up a category of their own. In-game advertising is similar to subtle advertising in films, where the advertising content is within the \"world\" of the movie. Thus billboards, storefronts, posters, apparel, vehicles, weapons, fliers, sponsored product placement, and the interplay between the player and these elements in the game allow for a great degree of virtual advertisement. Examples include billboards advertising for (and product placement of) Bawls energy drink in \"\", and billboards for Adidas sportswear in \"FIFA International Soccer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32401",
"title": "History of video games",
"section": "Section::::2000s.:Mobile games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Due to the debut of app stores created by Apple and Google, plus the low-cost retail price of downloadable phone apps, games available on smartphones increasingly rival the video game console market. Among the most successful mobile games of this period is \"Angry Birds\", which, released in 2009, reached 2 million downloads within one year. Nintendo announced their intentions for developing more games and content for mobile devices in the early 2010s, while Sega company is also dedicating development resources toward creating more mobile games. Independent small developers are entering the game market en masse by creating mobile games with the hope they will gain popularity with smartphone gaming enthusiasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32401",
"title": "History of video games",
"section": "Section::::1990s.:Mobile phone gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Mobile phones began becoming video gaming platforms when Nokia installed \"Snake\" onto its line of mobile phones in 1997 (Nokia 6110). As the game gained popularity, every major phone brand offered \"time killer games\" that could be played in very short moments such as waiting for a bus. Mobile phone games early on were limited by the modest size of the phone screens that were all monochrome, the very limited amount of memory and processing power on phones, and the drain on the battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
476t1w
|
how can a person have 8 pack abs when theres only 6 rectus abdominis?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's partly genetics and partly an illusion. Without the right genetics the illusion is much harder to give off and thus would need intense exercise on your lower stomach & having an incredibly low body fat %, but it's not something that can be real without having the genetics for it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually you just have 1 rectus abdominus muscle, which is split in the middle longitudinally by linea alba (white line). And there are tendinous insertions horizontally that gives the impression that you have 6 different muscles. There are normally 3 of these insertions, hence 6 bulges, but some have 4 of them making a 8-pack.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145560",
"title": "Corset",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Fashion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "An \"overbust corset\" encloses the torso, extending from just under the arms toward the hips. An \"underbust corset\" begins just under the breasts and extends down toward the hips. A \"longline corset\" – either overbust or underbust – extends past the iliac crest, or the hip bone. A longline corset is ideal for those who want increased stability, have longer torsos, or want to smooth out their hips. A \"standard\" length corset will stop short of the iliac crest and is ideal for those who want increased flexibility or have a shorter torso. Some corsets, in very rare instances, reach the knees. A shorter kind of corset that covers the waist area (from low on the ribs to just above the hips), is called a \"waist cincher\". A corset may also include garters to hold up stockings; alternatively, a separate garter belt may be worn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7892703",
"title": "Tendinous intersection",
"section": "Section::::Colloquial reference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "If well-defined, the rectus abdominis is colloquially called a \"six-pack\". This is due to tendinous intersections within the muscle, usually at the level of the umbilicus (belly-button), the xiphisternum, and about halfway between.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1201556",
"title": "Rectus abdominis muscle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The Abdominalus Sucurum is contained in the rectus sheath, which consists of the aponeuroses of the lateral abdominal muscles. Bands of connective tissue called the tendinous intersections traverse the rectus abdominis, which separates this parallel muscle into distinct muscle bellies. The outer, most lateral line, defining the \"abs\" is the linea semilunaris. In the abdomens of people with low body fat, these muscle bellies can be viewed externally and are commonly referred to as \"four\", \"six\", \"eight\", or \"ten packs\", depending on how many are visible; although, six is the most common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274608",
"title": "Crunch (exercise)",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Strength exercises such as sit-ups and crunches do not cause the spot reduction of fat. Achieving \"six pack abs\" requires both abdominal muscle hypertrophy training and fat loss over the abdomen—which can only be done by losing fat from the body as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17050182",
"title": "Supine row",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The supine row (or inverted row) is an exercise in weight training. It primarily works the muscles of the upper back—the trapezius and latissimus dorsi—as well as the biceps as a secondary muscle group. The supine row is normally carried out in three to five sets, but repetitions depend on the type of training a lifter is using to make their required gains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33792815",
"title": "T44 (classification)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "T44 is a disability sport classification for disability athletics, applying to \"Single below knee amputation or an athlete who can walk with moderately reduced function in one or both legs.\" It includes ISOD A4 and A9 classes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30374",
"title": "Taekwondo",
"section": "Section::::Ranks, belts, and promotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "BULLET::::- The senior section of ranks—the \"black belt\" ranks—is typically made up of nine ranks. Each rank is called a \"dan\" or \"degree\" (as in \"third \"dan\"\" or \"third-degree black belt\"). The numbering sequence for dan ranks is opposite that of geup ranks: numbering begins at 1st dan (the lowest black-belt rank) and counts upward for higher ranks. A practitioner's degree is sometimes indicated on the belt itself with stripes, Roman numerals, or other methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bk9mrg
|
what are stocks and what is insider trading? how are they related to each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is VERY ELI5\n\n & #x200B;\n\nStocks are a share of ownership in a company. Insider trading is when someone close to or with connections inside a company know of a large move (either positive or negative) the company is about to do that is going to effect the stock price. They then act on this information to either buy a bunch or sell a bunch of the company's stock before the information becomes public.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A stock is a part of a company simply speaking. There is a limited amount of shares, if you have more than 50% you basically have the say in that company.\n\nInsider trading is if someone with inside knowledge uses that knowledge in order to gain an advantage for making money.\n\nAs an example you have a lot of stocks/shares in a company but you also know internal stuff, e.g. a lawsuit or another problem that will kill the price of the share. They then sell before it's known to the public so they don't lose money. It also works the other way around, buying a lot of shares because you have inside knowledge that the price will skyrocket (new invention hitting the market for example)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stocks are fractions of ownership in a company. If you own a stock in the company you can vote on certain decisions of the company. If you own 50.1% of all the stock issued you can make controlling decisions of the company.\n\nInsider trading is making stock trades based on information that is not yet known to the public. For example if the CFO knows company A is about to buy company B that will likely impact the stock price of both companies once the info is released. So if he were to make a trade beforehand he could make money based on this “inside information” - thus it is not allowed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stocks are shares in a company. \n\nIf there are 100 shares of a company, and you own 10 of them, you own 10% of that company.\n\n\nInsider trading is the use of information not available to the public to make stock trading decisions.\n\nFor example: Say a CEO knows that his company didn't get approval for the drug it produces and the stock price is going to fall. He calls up Martha Stewart and tells her to sell her shares *before* the news of the denied approval hits the media and causes the price to fall.\n \nThey have made an illegal insider trade because her sale was based on inside information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They definitely can and this is the most typical case. Senior execs have windows that they are and are not allowed to trade. It is all public information and must be filed with the sec. big swings outside of their normal trading is investigated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40786",
"title": "Bias",
"section": "Section::::Contextual biases.:Other contexts.:Insider trading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Insider trading is the trading of a public company's stock or other securities (such as bonds or stock options) by individuals with access to non-public information about the company. In various countries, trading based on insider information is illegal because it is seen as unfair to other investors who do not have access to the information as the investor with insider information could potentially make far larger profits that a typical investor could not make.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15368",
"title": "Insider trading",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Insider trading is the trading of a public company's stock or other securities (such as bonds or stock options) by individuals with access to nonpublic information about the company. In various countries, some kinds of trading based on insider information is illegal. This is because it is seen as unfair to other investors who do not have access to the information, as the investor with insider information could potentially make larger profits than a typical investor could make. The rules governing insider trading are complex and vary significantly from country to country. The extent of enforcement also varies from one country to another. The definition of insider in one jurisdiction can be broad, and may cover not only insiders themselves but also any persons related to them, such as brokers, associates and even family members. A person who becomes aware of non-public information and trades on that basis may be guilty of a crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1054527",
"title": "Corporate law",
"section": "Section::::Matters affecting the continuation of the Corporate form.:Insider dealing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Insider trading is the trading of a corporation's stock or other securities (e.g., bonds or stock options) by individuals with potential access to non-public information about the company. In most countries, trading by corporate insiders such as officers, key employees, directors, and large shareholders may be legal if this trading is done in a way that does not take advantage of non-public information. However, the term is frequently used to refer to a practice in which an insider or a related party trades based on material non-public information obtained during the performance of the insider's duties at the corporation, or otherwise in breach of a fiduciary or other relationship of trust and confidence or where the non-public information was misappropriated from the company. Illegal insider trading is believed to raise the cost of capital for securities issuers, thus decreasing overall economic growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2902209",
"title": "Securities fraud",
"section": "Section::::Types of securities fraud.:Insider trading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "There are two types of \"insider trading\". The first is the trading of a corporation's stock or other security by corporate insiders such as officers, key employees, directors, or holders of more than ten percent of the firm's shares. This is generally legal, but there are certain reporting requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2902209",
"title": "Securities fraud",
"section": "Section::::Types of securities fraud.:Insider trading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The other type of insider trading is the purchase or sale of a security based on material non-public information. This type of trading is illegal in most instances. In illegal insider trading, an insider or a related party trades based on material non-public information obtained during the performance of the insider's duties at the corporation, or otherwise misappropriated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20702569",
"title": "Stock exchanges of small economies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "A Stock exchange is a corporation or mutual organization which provides facilities for stockbrokers and traders to trade stocks and other securities. It may be a physical trading room where the traders gather, or a formalised communications network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53595317",
"title": "Securities market participants (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Parties to transactions.:Stock exchanges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "A stock exchange is a physical or digital place to which brokers and dealers send buy and sell orders in stocks (also called shares), bonds, and other securities. Price discovery is optimized by bringing together at one point in time and place all buy and sell orders for a particular security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8a43ua
|
why does skipping five seconds of a video often take longer due to buffering than just sitting through the five seconds?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way online video is compressed, you're receiving data that represents incremental updates from the last frame. If you start playing the video at the beginning, it all works as intended.\n\nHowever, if you start playing in the middle, you need to process incremental updates for some time period prior to the frame you want to see before you can display it. It takes time to download both the incremental data and process it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045915",
"title": "Buffer underrun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "In computing, buffer underrun or buffer underflow is a state occurring when a buffer used to communicate between two devices or processes is fed with data at a lower speed than the data is being read from it. (The term is distinct from buffer overflow, a condition where a portion of memory being used as a buffer has a fixed size but is filled with more than that amount of data.) This requires the program or device reading from the buffer to pause its processing while the buffer refills. This can cause undesired and sometimes serious side effects because the data being buffered is generally not suited to stop-start access of this kind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15232420",
"title": "I-Frame Delay",
"section": "Section::::I-Frame Delay algorithm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "If only B-frames are dropped there should be no distortions in the frame image because there are no subsequent frames depending on them. The dropping of frames by IFD causes the effect of the video playback being temporarily frozen, the duration of which depends on the number of frames dropped after which the playback resumes from the next frame which got through. For an IFD implementation with a buffer of the size of two frames the algorithm is shown in figure below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2632880",
"title": "Screen tearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The artifact occurs when the video feed to the device is not in sync with the display's refresh rate. This can be due to non-matching refresh rates—in which case the tear line moves as the phase difference changes (with speed proportional to difference of frame rates). It can also occur simply from lack of sync between two equal frame rates, in which case the tear line is at a fixed location that corresponds to the phase difference. During video motion, screen tearing creates a torn look as edges of objects (such as a wall or a tree) fail to line up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2572370",
"title": "Flicker-free",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Higher refresh rates, while they reduce flicker, may cause other problems. Simply redisplaying the fields may cause judder, particularly on fast moving images, as the image is displayed repeatedly in the same location, rather than moving smoothly. Conversely, interpolation (which avoids judder and may create more fluid motion than in the original video) can instead cause blurring, particularly visible on fast scrolling text. See motion interpolation for further discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9695744",
"title": "Audio synchronizer",
"section": "Section::::Error correction.:Tracking changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1394,
"text": "Unfortunately, video delays frequently make quick and large changes, for example, a jump in delay time from 2 seconds to 6 seconds is possible. To maintain proper audio-video sync, the audio delay must track these video delay changes. Changing the audio delay requires changing the difference between the write address and the read address. This change can be accomplished by causing either the write or read address to jump forward or backward, however, this jump causes some audio samples to repeat or be lost resulting in an unwanted and annoying pop, click, gap, distortion and/or noise in the audio signal. Some audio synchronizers operate by making repeated, very small jumps that cause unwanted (but less annoying) distortion and noise in the audio signal, rather than pops, gaps, and clicks. Other audio synchronizers change delay by changing the speed of the reading of audio from the ring memory. If audio samples are read out of the memory more slowly than they are written, the delay increases. If audio samples are read out faster than they are written the delay decreases. Using variable speed reading prevents pops, clicks, gaps, distortion and noise from being introduced into the audio, but does create unwanted and annoying pitch errors. For example, reading faster than writing causes the audio pitch to increase and reading slower than writing causes the pitch to decrease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045915",
"title": "Buffer underrun",
"section": "Section::::Multimedia playback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "If the framebuffer of the graphics controller is not updated, the picture of the computer screen will appear to hang until the buffer receives new data. Many video player programs (e.g. MPlayer) feature the ability to drop frames if the system is overloaded, intentionally allowing a buffer underrun to keep up the tempo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149963",
"title": "Framebuffer",
"section": "Section::::Page flipping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "A frame buffer may be designed with enough memory to store two frames worth of video data. In a technique known generally as double buffering or more specifically as page flipping, the framebuffer uses half of its memory to display the current frame. While that memory is being displayed, the other half of memory is filled with data for the next frame. Once the secondary buffer is filled, the framebuffer is instructed to display the secondary buffer instead. The primary buffer becomes the secondary buffer, and the secondary buffer becomes the primary. This switch is often done after the vertical blanking interval to avoid screen tearing where half the old frame and half the new frame is shown together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ajezn3
|
Does a radar gun in a moving vehicle function the same as one in a stationary vehicle?
|
[
{
"answer": "All detectors can only tell you relative speed. So that means that a stationary radar would detect 0 in the first case, 5 in the second and 5 (speed is absolute value of velocity) in the third, 75 in the last. You have the right idea. It's not a mistake. The nature of physics is that the relative value is the absolutely real answer - assuming you've chosen yourself as the frame of reference.\n\nWhich doesn't matter if your radar unit includes a detector for your own speed, which can then be added or subtracted from the target. That's what police use. In many well funded places cars have internal systems that have antennas mounted on the rear and front, which can detect accurate speeds of cars moving the same or opposite direction and ballpark speeds of things moving off axis. \n\nIn some cases you can also detect multiple objects, including stationary ones that are known, and get an even more certain result. Either way the result is that you can return to a universally agreed frame of reference (the Earth's ground) by a simple transformation.\n\nSo they do work differently, but only in the data processing. The radar itself is the same. Your ticket will be the rounded down end of the margin of error, but if you're speeding enough that's still not great.\n\nSimilar computerized systems are used on ships, aircraft and anything else that might be moving when you need a reading. Sometimes RADAR units are used to determine your own speed and position as well. They're pretty versatile for being very simple in concept.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThere's an example. Note that it plugs into the car's data port to pull vehicle speed info (VSS).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It will report a relative speed. In your first question, if both cars are traveling at 75 mph then it should read zero.\n\nThe light leaving the radar gun and bouncing off the speeding car is totally unaware of the ground. That should be easy to accept with just [Galilean relativity.](_URL_0_) You can throw a ball upwards in a moving car and catch it just like you were stationary. If there were not much air resistance you could play catch between two parallel moving vehicles.\n\nBouncing light off an object does not work quite like bouncing a rubber ball. Fiddling with moving light sources, moving mirrors, and photon detectors would eventually lead you to some very odd conclusions about the nature of light, time, and space and also lead you to the rules needed to build a radar gun. Take things one relativity at a time though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Traffic radar comes in many models. Hand-held units are mostly battery powered, and for the most part are used as stationary speed enforcement tools. Stationary radar can be mounted in police vehicles and may have one or two antennae. Moving radar is employed, as the name implies, when a police vehicle is in motion and can be very sophisticated, able to track vehicles approaching and receding, both in front of and behind the patrol vehicle and also able to track multiple targets at once. It can also track the fastest vehicle in the selected radar beam, front or rear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1325302",
"title": "Radar detector",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "One device law enforcement use to measure the expected speed of a moving vehicle is doppler radar, which uses the doppler effect to measure the relative speed of a vehicle. Doppler radar works by beaming a radio wave at a vehicle to then measure the expected change in frequency of the reflected wave (that bounces off the vehicle). Law enforcement often employs doppler radar via hand-held radar guns, from vehicles, or from fixed objects such as traffic signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "A radar speed gun is a Doppler radar unit that may be hand-held, vehicle-mounted or static. It measures the speed of the objects at which it is pointed by detecting a change in frequency of the returned radar signal caused by the Doppler effect, whereby the frequency of the returned signal is increased in proportion to the object's speed of approach if the object is approaching, and lowered if the object is receding. Such devices are frequently used for speed limit enforcement, although more modern LIDAR speed gun instruments, which use pulsed laser light instead of radar, began to replace radar guns during the first decade of the twenty-first century, because of limitations associated with small radar systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- A radar gun or speed gun is a small Doppler radar used to detect the speed of objects. It relies on the Doppler Effect applied to a radar beam to measure the speed of objects at which it is pointed. Radar guns may be hand-held or vehicle-mounted. Bryce K. Brown invented the radar gun in March 1954.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1358331",
"title": "Continuous-wave radar",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Unmodulated continuous-wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Continuous-wave radar without frequency modulation (FM) only detects moving targets, as stationary targets (along the line of sight) will not cause a Doppler shift. Reflected signals from stationary and slow-moving objects are masked by the transmit signal, which overwhelms reflections from slow-moving objects during normal operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Moving radar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In so-called \"moving radar\", the radar antenna receives reflected signals from both the target vehicle and stationary background objects such as the road surface, nearby road signs, guard rails and streetlight poles. Instead of comparing the frequency of the signal reflected from the target with the transmitted signal, it compares the target signal with this background signal. The frequency difference between these two signals gives the true speed of the target vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Doppler effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "Radar speed guns, like other types of radar, consist of a radio transmitter and receiver. They send out a radio signal in a narrow beam, then receive the same signal back after it bounces off the target object. Due to a phenomenon called the Doppler effect, if the object is moving toward or away from the gun, the frequency of the reflected radio waves when they come back is different from the transmitted waves. When the object is approaching the radar, the frequency of the return waves is higher than the transmitted waves; when the object is moving away, the frequency is lower. From that difference, the radar speed gun can calculate the speed of the object from which the waves have been bounced. This speed is given by the following equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9jbopb
|
how does a gym's business model hold up? the equipment is insanely costly and the memberships cost next to nothing in most cases. how does it pay off the investment and become a stable income source?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think a lot of it relies on people paying for gym memberships that they never or rarely use. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's like planet fitness cheap membership so everyone and their mom signs up, but then they literally never go. So tons of $20. A month payments and if you forget a yearly fee but noone uses it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although the equipment is costly, some gyms (like mine) keep the same equipment for a very long time. Once it is paid for, maintenance costs are small compared to membership income. \n\nEdit: missing word added.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Relevant to add that in many cases, the business model just doesn't hold up. Especially in smaller towns with few potential members they can barely be breaking even, if they are even doing that, and just keep going in a hope that enough people will sign up. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of budget gyms don't actually pay their staff.\n\nYou get a job as a Personal Trainer and work as a receptionist and a cleaner and you take fitness classes that are generally free for the gym users.\n\nYou then use this to recruit people as clients for your personal training business and charge them $40 an hour and the gym lets you use their facilities for your classes.\n\nThe trainers don't need a studio and the gyms don't need to pay their staff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only example I can speak of from experience is a local council-operated gym system that last year effectively made a small loss. By far the biggest expense is employee salaries, which account for most of the operating costs. These salaries include maintenance, but the annual expenditure on new equipment is comparatively small. Income comes from three main sources: memberships, fees and hiring out their facilities.\n\nIn simple terms, the business model is \"charge people enough for memberships and one-off visits to pay for most of the running costs of the gym, then hire out gym facilities on slow days to make up the rest\". This year, they will increase all the fees a bit to make up for last year, when the fees were slightly too low to make a profit in pure economic terms. Overall, the system makes the local area money by improving general health, providing employment and taking virtually no tax subsidy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TLDR: The gym only has 10 machines in it, but that can actually support 200 memberships easily.\n\n\\-----\n\nThe model depends upon people paying for a membership and only occasionally showing up to the gym, plus the low depreciation/maintenance of the machines.\n\nThis is why gyms emphasize \"don't bang the weights.\" There isn't much risk of you hurting yourself, but there is a risk of you breaking equipment.\n\nThat's also why gyms emphasize year-long contracts and auto-pay systems when you join. If you use the gym often you will be willing to remain a member. If you don't use the gym often, you will likely forget about the membership. Some gyms also have a termination fee, or require you to quit in-person so that a sales rep can talk you out of it.\n\nAlso, lots of people join around New Year's with the idea of getting in shape. Next year rolls around and the gym membership expires, but hey, I should start going to the gym again as my resolution so I won't cancel.\n\nSo there is a really high members-per-machine ratio, with most members not using the machines often (or at all).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Already some great answers here. I would also like to add that it's likely that national chains especially and probably some other gyms arrange bulk discounts. Let's say a treadmill costs 2000 dollars if you go to the store and buy one, when the manufacturer sells them for 1200. But the store is getting a cut and you're only buying one.\n\nBut a national chain might go straight to the manufacturer and buy them for 1200 rather than 2000, and if they're buying hundreds at a time and warehousing them for building new locations or expanding or having reserves, they might strike a deal at 1000 per treadmill. This is very common in industry where a discount can be struck for making a large order, because it is still a huge amount of money and it guarantees the manufacturer some work for a time.\n\nNow a small-time gym might instead go to the store selling for 2000, and make a deal where they will buy say 10 treadmills at 1800 each. The store is still making money by selling 10 treadmills at once just less profit *per*, and the gym saves a bit of money on equipment.\n\nIn both cases it is hoped that the purchaser will come back to them for replacement parts, which is also a handy source of revenue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also it might have something to do with some gyms making it very difficult to cancel a membership with an automatic payment ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24253680",
"title": "Sports and Leisure Management Ltd",
"section": "Section::::Fitness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The company has approximately 128 gyms and fitness suites across its estate of over 160 centres, which include a variety of equipment, such as cardiovascular and weight-training apparatus. Customers can work out independently, as part of an instructor-led small group, or with a personal trainer of their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43320090",
"title": "Gym Source",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Gym Source is the United States' largest distributor of fitness equipment. Opened in 1937 as Cutler Owens Sporting Goods in Midtown Manhattan, Richard Miller purchased the company in 1978, renaming it Gym Source. The privately held company employs about 300 people in 10 states and operates through seven distribution centers. As a fitness equipment retailer, Gym Source serves customers in all 50 states and 47 countries. As of 2014, the firm serves more than 300,000 customers internationally and has made nearly 2 million deliveries, making it the largest fitness equipment distributor in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13194785",
"title": "California Fitness",
"section": "Section::::Products, services and facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The company's business model is based on an entry fee and contracts of variable duration that are tacitly renewed unless one month's notice in writing is given. In addition to cardio and resistance equipment, free weights, group exercise studios, all California Fitness clubs have free internet access (wifi or in-club kiosks). Most of its clubs have steam and sauna rooms and there is an outdoor swimming pool at Megabox Club Kowloon Bay, one of its Hong Kong clubs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13774615",
"title": "Total Gym",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The \"Total Gym\" is a brand name and product line of exercise machines used for strength training, stretching, and pilates training designed by EFI Sports Medicine Incorporated of San Diego, California. The various models are manufactured for 3 different types of customers: Medical Facilities, Fitness Facilities, and Home Consumers. The most known model to the general public is the infomercial model sold through the use of TV advertising. It is the longest running infomercial product at this time. There are licensing contracts with two other companies for the smaller home models, however EFI solely makes the commercial/professional models. This product is known as a \"inclined plane bodyweight training\" device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26073110",
"title": "Music gym",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "A Music Gym is membership-based club or cooperative community where musicians (and other artists) share common resources in a shared facility. Such resources are related to music production, music rehearsal, movie production, art galleries, and tools useful for networking with other creative artists. Typically members of the community share the cost of property through some sort of fee, or make some exchange of services live performance, goods (music equipment) or labor to be members of the community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1356299",
"title": "Rangers Training Centre",
"section": "Section::::Structure and facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The gym equipment, costing £150,000, is linked to a computer system which can activate a personalised fitness programme for individual players. The gym also houses an iso-kinetic machine, which allows players to work out despite being injured by testing muscle strength and reactions. There is a hydrotherapy pool that has an angled, movable floor and a series of massage jets and currents that allows a range of rehabilitation exercises to take place. There is also a media editing suite costing £50,000 where a video analyst will video each training session. The footage will be used to conduct tactical lessons in the lecture room afterwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7367299",
"title": "Health club",
"section": "Section::::Facilities and services.:Types of services in health clubs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Health clubs in North America offer a number of facilities and services with different price points for different levels of services. Some services have differently-priced levels or tiers, such as regular, pro, platinum and gold facilities or packages. Some of the health and fitness facilities use cardio equipment, fitness screening, resistance-building equipment, pro shops, artificial sun-beds, health spas and saunas. The membership plans vary from as low as $20 per month, for value-priced gyms to as high as $700 per month. These health clubs, especially in the United States, are equipped with a range of facilities and provide personal trainer support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3h227v
|
What happened to the territory gained by Justinian I?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was lost again.\n\nIn Italy the war with the Ostrogoths lasted for decades and devastated the country. Some historians hold this war to be the true end of antiquity. As Goldsworthy puts it, it \"probably destroyed many aspects of Roman culture and society that had survived the collapse of the Western Empire.\"\n\nAlthough the Byzantines eventually defeated the Ostrogoths and took control of the whole of Italy, the Lombards (Or Longobards, i.e. Longbeards. Another German tribe) invaded Italy very soon after Justinian's death, and took over most of the interior. The Byzantines held on to coastal cities and Sicily, and over the centuries afterwards would sometimes regain parts of Italy, but they never got anywhere close to achieving Justinian's territorial ambitions. They fought over it as late as the reign of Manuel Komnenos, who tried to regain control over the southern ports there in the 12th century.\n\nThe Spanish possessions were contested by the Visigoths, and though the Byzantines held on for some decades, and even made some temporary gains by exploiting Visigothic dynastic conflict, they lost all their mainland possessions in the 7th century even before the Muslims invaded. (They held on to the Balearic islands for a bit longer.)\n\nAfrica remained a Roman possession for several generations, until it fell to the Arab invasion along with Egypt and Syria later in the 7th century.\n\nThe bubonic plague that devastated the empire shortly after the start of the Ostrogothic wars likely had something to do with the empire's inability to hold on to its conquests, but Justinian's projects had also been opportunistic and ended up opening up several new fronts in an empire already struggling to defend its existing possessions from attack. Hardly anybody considers the loss of the new conquests surprising. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20024282",
"title": "History of the Byzantine Empire",
"section": "Section::::Justinian I and his successors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Justinian I, who assumed the throne in 527, oversaw a period of Byzantine expansion into former Roman territories. Justinian, the son of an Illyrian peasant, may already have exerted effective control during the reign of his uncle, Justin I (518–527). In 532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassinids. In the same year, Justinian survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots) which ended with the death of (allegedly) thirty thousand rioters. This victory solidified Justinian's power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153264",
"title": "Enrico Dandolo",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Fourth Crusade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The \"Partitio Romaniae\" also resulted from this conquest, and it awarded Venice three-eighths of the Byzantine Empire in accordance with an agreement drafted by the Crusaders before the fall of the empire. This included a part of Constantinople near the harbor, a portion of the shoreline of the Sea of Marmara, and the city of Adrianople, among other former Byzantine possessions. Dandolo was also awarded the title \"lord of three-eighths of the Roman Empire\", although these acquisitions only lasted until the collapse of the Latin empire in 1261.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7996691",
"title": "Renier of Trit",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "After the conquest of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire, Renier was granted Philippopolis and the territory as far as the river Maritsa by Emperor Baldwin I following the October 1204 partition of the conquered and yet to be conquered lands of the Byzantine Empire. Renier's land lay within the realm of Bulgaria, in territory claimed by Byzantium and subsequently the Franks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5876413",
"title": "Sasanian Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second Golden Era (498–622).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Emperor Justinian I (527–565) paid Khosrau I 440,000 pieces of gold as a part of the \"eternal peace\" treaty of 532. In 540, Khosrau broke the treaty and invaded Syria, sacking Antioch and extorting large sums of money from a number of other cities. Further successes followed: in 541 Lazica defected to the Persian side, and in 542 a major Byzantine offensive in Armenia was defeated at Anglon. Also in 541, Khosrau I entered Lazica at the invitation of its king, captured the main Byzantine stronghold at Petra, and established another protectorate over the country, commencing the Lazic War. A five-year truce agreed to in 545 was interrupted in 547 when Lazica again switched sides and eventually expelled its Persian garrison with Byzantine help; the war resumed but remained confined to Lazica, which was retained by the Byzantines when peace was concluded in 562.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3130557",
"title": "Battle of Pandosia",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Justin does not mention the cities Alexander conquered, but Livy is more specific. According to him, he took the Tarantine colony Heraclea from the Lucanians; Sipontum which belonged to the Daunians; the Bruttian towns Cosentia, Terina and several more Messapian and Lucanian towns. He sent three hundred noble families back to Epirus as hostages. However, the Bruttians and the Lucanians raised reinforcements from their neighbors and declared war on him again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16972981",
"title": "Byzantine Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Justinian dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "In 532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia, agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids. In the same year, he survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots), which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders. The western conquests began in 533, as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals, who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage. Their success came with surprising ease, but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16209",
"title": "Justinian I",
"section": "Section::::Reign.:Military activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
163ucx
|
How do we know the orbit of the sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "Are you thinking about how the sun travels around the Milky Way?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, our instruments are actually are that good, but the reason you're looking for is our toolbox has grown significantly since the days of Galileo. We can collect data much more accurately and at a much greater distance than ever before. \n\nTo the best of our knowledge, the Milky Way is a [barred-spiral galaxy](_URL_0_) , and most barred-spiral galaxies we observe spin like a giant record on a player. By looking at the distant stars in our local galaxy and observing the [doppler shift in the starlight](_URL_1_) we can get an idea of what direction the galaxy is spinning. Stars moving away from us look more reddish than stars moving toward us. This is due to a change in the light-particle frequency because of the relative motion between us (Earth) and the star we're looking at. \n\nSince our star is part of the galaxy, it's snared in the same rotational movement the rest of the galaxy is locked at, which gives us an idea of which direction the sun will move as the galaxy spins, giving us its orbit and velocity. We can even tell the vector the sun uses to travel through the galaxy. I've read the planets of our solar system orbit the Sun on its Y-axis, not horizontally like charts always show. Supposedly, the solar system stands on its side as it burns around the Milky Way, but I can't find any supporting information about this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15472250",
"title": "(185851) 2000 DP107",
"section": "Section::::Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 315,
"text": " orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.9–1.9 AU once every 19 months (583 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.38 and an inclination of 9° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation, as no precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1210",
"title": "Astronomical unit",
"section": "Section::::Development of unit definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1315,
"text": "Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The semi-major axis of this elliptic orbit is defined to be half of the straight line segment that joins the perihelion and aphelion. The centre of the Sun lies on this straight line segment, but not at its midpoint. Because ellipses are well-understood shapes, measuring the points of its extremes defined the exact shape mathematically, and made possible calculations for the entire orbit as well as predictions based on observation. In addition, it mapped out exactly the largest straight-line distance that Earth traverses over the course of a year, defining times and places for observing the largest parallax (apparent shifts of position) in nearby stars. Knowing Earth's shift and a star's shift enabled the star's distance to be calculated. But all measurements are subject to some degree of error or uncertainty, and the uncertainties in the length of the astronomical unit only increased uncertainties in the stellar distances. Improvements in precision have always been a key to improving astronomical understanding. Throughout the twentieth century, measurements became increasingly precise and sophisticated, and ever more dependent on accurate observation of the effects described by Einstein's theory of relativity and upon the mathematical tools it used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44928270",
"title": "(78799) 2002 XW93",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": " orbits the Sun at a distance of 27.9–46.8 AU once every 228 years and 4 months (83,410 days; semi-major axis of 37.36 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.25 and an inclination of 14° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with a precovery published by the Digitized Sky Survey and taken Palomar in December 1989, or 13 years prior to its official discovery observation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19532600",
"title": "(44594) 1999 OX3",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 284,
"text": " orbits the Sun at a distance of 17.6–46.6 AU once every 181 years and 9 months (66,375 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.45 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Mauna Kea in 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "Section::::Newton's laws of motion.:Kepler's laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "BULLET::::1. The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of that ellipse. [This focal point is actually the barycenter of the Sun-planet system; for simplicity this explanation assumes the Sun's mass is infinitely larger than that planet's.] The planet's orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits about particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or periselene and aposelene respectively). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59577048",
"title": "2016 AZ8",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 365,
"text": " orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.85–1.8 AU once every 18 months (554 days; semi-major axis of 1.32 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with a precovery taken at the Siding Spring Survey in July 2012, more than three years prior to its official discovery observation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11372427",
"title": "(480808) 1994 XL1",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 324,
"text": " orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.3–1.0 AU once every 0 years and 7 months (201 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.53 and an inclination of 28° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48zmpw
|
how do the inner leaves of cabbage perform photosynthesis?
|
[
{
"answer": "The inner leaves may not see the sunshine but the entire plant acts as a \"unit\". Much like kindergarten, sharing is important for the success of everything involved ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You need to remember that cabbage, as we know it, is the result of centuries of selective breeding. The plant you see isn't something that evolved naturally. [There's many different food crops in the same family](_URL_0_) - cabbage, broccoli & mustard are among them.\n\n[Quite a few of the varieties](_URL_1_) have the inner leaves exposed and [the wild form](_URL_1_#/media/File:Brassica_oleracea0.jpg) doesn't even bunch up into a ball.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7819",
"title": "Cactus",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations for water conservation.:Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1024,
"text": "Photosynthesis requires plants to take in carbon dioxide gas (). As they do so, they lose water through transpiration. Like other types of succulents, cacti reduce this water loss by the way in which they carry out photosynthesis. \"Normal\" leafy plants use the C mechanism: during daylight hours, is continually drawn out of the air present in spaces inside leaves and converted first into a compound containing three carbon atoms (3-phosphoglycerate) and then into products such as carbohydrates. The access of air to internal spaces within a plant is controlled by stomata, which are able to open and close. The need for a continuous supply of during photosynthesis means the stomata must be open, so water vapor is continuously being lost. Plants using the C mechanism lose as much as 97% of the water taken up through their roots in this way. A further problem is that as temperatures rise, the enzyme that captures starts to capture more and more oxygen instead, reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis by up to 25%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18292936",
"title": "Hydnora africana",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "These plants do not have chlorophyll and do not perform photosynthesis. They obtain their nutrients entirely from a host plant, such as a species of \"Euphorbia\". \"Hydnora Africana\" has an enzyme which allows it to dissolve some of the roots of its host plants in order to attach to them. \"Hydnora africana\" attaches to the roots of the host and takes some of the nutrients that it makes from photosynthesis. It has a fleshy peachy-orange flower that emerges from the ground after a heavy rainfall. Insects that pollinate the flowers do so by burying themselves in the sepals of the flowers through the very strong fibres that hold the sepals together. After the insects have been in the flowers for a couple of days, the flower emerges and opens releasing the insects to spread the pollen to other flowers in the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973622",
"title": "Leaf",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy (medium and small scale).:Major leaf tissues.:Mesophyll.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis is a \"parenchyma\" (ground tissue) or \"chlorenchyma\" tissue called the mesophyll (Greek for \"middle leaf\"). This assimilation tissue is the primary location of photosynthesis in the plant. The products of photosynthesis are called \"assimilates\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24544",
"title": "Photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Photosynthetic membranes and organelles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876740",
"title": "Phototropism",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Mature leaves contain chloroplasts that are essential in photosynthesis. Chloroplast rearrangement occurs in different light environments to maximize photosynthesis. There are several genes involved in plant phototropism including the \"NPH1\" and \"NPL1\" gene. They are both involved in chloroplast rearrangement. The \"nph1\" and \"npl1\" double mutants were found to have reduced phototropic responses. In fact, the two genes are both redundant in determining the curvature of the stem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52833015",
"title": "Heliophyte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Special features of the plant include coarse tiny leaves with hairy and waxy protection against excessive light radiation and water loss. In structure, the leaves vary in frequent double palisade layers. Chloroplasts have a protective element such as carotenoid and the enzymes, and accumulation of ROS to avoid toxic effects. In addition, there are also stoma tal apparatus on the leaves and green shoots, in order to allow a better exchange of gases. At same time, this increases possibilities for photosynthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23977",
"title": "Plant cell",
"section": "Section::::Types of plant cells and tissues.:Epidermis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "The plant epidermis is specialised tissue, composed of parenchyma cells, that covers the external surfaces of leaves, stems and roots. Several cell types may be present in the epidermis. Notable among these are the stomatal guard cells that control the rate of gas exchange between the plant and the atmosphere, glandular and clothing hairs or trichomes, and the root hairs of primary roots. In the shoot epidermis of most plants, only the guard cells have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll which is needed for photosynthesis. The epidermal cells of aerial organs arise from the superficial layer of cells known as the \"tunica\" (L1 and L2 layers) that covers the plant shoot apex, whereas the cortex and vascular tissues arise from innermost layer of the shoot apex known as the \"corpus\" (L3 layer). The epidermis of roots originates from the layer of cells immediately beneath the root cap. The epidermis of all aerial organs, but not roots, is covered with a cuticle made of polyester cutin or polymer cutan (or both), with a superficial layer of epicuticular waxes. The epidermal cells of the primary shoot are thought to be the only plant cells with the biochemical capacity to synthesize cutin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j5wwy
|
how does applying toothpaste to a cd to help fix scratches work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Toothpaste is a very fine polish, so it helps to polish out the scratches. There are a number of potentially abrasive ingredients potentially even silica (sand).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The lasers in a CD/DVD drive can read through scuffs & dirt. What they can't read through is a big scratch because that'll cause the laser beam to reflect off in wild directions & not back to the sensor.\n\nOne of the key ingredients in toothpaste is a fine abrasive - sort of a polishing compound. You can use that to lightly grind down the edges of the scratch, leaving just a scuff that the drive can read through.\n\nMetal polish, like Brasso, is also good. I think it's slightly more effective but *everyone* has toothpaste in their house already.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The data on a CD, DVD, etc is stored on the label side, on the surface of a thin sheet of metal that can be seen through the plastic. The top of a CD is usually pretty well protected by being a nice hard surface, but the bottom is just a plastic that is prone to being scratched.\n\nIf you have scratches on this side of the CD then it can deflect the laser that's trying to read the information. Polish the scratch off of the surface and the data can be read.\n\nToothpaste just happens to be a pretty good mild abrasive. Off the shelf CD repair kits work similarly and may have a clear compound to fill the scratches. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You make a scratch that's bigger than visible lights wavelength into little scratches smaller than the wavelength of visible light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's basically polishing the scratches out of the protective plastic shield. The data is on the metal part in the middle and/or what forms the top/label of the disc.\n\nAnd if you are serious, some car polish or cutting compound will work as well. (heck even fine sandpaper if the scratch it deep enough). Start with cutting compound, then polish. Should get it going well enough to at least rip the disc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "702721",
"title": "Brasso",
"section": "Section::::Other applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "BULLET::::- It is used to polish CDs, DVDs, screens, and pools to repair scratches. It is a mild solvent and an extremely fine abrasive, so when applied to the reflective surface of the disc and rubbed radially (in straight lines between the edge and centre), it can smooth scratches and reduce their effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1795597",
"title": "Acetone",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Domestic and other niche uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Acetone is often the primary component in cleaning agents such as nail polish remover. Acetone is a component of superglue remover and easily removes residues from glass and porcelain. Make-up artists use acetone to remove skin adhesive from the netting of wigs and mustaches by immersing the item in an acetone bath, then removing the softened glue residue with a stiff brush.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346451",
"title": "Abrasive",
"section": "Section::::Manufactured abrasives.:Other abrasives and their uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Scratched compact discs and DVDs may sometimes be repaired through buffing with a very fine compound, the principle being that a multitude of small scratches will be more optically transparent than a single large scratch. However, this does take some skill and will eventually cause the protective coating of the disc to be entirely eroded (especially if the original scratch is deep), at which time, the data surface will be destroyed if abrasion continues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6429",
"title": "Compact disc",
"section": "Section::::Physical details.:Integrity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing. The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and corrode the metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits, a condition known as disc rot. The fungus \"Geotrichum candidum\" has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11587090",
"title": "Optical media preservation",
"section": "Section::::Damage to optical discs.:Scratches.:Scratches on the top of an optical disc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Because a CD's reflective metal layer and data layer are both directly beneath the thin lacquer surface of the label, data can be destroyed by even a small scratch on the top of a CD. The instrument used to label CDs should be seriously considered. Pens or markers with hard tips, or with solvents that can affect the protective layers, can scratch or damage the data layer; water-based felt-tip pens are safest. The data layer of a double-sided DVD is in the middle of the disc, surrounded by the substrate on both sides so scratches to either side are equivalent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13069083",
"title": "Paintless dent repair",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "The most common PDR techniques utilize metal rods and body picks to push out the dents from the underside of the body panel. Glue and specially designed tabs may be used to pull out the dents from the outside of the panel. Fine tuning the repair often involves tapping down the repair to remove small high spots. Quality technicians can blend high spots to match the texture of the paint called orange peel. Pushing too hard can create high spots that cause the clear coat and paint to split or crack. Experienced technicians can avoid cracking or chipping with the use of heat, although a re-painted surface has a greater likelihood of cracking. Furthermore, it is unwise to \"glue pull\" a repainted panel, because you risk also pulling non factory paint off. When damage is so great that body filler is necessary, a Paintless Dent Repair technician may \"push to paint\", resolving most of the damage before minor filling, sanding, and painting, thereby saving time and cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4010566",
"title": "Melamine foam",
"section": "Section::::As a cleaner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Rubbing with a slightly moistened foam may remove otherwise \"uncleanable\" external markings from surfaces. For example, melamine foam can remove crayon, marker pen, and grease from painted walls and wood finishings, plastic-adhering paints from treated wooden tables, and adhesive residue and grime from hubcaps. If the surface being cleaned is not sufficiently hard, it may be finely scratched by the melamine material. The foam wears away, rather like a pencil eraser, leaving behind a slight residue which can be rinsed off. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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