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751bk6
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On YouTube I can watch extremely detailed videos of ancient Roman battles that show what each section of the army did and at what time. How is this known, exactly? Was there just a scribe sitting on a hill recording the battle?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well yes, there were always reporters for the [*Novum Eburicum Tempora*.](_URL_0_)\n\nBut seriously, it is worth just looking at the source material for this. The reconstruction of Teutoberg is more complicated than most in part because batlefield archaeology has actually played a role in shaping our understanding of it, so instead I will use Cannae as one of the most famous battles of the ancient world and one that tends to feature in these sorts of battlefield reconstruction. From Polybius' *Histories* 3.113-116:\n\n > Next day it was Terentius' turn to take the command, and just after sunrise he began to move his forces out of both camps. Crossing the river with those from the larger camp he at once put them in order of battle, drawing up those from the other camp next to them in the same line, the whole army facing south. He stationed the Roman cavalry close to the river on the right wing and the foot next to them in the same line, placing the maniples closer together than was formerly the usage and making the depth of each many times exceed its front. The allied horse he drew up on his left wing, and in front of the whole force at some p281 distance he placed his light-armed troops. The whole army, including the allies, numbered about eighty thousand foot and rather more than six thousand horse. Hannibal at the same time sent his slingers and pikemen over the river and stationed them in front, and leading the rest of his forces out of camp he crossed the stream in two places and drew them up opposite the enemy. On his left close to the river he placed his Spanish and Celtic horse facing the Roman cavalry, next these half his heavy-armed Africans, then the Spanish and Celtic infantry, and after them the other half of the Africans, and finally, on his right wing, his Numidian horse. After thus drawing up his whole army in a straight line, he took the central companies of the Spaniards and Celts and advanced with them, keeping rest of them in contact with these companies, but gradually falling off, so as to produce a crescent-shaped formation, the line of the flanking companies growing thinner as it was prolonged, his object being to employ the Africans as a reserve force and to begin the action with the Spaniards and Celts.\n\n > The Africans were armed in the Roman fashion, Hannibal having equipped them with the choicest of the arms captured in the previous battles. The shields of the Spaniards and Celts were very similar, but they swords were entirely different, those of the Spaniards thrusting with as deadly effect as they cut, but the Gaulish sword being only able to slash and requiring a long sweep to do so. As they were drawn up in alternate companies, the Gauls naked and the Spaniards in short tunics bordered with purple, their national dress, they presented a strange and impressive appearance. The Carthaginian cavalry numbered about ten thousand, and their infantry, including the Celts, did not much exceed forty thousand. The Roman right wing was under the command of Aemilius, the left under that of Terentius, and the centre under the Consuls of the previous year, Marcus Atilius and Gnaeus Servilius. Hasdrubal commanded the Carthaginian left, Hanno the right, and Hannibal himself with his brother Mago the centre. Since the Roman army, as I said, faced south and the Carthaginians north, they were neither of them inconvenienced by the rising sun.\n\n > The advanced guards were the first to come into action, and at first when only the light infantry were engaged neither side had the advantage; but when the Spanish and Celtic horse on the left wing came into collision with the Roman cavalry, the struggle that ensued was truly barbaric; for there were none of the normal wheeling evolutions, but having once met they dismounted and fought man to man. The Carthaginians finally got the upper hand, killed most of the enemy in the mellay, all the Romans fighting with desperate bravery, and began to drive the rest along the river, cutting them down mercilessly, and it was now that the heavy infantry on each side took the place of the light-armed troops and met. For a time the Spaniards p285 and Celts kept their ranks and struggled bravely with the Romans, but soon, borne down by the weight of the legions, they gave way and fell back, breaking up the crescent. The Roman maniples, pursuing them furiously, easily penetrated the enemy's front, since the Celts were deployed in a thin line while they themselves had crowded up from the wings to the centre where the fighting was going on. For the centres and wings did not come into action simultaneously, but the centres first, as the Celts were drawn up in a crescent and a long way in advance of their wings, the convex face of the crescent being turned towards the enemy. The Romans, however, following up the Celts and pressing on to the centre and that part of the enemy's line which was giving way, progressed so far that they now had the heavy-armed Africans on both of their flanks. Hereupon the Africans on the right wing facing to the left and then beginning from the right charged upon the enemy's flank, while those on the left faced to the right and dressing by the left, did the same, the situation itself indicating to them how to act. The consequence was that, as Hannibal had designed, the Romans, straying too far in pursuit of the Celts, were caught between the two divisions of the enemy, and they now no longer kept their compact formation but turned singly or in companies to deal with the enemy who was falling on their flanks.\n\n > Aemilius, though he had been on the right wing from the outset and had taken part in the p287 cavalry action, was still safe and sound; but wishing to act up to what he had said in his address to the troops, and to be present himself at the fighting, and seeing that the decision of the battle lay mainly with the legions, he rode along to the centre of the whole line, where he not only threw himself personally into the combat and exchanged blows with the enemy but kept cheering on and exhorting his men. Hannibal, who had been in this part of the field since the commencement of the battle, did likewise. The Numidians meanwhile on the right wing, attacking the cavalry opposite them on the Roman left, neither gained any great advantage nor suffered any serious loss owing to their peculiar mode of fighting, but they kept the enemy's cavalry out of action by drawing them off and attacking them from all sides at once. Hasdrubal, having by this time cut up very nearly all the enemy's cavalry by the river, came up from the left to help the Numidians, and now the Roman allied horse, seeing that they were going to be charged by him, broke and fled. Hasdrubal at this juncture appears to have acted with great skill and prudence; for in view of the fact that the Numidians were very numerous and most efficient and formidable when in pursuit of a flying foe he left them to deal with the Roman cavalry and led his squadrons on to where the infantry were engaged with the object of supporting the Africans. Attacking the Roman legions in the rear and delivering repeated charges at various points all at once, he raised the spirits of the Africans and cowed and dismayed the Romans. It was here that Lucius Aemilius fell in the thick of the fight after receiving several dreadful wounds, and of him we may say that if there ever was a man who did his duty by his country both all through his life and in these last times, it was he. The Romans as long as they could turn and present a front on every side to the enemy, held out, but as the outer ranks continued to fall, and the rest were gradually huddled in and surrounded, they finally all were killed where they stood, among them Marcus and Gnaeus, the Consuls of the preceding year, who had borne themselves in the battle like brave men worthy of Rome. While this murderous combat was going on, the Numidians following up the flying cavalry killed most of them and unseated others. A few escaped to Venusia, among them being the Consul Gaius Terentius, who disgraced himself by his flight and in his tenure of office had been most unprofitable to his country.\n\nFrom this account you can get most of the details you will see in videos like the one you posted: the weak Carthaginian center that fell back to allow the double envelopment of the Roman lines, the cavalry action on the sides, the screening by the skirmishers, etc. What you *don't* see is the conceptualization of the army into neat \"blocks\" that tend to dominate [popular representations of battles.](_URL_1_) The Romans did organize their army in a way that could sort of allow that as the armies were dvided into named legions (~5000), cohorts (~600) centuries (~80) and conturbium (~10),^1 but it is very rare to see that reflected in battle literature unless a subdivision of the army did something remarkable (such as Cato's detachment during the Battle of Thermopylae). That is largely a modern convention, and someone more familiar with the development of modern military theory can probably comment on that better than I can.\n\n^1 These numbers are *very* approximate and vary across time and space, and the *conturbium* may not have been thought of as a tactical unit.",
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"answer": "From the OP’s video, it sounds like the whole legion was destroyed. How long would it take for the Romans to find out what happened?",
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"answer": "Can someone comment on the accuracy of this video? I've visited the (alleged) sites of this battle, and while the account in the museums there is generally similar, it does differ in details quite a bit. For example, I distinctly remember hearing about the roman \"trek\" being very drawn out and being attacked along a long stretch of road or path, alongside which a fence was supposed to have been built. Also, it seemed like there was a lot more doubt about how the events took place then this video communicates. When i was there a few years ago, it seemed like there was even still doubt about where the battle actually took place. And the beheadings and crucifixions seem a bit colorful to be taken at face value when only one side's sources are available in such an emotionally charged event. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "54202353",
"title": "Siege of Burnswark",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Little is known about the actual battle from historical texts save from its context which has been well documented. Much of what is known including troop positions and movements has been gleaned from archaeological work at the site of the battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1294942",
"title": "Battle of Ticinus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The two main sources on the battle are the \"History of Rome\" by Livy () and \"Histories\" of Polybius (Book III). Polybius makes it clear in his account that he visited the places and monuments and looked at documents. The two vary in some of the details.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "36300523",
"title": "Battle of Saticula",
"section": "Section::::The battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "This battle is also known from several other ancient authors, though not in the same detail as Livy's account. The battle is mentioned in fragments preserved from Dionysius and Appian's histories. Frontinus in his \"Stratagems\" lists twice how P. Decius' saved the army of Cornelius Cossus The anonymous author of the 4th century AD \"De viris illustribus\" attributes the acts of P. Decius to the Battle of Mount Gaurus. Cicero writes in his \"De Divinatione\", that according to the annals, when Decius rushed boldly into battle and was warned to be more cautious, he replied that he had dreamt he would win great fame by dying in the midst of the enemy, foreshadowing his famous later death at the Battle of Vesuvius in 340 BC. This detail shows that some material on this battle existed which Livy did not include in his account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25560505",
"title": "Battles BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Battles BC is a 2009 documentary series looking at key battles in ancient history. The show was known for its very gritty nature, visual effects similar to the film \"300\" and its highly choreographed fight scenes with various weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238811",
"title": "Battle of the Trebia",
"section": "Section::::Sources and solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The two main sources on the battle are the \"History of Rome\" by Livy () and \"Histories\" of Polybius (Book III:69-74). The two vary considerably in some of the geographical details and are ambiguous about some key points, especially whether the Romans were camped on the left bank or the right bank of the Trebbia and in which direction they crossed the river. Reconstruction of the disposition is the major scholarly concern regarding the battle. The sources all agree on the outcome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3154480",
"title": "Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Unfortunately, this battle occurred in a period for which the books in The History of Rome by Livy, the most thorough ancient historian who wrote Roman history, have been lost and we do not have his thorough coverage. The best text is by Polybius, but this lacks important details. A fragment from Appian is confusing. There are many details about how the battle was fought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1076505",
"title": "Roman art",
"section": "Section::::Sculpture.:Narrative reliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style. Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan, were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first-hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world. This unprecedented achievement, over 650 foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals (over 2,500 of them), but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history – in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture. During the Christian era after 300 AD, the decoration of door panels and sarcophagi continued but full-sized sculpture died out and did not appear to be an important element in early churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
4mqakw
|
When surgeons "run the bowel" is there a specific strategy to how it's pulled out, and how it's put back in?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mercifully, real intestines aren't completely loose--they're tethered by tissue, called mesentery, which keeps them in some degree of order. You can pull bowel out to an extent, but it's not like one big loose rope the way it sometimes looks in movies/TV.\n\nThat said, bowel twisting on itself (volvulus) can still be an issue sometimes, particularly in the non-fixed parts of the colon.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1883708",
"title": "Colectomy",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "When the resection is complete, the surgeon has the option of immediately restoring the bowel, by stitching or stapling together both the cut ends (primary anastomosis), or creating a colostomy. Several factors are taken into account, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1257053",
"title": "Short bowel syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Surgical procedures to lengthen dilated bowel include the Bianchi procedure, where the bowel is cut in half and one end is sewn to the other, and a newer procedure called serial transverse enteroplasty (STEP), where the bowel is cut and stapled in a zigzag pattern. Heung Bae Kim, MD, and Tom Jaksic, MD, both of Children's Hospital Boston, devised the STEP procedure in the early 2000s. The procedure lengthens the bowel of children with SBS and may allow children to avoid the need for intestinal transplantation. As of June 2009, Kim and Jaksic have performed 18 STEP procedures. The Bianchi and STEP procedures are usually performed by pediatric surgeons at quaternary hospitals who specialize in small bowel surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61015736",
"title": "Pull-through procedure",
"section": "Section::::Soave pull-through.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The Soave procedure involves resecting the mucosa and submucosa of the rectum and pulling through the normal ganglionic bowel through the aganglionic muscular cuff of the rectum. It was introduced in the 1960s and initially did not include a formal join. It depended on scar tissue formation between the pull-through segment and the surrounding aganglionic bowel. The procedure was later modified by Boley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324482",
"title": "Colonoscopy",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "The first step is usually a digital rectal examination, to examine the tone of the sphincter and to determine if preparation has been adequate. The endoscope is then passed through the anus up the rectum, the colon (sigmoid, descending, transverse and ascending colon, the cecum), and ultimately the terminal ileum. The endoscope has a movable tip and multiple channels for instrumentation, air, suction and light. The bowel is occasionally insufflated with air to maximize visibility (a procedure which gives the patient the false sensation of needing to take a bowel movement). Biopsies are frequently taken for histology. Additionally in a procedure known as chromoendoscopy, a contrast-dye (such as indigo carmine) may be sprayed via the endoscope onto the bowel wall to help visualise any abnormalities in the mucosal morphology. A Cochrane review updated in 2016 found strong evidence that chromoscopy enhances the detection of cancerous tumours in the colon and rectum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42262708",
"title": "Serial transverse enteroplasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Serial transverse enteroplasty (STEP) is a surgical procedure used primarily in the treatment of short bowel syndrome (SBS). In STEP, by making cuts in the intestine and creating a zigzag pattern, surgeons lengthen the amount of bowel available to absorb nutrients. The procedure was first performed in 2003 and more than 100 patients had undergone the surgery by 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1284980",
"title": "Toxic megacolon",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The objective of treatment is to decompress the bowel and to prevent swallowed air from further distending the bowel. If decompression is not achieved or the patient does not improve within 24 hours, a colectomy (surgical removal of all or part of the colon) is indicated. When surgery is required the recommended procedure is a subtotal colectomy with end ileostomy. Fluid and electrolyte replacement help to prevent dehydration and shock. Use of corticosteroids may be indicated to suppress the inflammatory reaction in the colon if megacolon has resulted from active inflammatory bowel disease. Antibiotics may be given to prevent sepsis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725041",
"title": "Diverticulitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.:Approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Diverticulitis surgery consists of a bowel resection with or without colostomy. Either may be done by the traditional laparotomy or by laparoscopic surgery. The traditional bowel resection is made using an open surgical approach, called colectomy. During a colectomy the patient is placed under general anesthesia. A surgeon performing a colectomy will make a lower midline incision in the abdomen or a lateral lower transverse incision. The diseased section of the large intestine is removed, and then the two healthy ends are sewn or stapled back together. A colostomy may be performed when the bowel has to be relieved of its normal digestive work as it heals. A colostomy implies creating a temporary opening of the colon on the skin surface, and the end of the colon is passed through the abdominal wall with a removable bag attached to it. The waste is collected in the bag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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1qskfr
|
why doesn't a lightbulb act as a short circuit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, it does, kinda.\n\nA light bulb has a very thin wire. You might think that filament is about a millimeter wide, but the filament is actually a coil of a coil of the actual wire. The wire is much finer than a hair.\n\nPushing electric current through that wire is hard. So only a small amount of electric current can flow. Pushing that current through the wire takes effort - work -Energy - and this energy ends up as heat. The filament gets hot, really hot, until it glows brightly.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47139",
"title": "Incandescent light bulb",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "9100515",
"title": "ADAT Lightpipe",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The lightpipe is \"hot-pluggable\", which means devices do not need to be turned off for plugging in or unplugging (although it is advisable to mute the receiving equipment, since there will be a large signal spike when the connection is made). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25141332",
"title": "Wedge base",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "LED bulbs are also made that will retrofit incandescents with the same base, but may affect the electrical relay that controls the blinking of turn signals, or cause others sensors to assume that a light bulb is out (see idiot light). In this type of \"bulb\", all of the LEDs may light regardless of which of the contacts are activated on the base, but like a dimmer or a three-way screw-in fluorescent, the brightness is changed instead by the bulb's internal electronic wiring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45486131",
"title": "Nanoleaf",
"section": "Section::::History.:Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The company's lightbulbs are also made up of small LEDs on a folded circuit board and feature an origami-like design. The technology eliminates the need of a heat sink, keeping the bulb cool to the touch while reducing the amount of energy used during manufacturing. Nanoleaf bulbs also have overheat protection which allows the bulb to dim itself if it gets too hot, reducing the possibility of damage and increasing its potential life span. The bulbs are also shatter-resistant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144056",
"title": "Fluorescent lamp",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Dimming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Fluorescent light fixtures cannot be connected to dimmer switches intended for incandescent lamps. Two effects are responsible for this: the waveform of the voltage emitted by a standard phase-control dimmer interacts badly with many ballasts, and it becomes difficult to sustain an arc in the fluorescent tube at low power levels. Dimming installations require a compatible dimming ballast. These systems keep the cathodes of the fluorescent tube fully heated even as the arc current is reduced, promoting easy thermionic emission of electrons into the arc stream. CFLs are available that work in conjunction with a suitable dimmer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19911166",
"title": "Holiday lighting technology",
"section": "Section::::Power considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Some incandescent or LED-based strings use a power supply transformer with lamps connected in parallel. These sets are much safer, but there is a voltage drop at the end of the string causing reduced brightness of the lamps at the end of the set. The reduced brightness is, however, less noticeable with LED-based sets than incandescent sets. Power supplies with integrated plugs may make the set difficult to connect in certain places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25659857",
"title": "Lightguide display",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The technology was rendered obsolete by the development of light-emitting diodes (LED) in the 1970s, though lightguide tubes are still used in electronics manufacturing, in situations where it is difficult to place an LED in the appropriate physical location on a display or bezel. In such cases, LEDs mounted on printed circuit boards are fitted with lightguides to channel light to the appropriate position. This employs the same principle used in optical fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1phz1o
|
why do some toothpastes produce a lot of foam and some produce non at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sodium Lauryl Sulphate. It is a detergent. It produces foam which carries off debris you scrub off your teeth. It also tastes kinda like mint and blocks all your sweet receptors which causes your OJ to taste bitter. ",
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5305823",
"title": "Foam (culinary)",
"section": "Section::::Creating culinary foam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Foams consist of two phases, an aqueous phase and a gaseous (air) phase. Foams have been used in many forms in the history of cooking, for example: whipped cream, ice cream, cakes, meringue, soufflés, mousse and marshmallow. It has a unique light texture because of the tiny air bubbles and/or a different mouthfeel. In most of these products, proteins are the main surface active agents that help in the formation and stabilization of the dispersed gas phase. To create a protein-stabilized foam, it usually involves bubbling, whipping or shaking a protein solution and its foaming properties refers to its capacity to form a thin tenacious film at the gas-liquid interface for large amounts of gas bubbles to become incorporated and stabilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5305823",
"title": "Foam (culinary)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "More recently, foams have become a part of molecular gastronomy technique. In these cases, natural flavors (such as fruit juices, infusions of aromatic herbs, etc.) are mixed with a neutrally-flavored gelling or stabilizing agent such as agar or lecithin, and either whipped with a hand-held immersion blender or extruded through a whipped cream canister equipped with nitrous oxide cartridges. Some famous food-foams are foamed espresso, foamed mushroom, foamed beet and foamed coconut. An espuma or thermo whip is commonly used to make these foams through the making of a stock, creating a gel and extruding through the nitrous oxide canister.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5305823",
"title": "Foam (culinary)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In cuisine, foam is a gelling or stabilizing agent in which air is suspended. Foams have been present in many forms over the history of cooking, such as whipped cream, meringue and mousse. In these cases, the incorporation of air or another gas creates a lighter texture and a different mouth feel. Foams add flavor without significant substance, and thus allow cooks to integrate new flavors without changing the physical composition of a dish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "168393",
"title": "Polystyrene",
"section": "Section::::Environmental issues.:Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Polystyrene foams are produced using blowing agents that form bubbles and expand the foam. In expanded polystyrene, these are usually hydrocarbons such as pentane, which may pose a flammability hazard in manufacturing or storage of newly manufactured material, but have relatively mild environmental impact. Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-134a), which have global warming potentials of approximately 1000–1300 times that of carbon dioxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54201",
"title": "Sodium dodecyl sulfate",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Cleaning and hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In lower concentrations, it is found in toothpastes, shampoos, shaving creams, and bubble bath formulations, for its ability to create a foam (lather), for its surfactant properties, and in part for its thickening effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2055021",
"title": "Fluoride therapy",
"section": "Section::::Delivery.:Gels/foams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "Professionally-applied fluoride gel or foam is applied through the use of a foam mouth tray which is held in the mouth by gently biting down. The application usually lasts for approximately four minutes, and patients should not rinse, eat, smoke, or drink for 30 minutes after application. The reason for this is to allow the teeth to absorb the fluoride into the tooth structure when it is at its highest concentration, without being interrupted. This aids in the repair of microscopic dental decay. There is no clinical evidence on the effectiveness of one-minute fluoride gel/foam applications. A specific benefit when using foam is that less product is required during application, which results in a lower fluoride dose and lessens the risk of accidental ingestion. Additionally, more research regarding the efficacy of fluoride foam is needed as the evidence for its effectiveness is not as strong compared to those of fluoride gels and varnish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "518902",
"title": "Glycoside",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:By aglycone.:Saponins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "In general, the use of the term saponin in organic chemistry is discouraged, because many plant constituents can produce foam, and many triterpene-glycosides are amphipolar under certain conditions, acting as a surfactant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7l95y5
|
Is there a benefit to building aerodynamic Spaceships?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) or close to any planet with an atmosphere, there is still a thin trace of gases. Sometimes it's called \"residual atmosphere\". For most practical purposes it's a vacuum: you can't breathe and water boils at room temperature, but it can still cause drag on vehicles moving at high speed. This is not negligible because satellites in LEO move really fast, 7.6 km/s. This drag causes orbits to slowly decay over time.\n\nThe GOCE satellite was only intended to be in space during its planned mission lifetime. But it had a particularly low orbit at 250 km. This required a very aerodynamic design, so it was sometimes called \"the Ferrari of space\".\n\nIn a much higher orbit, like geostationary, or in interplanetary space, it doesn't really matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48649553",
"title": "The Big Everything",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Production Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The spaceship of the film is very obviously not aerodynamic as it is not made for planetary exploration. It flies through the cosmic void, not through air. In the void there is no resistance and therefore no need for aerodynamics. It is designed for only one purpose, says Nicolas Bazz, interstellar travel, as fast as physically possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2819",
"title": "Aerodynamics",
"section": "Section::::Aerodynamics in other fields.:Engineering design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Aerodynamics is a significant factor in vehicle design, including automobiles, and in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers resort to aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, when calculating wind loads in the design of large buildings, bridges, and wind turbines \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37415478",
"title": "Technologies in 2001: A Space Odyssey",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1587,
"text": "The general approach to how space travel is engineered is highly accurate; in particular, the design of the ships was based on actual engineering considerations rather than attempts to look aesthetically \"futuristic\". Many other science-fiction films give spacecraft an aerodynamic shape, which is superfluous in outer space (except for craft such as the Pan Am shuttle that are designed to function both in atmosphere and in space). Kubrick's science advisor, Frederick Ordway, notes that in designing the spacecraft \"We insisted on knowing the purpose and functioning of each assembly and component, down to the logical labeling of individual buttons and the presentation on screens of plausible operating, diagnostic and other data.\" Onboard equipment and panels on various spacecraft have specific purposes such as alarm, communications, condition display, docking, diagnostic, and navigation, the designs of which relied heavily on NASA's input. Aerospace specialists were also consulted on the design of the spacesuits and space helmets. The space dock at Moon base Clavius shows multiple underground layers which could sustain high levels of air pressure typical of Earth. The lunar craft design takes into account the lower gravity and lighting conditions on the Moon. The Jupiter-bound \"Discovery\" is meant to be powered by a nuclear reactor at its rear, separated from the crew area at the front by hundreds of feet of fuel storage compartments. Although difficult to be recognized as such, actual nuclear reactor control panel displays appear in the astronaut's control area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "278148",
"title": "Formula SAE",
"section": "Section::::Summary of rules.:Aerodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "There are few regulations or requirements on aerodynamics. Most teams do not build aerodynamic packages as the speeds involved in FSAE competition rarely exceed , and design judging tends to frown upon aerodynamic parts that do not have definite test data, usually in the form of wind tunnel testing or at least computational fluid dynamics analysis. Therefore, most cars that do utilize aerodynamic downforce tend to develop their entire car around the aerodynamic package, including massive wings and undertrays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738178",
"title": "Orbital spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Orbital launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "There have been many proposed methods for achieving orbital spaceflight that have the potential of being much more affordable than rockets. Some of these ideas such as the space elevator, and rotovator, require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Other proposed ideas include ground accelerators such as launch loops, rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon, scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35996685",
"title": "RS-88",
"section": "Section::::Rocketplane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "\"With NASA, the Federal Aviation Administration, and the support of local, state and federal governments, we hope to develop a safe, affordable and reusable spaceplane by integrating established technologies, such as the RS-88 engine,\" said Bob Seto, Rocketplane's vice president of engineering systems and analysis. According to Seto, the craft completed a preliminary design review in March 2005, and it was in the detail design phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36974123",
"title": "Fuel economy in aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "NASA indicates this configuration could gain up to 45% with advanced aerodynamics, structures and geared turbofans, but longer term suggests savings of up to 50% by 2025 and 60% by 2030 with new ultra-efficient configurations and propulsion architectures: hybrid wing body, truss-braced wing, lifting body designs, embedded engines, and boundary-layer ingestion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e0wwie
|
how did currency exchange rates form in the very beginning?
|
[
{
"answer": "Same way as the price for anything: both sides do their homework on how much stuff they can get with the other sides currency and then figure out how much of their currency you are willing to give for a given amount of the opposite sides currency. At some point both sides reach an agreement. If they cannot reach a mutually agreeable price for the opposing sides currency, there isn't a trade agreement.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nedit: the exchange rates aren't set by individual countries, they are floating based on how much different currencies are worth when doing international trade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Countries often initially had their currencies locked to a precious metal (typically gold or silver). For example pound sterling (GBP) derives its name from when 20 shillings was literally a pound of sterling silver, under Anglo-saxon rule. These are pretty easily exchangeable because the international value of that coin is its metal content.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First they were set according to gold(or a rare earth metal) then world war happened.\nThen all of them were set according to USD which was set according to gold( I think it was the Brentwood agreement).\nNow it's like a free market depending on supply and demand it's called the forex market(foreign exchange market)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Precious metals.\n\nCoins were invented to simplify trading in precious metals. If someone showed up at an inn with a hunk of hacksilver, the innkeep had to judge the quality and weight to determine how much beer and mutton that would buy him.\n\nTo make it easier, someone (typically the state) would produce coins of a specific mass and purity. The coin would have some primitive security features so that a merchant could quickly determine that the coin was probably real and probably hadn't been shaved or altered. Now the barkeep can have an actual menu/price list: one of Lord Suchandsuch's pennies will get you 2 beers, 3 will get you a room for the night and so forth. If someone shows up with coins the innkeep has never encountered (eg: from Lord Soandso's mint), the innkeep had a few options. They could just say no and lose the trade. They could take the hacksilver approach and judge the value as best as they could. They could direct their customer to a moneychanger who knows all about coinage and assay to get the coin exchanged for currency that the innkeep is familiar with. As a side effect of this, the moneylender would develop a schedule comparing different coins: an 8g gold sovereign was taken to have the same value as one pound of sterling silver. A silver penny weighed 1/240th of a pound so 240 pennies was worth 1 sovereign (1 pound sterling). Other countries used other currencies. The Spanish real was about 1/150 lb so, assuming the merchant was familiar with the coin, one would be worth about 1.5 pennies. \n\nWhen governments traded, it was all gold and silver traded by weight. The actual shipment could be a mixture of bars and various coins..it didn't matter as long as they were of acceptably purity and the total weight was correct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ooh! Economics Major here. I can answer. \nMost of the answers given are right, but I wanna give the full picture for a more holistic answer. I assume that you're referring to today's economy with all different types of exchange rate systems (flexible, fixed, managed float, peg, dollarisation,...), and how these started. In that case, we have to see some major turning points in history, namely the Gold Standard and the Bretton Woods System.\n\nI won't start too far back as it doesn't really answer, but silver was widely used as the standard until the Bank of England decided to drive silver out of circulation (because it was running out of it).\n\nBut in 1870, the Gold Standard was established. This was sort of the beginning of \"exchange rates\".\nThis started with the British. With the industrial revolution, countries believed that a necessary condition to facilitate world trade was a stable exchange rate system.\nEach country set the value of 1 unit of their currency at a predetermined percentage of the weight of gold, or in others words, its value.\nFor instance, a British Pound was 0.23546% an ounce of pure gold, and the USD was 0.048379%. This made the Dollar-Pound exchange rate 0.23546/0.048379 = 4.867. \nThese values were fixed, and the gold standard required that each country adjust its domestic money supply in direct relation to the amount of gold it held. \n\nHowever, there were many problems along the way. WW1 caused the gold standard to be ceased for a while, but it came back. At one point in time, US and France held 70% of the world's gold alone, and this caused the other countries that adopted the gold standard to hike interest rates, which essentially led to the infamous Great Depression. At this point, people realized the gold standard actually caused many problems, and decided to abolish it.\n\nThis led to the Bretton Woods System. \nThe USD was pegged at $35 per ounce of gold, and all other countries under the Bretton Woods System pegged their currency to the USD. This was essentially a fixed exchange rate system. This also made the USD the international reserve currency.\nAlthough this was meant to promote growth and trade, Bretton Woods was formed on the basis of Capital Control and Financial Market Regulations (Impossible Trinity, if you're curious). This was bad in the time of increasing international trade. Hence, it eventually broke down for a few reasons, which I won't really explain to keep things simple.\n\nIn the end, the Bretton Woods System collapsed in 1973, and the dollar was delinked from gold. People also realized that fixed exchange rate systems weren't all too good an idea. This ushered in the era of flexible exchange rates, which grew to the myriad of systems we all know today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9351",
"title": "Economy of Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Reform era.:The financial sector.:Exchange rate policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The exchange rate has been linked to the US dollar since the 1950s. Several regimes were adopted including initially the conventional peg in the sixties, regular crawling peg in the seventies and the eighties and crawling bands in the nineties. Over that time period, there were several exchange rate markets including black market, parallel market and the official market. With the turn of the new millennium, Egypt introduced a managed float regime and successfully unified the Pound exchange rate vis-à-vis foreign currencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4394388",
"title": "Smithsonian Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 established an international fixed exchange rate system based on the gold exchange standard, in which currencies were pegged to the United States dollar, itself convertible into gold at $35/ounce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4044516",
"title": "World currency",
"section": "Section::::Historical and current world.:U.S. dollar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In the period following the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, exchange rates around the world were pegged to the United States dollar, which could be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold. This reinforced the dominance of the US dollar as a global currency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648277",
"title": "Foreign exchange market",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The modern foreign exchange market began forming during the 1970s. This followed three decades of government restrictions on foreign exchange transactions under the Bretton Woods system of monetary management, which set out the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states after World War II. Countries gradually switched to floating exchange rates from the previous exchange rate regime, which remained fixed per the Bretton Woods system. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648277",
"title": "Foreign exchange market",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern to post-modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "At the end of 1913, nearly half of the world's foreign exchange was conducted using the pound sterling. The number of foreign banks operating within the boundaries of London increased from 3 in 1860, to 71 in 1913. In 1902, there were just two London foreign exchange brokers. At the start of the 20th century, trades in currencies was most active in Paris, New York City and Berlin; Britain remained largely uninvolved until 1914. Between 1919 and 1922, the number of foreign exchange brokers in London increased to 17; and in 1924, there were 40 firms operating for the purposes of exchange.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21534875",
"title": "Fixed exchange-rate system",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The gold standard or gold exchange standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914, before which many countries followed bimetallism. The period between the two world wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs and infrastructure loans. The early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54286881",
"title": "Dual exchange rate",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In the gold standard and the Bretton Woods system, the major developed countries mainly implemented fixed exchange rate systems. Due to the devaluation of the pound around the 1970s and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, many developed countries switched to floating exchange rates. In 1971, France started to adopt the dual exchange rate system. After that, in 1973, Italy also adopted this system. Both countries maintained these dual exchange rate systems through the early 1970s. The Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union has been using this system since the early 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
86ziqz
|
How exactly does the rabies virus control human beings (stop them from drinking)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Rabies infects neurones that control respiration and swallowing. \nThere is an automatic cycle you usually don’t notice around breathing and swallowing. \nThe rabies infection of the neurones controlling that cause it to become unreliable.\nAn infected person starts to have trouble swallowing and the negative reinforcement of trying to swallow and choking causes an involuntary anxiety or fear around doing it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This thread] (_URL_0_) answers this question.\n\nIt has not been shown in the literature that behavioral aversion to water in humans increases transmission of the virus. Humans are actually a dead-end host for rabies so this makes no sense in terms of natural selection. \n\nAggression in animals, however, does increase transmission, so this is more likely an evolutionary adaptation of the virus to influence behavior to increase the chance of transmission to another host. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26421895",
"title": "Retrograde tracing",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Rabies virus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "After being taken up at the synaptic terminal or axon of the target neuron, the rabies virus is enveloped in a vesicle which is transported towards the cell body via axonal dynein. In the wildtype rabies virus, the virus will continue to replicate and spread throughout the central nervous system until it has systemically infected the entire brain. Deletion of the gene encoding glycoprotein (G protein) in rabies limits the spread of the virus strictly to cells that were initially infected. Transsynaptic spread of the virus can be limited to monosynaptic transmission to a neuron of origin by pseudotyping the G protein and putting the gene under Cre-control. This viral spread can be visualized through methods including addition of a fluorescence gene such as green fluorescent protein onto the viral cassette or through immunohistochemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21013931",
"title": "Rabies transmission",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "The virus is usually present in the nerves and saliva of a symptomatic rabid animal. The route of infection is usually by a bite. In many cases the infected animal is exceptionally aggressive, may attack without provocation, and exhibits otherwise uncharacteristic behaviour. (Note that \"uncharacteristic behaviour\" may include uncharacteristic friendliness as well as the stereotypically violent mode of rabies. Since rabies can be transmitted through contact with saliva, not just through bites, this \"tame\" mode of rabies is no less dangerous.) Transmission may rarely occur via an aerosol through mucous membranes; and might conceivably endanger people exploring caves populated by rabid bats. However, aerosol transmission of rabies has not yet been well documented in the natural environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12536850",
"title": "Gambian epauletted fruit bat",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Rabies is a deadly viral disease of the central nervous system. In almost all cases, the virus is passed on through the bite, contact with infected saliva, nervous tissues, open wounds or the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth of an infected animal. Like all other animals, if bats get infected with this disease, they will die.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54329819",
"title": "Cat bite",
"section": "Section::::Infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rabies, a fatal neurologic disease in animals and people, is caused by a virus. Animals and people are most commonly infected through bites from rabid animals. Infected cats may have a variety of signs, but most often have sudden behavioral changes and progressive paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50688850",
"title": "List of incurable diseases",
"section": "Section::::R.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rabies – Rabies is a viral disease that causes inflammation of the brain in humans and other mammals. Early symptoms can include fever and tingling at the site of exposure, followed by one or more of the following symptoms: violent movements, uncontrolled excitement, fear of water, an inability to move parts of the body, confusion, and loss of consciousness. Once symptoms appear, the result is nearly always death. The time period between contracting the disease and the start of symptoms is usually one to three months; however, the time is dependent on the distance the virus must travel along nerves to reach the central nervous system. In people who have been exposed to rabies, the rabies vaccine and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin are effective in preventing the disease if the person receives the treatment before the start of rabies symptoms. Once the patient becomes symptomatic, treatment is almost never effective and mortality is over 99%. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord, producing transverse myelitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53984662",
"title": "Rabies in Haiti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Rabies is a viral disease that exists in Haiti and throughout the world. It often causes fatal inflammation of the brain in humans and other mammals, such as dogs and mongooses in Haiti. The term \"rabies\" is derived from a Latin word that means \"to rage\"; rabid animals sometimes appear to be angry. Early symptoms can include fever and tingling at the site of exposure, followed by one or more of the following symptoms: violent movements, uncontrolled excitement, fear of water, an inability to move parts of the body, confusion, and loss of consciousness. Once symptoms appear, death is nearly always the outcome. The time period between contracting the disease and showing symptoms is usually one to three months; however, this time period can vary from less than a week to more than a year. The time between contraction and the onset of symptoms is dependent on the distance the virus must travel to reach the central nervous system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956493",
"title": "Rabies virus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Rabies lyssavirus, formerly \"Rabies virus\", is a neurotropic virus that causes rabies in humans and animals. Rabies transmission can occur through the saliva of animals and less commonly through contact with human saliva. \"Rabies lyssavirus\", like many rhabdoviruses, has an extremely wide host range. In the wild it has been found infecting many mammalian species, while in the laboratory it has been found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from mammals, birds, reptiles and insects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bf7j6d
|
why is nationalism bad?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it’s moved past nationalism, and into jingoism. \n\nNationalism isn’t bad until it starts coming at the expense of others.\n\nEdit: had to double check definitions, and I was describing PATRIOTISM. I guess nationalism is defined as extreme patriotism coming at the expense of others.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nationalism is “identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.” the important part there is the detriment of other nations. Nationalists think their country and the citizens are better than others. The exclusion of others often leads quickly to racism as nationalists try to rationalize one country being better than others. Since nations ultimately are lines in the sand they often turn to racial lines as something more “concrete”.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nationalism is defined as “identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.” This means you put your country first no matter what. One of the side effects of this is a complete lack of care, empathy, compassion, or essentially any positive view of anyone who is from any other country. It essentially is the us and them mentality on steroids; us good, them bad. One of the common tactics of us and them is dehumanizing “them”. See terminology from current American alt-right, nazi germany, imperial japan. A common example is calling minority groups by animal terms, I.e. monkey, rat, pig, dog. This dehumanizing makes it easier for events like genocides to occur. It goes from “killing your neighbors and their children” to “removing the plague of rats and their spawn infesting the land”. \n\n\nTl;dr: nationalism feeds us and them mentality. Us and them mentality is us good, them bad. This thinking leads to the idea that “they” are just animals. Thinking of “them” as animals makes it easier to kill. Aaaaaannnnnnnnnnnnnddddddddddd you’ve just won an all expenses paid genocide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21748",
"title": "Nationalism",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Nationalism is inherently divisive because it highlights perceived differences between people, emphasizing an individual's identification with their own nation. The idea is also potentially oppressive because it submerges individual identity within a national whole, and gives elites or political leaders potential opportunities to manipulate or control the masses. Much of the early opposition to nationalism was related to its geopolitical ideal of a separate state for every nation. The classic nationalist movements of the 19th century rejected the very existence of the multi-ethnic empires in Europe. Even in that early stage, however, there was an ideological critique of nationalism. That has developed into several forms of Internationalism and anti-nationalism. The Islamic revival of the 20th century also produced an Islamist critique of the nation-state. (see Pan-Islamism)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77182",
"title": "Prejudice",
"section": "Section::::Controversies and prominent topics.:Nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1354,
"text": "Nationalism is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatism. It suggests a \"shared identity\" amongst a nation's people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members. This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are \"culturally unified\", even if injustices within the nation based on differences like status and race exist. During times of conflict between one nation and another, nationalism is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation's own problems since it makes the nation's own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural. It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of a particular political goal. Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation's people and can result not only in feelings of public responsibility but also in a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders. Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21748",
"title": "Nationalism",
"section": "Section::::Political science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Many scholars have noted the relationship between state-building, war, and nationalism. Many scholars believe that the development of nationalism in Europe (and subsequently the modern nation-state) was due to the threat of war. \"External threats have such a powerful effect on nationalism because people realize in a profound manner that they are under threat because of who they are as a nation; they are forced to recognize that it is only as a nation that they can successfully defeat the threat\". With increased external threats, the state's extractive capacities increase. Jeffrey Herbst argues that the lack of external threats to countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, post-independence, is linked to weak state nationalism and state capacity . Barry Posen argues that nationalism increases the intensity of war, and that states deliberately promote nationalism with the aim of improving their military capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21748",
"title": "Nationalism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "In practice, nationalism can be seen as positive or negative depending on context and individual outlook. Nationalism has been an important driver in independence movements, such as the Greek Revolution, the Irish Revolution, the Zionist movement that created modern Israel, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Conversely, radical nationalism combined with racial hatred was also a key factor in the Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany. More recently, nationalism was an important driver of the controversial annexation of Crimea by Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3072454",
"title": "Liah Greenfeld",
"section": "Section::::Trilogy of Nationalism.:The Spirit of Capitalism: Nationalism and Economic Growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "According to Greenfeld, nationalism, being inherently egalitarian, necessarily promotes a type of social structure needed to develop the modern economy—that is, an open system of stratification which allows for social mobility, makes labor free and expands the sphere of operation of market forces. More important, however, is the fact that, because of the members’ investment in the dignity of the nation which is necessarily assessed in relation to the status of other nations, nationalism implies international competition. In order to sustain national prestige, nationalism presupposes a commitment to constant economic growth when economic achievement is defined as significant for national prestige and among the areas of international competition—historically, for instance, Russian nationalists have not designated the economic sphere as a venue for international competition. Modern economy is thus not self-sustaining. As Greenfeld argues, it is stimulated and sustained by nationalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21748",
"title": "Nationalism",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Critics of nationalism have argued that it is often unclear what constitutes a \"nation\", or whether a nation is a legitimate unit of political rule. Nationalists hold that the boundaries of a nation and a state should coincide with one another, thus nationalism tends to oppose multiculturalism. It can also lead to conflict when more than one national group finds itself claiming rights to a particular territory or seeking to take control of the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187401",
"title": "Religious nationalism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "Ideologically-driven religious nationalism may not necessarily be targeted against other religions \"per se\", but can be articulated in response to modernity and, in particular, secular nationalism. Indeed, religious nationalism may articulate itself as the binary of secular nationalism. Nation-states whose boundaries and borders are relatively recent or that have experienced colonialism may be more prone to religious nationalism, which may stand as a more authentic or \"traditional\" rendering of identity. Thus, there was a global rise of religious nationalism in the wake of the end of the cold war, but also as postcolonial politics (facing considerable developmental challenges, but also dealing with the reality of colonially-defined, and therefore somewhat artificial, borders) became challenged. In such a scenario, appealing to a national sense of Islamic identity, as in the cases of Pakistan and Indonesia, may serve to override regional tensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qze3o
|
why is beef tenderloin so expensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) you have a chart showing where different beef cuts comes from.\n\nThe more a muscle has worked in its lifetime the tougher the beef cut tends to become and the tenderloin hasn't done much work in compared to to the rest of the cow. You can serve it very rare and nice tenderloin will still almost fall apart in your mouth.\n\nSo you have a small amount of very nice and tender beef from each cow which of course drives up the price.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the most tender part of the animal, and therefore the most desired. It's more in demand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The prices of meat cuts are rising due to the cost of raising livestock increasing. A Beef tenderloin, or a (eye) fillet for those outside of the states, is one of the most desirable cuts due to the muscle being used very little making it particularly tender.\n\nI do not live the US so I don't know how your local markets work compared to those held in my home country of Northern Ireland but I presume you still be straight from the farmer. If so that is actually pretty standard. $25 would suggest that the farmer is raising the livestock in good conditions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1176512",
"title": "Filet mignon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The tenderloin is the most tender cut of beef and is also arguably the most desirable and therefore the most expensive. The average steer or heifer provides no more than 500 grams of filet mignon. Because the muscle is not weight-bearing, it contains less connective tissue, which makes it tender. However, it is generally not as flavorful as some other cuts of beef (e.g. primal rib cuts). For this reason it is often wrapped in bacon to enhance flavor, and/or served with a sauce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2719583",
"title": "Loin",
"section": "Section::::Loins in butchery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "It has been suggested by culinary professionals that tenderloin is the most tender cut of beef one can get. The loin section of beef is fairly popular among consumers for its low fat qualities. It is the source of filet mignon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249206",
"title": "T-bone steak",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Owing to their large size and the fact that they contain meat from two of the most prized cuts of beef (the short loin and the tenderloin), T-bone steaks are generally considered one of the highest quality steaks, and prices at steakhouses are accordingly high. Porterhouse steaks are even more highly valued owing to their larger tenderloin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34090696",
"title": "National Beef",
"section": "Section::::Sales & Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "National Beef is the nation’s fourth largest beef processor with sales exceeding $7 billion annually. National Beef products are available to national and regional retailers, including supermarket chains, independent grocers, club stores, wholesalers and distributors, foodservice providers and distributors, further processors and the U.S. military. U.S. operations include Liberal, Dodge City and Kansas City, Kansas; Hummels Wharf, Pennsylvania; Moultrie, Georgia and St. Joseph, Missouri; with corporate headquarters in Kansas City, Missouri. National Beef maintains international offices in Chicago, Illinois; Tokyo, Japan; Seoul, South Korea; and Hong Kong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14748932",
"title": "Beef clod",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The beef clod or shoulder clod is one of the least expensive cuts of beef and is taken from the shoulder (chuck) region of the animal. Beef clod is a large muscle system, with some fat that covers the muscles. The clod's composition is mainly three muscles: the shoulder tender, the top blade and the clod heart and is one of two chuck subprimal cuts. It is often divided into its three separate muscle cuts for retail sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34931824",
"title": "Steak",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Beefsteak.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Many types of beefsteak exist. The more tender cuts of beef, from the loin and rib, are cooked quickly, using dry heat, and served whole. Less tender cuts from the chuck or round are cooked with moist heat or are mechanically tenderized (\"e.g.\" cube steak).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32326595",
"title": "Pink slime",
"section": "Section::::Current use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Cargill started using a label stating \"Contains Finely Textured Beef\" from 2014. Production of finely textured beef increased modestly, as beef prices rose by 27% over two years in 2014 and \"retailers [sought] cheaper trimmings to include in hamburger meat and processors find new products to put it in\". Senior management of Cargill claimed almost full recovery as sales tripled. BPI regained 40 customers that are mostly processors and patty-makers who distribute to retailers and the USDA since March 2012. It does not label its product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2elgzt
|
Hydrogen used as a energy storage system?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not an expert on hydrogen production, but I have looked at industrialised hydrogen production for future nuclear application. Assuming the same processes would be applied I can answer the question, but obviously my answer is based on nuclear rather than solar energy sources. \n\nThe main problem seems to be that the industrialised production of hydrogen is currently based on the sulphur-iodine cycle, steam electrolysis or some hybrid of these. Each of these is a cycle which, as you say, splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The problem is that they all rely on high temperatures and pressures to be industrially viable, and the *most promising* requires concentrated sulphuric acid to be heated to over 1000C. Materials in contact with sulphuric acid at that temperature have a very real problem is sticking around for any feasible length of time. When i originally looked at this a couple of years ago now, the 'record' was a 10 minute demonstration run, based on a rig fabricated from silicon carbide and teflon. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382986",
"title": "Hydrogen storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Methods of hydrogen storage for subsequent use span many approaches including high pressures, cryogenics, and chemical compounds that reversibly release H upon heating. Underground hydrogen storage is useful to provide grid energy storage for intermittent energy sources, like wind power, as well as providing fuel for transportation, particularly for ships and airplanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19345639",
"title": "Underground hydrogen storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil/gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by ICI for many years without any difficulties. The storage of large quantities of hydrogen underground in solution-mined salt domes, aquifers or excavated rock caverns or mines can function as grid energy storage which is essential for the hydrogen economy. By using a turboexpander the electricity needs for compressed storage on 200 bar amounts to 2.1% of the energy content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382986",
"title": "Hydrogen storage",
"section": "Section::::Proposals and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Hydrogen storage technologies can be divided into physical storage, where hydrogen molecules are stored (including pure hydrogen storage via compression and liquefaction), and chemical storage, where hydrides are stored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1646838",
"title": "Grid energy storage",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Hydrogen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Hydrogen is being developed as an electrical energy storage medium. Hydrogen is produced, then compressed or liquefied, cryogenically stored at −252.882 °C, and then converted back to electrical energy or heat. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for portable (vehicles) or stationary energy generation. Compared to pumped water storage and batteries, hydrogen has the advantage that it is a high energy density fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11729",
"title": "Fuel cell",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency of leading fuel cell types.:In practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen. Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. Most hydrogen is used for oil refining, chemicals and fertilizer production and therefore produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as \"round-trip efficiency\"), using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be \"from 35 up to 50 percent\", depending on gas density and other conditions. The electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore suited for long-term storage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33177808",
"title": "Single-walled carbon nanohorn",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Gas storage.:Hydrogen storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 2240,
"text": "Hydrogen storage is a key enabling technology for the advancement of fuel cell power systems in transportation applications. Solid adsorbents which can store fuel gases such as hydrogen and methane at high density have been requested for environments protection, because hydrogen and methane vehicles have low emissions of CO. However, it is difficult to store these gases in a highly dense state, because supercritical gases do not condense to liquid at room temperature even under high pressure. Carbon materials such as Graphite nanofibers (GNF), single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT),and modified carbon nanotubes are hopeful hydrogen storage candidates. The gas storage mechanism includes four different concepts, that is physical adsorption, chemisorption, absorption, and occlusion. Physical adsorption is the most suitable mechanism to the application of fuel cells because it is reversible and both adsorption and desorption rates are very large, although the ordinary storage capacity by physical adsorption is limited because of weak hydrogen-hydrogen and hydrogen-carbon interactions. Although chemisorption is realized to have the high adsorption capacity, it is not reversible. On the other hand, absorption and occlusion are usually difficult in carbon materials because the carbon structure is rigid. SWNH is a new material that is similar to SWNT. Due to its high purity (95%) without any metal catalyst, SWNH has been thought to be an ideal candidate for hydrogen storage study, without any possible effect by metallic particles as catalyst on hydrogen storage capacity. Murata \"et al.\"'s study determined the exact physical adsorption amounts of supercritical hydrogen on the single-wall carbon nanohorn (SWNH) assemblies were at 77, 196, and 303 K. There are two physical adsorption sites of SWNH, that are interstitial and internal sites. Although the interaction potential depths of interstitial and internal spaces different, hydrogen densities in both spaces were similar. Hydrogen molecules adsorbed in the interstitial spaces cannot form the stable cluster owing to the space limitation, however, hydrongen can be stabilized by the strong fluid-fluid interaction due to the cluster formation in the internal spaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007733",
"title": "Regenerative fuel cell",
"section": "Section::::Process description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "A hydrogen fueled proton exchange membrane fuel cell, for example, uses hydrogen gas (H) and oxygen (O) to produce electricity and water (HO); a regenerative hydrogen fuel cell uses electricity and water to produce hydrogen and oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3u8zxy
|
why do ships sink vertically?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its only if the breach in hull is only on one end or another. So when water start to fill up the ship one side gets heavier and goes down first. If the breack in the hull was all along one of the boards the ship would tilt towards that side before sinking and not vertically",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29397954",
"title": "Shipwrecking",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Instability and foundering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "Instability is caused by the centre of mass of the ship rising above the metacenter resulting in the ship tipping on its side or capsizing, which is often referred to as \"foundered\" or \"foundering\". This can lead to a sinking if the openings on the upper side are not watertight at the time of the capsize. To remain buoyant, the hull of a vessel must prevent water entering the large air spaces of the vessel (known as downflooding). Clearly for the ship to float, the submerged parts of the hull will be watertight, but the upper parts of the hull must have openings to allow ventilation to compartments, including the engine room, for crew access, and to load and unload cargo. Large ships are designed with Compartments to help avoid foundering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272778",
"title": "Shipwreck",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Poor design, improperly stowed cargo, navigation and other human errors leading to collisions (with another ship, the shoreline, an iceberg, etc.), bad weather, fire, and other causes can lead to accidental sinkings. Intentional reasons for sinking a ship include forming an artificial reef; due to warfare, piracy, mutiny or sabotage; as part of target practice; or to remove a menace to navigation. A ship can be also used as breakwater structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187604",
"title": "Vasa (ship)",
"section": "Section::::Causes of sinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1406,
"text": "\"Vasa\" sank because it had very little initial stability, which can be thought of as resistance to heeling over under the force of wind or waves acting on the hull. The reason for this is that the distribution of mass in the hull structure and the ballast, guns, provisions, and other objects loaded on board puts too much weight too high in the ship. The centre of gravity is too high, and so it takes very little force to make the ship heel over, and there is not enough righting moment, force trying to make the ship return to an upright position. The reason that the ship has such a high centre of gravity is not due to the guns. These weighed little over 60 tonnes, or about 5% of the total displacement of the loaded ship. This is relatively low weight and should be bearable in a ship this size. The problem is in the hull construction itself. The part of the hull above the waterline is too high and too heavily built in relation to the amount of hull in the water. The headroom in the decks is higher than necessary for crewmen who were, on average, only 1.67 metres (5 feet 5½ inches) tall, and thus the weight of the decks and the guns they carry is higher above the waterline than needed. In addition, the deck beams and their supporting timbers are over-dimensioned and too closely spaced for the loads they carry, so they contribute too much weight to the already tall and heavy upper works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "363985",
"title": "Metacentric height",
"section": "Section::::Stability.:Damaged stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "If a ship floods, the loss of stability is caused by the increase in KB, the centre of buoyancy, and the loss of waterplane area - thus a loss of the waterplane moment of inertia - which decreases the metacentric height. This additional mass will also reduce freeboard (distance from water to the deck) and the ship's angle of down flooding (minimum angle of heel at which water will be able to flow into the hull). The range of positive stability will be reduced to the angle of down flooding resulting in a reduced righting lever. When the vessel is inclined, the fluid in the flooded volume will move to the lower side, shifting its centre of gravity toward the list, further extending the heeling force. This is known as the free surface effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4951608",
"title": "Tumblehome",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Tumblehome was common on wooden warships for centuries. In the era of oared combat ships it was quite common, placing the oar ports as far abeam as possible. This also made it more difficult to board by force, as the ships would come to contact at their widest points, with the decks some distance apart. The narrowing of the hull above this point made the boat more stable by lowering the weight above the waterline, which is one of the reasons it remained common during the age of sail. In addition, the sloping sides of a ship with an extreme tumblehome (45 degrees or more) increased the effective thickness of the hull versus flat horizontal trajectory gunfire (a straight line through faced more material to penetrate) and increased the likelihood of a shell striking the hull being deflected—much the same reasons that later tank armour was sloped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3944073",
"title": "MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The immediate cause of the sinking appears to have been a build-up of sea-water in the hull, when the fire-fighters were trying to extinguish a fire in the engine-room. This was compounded by design faults inherent in Ro/Ro vessels, where minor flooding of the deck can gain rapid momentum due to a mechanism known as the free surface effect. When the captain asked permission to return to port, the ship’s owners ordered him to continue, despite knowing that there had been a fire. The owners were jailed in 2009 after their original acquittal was overturned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1199716",
"title": "Capsizing",
"section": "Section::::Large vessels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In a storm, even large vessels may be rolled by being hit broadside by a large wave or \"pitchpoled\" stem over stern in extreme waves. This is normally catastrophic for larger ships, and smaller yachts can be dismasted (i.e., lose their masts and rigging) due to the drag as the boat is forced to roll over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1twhai
|
basic beliefs of taoism
|
[
{
"answer": "The Tao of Pooh. Read it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Taoism can be summed up pretty generally as it all focuses pretty much around nature and being a natural and forefilling person;\n\nDaoism (Taoism) 道統 (Daoism and Taoism are the same thing)\n\n- A way of life (in China may be referred to as a religion)\n- 'To go with the flow', be positive, to agree with most things, to enjoy - life to the fullest, to life the high-life.\n- Dao - translates to Way/A Way\n- Daoism is Chinese because it originates in Chinese culture and it is most clearly understood through the Chinese language and views of being.\n- Daoism is considered a 'religion' because it involves an orientation towards and relationship with, 'the sacred'.\n- Fundamental Daoist ideas/concerns include:\n~Wu wei : Effortless action, to behave in a completely natural and uncontrived way\n~Ziran: Naturalness\n~Zhenren: realized/perfected person, to be enlightened and aware of the world\n~Dao: Way, path, route, such as choosing the right path to take in life\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/georgeisamazing has a good answer for the basic tenets of Daoism as laid out in its most important foundational texts, the *Zhuangzi* and the *Daodejing*. \n\nHowever, you should know that modern \"Taoism\" bears little resemblance to that....2,000 years of history has twisted it quite a bit, and these days Taoism as a religion in China is basically a collection of crazy superstitions and remedies for immorality (Zhuangzi and Laozi are probably rolling in their graves being associated with that nonsense).\n\nMore than most other \"religious\" systems, though, I'd say you'll have an easier time understanding Daoism if you actually read the foundational texts. For what it's worth, the Daodejing is really short and the Zhuangzi is pretty entertaining (although they both require a lot of thought to follow)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everything is the Tao. Nothing is the Tao. \n\nThe Tao is nothing. The Tao is everything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That which can be explained is not the true Dao.... (wooden flute blows)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Tao that can be spoken is not the eternal Tao.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Read the Tao of Pooh, bst simple beautiful little book that explains it well. Winnie the Pooh is a taoist! Just Be! :-)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "156154",
"title": "Chinese culture",
"section": "Section::::Spiritual values.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1313,
"text": "Taoism is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the \"Tao\" (, literally \"Way\", also romanized as \"Dao\"). The \"Tao\" is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order. Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize \"wu wei\" (effortless action), \"naturalness\", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: 慈 \"compassion\", 儉/俭 \"frugality\", and 谦 \"humility\". The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang (Naturalists), and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the \"Yijing\", which expounds a philosophical system about how to keep human behavior in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The \"Legalist\" Shen Buhai may also have been a major influence, expounding a realpolitik of wu wei. The \"Tao Te Ching\", a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30365",
"title": "Taoism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in the form of its main elements—yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42418951",
"title": "Taoist schools",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Taoism is a religion with many schools or denominations, of which none occupies a position of orthodoxy. Taoist branches usually build their identity around a set of scriptures, that are manuals of ritual practices. Scriptures are considered \"breathwork\", that is \"configurations of energy\" (\"qi\"), embodiments of \"celestial patterns\" (\"tianwen\"), or \"revelations of structures\" (\"li\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30365",
"title": "Taoism",
"section": "Section::::Doctrines.:Theology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Taoism can be defined as pantheistic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the \"Way\" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. This is one of the core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56769224",
"title": "Taoist philosophy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Taoist philosophy (Chinese: 道家; pinyin: \"dàojiā\"; lit. \"school or family of the Tao\") also known as Taology (Chinese: 道學; pinyin: \"dàoxué\"; lit. \"learning of the Tao\") refers to the various philosophical currents of Taoism, a tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the \"Tao\" (, also romanized as \"Dao\"). The \"Tao\" is a mysterious and deep principle that is the source, pattern and substance of the entire universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367843",
"title": "Religion in China",
"section": "Section::::Main religions.:Taoism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 1430,
"text": "Taoism (道教 \"Dàojiào\") (also romanised as \"Daoism\" in the current pinyin spelling), refers to a variety of related orders of philosophy and rite in Chinese religion. They share elements that go back to the 4th century BCE and to the prehistoric culture of China, such as the School of Yin and Yang and the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Taoism has a distinct scriptural tradition, with the \"Dàodéjīng\" (道德经 \"Book of the Way and its Virtue\") of Laozi being regarded as its keystone. Taoism may be described, as does the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in \"The Taoist Body\" (1986), as a doctrinal and liturgical framework or structure for developing the local cults of indigenous religion. Taoist traditions emphasise living in harmony with the \"Tao\" (also romanised as \"Dao\"). The term \"Tao\" means \"way\", \"path\" or \"principle\", and may also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism, including Confucian thought. In Taoism, however, \"Tao\" denotes the principle that is both the source and the pattern of development of everything that exists. It is ultimately ineffable: \"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao\" says the first verse of the Tao Te Ching. According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, the concept of \"Tao\" is equivalent to the ancient Greek concept of \"physis\", \"nature\", that is the vision of the process of generation and regeneration of things and of the moral order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30365",
"title": "Taoism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "Taoism (, ), or Daoism (), is a philosophical or religious tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the \"Tao\" (, also romanized as \"Dao\"). The \"Tao\" is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, but is similar in the sense that it is a teaching about the various disciplines for achieving \"perfection\" by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the universe called \"the way\" or \"dao\". Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize \"wu wei\" (action without intention), \"naturalness\", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: \"compassion\", \"frugality\", and \"humility\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hm2an
|
Why aren't sunrises fiery colors too?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not an expert, but I remember hearing a lecture about this. I'm not sure I'd characterize sunrises as less fiery or bland, but there are certain atmospheric changes that make sunrises and sunsets different. Firstly, there are some physiological changes that may contribute. Sunsets can darken the sky faster than our eyes can adjust to the change in light. At sunrise, our eyes were adjusted for night vision, and this may contribute to observing fainter changes in the sky's color. Secondly, atmospheric effects from pollution accumulated throughout the day can make the sky at sunsets seem more colorful by dulling the orange/reds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "190933",
"title": "Sunset",
"section": "Section::::Colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air. Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset a green flash can be seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4543",
"title": "Blue",
"section": "Section::::Science and nature.:Why the sky and sea appear blue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Near sunrise and sunset, most of the light we see comes in nearly tangent to the Earth's surface, so that the light's path through the atmosphere is so long that much of the blue and even green light is scattered out, leaving the sun rays and the clouds it illuminates red. Therefore, when looking at the sunset and sunrise, the colour red is more perceptible than any of the other colours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190933",
"title": "Sunset",
"section": "Section::::Colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratospheric sulfuric acid clouds to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190919",
"title": "Sunrise",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.:Colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratospheric sulfuric acid clouds to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29247528",
"title": "Earth's shadow",
"section": "Section::::Belt of Venus.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "When the Sun is near the horizon around sunset or sunrise, the sunlight appears reddish. This is because the light rays are penetrating an especially thick layer of the atmosphere, which works as a filter, scattering all but the longer (redder) wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95812",
"title": "Year Without a Summer",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Cultural effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "High levels of tephra in the atmosphere led to unusually spectacular sunsets during this period, a feature celebrated in the paintings of J. M. W. Turner. This may have given rise to the yellow tinge predominant in his paintings such as \"Chichester Canal \"circa\" 1828\". Similar phenomena were observed after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, and on the West Coast of the United States following the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "948685",
"title": "TrES-1b",
"section": "Section::::Detection and discovery.:Transit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In the infrared panel, the colors reflect what our eyes might see if we could retune them to the invisible, infrared portion of the light spectrum. The hot star is less bright in infrared light than in visible and appears fainter. The warm planet peaks in infrared light, so is shown brighter. Their hues represent relative differences in temperature. Because the star is hotter than the planet, and because hotter objects give off more blue light than red, the star is depicted in blue, and the planet, red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1z3nj9
|
how come when you crack your knuckles underwater, it is incredibly loud, but when you try and scream underwater, the sound is muffled to a whimper?
|
[
{
"answer": "Water transmits sounds quite well, so if an action vibrates the water to make a sound, you'll be able to hear it clearly in the local area. However, sound does not cross mediums very well. When you're trying to talk (or scream) underwater, the sound is being generated by vibrating air in your vocal chords. When this hits the water just outside your mouth, only a little of that energy is transmitted into producing underwater sound waves. The rest is lost, reflecting back into your mouth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add on a bit to /u/KahBhume's answer:\n\nThe sound is also louder because water, a liquid, transmits sound waves better than air, a gas. As you may recall from basic science courses, both gases and liquids have free-moving particles and aren't rigidly structured like solids. That's why a spilled glass of water will spread out all over the table. However, liquid molecules are best friends- they stick together- while gas molecules are like a teenager on Maury- they go wherever they want whenever they want- and aren't always close to each other. \n\nThis is important because of the way sound waves are produced. Waves are formed when one molecule bumps into another, which bumps into another, which bumps into another. Your eardrum picks up these waves and your brain turns them into sounds. This is why there is no noise in space. In a vacuum, there are no molecules to bump each other, so there can be no sound.\n\nWhen the molecules are far away from each other, as in a gas, the molecules bump into each other less often. They still do, of course, because you can hear in your everyday, gas-filled life. In a liquid, the molecules are close together, so a moving molecule is much more likely to hit another molecule. This results in a better transmission of the wave, and therefore a better transmission of the sound. The density of the object (closeness of the molecules) is also why different gases can raise or lower the pitch of your voice.\n\nTL;DR: Liquid is more dense than gas, transmits sounds better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12413980",
"title": "Hydraulophone",
"section": "Section::::Percussion hydraulophone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Most hydraulophones sound continuously for as long as a finger hole is blocked. However, the WaterHammer hydraulophone produces sound from impact (water hammer) that dies down after being initially struck, thus sounding more like a piano than the more typical \"underwater pipe organ\" hydraulophone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7807",
"title": "Cavitation",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Biomedical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "It has been suggested that the sound of \"cracking\" knuckles derives from the collapse of cavitation in the synovial fluid within the joint. Movements that cause cracking expand the joint space, thus reducing pressure to the point of cavitation. It remains controversial whether this is associated with clinically significant joint injury such as osteoarthritis. Some physicians say that osteoarthritis is caused by cracking knuckles regularly, as this causes wear and tear and may cause the bone to weaken. The implication being that, it is not the \"bubbles popping,\" but rather, the bones rubbing together, that causes osteoarthritis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1565703",
"title": "Crepitus",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The sound can be created when two rough surfaces in an organism's body come into contact—for example, in osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis when the cartilage around joints erodes and the surfaces in the joint grind against one another, or when the two fractured surfaces of the broken bones rub together. Crepitus is a common sign of bone fracture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3125571",
"title": "Knuckle",
"section": "Section::::Cracking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The physical mechanism behind the popping or cracking sound heard when cracking joints such as knuckles has recently been elucidated by cine MRI to be caused by tribonucleation as a gas bubble forms in the synovial fluid that bathes the joint. Despite this evidence, many still believe it to be caused by synovial fluid filling the vacuum left by the joint's displacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1923551",
"title": "Dayereh",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The sound is produced by hitting the membrane with either hand – the left hand, which also holds the dayereh, strikes the edges, and the right hand strikes the center. The right-hand fingers are fastened about their neighbours and suddenly released (like the action of finger-snapping) to produce loud, rapid, sharp sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12323291",
"title": "New York City steam system",
"section": "Section::::Systems for individual buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The noise known as “steam hammer” sounds like someone hammering on a pipe. It is caused when water condenses and is trapped in a horizontal section of pipe where it cannot drain back to the boiler. When the system is next turned on, this water is hurled through the pipes by the steam pressure, creating a loud bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202601",
"title": "Slapping (music)",
"section": "Section::::Bass guitar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The slap sound comes from the combination of two elements: slapping, which involves striking the string with the side of the bony joint in the middle of the thumb, a harder surface than the pads of the fingers (used in plucked fingering); and intentionally allowing the vibrating string to come into contact with the metal frets, producing a \"toney\" or buzzing sound that is normally avoided in plucked/fingered bass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zykkm
|
why is there such a large amount of rain falling across australia, when it is meant to be an el nino year and be very dry?
|
[
{
"answer": "El Nino is the summer part of the phenomena. In winter it becomes El Nina and brings more rain. I would guess that in the southern hemisphere the season are reversed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638490",
"title": "Climate of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Precipitation.:Rain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The tropical areas of northern Australia have a wet summer because of the monsoon. During \"the wet\", typically October to April, humid north-westerly winds bring showers and thunderstorms. Occasionally, tropical cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions, which is also likely to reach further inland. After the monsoonal season, the dry season comes (\"winter\"), which brings mostly clear skies and milder conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7870060",
"title": "Drought in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Drought in the 21st century.:2000s or 'Millennium' drought in south-eastern Australia.:2010 and 2011: La Niña finally breaks the drought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Australia's weather pattern transitioned rapidly to a wet La Niña pattern during autumn, resulting in record-breaking rains in the Murray-Darling Basin and well above average rainfall across the south-east. For many locations this was the first year of above-average rainfall since 1996. The rainfall dramatically increased surface water storage and soil moisture, effectively ending the drought in the south-east. Very wet conditions continued through 2011, resulting in floods in Queensland and northern Victoria. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10531",
"title": "El Niño",
"section": "Section::::Regional impacts.:Australia and the Southern Pacific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "During El Niño events, the shift in rainfall away from the Western Pacific may mean that rainfall across Australia is reduced. Over the southern part of the continent, warmer than average temperatures can be recorded as weather systems are more mobile and fewer blocking areas of high pressure occur. The onset of the Indo-Australian Monsoon in tropical Australia is delayed by two to six weeks, which as a consequence means that rainfall is reduced over the northern tropics. The risk of a significant bushfire season in south-eastern Australia is higher following an El Niño event, especially when it is combined with a positive Indian Ocean Dipole event. During an El Niño event, New Zealand tends to experience stronger or more frequent westerly winds during their summer, which leads to an elevated risk of drier than normal conditions along the east coast. There is more rain than usual though on New Zealand's West Coast, because of the barrier effect of the North Island mountain ranges and the Southern Alps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638490",
"title": "Climate of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Natural hazards and disasters.:Flooding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Though Australia is generally dry and arid, the northern part is in the tropics, where rainfall can be heavy; some areas have seen world-record-breaking rain, such as the mountains southwest of Cairns. Through La Niña years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above-average rainfall usually creating damaging floods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15982739",
"title": "Federation Drought",
"section": "Section::::1902.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Although in southwestern Australia—often looked upon as a \"saviour\" when the rains fail further east—the rainy season began on time in May, the dry weather continued without a break in the eastern states. Then, despite June being quite wet in southern Victoria, Tasmania and even parts of South Australia, the month's rain was associated with cold outbreaks that produced extremely severe frosts and several cases of low-level snowfalls. Oatlands recorded a temperature as low as during one of these outbreaks, and snow fell in Hobart. Worse still, northern New South Wales and southern Queensland remained as dry as ever, and southwestern Australia was very dry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24444091",
"title": "2000s Australian drought",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:2010 and 2011: La Niña finally breaks the drought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Australia's weather pattern transitioned rapidly to a wet La Niña pattern during the autumn of 2010, resulting in record-breaking rains in the Murray-Darling basin and well above average rainfall across the south-east. For many locations this was the first year of above-average rainfall since 1996. The rainfall dramatically increased surface water storage and soil moisture, effectively ending the drought in the south-east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638490",
"title": "Climate of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Precipitation.:Rain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Cold ocean currents off the coast of Western Australia result in little evaporation occurring. Hence, rain clouds are sparsely formed and rarely do they form long enough for a continuous period of rain to be recorded. Australia's arid/semi-arid zone extends to this region. The absence of any significant mountain range or area of substantial height above sea level, results in very little rainfall caused by orographic uplift. In the east the Great Dividing Range limits rain moving into inland Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ux2y7
|
If honeybees are non-native to North America, won't the original (or other) pollinators flourish and fill in the gaps left behind by the decreasing population?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Apparently it's a bit of a myth that honey bees are non-native](_URL_2_).\nBut that could just be a red herring and I get your point. \n\n[This online handbook on insect pollination of cultivated crops](_URL_1_) mentions the loss of native pollinating insects. So does [this article](_URL_0_). So it's not just honey bees that we are losing, but all insect pollinators. It's a \"pollination crisis\" not just a honey bee crisis.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37296989",
"title": "Seeds of Diversity",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:Pollination Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Honey bees, which have traditionally been emphasized as important crop pollinators in Canada, did not exist in North America before they were introduced there by humans. In Western countries including Canada, honey bees have recently become prone to colony collapse disorder, which threatens the production of many insect-pollinated crops. Native bees are also in decline, which is partly due to loss of nesting sites in plant debris and in open untilled ground, and partly due to reduced diversity of food plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20610449",
"title": "Colony collapse disorder",
"section": "Section::::Economic and ecological impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, therefore their necessity as pollinators in the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere is limited to strictly agricultural and ornamental uses, as no native plants require honey bee pollination, except where concentrated in monoculture situations—where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees (with current technology).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20610449",
"title": "Colony collapse disorder",
"section": "Section::::Economic and ecological impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "With that said, honeybees perform some level of pollination of nearly 75% of all plant species directly used for human food worldwide. Catastrophic loss of honeybees could have significant impact, therefore; it is estimated that seven out of the 60 major agricultural crops in North American economy would be lost, and this is only for one region of the world. Farms that have intensive systems (high density of crops) will be impacted the most compared to non-intensive systems (small local gardens that depend on wild bees) because of dependence on honeybees. These types of farms have a high demand for honeybee pollination services, which in the U.S. alone costs $1.25 billion annually. This cost is offset, however, as honeybees as pollinators generate 22.8 to 57 billion Euros globally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1443432",
"title": "Buzz pollination",
"section": "Section::::Economic impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Scientists can now import pollinators, such as bumblebees, where there might be a shortage of pollinators. In New Zealand, the red clover plant population was restored when bumblebees were imported from Europe to help with the pollination. Maintaining red clover population in New Zealand at the time was critical to the county's crop production rate. However, in North America, bee population is on the decline due to many factors, which include colony mortality and a decline in the number of beekeeping professionals. This has led to challenges for farmers from the east to the west coast of the United States and Canada to find alternate ways to help plants such as berries pollinate at a steady pace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48563425",
"title": "Invasive species in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Invasive fauna.:Introduction of non-native bees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The introduction of pollinating bumblebees (Bombus) significantly affected native pollinators and both native and introduced plants. The introduced bees are highly pollinating, are abundant in invaded areas, and in some cases, dominate the communities in which they live. In general, they acquire resources more efficiently than native species, despite using the same flowers; they are mutually exclusive both spatially and temporally, suggesting potential competition with native species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20610449",
"title": "Colony collapse disorder",
"section": "Section::::Economic and ecological impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "In regions of the Old World where they are indigenous, honeybees (\"Apis mellifera\") are among the most important pollinators, vital to sustain natural habitats there in addition to their value for human societies (to sustain food resources). Where honeybee populations decline, there is also a decline in plant populations. In agriculture, some plants are completely dependent on honeybees to pollinate them to produce fruit, while other plants are only dependent on honeybees to enhance their capacity to produce better and healthier fruits. Honeybees also help plants to reduce time between flowering and fruit set, which reduces risk from harmful factors such as pests, diseases, chemicals, weather, etc. Specialist plants that require honeybees will be at more risk if honeybees decline, whereas generalist plants that use other animals as pollinators (or wind pollinating or self-pollinating) will suffer less because they have other sources of pollination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38409795",
"title": "Bombus frigidus",
"section": "Section::::Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "To increase pollination and production of the lowbush blueberry plant in Newfoundland, Canada, non-native bee species have been imported. Since these bees are not from the area and are farm raised, they are infected by diseases and parasites that the native bees don’t have a defense against. This has caused a decline in all \"Bombus\" species in the area and unfortunately, many of the indigenous plants rely on these native species for pollination. With the decrease in natural pollinators, these plants may end up being replaced by plants that are favored by the imported bees. This change in plant life may in turn decrease the diversity of birds and mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mu1x7
|
the uploader has not made this video available in your country.
|
[
{
"answer": "Its likely the video contains material that is not licensed for worldwide use. International licenses are significantly more expensive than licenses for a specific region. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55851302",
"title": "Elsagate",
"section": "Section::::History.:Discovery of Elsagate videos (2017–2019).:November 2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "These videos could also be found in local video platforms in China, where YouTube is blocked, including Tencent, Youku, and iQiyi. Tencent have set up a specific team to monitor its video platform, and permanently shut down 121 accounts and blocked more than 4,000 search keywords by January 2018. The Ministry of Public Security of China suggested that netizens should report these videos once found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36991870",
"title": "Innocence of Muslims",
"section": "Section::::Screening and Internet upload.:Blocking of the YouTube video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "YouTube voluntarily blocked the video in Egypt and Libya and blocked the video in Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, India, and Singapore due to local laws, while Turkey, Brazil, and Russia have initiated steps to get the video blocked. Google, Inc., the owner of YouTube, also blocked the video in Libya and Egypt citing \"the very difficult situation\" in those countries. In September 2012 the governments of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Sudan and Pakistan blocked YouTube for not removing the video, saying that the website would remain suspended until the film was removed. Government authorities in Chechnya and Daghestan issued orders to internet providers to block YouTube and Iran announced that it was blocking Google and Gmail. Google also agreed to block the anti-Islamic movie in Jordan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37028055",
"title": "International response to Innocence of Muslims protests",
"section": "Section::::Blocking of the YouTube video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The video has been blocked in Egypt and Libya by YouTube. Indonesia has also blocked the video, while Afghanistan has blocked YouTube itself. It was reported that India is also planning to block the video and other similar pages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60232721",
"title": "Christchurch mosque shootings",
"section": "Section::::Video distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Copies of the live-streamed video were reposted on many platforms and file-sharing websites, including Facebook, LiveLeak, and YouTube. Police, Muslim-advocacy groups and government agencies urged anyone who found the footage to take it down or report it. The New Zealand Office of Film and Literature Classification quickly classified the video as \"objectionable\", making it a criminal offence in the country to distribute, copy, or exhibit the video, with potential penalties of up to 14 years' imprisonment for an individual, or up to $100,000 in fines for a corporation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17658998",
"title": "Zamzar",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Currently, Zamzar is able to download and convert videos from a large number of video sharing websites – however, on 12 June 2012, it stopped providing support for downloading videos from YouTube after receiving a cease and desist order from Google's legal department.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13000159",
"title": "Tudou",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The Shanghai-based service uses Adobe Flash technology to publish more than 50,000 new videos each day, including amateur content such as videoblogging and original videos, movie and TV clips, and music videos. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos, using on-line and Windows-based upload tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38764449",
"title": "Lumia imaging apps",
"section": "Section::::Video Upload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Video Uploader (previously \"Nokia Video Upload\") was a YouTube-based video uploader that let Lumia users upload their videos to Google's YouTube, initially it was only launched for the Nokia Lumia 1020 but got expanded to additional devices. In September 2015 Microsoft announced that they would no longer update nor support the Video Upload application, but that people who had previously downloaded the application could still use it as they always had but that it would immediately be removed from the Windows Phone Store.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wrsuv
|
Why is spacetime a Minkowski space and not a Euclidean space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Euclidean space doesn't have a way to build a causal structure like Minkowski space does. In Minkowski space you can have vectors with positive, negative, or zero length. This allows you to define events that are timelike separated and which are therfore causally connected, events that are spacelike separated and therefore are not causally connected, and events that are lightlike separated and so sit on the path of a light ray. In Euclidean space all vectors have positive length so you can't make this classification.\n\nEDIT: Experimentally, because of length contraction and time dialation we know that euclidean length is not conserved when we move from one frame to another, while the minkowskian length is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "230488",
"title": "Minkowski space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Minkowski space is closely associated with Einstein's theory of special relativity and is the most common mathematical structure on which special relativity is formulated. While the individual components in Euclidean space and time may differ due to length contraction and time dilation, in Minkowski spacetime, all frames of reference will agree on the total distance in spacetime between events. Because it treats time differently than it treats the 3 spatial dimensions, Minkowski space differs from four-dimensional Euclidean space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230488",
"title": "Minkowski space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "In mathematical physics, Minkowski space (or Minkowski spacetime) is a combination of three-dimensional Euclidean space and time into a four-dimensional manifold where the spacetime interval between any two events is independent of the inertial frame of reference in which they are recorded. Although initially developed by mathematician Hermann Minkowski for Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, the mathematical structure of Minkowski spacetime was shown to be an immediate consequence of the postulates of special relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1790788",
"title": "History of special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Spacetime physics.:Non-euclidean formulations without imaginary time coordinate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1479,
"text": "Minkowski in his earlier works in 1907 and 1908 followed Poincaré in representing space and time together in complex form (x,y,z,ict) emphasizing the formal similarity with Euclidean space. He noted that space-time is in a certain sense a four-dimensional non-Euclidean manifold. Sommerfeld (1910) used Minkowski's complex representation to combine non-collinear velocities by spherical geometry and so derive Einstein's addition formula. Subsequent writers, principally Varićak, dispensed with the imaginary time coordinate, and wrote in explicitly non-Euclidean (i.e. Lobachevskian) form reformulating relativity using the concept of rapidity previously introduced by Alfred Robb (1911); Edwin Bidwell Wilson and Gilbert N. Lewis (1912) introduced a vector notation for spacetime; Émile Borel (1913) showed how parallel transport in non-Euclidean space provides the kinematic basis of Thomas precession twelve years before its experimental discovery by Thomas; Felix Klein (1910) and Ludwik Silberstein (1914) employed such methods as well. One historian argues that the non-Euclidean style had little to show \"in the way of creative power of discovery\", but it offered notational advantages in some cases, particularly in the law of velocity addition. (So in the years before World War I, the acceptance of the non-Euclidean style was approximately equal to that of the initial spacetime formalism, and it continued to be employed in relativity textbooks of the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Technical discussion of spacetime.:Geometry of spacetime.:Comparison between flat Euclidean space and Minkowski space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 190,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 190,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Special relativity uses a 'flat' 4-dimensional Minkowski space – an example of a spacetime. Minkowski spacetime appears to be very similar to the standard 3-dimensional Euclidean space, but there is a crucial difference with respect to time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20069953",
"title": "Special relativity (alternative formulations)",
"section": "Section::::Minkowski spacetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Minkowski space (or Minkowski spacetime) is a mathematical setting in which special relativity is conveniently formulated. Minkowski space is named for the German mathematician Hermann Minkowski, who around 1907 realized that the theory of special relativity (previously developed by Poincaré and Einstein) could be elegantly described using a four-dimensional spacetime, which combines the dimension of time with the three dimensions of space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230488",
"title": "Minkowski space",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.:Curvature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "As a \"flat spacetime\", the three spatial components of Minkowski spacetime always obey the Pythagorean Theorem. Minkowski space is a suitable basis for special relativity, a good description of physical systems over finite distances in systems without significant gravitation. However, in order to take gravity into account, physicists use the theory of general relativity, which is formulated in the mathematics of a non-Euclidean geometry. When this geometry is used as a model of physical space, it is known as curved space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Spacetime in special relativity.:Spacetime interval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "In four-dimensional spacetime, the analog to distance is the \"interval\". Although time comes in as a fourth dimension, it is treated differently than the spatial dimensions. Minkowski space hence differs in important respects from four-dimensional Euclidean space. The fundamental reason for merging space and time into spacetime is that space and time are separately not invariant, which is to say that, under the proper conditions, different observers will disagree on the length of time between two \"events\" (because of time dilation) or the distance between the two events (because of length contraction). But special relativity provides a new invariant, called the \"spacetime interval\", which combines distances in space and in time. All observers who measure time and distance carefully will find the same spacetime interval between any two events. Suppose an observer measures two events as being separated in time by formula_4 and a spatial distance formula_5. Then the spacetime interval formula_6 between the two events that are separated by a distance formula_7 in space and by formula_8 in the formula_9-coordinate is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37o19j
|
how for example, gun laws are so different from state to state and why they just cant be the same all over the country
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically the US Constitution says that anything that isn't specifically spelled out as belonging to the Federal government will be left to the states or to the people (10th Amendment). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\n\nThe 10th Amendment to the US Constitution (part of the Bill of Rights) specifically says that, outside of the powers *specifically* granted to the Federal government, the states are responsible for making laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US the Federal government only has as much power as the States give up to it. This means that everything not specifically set as a power belonging to the Federal Government is an issue for the States to control. Gun laws are one of these. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1795604",
"title": "Gun laws in the United States by state",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Gun laws in the United States regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition. State laws (and the laws of the District of Columbia and of the U.S. territories) vary considerably, and are independent of existing federal firearms laws, although they are sometimes broader or more limited in scope than the federal laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1795604",
"title": "Gun laws in the United States by state",
"section": "Section::::Common subjects of state laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "BULLET::::- Some states have state preemption for some or all gun laws, which means that only the state can legally regulate firearms. In other states, local governments can pass their own gun laws more restrictive than those of the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48946760",
"title": "Gun shop",
"section": "Section::::Services and trends.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Gun laws in Europe vary dramatically from nation to nation, with some areas having what amounts to a near total ban on civilian access to firearms while others have systems of moderate regulation. Nearly all nations contain stricter laws than that of the United States, particularly in terms of measures to require firearms training, mandate background checks, and impose confiscation of weapons upon the committing of felony crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12686",
"title": "Overview of gun laws by nation",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In the United States, gun laws are found in a number of federal statutes, enforced by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). The right to keep and bear arms is protected by the Second Amendment to the Constitution, and most state constitutions also guarantee this right. There is some variance across the country as both federal and state laws apply to firearm possession and ownership.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32358111",
"title": "Gun laws in Wisconsin",
"section": "Section::::Buying and selling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Rifles and shotguns can be purchased in another state as long as the purchase complies with Federal law and the laws of both states. There is no longer a requirement that the other state be contiguous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41742612",
"title": "Gun cultures",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Gun ownership in the United States is constitutionally protected by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. Firearms are widely used in the United States of America for self-defense, hunting, and recreational uses, such as target shooting. Gun politics is polarized between advocates of gun rights, typically conservative, and those who support stricter gun control, usually liberal. The gun culture of the United States can be considered unique among developed countries, in terms of the large number of firearms owned by civilians and generally permissive regulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12686",
"title": "Overview of gun laws by nation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Guns laws are considered permissive in countries where the authorities will provide a firearm license on a shall-issue basis to ordinary citizens who meet the legal requirements. Guns laws are restrictive when licenses are provided on a may issue basis, at the discretion of the regulating authority, often requiring the applicant to demonstrate a reason why they need a firearm. Gun laws are considered strict when it is difficult or impossible for an ordinary citizen to obtain a firearm through legal means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ycf5l
|
Why did Saddam's forces succeed in fighting the Kuwaiti forces, then lose to the American/coalition forces?
|
[
{
"answer": "Leaving aside the enormous issue of the obvious disparity between Kuwaiti and Coalition forces (both in scale and quality), Iraq's successful invasion of Kuwait benefited greatly from the experience of the Iran-Iraq War. Although the Iraqi military did not cover itself in glory in that conflict, the armed forces gained a modicum of experience and competency in carrying out specific missions. The Republican Guard had been retooled from an elite praetorian formation (and this was still an important component of their duties) into a force capable of both combined arms and night attacks. Although the Guard formations were not as proficient at these operations as Western forces, it was enough to overwhelm Kuwaiti forces. The prior war also underscored the need for accurate intelligence and the Iraqi Air Force's MiG-25s conducted extensive overflights over Kuwait in July 1990 and the regime disseminated the aerial photographs to ground units. Commercially available tourist maps also contributed to the Iraqi success. \n\nThe swift victory in Kuwait masked many of the flaws of the Iraqi armed forces. One of the fundamental problems of Iraqi military effectiveness was the compartmentalization of its armed forces into various satraps. Iraqi naval, army, and air forces often operated in the dark as to what other branches were doing. The Army operated under the assumption that the Iraqi Air Force would provide an air umbrella for its operations. However, the Air Force assumed that its attacks on Kuwaiti airbases would suffice and it kept a number of units on alert over Iraq itself to prevent any repeat of the Israeli 1981 bombing of the Osirak nuclear plant. The Kuwaitis did mount some airstrikes against Iraqi forces much to the consternation of Republican Guard commanders. The swift occupation of Kuwaiti airbases ended this threat, but the inability of the left hand to know what the right was doing was a precursor of the later disasters in 1991. The successful invasion of al-Qulayah Navy base by elements of the Iraqi Navy showed that the Iraqi forces were capable of acting with initiative and daring. The Iraqi commander Colonel Muzahim Mustafa occupied the harbor despite losing one missile boat and suffering equipment malfunctions. Yet Mustafa's bold tactical leadership was atypical of Iraqi forces; crucial mission leaders were often kept in the dark about their operations until the last minute. Air mobile helicopter pilots only had rudimentary training and were assured that the Air Force would eliminate Kuwait's Hawk missiles. The Air Force's failure to do so led to high helicopter losses and the rudimentary training in night formation flying also led to a large number of crashes. The Iraqi approach to operational planning inhibited tactical initiative as frontline troops barely knew the basic plan and had to focus great efforts on carrying it out, so improvisation when the plan went awry was less likely. \n\nUltimately, these defects were not as much of an issue given that the Kuwati response to Iraq was much more passive than it could have been. Civilian refugees prevented the effective deployment of Kuwaiti armed forces. The speed of the Iraqi assault prevented the Kuwaitis from exploiting the Mutla Pass as a defensive line, which was one of the few natural barriers in Kuwait. The result was that the Kuwaiti response was often in penny-packets that the Iraqi's could quarantine. Again, defects within the Iraqi command and communication system meant that Iraqi troops were often unaware sister unit's status, so it was up to the unit being attacked to deal with the Kuwaitis alone. Coalition forces would exploit this disjointed command structure in 1991 as they destroyed the Iraqi forces in a piecemeal fashion. \n\nIn short, the Iraqis were competent enough to take Kuwait, but lacked the ability to hold Kuwait against a military \nfoe like the United States. \n\n*Sources*\n\nAl-Marashi, Ibrahim, and Sammy Salama. *Iraq's Armed Forces An Analytical History*. London: Routledge, 2008.\n\nWoods, Kevin M. *Iraqi Perspectives Project Phase II. Um Al-Ma'arik (The Mother of All Battles): Operational and Strategic Insights from an Iraqi Perspective, Volume 1* (Revised May 2008). Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center, 2008. < _URL_0_;. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "199292",
"title": "Kirkuk",
"section": "Section::::History.:The First Gulf War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "In 1991, Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait and was quickly routed by the United States in the First Gulf War (also called \"Operation Desert Storm\"). In the aftermath of the Iraqi army's defeat, rebellions broke out in Iraq; first in southern Iraq on March 1, and in the northern Kurdish region a few days later. By March 24 Kurdish \"peshmerga\" forces had seized control of Kirkuk , but they were only able to hold it until March 28 when it was reclaimed by Hussein's forces. The US and UK began to enforce a no-fly zone in Northern Iraq and a \"de facto\" Kurdish Autonomous region emerged in the North. Arabs families were expelled from the Kurdish region and relocated to Kirkuk, which was still controlled by the Iraqi government. In these circumstances, Hussein's government further intensified the decades long policy of Arabization in Kirkuk, requiring that Kurds, Turkmen and Assyrians fill out \"ethnic identity correction\" forms and register as Arabs and many who refused to comply were forcibly relocated north of the Green Line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182000",
"title": "Gulf War",
"section": "Section::::Ground campaign.:Kuwait's liberation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Despite the successes of coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait 15 hours ahead of schedule, and to send US forces after the Republican Guard. The coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against US troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam Hussein himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48954472",
"title": "Iraqi invasion of Iran (1980)",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:Border conflicts leading to war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Despite Saddam's claim that Iraq did not want war with Iran, the next day his forces proceeded to attack Iranian border posts in preparation for the planned invasion. Iraq's 7th Mechanised and 4th Infantry Divisions attacked the Iranian border posts leading to the cities of Fakkeh and Bostan, opening the route for future armoured thrusts into Iran. Weakened by internal chaos, Iran was unable to repel the attacks; which in turn led to Iraq becoming more confident in its military edge over Iran and prompting them to believe in a quick victory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4805193",
"title": "4th Cavalry Regiment (United States)",
"section": "Section::::War on Terrorism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "While the invasion from the north that never materialized, the Quarterhorse participated in an accidental, yet convincing and important, deception that caused Saddam Hussein to order several armored divisions to the north to meet the invasion force. Because of this, the enemy force strength, or Order of Battle, was significantly reduced in the South, enabling the rapid assault from Kuwait in the opening days of Operation Iraqi Freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30825213",
"title": "Iraq–Kuwait relations",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "In 1990, Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing Iraqi oil through slant drilling, however some Iraqi sources indicated Saddam Hussein's decision to attack Kuwait was made only a few months before the actual invasion. There were several reasons for the Iraq move, including Iraq's inability to pay more than $80 billion that had been borrowed to finance the war with Iran and also Kuwaiti overproduction of oil which kept oil revenues down for Iraq. The invasion started on 2 August 1990, and within two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti Armed Forces were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard or escaped to neighboring Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. The state of Kuwait was annexed and proclaimed as Iraq's 19th province.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1237273",
"title": "Battle of Khafji",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi Army invaded and occupied the neighboring state of Kuwait. The invasion, which followed the inconclusive Iran–Iraq War and three decades of political conflict with Kuwait, offered Saddam Hussein the opportunity to distract political dissent at home and add Kuwait's oil resources to Iraq's own, a boon in a time of declining petroleum prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4462091",
"title": "History of the Arab–Israeli conflict",
"section": "Section::::Intifada of 1987–1993.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1278,
"text": "During the Gulf War, 1990–1991, Iraq tried draw Israel into the confrontation and thereby make it difficult for Arab regimes to remain in the coalition. During the war, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and King Hussein of Jordan supported Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, while PLO chairman Yasser Arafat had allegedly received $100 million from Saddam Hussein. However, under strong pressure from the US, which feared direct Israeli involvement would threaten the unity of the coalition, Israel did not retaliate against Iraq and the multinational coalition ousted Iraqi forces from Kuwait. The defeat of Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War \"was a devastating blow to ... the Palestinians.\" After the Gulf War, Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait. The policy which partly led to this exodus was a response to the alignment of PLO leader Yasser Arafat with Saddam Hussein. They also withdrew their financial support from the Palestinian cause due to PLO support of Saddam Hussein. It was this political environment that allowed for the PLO to begin talks with the United States and Israel. The First Palestinian Intifada ended with the Madrid Conference of 1991 and the signing of the Oslo Accords by Israel and the PLO in 1993.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
t1zek
|
philosophy, what is it and why do people study it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Philosophy would be very hard to explain to a four year old like you asked. \n\nI think the [first 2 sentences on wikipedia](_URL_0_) sum it up.\n\nAs far as why people study it, it can be very interesting and mind expanding.",
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"answer": "Philosophy is basically really deep thoughts about everything.\n\nFor example: \n\n* How do I really know I'm here? When I see things, am I really seeing things? When I touch things, is my brain interpreting what I'm touching exactly correctly, or are things getting \"lost in translation\"? If none of my senses are working exactly perfectly, how can I know what the world looks like? If my brain isn't working exactly perfectly, how can I know that I exist if my thoughts aren't correct?\n\n* When we do something for the good of everyone, but one person gets hurt, is that still right? What is \"right\"? Is there one definition for what is \"right,\" or do we always need to compare it to \"wrong\"?\n\n* Does God exist? If there is evil in the world, and God can do something about it (he's \"omnipotent,\" right?), then why doesn't he do something about it? Does that mean he's not nice (\"benevolent\")? If being nice is one important part of being God, is God not \"God\" anymore?",
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"answer": "Philosophy involves thinking about why things are the way they are and how can we be sure we really know things are that way. In the western world, over 2000 years ago a man called Aristotle decided to organize exactly how people should think about things like that. \n\nAnd up until the 1500s pretty much all science, education, religion, law, and politics in the western world was directly effected by the way he set up things. One important reason is that one of Aristotle's' students was Alexander the Great. When Alexander took over the known world and put his personal stamp on it, it was a stamp informed by his teacher.",
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"answer": "**What is philosphy?** If you were to take a course an Intro to Philosophy course in college, you would learn about major schools of thought regarding human purpose, ethics, and rationality. The foundation of most of today's philosophy is based in Greek Philosophy -- the ideas of ancient philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates. Their timeless writings are still relevant and debated to this day. Their work has been built upon for many years and have gone in many different directions. Some of these schools of thought are in direct conflict with one another, such as utilitarianism (the ends justify the means) and deontology (the ends do NOT justify the means; it is about the best moral choice). \n\n~~Philosophy is considered a \"soft\" science, similar to sociology. This is different from a \"hard\" science like biology or physics because it deals in intangible social issues: things that are difficult to measure and prove with hard data.~~ Philosophy is full of a lot of debate and semantics (determining the exact meaning of a word -- such as \"morality\") that don't always end with conclusive answers. \n\n**Why do people study it?** People study philosophy to better understand the human condition. People want to better understand not only individual purpose (self), but collective purpose (all of humanity). People also want to better understand ethical issues, and argue for what they believe are the most moral choices. An example of a classic ethics debate is whether or not the \"needs of the many outweight the needs of the few.\" Such questions are not easy to answer because they heavily depend on the context. \n\nNonetheless, people spend a lot of time contemplating these questions. Anyone can sit around and read about and contemplate these questions--most people do at some point in their life. But academically (at Universities), it has to be more than wayward contemplation. Therefore, like anything in academics, it requires a deep knowledge of past and current writings on the topic to provide a foundation of supporting concepts and ideas. This creates a web of supporting data to transition and progress into new or modified ideas. \n\nAt the end of the day, people who study philosophy hope to understand themselves and their world a little better than they did before. There are not a ton of career options tied to philosophy -- many who specialize in it often become professors of the subject, or move onto higher education that is more focused on something like law. The study of law is often intertwined with philosophy due to its connection to morality/ethics. Therefore, a background in philosophy is not a bad stepping stone into law. \n\nMore often, philosophy as college curriculum is taken as a minor degree, or a class or two in supplementation to a seemingly unrelated degree. Example: someone who is specializing in biological engineering may be forced to take classes in science ethics, which is rooted in basic philosophical principles. This is so they are able to better make choices in a career field that is full of difficult, complex moral dilemmas that cannot be answered with a microscope. They are questions that require subjective introspection.\n\n**TL;DR- 42.**",
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"answer": "There are a lot of areas one studies in philosophy. Not all scientist study biology, and not all philosophers study ethics.\n\nThere is metaphysics - the study of Universals and particulars; Objects, Entities; General and individual\n\nOntology - the study of existence, where things come from and what they are. It gets very confusing very fast.\n\nEpistemology - The study of Knowledge, which is traditionally defined as a \"justified true belief.\" How do we know what we know.\n\nEthics - The study of ought and should. Ethics isn't about logic (it might borrow or use logic), or something being rational. Many things that are considered unethical are still rational.\n\nLogic - An abstract system that defines other systems, most notably mathematics is the prime example. Logic is learned along side metaphysics usually. If you see a book \"how to think logically\" it's probably not about logic. If you see \"fallacy of 'x'\" it's talking about logic, but, most people are ignorant think that their petty human language and debates are actual logic. Symbolic logic is what undergrads study, specifically predicate logic. Modal logic adds a couple of more operators, but that's more of a graduate study.\n\nAnalytic and Continental philosophy. Both are poorly defined in their start, and are poorly defined now. But it's pretty easy to distinguish them.\n\nAnalytic philosophy - Without arguing who started it, lets just say Frege, Whitehead, Russell. (Note: Russell is ONLY real analytic philosophy when he writes the Principia Mathematica, his political mumble jumble is muddled pseudo philosophy. The whole \"Russell's Teapot\" is not real philosophy.)\n\nAnalytic philosophy is the study of Logic, Metaphysics, Language. Easier said: Universals, general terms, more than one kind of thinking. Objects that are shared, or are part of other things.\n\nContinental philosophy - Usually said to start with the three H's: Heidegger, Husserl, Hegel. Though, when I said things were poorly defined initially and now, Husserl kind of does analytic and continental, Hegel is now being studied by analytics, and Heidegger is more of the Nietzsche branch. It's very easy to see which philosophers are talking about Nietzsche, and which are talking about other areas of continental philosophy.\n\nNevertheless typically continental philosophy is the study of the subject, the existential, the phenomena.\n\nAnalytic and Continental really only serve as what schools focus in studying. But there is also American philosophy, and American philosophy is Pragmatic philosophy. Pragmatic philosophy was initially very similar to Continental, but then it became American Analytic. So analytic philosophy is usually thought of as Anglo-American. Continental is really \"French\" type of philosophy (European).\n\n*Language - Both continental and analytic philosophy study language. For analytic philosophy language is studied more in how it applies to the abstract, what words denote. In continental philosophy language is studied as a system as well, but more what it connotates, what people mean when they say.\n\nPeople study it for all sorts of reasons. The main reason people study it is because it serves two other humanities pretty well -- History and English.\n\nOther people who study philosophy, like me, tend to disdain much of philosophy (historically a lot of people did too). We prefer to describe ourselves closer to mathematics than to the humanities. Logicians, not philosophers. It makes sense too, most (important) logicians were mathematicians.\n\nPhilosophy was doing physics before our physics became good. It tries to describe a Universal theory of the World. Physics tries to do that now. If you read theoretical physics it's VERY similar to philosophy. Unfortunately, if you don't know the history of philosophy your physics will suffer the same problems we have already addressed.\n\nSo really, there is a convergence point. Most historical/ancient philosophy is dead. But you still need to know the history to know contemporary philosophy. Contemporary philosophy and science differs in terms of methodology.",
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{
"answer": "Like you're four:\n\nScience is a field where you study the world with experiments and studies. Philosophy is where you study the things that can't be answered with experiments and studies. With science you can figure out things like how electricity works, or what happens in a black hole, or how ants communicate with each other. Even stuff like why humans fight wars are based in science. These are things you can see with your own eyes. But there are a lot of questions that you can't answer by watching or testing them with experiments. This is stuff like \"What is good and what is bad?\" \"What happens after we die?\" \"How do we determine what is beautiful and what is ugly?\" \"How do we know we're not actually dreaming right now?\" But they're not guesses...people have arguments, some of them very convincing, for their philosophical beliefs! \n\nPeople study philosophy because it makes sense of the world. Science is for understanding the world around us, and philosophy is for saying \"Well, what does that mean for us? How does all this knowledge impact how we live our life?\"\n\nEven asking \"What is philosophy?\" is a philosophical question! You're trying to make sense of the world, out of a concept that isn't scientific but is based entirely in the realm of human ideas.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Philosophy and self-reflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
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"text": "Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of reality, reasoning and values. Major fields of philosophy include logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3073531",
"title": "Outline of philosophy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Philosophy – study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing fundamental questions (such as mysticism, myth, or religion) by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word \"Philosophy\" comes from the Greek \"philosophia\" (φιλοσοφία), which literally means \"love of wisdom\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13692155",
"title": "Philosophy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Philosophy (from Greek , \"philosophia\", literally \"love of wisdom\") is the study of general and fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – 495 BCE). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation. Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it? What is most real? Philosophers also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)? Do humans have free will?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32988300",
"title": "Outline of social science",
"section": "Section::::Branches of social science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "BULLET::::- Philosophy – study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Academic philosophy is considered a science by some. Others say that philosophy is not a science but it is instead a precursor of it. The role of philosophy is also a philosophical question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4521723",
"title": "Principles of Philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Preface to the French edition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Concept of philosophy. Philosophy is the study of \"wisdom\", understood as the ability to conduct the human activities; and also as the perfect knowledge of all the things that a man can know for the direction of his life, maintenance of his health, and knowledge of the arts. Only God is perfectly wise, and the man is more or less wise, in proportion to the knowledge he has of the most important truths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13692155",
"title": "Philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as \"how are we to live\" and \"what is the nature of reality\". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "18887",
"title": "Metaphilosophy",
"section": "Section::::Topics.:Aims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "Some philosophers (e.g. existentialists, pragmatists) think philosophy is ultimately a practical discipline that should help us lead meaningful lives by showing us who we are, how we relate to the world around us and what we should do. Others (e.g. analytic philosophers) see philosophy as a technical, formal, and entirely theoretical discipline, with goals such as \"the disinterested pursuit of knowledge for its own sake\". Other proposed goals of philosophy include \"discover[ing] the absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates\", \"making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs\", and unifying and transcending the insights given by science and religion. Others proposed that philosophy is a complex discipline because it has 4 or 6 different dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
8odvhb
|
Is James McPherson too critical of George McClellan?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ethan Rafuse made a creditable attempt to defend McClellan in his 2011 biography *McClellan's War,* and while somebody other than I could better assess him as a tactician, strategist, or battlefield commander, I think Rafuse does manage to debunk some of the McClellan myths. The famous incident where Lincoln called on him and was turned away, for example, was much more likely to have been due to an attack of the malaria McClellan picked up during the Peninsula Campaign, not him being an egotistical snob. His supposed failure to pursue Lee after the Battle of Antietam is a great exaggeration: his army was exhausted, and the reconnaissance in force he sent across into Virginia after Lee was decisively repulsed.\n\nThere is a real problem with biography: we like stories of people to run like film scripts. An egotistical, snobbish, well\\-bred and incompetent McClellan makes a great contrast to a modest, progressive Lincoln or a hard\\-working, unassuming Grant, and Rafuse does show this is another case where the characters are not quite that simple. Grant was quieter than McClellan but no less ambitious, and also made mistakes that cost a lot of lives. And we have to also avoid a presentist bias: McClellan's Whig politics are now way out of line with what we would feel to be correct, but his compromising attitude towards the South was shared by a lot of Northerners, and would certainly be seen again after the War when the North abandoned the freedmen and Reconstruction. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "104977",
"title": "George B. McClellan",
"section": "Section::::Early life and career.:Mexican-American War 1846-1848.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "McClellan's experiences in the war would shape his military and political life. He learned that flanking movements (used by Scott at Cerro Gordo) are often better than frontal assaults, and the value of siege operations (Veracruz). He witnessed Scott's success in balancing political with military affairs and his good relations with the civil population as he invaded, enforcing strict discipline on his soldiers to minimize damage to property. McClellan also developed a disdain for volunteer soldiers and officers, particularly politicians who cared nothing for discipline and training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "104977",
"title": "George B. McClellan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Most modern authorities have assessed McClellan as a poor battlefield general. Some historians view him as a highly capable commander whose reputation suffered unfairly at the hands of pro-Lincoln partisans who made him a scapegoat for the Union's military setbacks. After the war, subsequent commanding general and 18th President Ulysses S. Grant was asked for his opinion of McClellan as a general; he replied, \"McClellan is to me one of the mysteries of the war.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "104977",
"title": "George B. McClellan",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.:General-in-chief.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "McClellan further damaged his reputation by his insulting insubordination to his commander-in-chief. He privately referred to Lincoln, whom he had known before the war as a lawyer for the Illinois Central, as \"nothing more than a well-meaning baboon\", a \"gorilla\", and \"ever unworthy of ... his high position\". On November 13, he snubbed the president, who had come to visit McClellan's house, by making him wait for 30 minutes, only to be told that the general had gone to bed and could not receive him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2601678",
"title": "Military deception",
"section": "Section::::History.:American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "McClellan, often given high marks by military historians for his organizational abilities in building armies but poor marks for his lack of initiative in the field, was the victim of another ruse, by Confederate General John B. Magruder during the Siege of Yorktown in 1862. \"Prince John\" Magruder, who had acted in numerous amateur theatrical productions in his youth, put on a giant show for McClellan's benefit, noisily and ostentatiously marching his relatively small force of about 10,000 troops, a fraction of the size of McClellan's army, back and forth in front of Union advance positions while redeploying his artillery to fire barrages from various points. Magruder's elaborate charade helped convince the cautious McClellan that he faced an army considerably more formidable than it really was. McClellan delayed advancing his army, allowing time for Confederate reinforcements to be brought up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1619786",
"title": "V Corps (Union Army)",
"section": "Section::::1862.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "George McClellan held a special admiration for the V Corps, especially as Fitz-John Porter was a close personal friend of his, and he often touted it as a model outfit the rest of the army should imitate. The general officers in the corps were all West Pointers and contained no political appointees or nonprofessionals. The presence of regular army troops added a more professional air to the V Corps than the others, and discipline and drills were typically stricter. In addition, the army artillery reserve was attached to the corps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "104977",
"title": "George B. McClellan",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.:Building an army.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "However, the subsequently formed Army of the Potomac had high morale and was extremely proud of their general, some even referring to McClellan as the saviour of Washington. He prevented the army's morale from collapsing at least twice, in the aftermath of the First and Second Battles of Bull Run. Many historians argue that he was talented in this aspect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "104977",
"title": "George B. McClellan",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1327,
"text": "While McClellan's reputation has suffered over time, especially over the later half of the 20th century, there is a small but intense cadre of American Civil War historians who believe that the general has been poorly served in at least four regards. First, McClellan proponents say that because the general was a conservative Democrat with great personal charisma, radical Republicans fearing his political potential deliberately undermined his field operations. Second, that as the radical Republicans were the true winners coming out of the American Civil War, they were able to write its history, placing their principal political rival of the time, McClellan, in the worst possible light. Third, that historians eager to jump on the bandwagon of Lincoln as America's greatest political icon worked to outdo one another in shifting blame for early military failures from Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton to McClellan. And fourth, that Lincoln and Stanton deliberately undermined McClellan because of his conciliatory stance towards the South, which might have resulted in a less destructive end to the war had Richmond fallen as a result of the Peninsula Campaign. Proponents of this school claim that McClellan is criticized more for his admittedly abrasive personality than for his actual field performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
3gd1s4
|
how are babies born with "hardcoded" reflexes that they can do first time, without practice?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hardcoded is the exactly correct word to use.\n\nThey are born with neural pathways in their brains that will automatically respond to stimuli, residing in a more primitive part of their brain.\n\nFor many animals, that more primitive part of their brain is almost all that they have, so all of their behavior is hardcoded, and they have very little capacity to learn. For humans, the primitive brain is small, with most of their brain devoted to learned behavior.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "381186",
"title": "Reflex",
"section": "Section::::Human reflexes.:Reflexes usually only observed in human infants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Newborn babies have a number of other reflexes which are not seen in adults, referred to as primitive reflexes. These automatic reactions to stimuli enable infants to respond to the environment before any learning has taken place. They include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8030036",
"title": "Primitive reflexes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Primitive reflexes are reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are exhibited by normal infants, but not neurologically intact adults, in response to particular stimuli. These reflexes are suppressed by the development of the frontal lobes as a child transitions normally into child development. These primitive reflexes are also called infantile, infant or newborn reflexes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274232",
"title": "Cognitive development",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins: The history and theory of cognitive development.:Piaget's theory of cognitive development.:1–4 months.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1134,
"text": "Children repeat behaviors that happen unexpectedly because of their reflexes. For example, a child's finger comes in contact with the mouth and the child starts sucking on it. If the sensation is pleasurable to the child, then the child will attempt to recreate the behavior. Infants use their initial reflexes (grasping and sucking) to explore their environment and create schemes. Schemes are groups of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment. Once a child begins to create schemes they use accommodation and assimilation to become progressively adapted to the world. Assimilation is when a child responds to a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing schema. For example, an infant may assimilate a new teddy bear into their putting things in their mouth scheme and use their reflexes to make the teddy bear go into their mouth. Accommodation is when a child either modifies an existing scheme or forms an entirely new schema to deal with a new object or event. For example, an infant may have to open his or her mouth wider than usual to accommodate the teddy bear's paw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8030036",
"title": "Primitive reflexes",
"section": "Section::::Adaptive value of reflexes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Reflexes vary in utility. Some reflexes hold a survival value (e.g., the rooting reflex, which helps a breastfed infant find the mother's nipple). Babies display the rooting reflex only when they are hungry and touched by another person, not when they touch themselves. There are a few reflexes that likely assisted in the survival of babies during human evolutionary past (e.g., the Moro reflex). Other reflexes such as sucking and grabbing help establish gratifying interaction between parents and infants. They can encourage a parent to respond with love and affection, and to feed their child more competently. In addition, it helps parents to comfort their infant while allowing the baby to control distress and the amount of stimulation they receive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4467886",
"title": "Hyperekplexia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "There are three conditions used to diagnose if an infant has hereditary hyperekplexia: if the child's body is stiff all over as soon as they are born, if they overreact to noises and other stimuli, and if the reaction to stimuli is followed by an overall stiffness where the child is unable to make any voluntary movements. A combination of electroencephalogram and an electromyogram may help diagnose this condition in patients who have not displayed symptoms as children. the electroencephalogram will not show abnormal activity other than a spike in wakefulness or alertness, while the electromyogram will show rapid muscular responses and hyperreflexia. Otherwise, genetic testing is the only definitive diagnosis. MRIs and CT scans will be normal unless other conditions exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10417331",
"title": "Reflex asystolic syncope",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Reflex anoxic seizures occur in otherwise normal children, although there is no reason to suppose that children with disorders such as cerebral palsy and mental retardation are protected from them. They usually start in infancy or early childhood. Presumably because the precipitants to the attacks generally require a degree of mobility, descriptions of reflex anoxic seizures before the age of 6 months are rare. Also, there are many descriptions of attacks starting in later childhood and in adult life, although in such cases, the precipitants tend to be different, for example, involving bloodletting (Roddy et al. 1983) or dental extractions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9014",
"title": "Developmental psychology",
"section": "Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Prenatal development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Some primitive reflexes too arise before birth and are still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f2w29z
|
how do people who suffer from epilepsy safely drive?
|
[
{
"answer": "They can’t. Exceptions not withstanding (minor cases, controlled by medication,etc) Licenses can be denied over medical issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To begin with, people with certain medical conditions can't drive. In this example, it's having seizures. \n\nFrom there, it depends on the particular circumstances. For example, if the seizure was caused by certain drugs, severely low low sugar, it can be quickly and effectively managed by not taking those drugs, and managing your blood sugar. In these instances you should be back driving quite fast, maybe not even losing you license. \n\nNow if its cause is unknown, then they suspend your license until the doctors are satisfied that it's a one time event, not likely to happen again.\n\nThen we have people who are prone to seizures. They probably won't ever be allowed to drive. Again though, they take into account what causes these seizures. Flashing lights are just possible cause. And even then, it's not all flashing lights. An actual strobe light may cause a seizure, but those are not being used as much in emergency vehicles, they're mostly LED lighting which may not cause a seizure. Same with reflections on glass, or signal lights, or lights from a passing vehicle. That means the person may be still be safe to drive because what causes the seizure isn't likely going to be found while driving.\n\n\nIn short, just because someone may have seizures, doesn't mean they're caused by lights. And even if they are, the conditions have to be just right for it to happen, and those conditions may not be something you'll encounter while driving.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I used to date a girl with epilepsy. She was otherwise normal, but just wasn't allowed to drive. There really wasn't a work around. I was happy to give her rides though, and she would Uber/Lyft if no ride was available.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10511",
"title": "Epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1129,
"text": "Those with epilepsy are at about twice the risk of being involved in a motor vehicular collision and thus in many areas of the world are not allowed to drive or only able to drive if certain conditions are met. In some places physicians are required by law to report if a person has had a seizure to the licensing body while in others the requirement is only that they encourage the person in question to report it themselves. Countries that require physician reporting include Sweden, Austria, Denmark and Spain. Countries that require the individual to report include the UK and New Zealand and the physician may report if they believe the individual has not already. In Canada, the United States and Australia the requirements around reporting vary by province or state. If seizures are well controlled most feel allowing driving is reasonable. The amount of time a person must be free from seizures before they can drive varies by country. Many countries require one to three years without seizures. In the United States the time needed without a seizure is determined by each state and is between three months and one year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29044196",
"title": "Epilepsy and employment",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Some people with epilepsy who cannot drive may also be unable to safely walk, use public transportation, or otherwise independently travel safely due to their seizure risk, further preventing them from reaching a place of employment. Such persons may be at risk for suffering seizures while on or waiting for a public transport vehicle or while crossing the street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989602",
"title": "Epilepsy and driving",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Epilepsy and driving is a personal and safety issue. A person with a seizure disorder that causes lapses in consciousness may be putting the public at risk from their operation of a motor vehicle. Not only can a seizure itself cause an accident, but anticonvulsants often have side effects that include drowsiness. People with epilepsy are more likely to be involved in a traffic accident than people who do not have the condition, although reports range from minimally more likely up to seven times more likely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29115005",
"title": "Issues for people with epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Personal safety.:Driving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The operation of a motor vehicle can be hazardous for people with epilepsy because the driver can lose consciousness behind the wheel, and therefore, control of the vehicle, putting themselves and the public at risk. For those whose seizures are successfully controlled, many of the medications have side effects that cause drowsiness, also impacting driving. As a result, many countries and states place restrictions on driving such as a necessity to be seizure-free for a period of time before being allowed to drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29044196",
"title": "Epilepsy and employment",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Even if a person with epilepsy is able to safely perform job duties him/herself, many are limited where they can work if they cannot provide their own transportation to the job site. Since some cannot drive themselves to work, they cannot travel to a place of employment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989602",
"title": "Epilepsy and driving",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "It is for this reason that most people diagnosed with epilepsy are prohibited or restricted by their local laws from operating vehicles. However, most places have exceptions built into their laws for those who can prove that they have stabilized their condition. Individuals who may be exempt from such restrictions or may have fewer restrictions include those who suffered seizures as a result of a medical condition that has been cured, from a physician's experimental medication change that failed, as an isolated incident, whose seizures occur only while asleep, or who may be able to predict their seizures in order to ensure that they do not lose consciousness behind the wheel of a moving vehicle. After having one during the day they must wait 180 days to get their license back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17989602",
"title": "Epilepsy and driving",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The first seizure-related automobile crash occurred at the turn of the 19th century. Since then, laws have been enacted all over the world regarding driving for people with epilepsy. There is an ongoing debate in bioethics over \"who\" should bear the burden of ensuring that a person with epilepsy does not drive a car or fly an aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w9tqb
|
purpose of the f keys on the top of your keyboard.
|
[
{
"answer": "Back in the bad old days, there was no such thing as a \"mouse\"- all you had was your keyboard. But some software still needed the \"menus\" that we take for granted in most every program we use today. \n\nSo, the F keys were implemented as a quick and easy way to access those menus. Programs could draw those menus across the top of the screen, along with the name of the key that would pull that specific menu up- and you could use the arrow keys, or letter shortcuts to navigate from there.\n\nNowadays, they're typically not used at all, except for shortcuts for advanced users. For example, F12 in Chrome brings up Developer Tools, allowing you to look at the base level of what each part of HTML code on the page you're viewing is responsible for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3362973",
"title": "Fn key",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The Fn key, short form for \"function,\" is a modifier key on many keyboards, especially on laptops, used in a compact layout to combine keys which are usually kept separate. It is typically found on laptops due to their keyboard size restrictions. It is also found on many full-sized \"multimedia\" keyboards as the F-Lock key. It is mainly for the purpose of changing display or audio settings quickly, such as brightness, contrast, or volume, and is held down in conjunction with the appropriate key to change the settings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3769151",
"title": "Microwriter",
"section": "Section::::The Microwriter MW4.:Keyboard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The keyboard uses one button for each finger and two for the thumb of the user's right hand. The five buttons immediately beneath the fingers are pressed in different combinations to generate all letters. The second thumb button is used to toggle through a range of modes that allow the user to switch case, enter numbers, insert punctuation and even add ASCII control characters, to be used in editing the document being prepared. To type a letter \"T\", for example, the user would tap the top thumb button to shift to uppercase, then chord a \"t\" by pressing the index finger and ring finger buttons simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26301474",
"title": "Keyboard layout",
"section": "Section::::Key types.:Character keys.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The core section of a keyboard consists of character keys, which can be used to type letters and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing letters and punctuation, an upper row for typing digits and special symbols, and the on the bottom row. The positioning of the character keys is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198674",
"title": "Linotype machine",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Keyboard and composing section.:Keyboard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The keyboard has 90 keys. There is no shift key; uppercase letters have keys separate from the lowercase letters. The arrangement of letters corresponds roughly to letter frequency, with the most frequently used letters on the left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "668160",
"title": "AltGr key",
"section": "Section::::Control + Alt as a substitute.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The right Alt key is usually an equivalent of the AltGr key because both the right Alt key and the AltGr key share the same scancode and are indistinguishable by software. However, on some keyboards it may not be the case, i.e. the keyboard has two Alt keys, each of which acts as the left Alt key. On compact keyboards like those of netbooks, the right Alt key may be missing altogether. To allow the specific functionality of AltGr when typing non-English text on such keyboards, Windows allows it to be emulated by pressing the Alt key together with the Control key:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "692735",
"title": "Alt key",
"section": "Section::::Alt key for special characters.:Windows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "In Microsoft Windows, holding down the Alt key while typing in numbers (often referred to as Alt codes) on the numeric keypad allows the user to type special characters not normally available on the keyboard. For example, holding down Alt while typing 0225 () on the numeric keypad will result in á, the character at 225 in the codepage. These extended keyboard characters are useful for persons using foreign languages, mathematics, currency symbols, business use, etc. Some computers work the same if the Num Lock key is on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504869",
"title": "Touch typing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "On a standard QWERTY keyboard for English speakers the home row keys are: \"ASDF\" for the left hand and \"JKL;\" for the right hand. Most modern computer keyboards have a raised dot or bar on the home keys for the index fingers to help touch typists maintain and rediscover the correct position on the keyboard quickly with no need to look at the keys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bm96ad
|
What is the prevalence of assassinations in historical conflicts?
|
[
{
"answer": "As required, I will provide a lengthy answer.\n\nIn the past assassinations were often an option, though like today most had some sort of security detail. An example of which (though perhaps an extreme one) can be found in the Mongol Empire, where Genghis Khan had a private defensive force called the Kheshig. The force was sizeable, being thought to be around 10,000 plus by the time Genghis died. This is perhaps why no Khan of Khans (leader of the mogul empire) was ever assassinated.\n\nIn less militaristic nations, or in nations with a smaller security detail, leaders often were assassinated. A prominent example being in Julius Caesar, though here it was his friend, Brutus who murdered him, and it was not for a war, but rather for political gain. The religious wars in the Middle Ages also claimed many monarch's lives.\n\nThe Order of Assassins or Hashshashin was an islamic group which terrorised the islamic world for the better part of two centuries until it was eradicated by the Mongols on their way through the Mohammedan Empire. Whilst they were still around, though, their ruling was generally accepted, and though many tried to defeat them, most feared that they would be assassinated should any move be taken against the great Hashshashin.\n\nThus in this respect, perhaps enemy leaders could be simply assassinated, and as history has shown, it can be an effective method if the leader can actually be reached.\n\nHowever, in modern times it is much harder to assassinate any leader of a major nation such as America, due to not only the massive security details and defences, but also because of the intelligence agencies which play a huge role in the protection of leaders. Obviously there are exceptions, such as the Kennedy ordeal, but such exceptions are just that.\n\n(Speculation) In terms of ending wars it is unlikely to do so in the modern age. This is mainly due to the fact that unless the enemy country in question is a dictatorship, monarchy or any kind of totalitarian state the influence of assassinations is probably minimal. This is because new leaders can be quickly appointed. Totalitarian leaders who feel under threat of assassination are probably less likely to continue fighting. In addition, in such totalitarian states the leader is often the one powering the war. Although, in many cases, even in such nations, a new leader with similar ideals and qualities (if not worse) is quickly appointed, as seen in General Gaddafi and Libya.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3029837",
"title": "Chouannerie",
"section": "Section::::Course.:First phase 1794-1795.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Murders were carried out throughout the whole war with a varying degree of intensity. For example, in the district of Fougères, in conflict between some Chouans and a fluctuating number of Republicans, 219 people were assassinated or executed by Chouans and 300 by Republicans. This did not include deaths during fights, summary executions on the battlefield, or executions following the expeditive revolutionary due process of law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2963",
"title": "Assassination",
"section": "Section::::Further motivations.:As military and foreign policy doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In both military and foreign policy assassinations, there is the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader, or that such a killing (or a failed attempt) will \"martyr\" a leader and lead to greater support of his or her cause (by showing the moral ruthlessness of the assassins). Faced with particularly brilliant leaders, this possibility has in various instances been risked, such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War. A number of additional examples from World War II show how assassination was used as a tool:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8455760",
"title": "History of assassination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Assassination, the murder of an opponent or well-known public figure, is one of the oldest tools of power struggles, as well as the expression of certain psychopathic disorders. It dates back to the earliest governments and tribal structures of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11339653",
"title": "Tactics of the Iraqi insurgency",
"section": "Section::::Assassinations, kidnappings and beheadings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Assassination of local and government officials, translators for coalition forces, employees at coalition bases, informants, and other (so-called) collaborators has been a regular occurrence. Assassinations have taken place in a variety of ways, from close-range small arms fire and drive-by shootings to suicide car-bombers ramming convoys. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999780",
"title": "History of terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Early 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Political assassinations continued, resulting in the assassinations of King Umberto I of Italy, killed in July 1900 and US President William McKinley in September 1901. Political violence became especially widespread in Imperial Russia, and several ministers were killed in the opening years of the 20th century. The highest-ranking was prime minister Pyotr Stolypin, killed in 1911 by Dmitry Bogrov, a spy for the secret police in several anarchist, socialist and other revolutionary groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14863512",
"title": "Human rights violations by the CIA",
"section": "Section::::Assassination and targeted killing.:Targeted Killing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "At least since World War II, a distinction has been drawn between assassination of civilian leaders, and targeted killings of leaders of fighting organizations. Some cases were blurry, such as the British-Czech Operation Anthropoid, the killing of uniformed SS officer Reinhard Heydrich, the acting Reichsprotektor of The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. A failed attempt, by British troops, to kill Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was clearly aimed at a military leader, as was the successful shooting down of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555138",
"title": "1936 in the Spanish Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "In the early days of the war, over 50,000 people who were caught on the \"wrong\" side of the lines were assassinated or summarily executed. In these \"paseos\" (\"promenades\"), as the executions were called, the victims were taken from their refuges or jails by armed people to be shot outside of town. Probably the most famous such victim was the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca. The outbreak of the war provided an excuse for settling accounts and resolving long-standing feuds. Thus, this practice became widespread during the war in areas conquered. In most areas, even within a single given village, both sides committed assassinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
etp9zh
|
Why wasn't the Holy Roman Empire ever centralized?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think I give a thorough answer, here: \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "182007",
"title": "List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a highly decentralized state for most of its history, composed of hundreds of smaller states, most of which operated with some degree of independent sovereignty. Although in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, under the Salian and Hohenstaufen emperors, it was relatively centralized, as time went on the Emperor lost more and more power to the Princes. The membership of the Imperial Diet in 1792, late in the Empire's history but before the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, gives some insight as to the composition of the Holy Roman Empire at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13277",
"title": "Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Institutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers, collectively known as princes. There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3943310",
"title": "Kleinstaaterei",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Apart from these two states, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of hundreds of small, German-speaking principalities, most of which derived from successive dynastic splits (feudal fragmentation), sometimes reflected in compound names such as Saxe-Coburg; some of these were united through royal marriages, although the resulting entity was often not a contiguous territory. During the early modern period, these small states modernised their military, judicial, and economic administrations. These hardly existed at the imperial level, and the emperor was little more than a feudalistic confederal figurehead, without political or military clout. After the Reformation, the Empire's small states were divided along religious lines. Those headed by Roman Catholic dynasties faced those ruled by Protestant dynasties in the Thirty Years' War and other conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256842",
"title": "List of states in the Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a complex political entity that existed in central Europe for most of the medieval and early modern periods and was generally ruled by a German-speaking Emperor. It should be mentioned that the states that composed the Empire, while enjoying a unique form of territorial authority (called \"Landeshoheit\") that granted them many attributes of sovereignty, were never fully sovereign states as the term is understood today. In the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 such territories, the majority being tiny estates owned by the families of Imperial Knights. This page does not directly contain the list, but it discusses the format of the various lists, and offers some background to understand the complex organisation of the Holy Roman Empire. The lists themselves can be accessed via the alphabetical navigation box at the top of this page; each letter will lead the reader to a page where states of the Empire which began with that letter are listed. For a more complete history of the empire, see Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44497758",
"title": "Burgundian treaty of 1548",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The consequence of these attempts at reducing the fragmentation of the government of the Holy Roman Empire was the separation of the Netherlands as an entity apart from the remaining empire, forming an important step towards the formation of the Dutch Republic in 1581.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1291656",
"title": "Early modern period",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:European kingdoms and movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which was Otto I. The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30583",
"title": "Thirty Years' War",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1403,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states (a fragmentation that the Peace of Westphalia would solidify). The position of the Holy Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from the House of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of imperial territory (lands of the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia), as well as the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. Another branch of the House of Habsburg ruled over Spain and its empire, which included the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas. In addition to Habsburg lands, the Holy Roman Empire contained several regional powers, such as the Duchy of Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate and the Landgraviate of Hesse. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the empire. Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities was capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of partible inheritance, i.e. splitting a lord's inheritance among his various sons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7chqf0
|
What alleged psychodellic property or ingredient of nutmeg makes people high?
|
[
{
"answer": "Myristicin, an anti-cholinergic.\n\nLike other anti-cholinergic drugs it will cause dry eyes/mouth, confusion, headaches and nausea. In certain doses it can cause mild hallucinations.\n\nThe effects vary widely from person to person and can last for 2-3 days. I've frequently heard a nutmeg high being described as like a bad flu. I've only known one person to do it twice.\n\nInterestingly, Myristicin doesn't fully explain nutmeg's effects according to some literature. Elemicin, also in nutmeg, is potentially psychoactive as well. Some of nutmeg's effects may come from how myristicin alters the metabolism of other compounds found in the nutmeg seed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952932",
"title": "Hallucinogen",
"section": "Section::::Deliriants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Nutmeg has deliriant and hallucinogenic effects as well due to some of its psychoactive chemicals, such as myristicin, which may be anticholinergic like the tropane alkaloids of the nightshade plants, or as suggested by Alexander Shulgin, partially metabolized into the \"empathogen-entactogen\" MMDA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "395283",
"title": "Myristicin",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The primary literature reports various cases of nutmeg ingestion, including attempts by adolescents trying to achieve a \"low cost\" high. Such recreational uses of nutmeg as a psychoactive agent have caused acute poisoning that required medical treatment, with symptoms including dry mouth, facial flushing, nausea, vomiting, hypertension, tachycardia, dizziness, anxiety, headache, as well as hallucinations, feelings of euphoria and unreality, delirium, irrational behavior, and collapse. Blood myristicin concentrations may be measured to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "395283",
"title": "Myristicin",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Specifically, possible neurotoxic effects on dopaminergic neurons have been reported; more widely, as presented in case reports, raw nutmeg consumption has produced poisoning symptoms where an anticholinergic mechansim attributed to myristicin and elemicin was invoked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207035",
"title": "Atropa belladonna",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Recreational drug.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "\"Atropa belladonna\" and related plants, such as \"Datura stramonium\" (commonly known as jimson weed), have occasionally been used as recreational drugs because of the vivid hallucinations and delirium they produce. These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fatal overdose. The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine, and to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine. The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion. The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11960085",
"title": "Chemophobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Chemophobia (or chemphobia or chemonoia) is an aversion to or prejudice against chemicals or chemistry. The phenomenon has been ascribed both to a reasonable concern over the potential adverse effects of synthetic chemicals, and to an irrational fear of these substances because of misconceptions about their potential for harm, particularly the possibility of certain exposures to some synthetic chemicals elevating an individual's risk of cancer. Consumer products with labels such as \"natural\" and \"chemical-free\" (the latter being an oxymoron if taken literally, since all matter is made up of chemicals) appeal to chemophobic sentiments by offering consumers what appears to be a safer alternative (see appeal to nature).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4873693",
"title": "Amnesia Moon",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "hallucinogenic drugs play a role in altered perceptions that provide access to other characters in this world, as in \"The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch\". Elsewhere, it is argued that the depicted realities splintered away from each other to provide resistance to a hive-like alien invasion of Earth. Such solipsistic worlds are reminiscent of Dick's early novel \"Eye in the Sky\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11840866",
"title": "Urban legends about drugs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Many urban legends and misconceptions about drugs have been created and circulated among young people and the general public, with varying degrees of veracity. These are commonly repeated by organizations which oppose all classified drug use, often causing the true effects and dangers of drugs to be misunderstood and less scrutinized. The most common subjects of such false beliefs are LSD, cannabis, and MDMA. These misconceptions include misinformation about adulterants or other black market issues, as well as alleged effects of the pure substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17ljfh
|
why do objects in space tend to orbit in a disc-shaped pattern?
|
[
{
"answer": "Conservation of angular momentum, basically.\n\nImagine a big cloud of particles, each moving with some random velocity. The cloud will have some well-defined center of mass, obviously, so each particle that makes up the cloud is going to be in orbit about that center of mass, the orbit determined by where the particle starts out and what its initial velocity is.\n\nEvery body in orbit around another body has some angular momentum. If you were to compute the angular momentum of every single particle in the cloud, you'd be able to add them all up. Many of the individual momenta would end up canceling out; there's a particle here that's moving this way with such-and-such angular momentum, but there's another particle on the other side moving in pretty much the opposite way, so those two momenta cancel out almost exactly.\n\nBut once you've added up all the angular momenta, you'll find that it doesn't *all* cancel out exactly. Instead, there's some *net* angular momentum. We can say that's the angular momentum of the whole cloud.\n\nHere's the thing about angular momentum: It *never goes away.* It moves around, adds and subtracts, and it can cancel out under the right circumstances, but it never just *disappears from the universe.* So if the cloud starts out with some net angular momentum, then it will *keep* that net angular momentum *forever.*\n\nSo if you let the particles move around for a while, you'll notice that they start interacting with each other. This one bumps into that one, these two graze each other, whatever. In each interaction, angular momentum *moves around* — this particle gains a little, that particle loses a little — but it *never just disappears.* Maybe occasionally a particle will bounce off another in such a way as to get knocked out of the cloud entirely; when that happens, it'll carry a tiny amount of angular momentum away with it. But in general, the total angular momentum of the cloud remains constant.\n\nAs the particles interact with each other over a long span of time, these interactions will have a net normalizing effect. That is, every particle in the cloud will tend to have its angular momentum \"nudged\" closer and closer to the net angular momentum of the cloud, divided by the number of particles. That's because a particle with *more* than the average angular momentum will tend — statistically, I mean — to interact with another particle in such a way that it gives up angular momentum. Particles with less than the average angular momentum will tend to gain angular momentum from their interactions.\n\nSo over a very long time, the particles will tend to get \"averaged out,\" so they approach uniform angular momentum.\n\nThat means they end up settling into orbiting in the same direction, and *in a plane.* Particles that are orbiting outside the plane of the cloud's net angular momentum will tend to get pulled back toward it by their interactions with other particles.\n\nSo that's why planetary systems, like our own solar system obviously, tend to form planes. Because the huge gas cloud that existed here before our solar system condensed out of it had a net angular momentum, and because angular momentum is conserved, the solar system that exists today has *pretty much* exactly that same angular momentum.\n\nDark matter doesn't tend to form disc-like structures, though, because dark matter particles *don't interact* with each other at all. They're completely transparent to each other, passing through each other like they're not even there. Without interactions to average out the angular momenta of the particles, clouds of dark matter tend to say … well, *cloud-like,* forming the galactic halos we observe when we look out into the night sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58136551",
"title": "Inclination instability",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics of the inclination instability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1272,
"text": "In a flat disk of objects with eccentric orbits a small initial vertical perturbation is amplified by the inclination instability. The initial perturbation exerts an vertical force. On very long timescales relative to the period of an object's orbit this force produces a net torque on the orbit due to the object spending more time near aphelion. This torque causes the plane of the orbit to roll on its major axis. In a disk this results in the orbits rolling with respect to each other so that the orbits are no longer co-planar. The gravity of the objects now exerts forces on each other that are out of planes of their orbits. Unlike the force due to the initial perturbation these forces are in opposite directions, up and down respectively, on the inbound and outbound portions of their orbits. The resulting torque causes their orbits to rotate about their minor axes, lifting their aphelia, causing the disk to form a cone. The angular momentum of the orbit is also increased due to this torque resulting in reduction of the eccentricity of the orbits. The inclination instability requires an initial eccentricity of 0.6 or larger, and saturates when inclinations reach ~1 radian, after which orbits precess due to the gravity toward the cone's axis of symmetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183089",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in physics",
"section": "Section::::Unsolved problems by subfield.:Astronomy and astrophysics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "BULLET::::- Astrophysical jet: Why do only certain accretion discs surrounding certain astronomical objects emit relativistic jets along their polar axes? Why are there quasi-periodic oscillations in many accretion discs? Why does the period of these oscillations scale as the inverse of the mass of the central object? Why are there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear at different frequency ratios in different objects?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18352021",
"title": "Kepler orbit",
"section": "Section::::Development of the laws.:Simplified two body problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Smaller objects, like asteroids or spacecraft often have a shape strongly deviating from a sphere. But the gravitational forces produced by these irregularities are generally small compared to the gravity of the central body. The difference between an irregular shape and a perfect sphere also diminishes with distances, and most orbital distances are very large when compared with the diameter of a small orbiting body. Thus for some applications, shape irregularity can be neglected without significant impact on accuracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27228915",
"title": "Nodal precession",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Around a spherical body, an orbital plane would remain fixed in space around the gravitational primary body. However, most bodies rotate, which causes an equatorial bulge. This bulge creates a gravitational effect that causes orbits to precess around the rotational axis of the primary body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40239",
"title": "Geosynchronous orbit",
"section": "Section::::Other geosynchronous orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Elliptical geosynchronous orbits are used in communications satellites to keep the satellite in view of its assigned ground stations and receivers. A satellite in an elliptical geosynchronous orbit appears to oscillate in the sky from the viewpoint of a ground station, tracing an analemma in the sky. Satellites in highly elliptical orbits must be tracked by steerable ground stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53436767",
"title": "IC 2006",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "An image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2015 shows a characteristically smooth profile, with no spiral arms. However, IC 2006 has a ring surrounding it. The ring appears to rotate in a direction opposite to the rest of the body, but this may be explained by a polar ring with an elliptical shape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28506",
"title": "Spacecraft propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Without internal reaction mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "A satellite or other space vehicle is subject to the law of conservation of angular momentum, which constrains a body from a net change in angular velocity. Thus, for a vehicle to change its relative orientation without expending reaction mass, another part of the vehicle may rotate in the opposite direction. Non-conservative external forces, primarily gravitational and atmospheric, can contribute up to several degrees per day to angular momentum, so secondary systems are designed to \"bleed off\" undesired rotational energies built up over time. Accordingly, many spacecraft utilize reaction wheels or control moment gyroscopes to control orientation in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zgvzj
|
why do we combine words together accidentally when speaking?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain forms sentences by trying to put together words that represent what you're thinking. Sometimes your brain knows the words, but doesn't send the signals to the muscles in your face quick enough for your mouth to form each individual word correctly, so you blend a couple words together, and people wonder why you just said 'wice' instead of nice water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "74018",
"title": "His Girl Friday",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "I had noticed that when people talk, they talk \"over\" one another, especially people who talk fast or who are arguing or describing something. So we wrote the dialogue in a way that made the beginnings and ends of sentences unnecessary; they were there for overlapping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "585571",
"title": "Minimalist program",
"section": "Section::::Technical innovations.:Bare phrase structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Merge can also operate on structures already built. If it could not, then such a system would predict only two-word utterances to be grammatical. If a new head is merged with a previously formed object (a phrase), the function has the form\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "585571",
"title": "Minimalist program",
"section": "Section::::Technical innovations.:Bare phrase structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "For example, \"merge\" can operate on the lexical items \"drink\" and \"water\" to give \"drink water\". Note that the phrase \"drink water\" behaves more like the verb \"drink\" than like the noun \"water\". That is, wherever the verb \"drink\" can be put, so too can the phrase \"drink water\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1674289",
"title": "Syntactic hierarchy",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of Syntactic Hierarchy Levels.:Phrase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The idea that words combine to form phrases. For example, the word “the” combines with word “dog” to form the phrase “the dog”. A is a sequence of words or a group of words arranged in a grammatical way to combine and form a sentence. There are five commonly occurring types of phrases; Noun phrases (NP), Adjective phrases (AdjP), Verb phrases (VP), Adverb Phrases (AdvP), and Prepositional Phrases (PP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2983197",
"title": "Teso language",
"section": "Section::::Alphabet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "(vii) It is an invariable rule that two consonants can never stand together in the same word. Both in speech and in writing. When word construction brings two consonants together, either one of the consonants must be dropped or the \"shadow\" vowel mentioned in sub-paragraph (iv) above must be inserted between the consonants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9015481",
"title": "Macedonian grammar",
"section": "Section::::Phraseology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "These types of combinations are led by the general principles of the phraseology, which states that the words in the sentences can be freely combined. Within these combinations or collocations, each word keeps its original meaning, so the meaning of the whole construction is equal to the meaning of its constituents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5071028",
"title": "Pitjantjatjara dialect",
"section": "Section::::Grammar.:Derivational morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "It also has systematic ways of changing words from one part of speech to another: making nouns from verbs, and vice versa. However, words formed may have slightly different meanings that cannot be guessed from the pattern alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f74668
|
how do rape kits/paternity tests work if sperm only has 50% of the father's dna?
|
[
{
"answer": "Each sperm only has 50%. \nThere are many many millions of sperm. \nThe odds that all of them miss any part of the father's DNA is essentially zero.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I mean...spermatozoa contains 50% of DNA compared to the othet cells.\n\nBut 100% of this 50% DNA belong to the guy who ejaculated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even 50% of the DNA is roughly a shitload of data. You still got extremely much to compare with.\n\nSay that you are matching if two books are the same. Even if you only have every second word of one of the books. you can still make a pretty strong assumption on whether it is the same book or not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7955",
"title": "DNA",
"section": "Section::::Uses in technology.:DNA profiling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235169",
"title": "DNA paternity testing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "DNA testing is currently the most advanced and accurate technology to determine parentage. In a DNA paternity test, the result (called the 'probability of parentage) is 0%, when the alleged parent is not biologically related to the child, and the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. However, while almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as \"chimeras\", have at least two different sets of genes, which can result in a false negative result if their reproductive tissue has a different genetic make-up from the tissue sampled for the test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235169",
"title": "DNA paternity testing",
"section": "Section::::Prenatal paternity testing for unborn child.:Non-invasive prenatal paternity testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Current advances in genetic testing have led to the ability to determine who the biological father is while the woman is still pregnant through a non-invasive method. There is a small amount of fetal DNA (cffDNA) present in the mother's blood during pregnancy. This allows for accurate fetal DNA paternity testing during pregnancy from a blood draw with no risk of miscarriage. Studies have shown that cffDNA can first be observed as early as 7 weeks gestation, and the amount of cffDNA increases as the pregnancy progresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "310782",
"title": "Genetic testing",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- Paternity testing - uses special DNA markers to identify the same or similar inheritance patterns between related individuals. Based on the fact that we all inherit half of our DNA from the father, and half from the mother, DNA scientists test individuals to find the match of DNA sequences at some highly differential markers to draw the conclusion of relatedness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235169",
"title": "DNA paternity testing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "DNA paternity testing is the use of DNA profiles to determine whether an individual is the biological parent of another individual. Paternity testing can be especially important when the rights and duties of the father are in issue and a child's paternity is in doubt. Tests can also determine the likelihood of someone being a biological grandparent. Though genetic testing is the most reliable standard, older methods also exist, including ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigen antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Paternity testing can now also be performed while the woman is still pregnant from a blood draw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40479918",
"title": "Dennis Lo",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "After learning about a new method to detect small amounts of DNA called polymerase chain reaction from another researcher, Lo read a research paper describing the detection of tumor DNA in blood plasma. Lo wondered if it would be possible to detect fetal DNA in blood from a pregnant mother. In 1989, he published results that suggested fetal DNA did exist but only in low quantities. However, in 1997, Lo was successful in detecting fetal DNA in the plasma of a pregnant mother by using the male chromosome as a marker. He called the discovery like \"finding your car's engine somewhere other than under the bonnet.\" This discovery has enabled a safer way for prenatal diagnosis of abnormalities in fetal development. In 2011, he developed a sequencing-based technology to determine the gender of the fetus earlier than an ultrasound. Lo was able to adapt this technology to use RNA, instead of DNA, to detect down-syndrome in unborn fetuses where previous methods could cause a miscarriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57689694",
"title": "Trump administration family separation policy",
"section": "Section::::Executive order to suspend new separations and detain families.:Difficulties of the reunification process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 249,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 249,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "CNN reported that DNA testing was performed to expedite parental verification and ensure reunification with verified parents, without details being reported as to whether consent has been asked. Human rights advocates have criticized that migrant children, some as young as two months old, cannot give their consent to DNA testing. Medical experts have recommended to use DNA testing only as a last resort. Thomas H. Murray, president emeritus of The Hastings Center, emphasizes the danger to social ties in the family given that \"the risk misattributed fatherhood, and even motherhood, is more common than most people realize\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s9q4x
|
Why is recent history often excluded or extremely rushed in history classes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Historian James Loewen attends to this question in his book for popular consumption: \"Lies My Teacher Told me\". The short answer is: the recent past in too well known, and therefore too controversial. he studies the number of pages in history text books dedicated to to recent past, first in books from the 1980's, then a second sample from the 00's in order to compare how many pages they dedicate to the recent past. \n\n\"On average, the textbooks [from the 1980's] give forty-seven pages to the 1930's, forty-four to the 1940's, and fewer than thirty-five pages to each later decade. Even the turbulent decade of the 1960's -- including the civil rights movement, most of the Vietnam War, and the murders of Martin Luther King Jr., Medgar Evans, Malcolm X, and John Robert Kennedy -- got fewer than thirty-five pages.\"\nLowen p. 260\n\nAs you can see, when the 1960's was fresh in the minds of parents who had lived through it, history books devoted roughly 25% fewer pages covering it. However, when the 1960's faded from the recent past, textbooks began to give it a new emphasis of focus.\n\n\"Textbooks in 2006-2007 show quite a different approach. Now the 1960's are no longer recent history, so textbooks can give them the emphasis they should have received, fifty five pages. (That total is greater than for any other decade of the twentieth century.) But today's texts, published between 2000 and 2007, give short shift to the new recent past, the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. Now they devote forty-nine pages to the 1930's and forty seven to the 1940's, but fewer than twenty to the 1980's and 1990's (Even tossing in the first years of the new Millennium).\"\nibid\n\nThe unfortunate conclusion from this trend is to recognize that K-12 recent history will always be sterile and lackluster because of the socio-economic forces that shape the textbook publishing process. Conventional High School history is supposed to be non-political, but current events are always political and remembered as such. Textbook publishers don't want to take a side on current events because they don't want to risk alienating the parents of potential students. \n\n\"Some parents are Democrats, some Republicans, so what authors say about the impeachment and trial of Bill Clinton will likely offend half of the community.\"\nLowen p. 261\n\nThese political concerns, along with many others are ripe in the minds of textbook publishers as they endlessly revise their books in order to parade before skeptical school boards nation wide. This process is so politicized, and so lucrative, that the history that is allowed into K-12 history books could hardly be called history. All notes and evidence is take from James Loewen's Lies My Teacher Told me, and I encourage any with an interest in american history, or the history regarding the education of history, I invite you to check it out.\n\nLoewen, James W. Lies My Teach Told Me. New York: Touchstone, 1995, 2007.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The other answer is that we don't know what was actually important in recent history. We need time to pass to understand that.\n\nTake the Clinton administration for example. One of the initiatives that was pushed and passed was NAFTA. Was that good or bad policy? Was the increase of Mexican [emigration](_URL_0_) due to NAFTA? Was/is that emigration good or bad for the US and Mexico? It is just to soon to tell. You can make educated arguments one way or the other but when we haven't decided on how we are going to classify millions of aliens it is very difficult to draw a conclusion as to the success of a policy. And does the policy (or lack of policy) have any real significance in determining the direction of our country. We just don't know yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The other thing is that there's also just an issue of time. Most secondary classes that cover American history 1492-present are trying to get through a lot of material in a school year and if they fall behind at any point earlier in the course then they have to get through the later material faster-especially if they're an AP class and they practically need to finish the coursework by mid or late April to have a few week's review time. So by the end of the year(when recent history is covered) there's a rush just to get through everything. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44014561",
"title": "Caprichosos de Pilares",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "But what made history even at school was the plots in satire, criticism and humor created by Luiz Fernando Reis where they constitute a formula that spoke Inflation have criticized politicians asked Diretas Já that please and spoke to the public. However the revisionist school, and this style, culminating in various descents, to access groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2231644",
"title": "Past & Present (journal)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "After the end of the Second World War, an emerging subfield of social history gradually became popular in history departments. The History Workshop movement, founded in the 1960s, aimed to become a platform for the study of \"ordinary people\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5175110",
"title": "Narrative history",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Historians who use the modern narrative might say that the traditional narrative focuses too much on what happened and not enough on why and causation. Also, that this form of narrative reduces history into neat boxes and thereby does an injustice to history. J H Hexter characterized such historians as \"lumpers\". In an essay on Christopher Hill, he remarked that \"lumpers do not like accidents: they would prefer them vanish...The lumping historian wants to put all of the past into boxes..and then to tie all the boxes together into one nice shapely bundle.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358837",
"title": "Time capsule",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Historians also concede that there are many preservation issues surrounding the selection of the media to transmit this information to the future. Some of these issues include the obsolescence of technology and the deterioration of electronic and magnetic storage media (known as the digital dark age), and possible language problems if the capsule is dug up in the distant future. Many buried time capsules are lost, as interest in them fades and the exact location is forgotten, or they are destroyed within a few years by groundwater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10323935",
"title": "Parametric determinism",
"section": "Section::::Ten implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "BULLET::::- The main reason for studying history is not because we should assign praise or blame, or simply because it is interesting, but because we need to study past experience to understand the present and the future. History can be seen as a \"laboratory\", the lab-record of which shows how, under given conditions, people tried to achieve their goals, and what the results of their experimentations were. This can provide insight into what is likely or unlikely to succeed in future. At the very least, each generation has to come to grips with the experience of the previous generation, as well as educating the future generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10527118",
"title": "Educational video game",
"section": "Section::::In education.:Subject focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- History - while \"News is the first cut of history\" is often a reality, the New York Times decried \"a void in young people's minds about anything that happened before today's headlines or newscasts\" it promoted educational videos about history as \"a new tool to make the past come to life.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2377491",
"title": "Big History",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with conventional history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Big History examines the past using numerous time scales, from the Big Bang to modernity, unlike conventional history courses which typically begin with the introduction of farming and civilization, or with the beginning of written records. It explores common themes and patterns. Courses generally do not focus on humans until one-third to halfway through, and, unlike conventional history courses, there is not much focus on kingdoms or civilizations or wars or national borders. If conventional history focuses on human civilization with humankind at the center, Big History focuses on the universe and shows how humankind fits within this framework and places human history in the wider context of the universe's history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
brdapk
|
Did 'Population: ' signs actually appear outside towns in the American West? If so what was their purpose?
|
[
{
"answer": "American expansion always included strong elements of boosterism: wanting to believe that your town was bigger and better, or would soon be bigger and better, than other nearby towns. Because I’ve never seen any suggestion that population signs were posted for view by passing railway passengers, I believe the practice really arose in the early days of automobiles and cross-country motoring. In much of the nation, the new highway network was cobbled together from pre-existing county roads, including the section-line roads that run parallel at one-mile intervals. With so many routing possibilities, there was great rivalry among small towns to be on the new marked route that would attract motorists, and I speculate that booster clubs put up signs at junctions and crossroads touting their towns: listing the services such as hotels, repair garages, and tourist campgrounds to be found there, and also showing a population figure that would suggest a greater variety of eateries, services, and attractions. No doubt there was some inflation of those figures, and so state highway departments and their official signs noting entrance into municipalities became the trusted arbiter of such figures.\n\nSome states also show the altitude of towns on city-limit signs, a holdover from railway days when that was a figure of interest to both the drivers of the locomotives and travelers passing through. In the early days of motoring, altitude was also a factor in engine adjustment and performance, and useful for motorists to know.\n\nAlas, I’ve never found much in the way of sources on this topic, so its informed more by broader understanding of the rise of the automobile and civic rivalry in the early 20th century. The rivalry of towns wanting to be included on the pioneering coast-to-coast Lincoln Highway is chronicled in Drake Hokanson’s book *The Lincoln Highway: Main Street Across America.* John A. Jakle and Keith Sculle’s book *Motoring: The Highway Experience in America* gives a pretty good picture of the landscape that faced early cross-country motorists. The various papers in *Roadside America: The Automobile in Design and Culture,* edited by Jan Jennings, give more detailed insight into various aspects of the roadside culture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "459689",
"title": "Warning sign",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Some of the first roadside signs—ancient milestones—merely gave distance measures. Hazard warnings were rare though occasional specimens appeared, such as the specific warning about horse-drawn vehicles backing up which was carved in stone in Lisbon's Alfama neighborhood in 1686. The early signs did not have high-contrast lettering and their messages might have been easily overlooked. Signs were written in the local language (); symbolic signs, though long used on certain tradesmen's signs (like the pawnbrokers' tri-ball symbol) were to be used for traffic only much later in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2586560",
"title": "Street name sign",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Modern street name signs are mounted on either utility poles or smaller purpose-made sign poles posted on a streetcorner, or hung over intersections from overhead supports like wires or pylons. When attached to poles, they may be stacked onto each other in alternating directions or mounted perpendicular to each other, with each sign facing the street it represents. Up until around 1900 in the USA, however, street name signs were often mounted on the corners of buildings, or even chiseled into the masonry, and many of those signs still exist in older neighborhoods. They are commonly used in France and the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34440060",
"title": "Wm. Stage",
"section": "Section::::Photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Starting in the mid-1970s, Stage began documenting a bygone form of advertising where signs were painted on walls of brick buildings, and then faded over the years. Some of these wall signs, dating back to the 1800s, have become known as ghost signs. In 1989, he published a book of his photographs, \"Ghost Signs: Brick Wall Signs in America\", then in 2011 \"The Painted Ad: A Postcard Book of Vintage Brick Wall Signs\", and in 2013 under The History Press, \"Fading Ads of St. Louis\", a collection of vintage advertisements found on brick buildings around St. Louis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5074833",
"title": "Advertising media selection",
"section": "Section::::Types of advertising media.:Out-of-home media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "The use of signs to communicate a marketer's message places advertising in geographically identified areas in order to capture customer attention. The most obvious method of using signs is through billboards, which are generally located in high traffic areas. Outdoor billboards come in many sizes, though the most well-known are large structures located near transportation points intending to attract the interest of people traveling on roads or public transportation. Indoor billboards are often smaller than outdoor billboards and are designed to attract the attention of foot traffic (i.e., those moving past the sign). For example, smaller signage in airports, train terminals and large commercial office space fit this category. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4130045",
"title": "Signage",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "The use of commercial signage has a very ancient history. Retail signage and promotional signs appear to have developed independently in the East and the West. In antiquity, the ancient Egyptians, Romans and Greeks were known to use signage. In ancient Rome, signboards were used for shop fronts as well as to announce public events. Roman signboards were usually made from stone or terracotta. Alternatively, they were whitened areas, known as \"albums\" on the outer walls of shops, forums and marketplaces. Many Roman examples have been preserved; among them the widely recognized bush to indicate a tavern, from which is derived the proverb, \"A good wine needs no bush\". Apart from the bush, certain identifiable trade signs that survive into modern times include the three balls of pawnbrokers and the red and white barber's pole. Of the signs identified with specific trades, some of these later evolved into trademarks. This suggests that the early history of commercial signage is intimately tied up with the history of branding and labelling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1609764",
"title": "Road signs in Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Warning signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Warning signs are similar to the United States design, in that they are black on an amber (orangish yellow) background, and are diamond shaped. This type of road sign was introduced in 1956 with the Traffic Signs Regulations, 1956. Some signs were added later, and many types of signs, even common ones, do not appear in any statutes. Some types of sign in particular (for example, pedestrian/zebra crossing signage) are somewhat randomly designed, and differ between county/city boroughs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "796463",
"title": "Holiday Inn",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Great Sign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "The \"Great Sign\" was the roadside sign used by Holiday Inn during its original era of expansion from the 1950s to 1970s. It was perhaps the company's most successful form of advertising. It was extremely large and eye-catching, but was expensive to construct and operate. The manufacturer of the sign was Balton & Sons Sign Company, and it was originally designed by sketch artists Gene Barber and Roland Alexander. Wilson wanted a prominent sign, desiring that it be at least 50 feet (15 m) high and visible in both directions. He also wanted a changeable marquee to welcome different groups. The original sign cost $13,000. It is said that the sign's colors were selected because they were favorites of Wilson's mother. The popularity of the sign led to many imitations, some of which remain to this day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6mg3ia
|
what is a w-4?
|
[
{
"answer": "Essentially, the government requires that your employer collect your income tax on your wages and send that to the government. \n\nIn order to do that, your employer needs some way to estimate how much you'll pay in taxes. To do **that**, they need information from you about how much you expect to pay in taxes. \n\nSo you tell your employer if you're married or single, and if you have certain allowances that would be subtracted from your taxable income. (like having kids) You can tell your employer to withhold extra money, if you have special circumstances or if you're working two jobs. Your employer then uses that information to estimate your income taxes, and withholds those funds from your paycheck. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4562265",
"title": "W84",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The W84 is an American thermonuclear warhead designed for use on the BGM-109G Gryphon Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM). It is a derivative of the B61 nuclear bomb design and a close relative of the W80 warhead used on the AGM-86 ALCM, AGM-129 ACM, and BGM-109 Tomahawk SLCM cruise missiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12287006",
"title": "W82",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The W82 was a low-yield tactical nuclear warhead developed by the United States and designed to be used in a 155 mm artillery shell (sometimes called the XM785 shell). It was conceived as a more flexible replacement for the W48, the previous generation of 155 mm nuclear artillery shell. A previous attempt to replace the W48 with the W74 munition was canceled due to cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863292",
"title": "Jagged Alliance (series)",
"section": "Section::::Games in the series.:\"Jagged Alliance 2\".:\"Jagged Alliance 2: Wildfire\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "\"WF6\" contains changed source code, a tweaked graphics engine that allows for a higher resolution, introduces new mercenaries and increases squad size from 6 to 10. It can be patched up to version 6.04 (for English version), up to 6.06 (for German version), or up to 6.08 (for Russian version).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2307156",
"title": "W76",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The W76 is a United States thermonuclear warhead. The first variant was manufactured from 1978 to 1987, and is still in service . In 2018 a new low-yield variant was announced which is expected to gain initial operating capability in 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4611058",
"title": "W62",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The W62 has been retired because it lacks Enhanced Electrical Isolation, Insensitive High Explosives, a Fire Resistant Pit, a Command Disable System and a Code Management System. It has been replaced in its role as Minuteman warhead by the W78 and, more recently, by the W87 in a non-MIRV configuration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26657864",
"title": "Xian WS-15",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The WS-15 (), codename Emei, is a Chinese afterburning turbofan engine designed by the Shenyang Aeroengine Research Institute and manufactured by the Xi'an Aero-Engine Corporation, which will be used to power the Chengdu J-20, which would be able to achieve supercruise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40415055",
"title": "WBZY Northern Might",
"section": "Section::::BW-9.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "BW-9 is a ballistic target drone is designed to specifically simulate the re-entry flight characteristics of short and medium range ballistic missiles to support the training of air defense forces and the development of air defense weaponry. BW-9 has a cylindrical fuselage with four control surfaces mounted in cruciform at the tail end, just like some of the tactical ballistic missiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dd9t0
|
why do child victims of abuse gravitate towards people similar to the abuser?
|
[
{
"answer": "Abuse is all about control. A lot of abuse involves making its victims feel worthless, like they can never do better, like they cannot find happiness or deserve happiness, etc. Control is part of how abusers keep their victims silent. \n\nVictims of child abuse often have little exposure to healthy relationships. They also tend to have lower self-esteem, and it requires a lot of consistent help and guidance and support to help victims. Victims can also potentially develop behavioral issues and can be difficult to deal with if people don't understand or know how to deal with it. This leads to more self-esteem issues, a tendency to revert back to what they know and what they've been told by the abuser. \n\nHelping a victim of child abuse doesn't stop with just removing them from the abuser(s)' home.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "319888",
"title": "Blame",
"section": "Section::::Sociology and psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Victims of manipulation and abuse frequently feel responsible for causing negative feelings in the manipulator/abuser towards them and the resultant anxiety in themselves. This self-blame often becomes a major feature of victim status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4488176",
"title": "Factitious disorder imposed on another",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Aside from the motive (which is to gain attention or sympathy), another feature that differentiates FDIA from \"typical\" physical child abuse is the degree of premeditation involved. Whereas most physical abuse entails lashing out at a child in response to some behavior (e.g., crying, bedwetting, spilling food), assaults on the FDIA victim tend to be unprovoked and planned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2955547",
"title": "Child abuse",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Physical abuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The psychologist Alice Miller, noted for her books on child abuse, took the view that humiliations, spankings and beatings, slaps in the face, etc. are all forms of abuse, because they injure the integrity and dignity of a child, even if their consequences are not visible right away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2484315",
"title": "Gaslighting",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "An abuser's ultimate goal is to make their victim second-guess their every choice and question their sanity, making them more dependent on the abuser. A tactic which further degrades a target's self-esteem is for the abuser to ignore, then attend to, then ignore the victim again, so that the victim lowers their personal bar for what constitutes affection and perceives themselves as less worthy of affection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24573437",
"title": "Narcissistic parent",
"section": "Section::::Children of narcissists.:Short term and long term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "There are many layers of psychological reaction in children who have been emotionally abused by their parent(s). In cases of narcissistic abuse, it is equally likely for a child to copy manipulation and aggression and engage in it later in life, or to instead focus on developing the opposite behavior. Children of narcissistic parents often develop traits such as introversion, kindness, agreeableness, and a keen interest in and empathy for mentally ill individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57374754",
"title": "Maladjustment",
"section": "Section::::Negative effects.:Suicidal behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In cases where a child suffers from physical or sexual abuse, maladjustment is a risk for suicidal behavior. Individual with a history of childhood abuse tend to be maladjusted due to their dissatisfaction in social support and the prevalence of an anxious attachment style. Clinical implication suggests that by targeting maladjustment in individuals with history of childhood abuse, the risk of suicidal behavior may be attenuated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15514744",
"title": "Enabling",
"section": "Section::::Negative.:Narcissists and abusers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Emotional abuse is a brainwashing method that over time can turn someone into an enabler. While the narcissist often plays the victim, it is quite common for the true victim to believe that he or she is responsible for the abuse and thus must adapt and adjust to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ctwhwy
|
how does uhaul/any other car rental company keep vehicles equally distributed across the country?
|
[
{
"answer": "Car rental businesses hire people to drive vehicles to other locations. I’m sure Uhaul has something similar in place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They hire people to drive vehicles back to where they need to be to equalize distribution. Sometimes you can even get a really good deal on long distance rentals because they have vehicles that need to go to a certain destination.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "U-Haul is pretty famous for pricing rentals differently to give customers reasons to drive the trucks where they're demanded. It can cost vastly more to rent a truck to go from a low supply city to a high supply city, than the other way. \n\nRental car agencies charge considerably more for a 1-way trip than a pick up and return at the same location trip. The rental cost likely includes the cost of transporting the car back to it's original location. \n\nWhen needed drivers can be hired to move vehicles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52891844",
"title": "Car relocation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "In the sharing economy, transfer cars, relocation cars, or driveaways are rental cars that need to be transferred back to their original branch after a one-way rental. Rental car companies have traditionally used truck and train transporters to re-position their fleet until this model was disrupted by websites which let travelers book those transfer cars for free (e.g. Transfercar in Australia, the US and New Zealand and DriveBack in Sweden) or for a very small amount of money (usually €1, e.g. Driiveme and Luckyloc in France). This new model enables rental car companies to save on their relocation costs while offering a way for travelers to save on their travel costs. There is usually a set number of days to transfer the vehicle and limited availability, so this model usually suits travelers with flexible plans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721883",
"title": "United Rentals",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "United Rentals is primarily a provider of construction and industrial equipment: trucks, aerial work platforms, counterbalance forklifts, reach forklifts, earth movers, compressors, homeowner equipment, and similar devices. Together, these are considered general and aerial rentals, and they make up the bulk of URI's rental fleet and customer base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17170435",
"title": "Salt Lake City Intermodal Hub",
"section": "Section::::Services.:U-Haul Car Share.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "U-Haul Car Share is a for-profit carsharing service by U-Haul which launched in August 2009. Members of U-Haul Car Share can rent cars by the hour (plus mileage). Reservations are made online and a code is given to unlock the vehicle. The keys are tethered in the vehicle. The vehicle is returned to the same location where it was picked up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1480329",
"title": "U-Haul",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1072,
"text": "U-Haul's rental fleet is composed of trucks, trailers, auto-transports, and various other equipment. Heavy duty pickup truck and van cabs manufactured by Ford, GMC, and Ram are mated with U-Haul manufactured truck boxes in fabrication plants located at various places in North America. The vehicles are all gas powered, with previous models offering diesel trucks that must be brought back to the same location where they were rented. Six truck sizes are available, ranging from to , and multiple trailer sizes, in addition to a two-wheeled \"Tow Dolly\" and a four-wheeled \"Auto Transport\". U-Haul advertises that their trucks have lower decks which are built below the tops rather than above the rear tires like standard cargo box trucks. Some trucks also have an over the cab storage area called \"Mom's Attic.\" The trucks are painted with SuperGraphics which are educational images of different states and provinces across the United States and Canada. Pickup trucks and cargo vans are also available at most corporate owned centers, and select neighborhood dealerships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5539662",
"title": "Car rental",
"section": "Section::::Business models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Car rental companies operate by purchasing or leasing a number of fleet vehicles and renting them to their customers for a fee. Rental fleets can be structured in several ways – they can be owned outright (these are known as ‘risk vehicles’ because the car rental operator is taking a risk on how much the vehicle will be sold for when it is removed from service), they can be leased, or they can be owned under a guaranteed buy-back program arranged directly through a manufacturer or manufacturer's financial arm (these are known as ‘repurchase vehicles’ because the manufacturer outlines the exact price of original sale and of repurchase at the end of a defined term).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5539662",
"title": "Car rental",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Car rental agencies primarily serve people who require a temporary vehicle, for example, those who do not own their own car, travelers who are out of town, or owners of damaged or destroyed vehicles who are awaiting repair or insurance compensation. Car rental agencies may also serve the self-moving industry needs, by renting vans or trucks, and in certain markets, other types of vehicles such as motorcycles or scooters may also be offered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2734327",
"title": "Bhimavaram",
"section": "Section::::Transport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "There are as many as 2,69,137 vehicle owners are licensed according to transport officials in the city. Out of this, about 13,064 are autos, 1236 school buses, 9908 lorries, 11,129 cars, 2,04,728 motorbikes, 2,833 three-wheelers, 15 car travels, and 5 bus travel vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
285idr
|
How accurate is the Romanticized telling of the American Civil War?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"how much more complex was the civil war than simple fighting about slavery\"\n\nThe short answer here is that it wasn't more complex than that. Slavery was absolutely the central political controversy of 19th century America. The southern states had enjoyed legislative and judicial power over the federal government for decades leading up to the election of Abraham Lincoln. With the loss of the White House to an avowed abolitionist, they realized that their stranglehold on the federal government was at an end so they revolted rather than honor the democratic process.\n\nThe single most poignant fact in the discussion of \"whether or not the Civil War was fought over slavery\" is that the Confederate Constitution banned the abolition of slavery. If the \"State's Rights\" argument is to be believed, then why would the Confederate government take away their own states' right to decide on slavery? After the War ended, southern apologists immediately began writing revisionist history that de-emphasized the role of slavery in their rebellion. Unfortunately their efforts found their way into many a history book and so today there is a sizeable portion of the American public who believe that the Confederate cause was one of self-determination and self-governance.\n\nThis is demonstrably false. The Confederacy formed because while males feared that their ability to own black people as property would be taken away from them, and they decided collectively that they would rather take up arms against their countrymen than let that happen. There are very few conflicts in human history where one side can be considered legally and morally in the wrong - the American Civil War is one of those few.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5539996",
"title": "Bull Run (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "This historical fiction novel, written by Paul Fleischman, highlights the events surrounding the first major battle of the American Civil War, the Battle of Bull Run. It is told through the first-person perspectives of 16 different characters, both Union and Confederate. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3294618",
"title": "Summer of My German Soldier",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The mockumentary \"\", which details an alternate history wherein the Confederacy won the Civil War, refers to an in-universe novel called \"Summer of My Union Soldier,\" which is described as echoing romanticism in the literature dealing with the American North and South.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7764404",
"title": "North and South (trilogy)",
"section": "Section::::Novels.:\"Love and War\" (1984).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The saga continues in 1984's \"Love and War\", which follows the Mains and Hazards for the duration of the American Civil War (1861–1865). Orry finally marries his star-crossed love Madeline, but he is later killed. Both families have their share of suffering before the war is over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1203",
"title": "Alternate history",
"section": "Section::::History of literature.:Early 20th century and the era of the pulps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "American humorist author James Thurber parodied alternate history stories about the American Civil War in his 1930 story \"If Grant Had Been Drinking at Appomattox\", which he accompanied with this very brief introduction: \"\"Scribner's\" magazine is publishing a series of three articles: 'If Booth Had Missed Lincoln', 'If Lee Had Won the Battle of Gettysburg', and 'If Napoleon Had Escaped to America'. This is the fourth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314924",
"title": "William Gillette",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "His first Civil War drama \"Held by the Enemy\" (1886) was a major step toward modern theater, in that it abandoned many of the crude devices of 19th century melodrama and introduced realism into the sets, costumes, props, and sound effects. It was produced at a time when the British had a very low opinion of American art in any form, and it was the first wholly American play with a wholly American theme to be a critical and commercial success on British stages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4786812",
"title": "March (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "In an NPR interview by Melissa Block, Brooks reveals that a more physical connection to the Civil War was her inspiration for the novel. \"The author lives near the site of the battle where, on Oct. 21, 1861, on a steep bluff overlooking the Potomac River, Union forces were flanked and routed by Confederate troops. The discovery of a Union soldier's belt buckle in the Civil War-era courtyard of Brooks' home provided the germ of the novel.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160553",
"title": "Song of Myself",
"section": "Section::::Literary style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "In addition to this romanticism, the poem seems to anticipate a kind of realism that would only become important in United States literature after the American Civil War. In the following 1855 passage, for example, we can see Whitman's inclusion of the gritty details of everyday life:The lunatic is carried at last to the asylum a confirm'd case,br\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d8soga
|
How did the relative cost of a medieval knight compare to the cost of a modern battle tank?
|
[
{
"answer": "I found this thread from 2 years ago:\n\n_URL_0_\n\ncredit to u/WARitter and u/Dashukta for answers",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I mean the very terms \"medieval\" and \"knight\" are problematic in their own right as the medieval period is not particularly closely defined and knights can be anything from Hungarian riders to great lords of England and France. The latter would obviously spend vastly more money on their equipment than the former. The same is true for the term \"foot soldier\" which can be anything from a hastily raised levy of spearmen to dismounted men-at-arms, both are technically medieval foot soldiers but their cost varies a great deal.\n\nWith that in mind, say you are a Lord in 15th century England and you which to equip a retainer as a mounted man -at-arms. We assume that this man owns his own weapons but little else. He will need armor and a destrier. Let's assume he has his own courser already. Let's also, just for arguments sake settle for a harness of plates that is not custom made for him but rather made for a man roughly his size and modified to fit. Say you pay 6 pounds stirling for the armor and adjustments. You pay another 5 for the destrier (prices of war horses varied a great deal with time, demand and quality, if this figure is unreasonable I hope someone with more knowledge than me, like /u/waritter, will correct me). Either way, we end up at 11 pounds sterling for horse and armor.\n\nThis is the equivalent of one year and three months of labour for a skilled journeyman, half that for the man-at-arms himself. By comparison, a Main Battle Tank costs a whole hell of a lot more. $6M is the equivalent of 100 years of median income in the US, so, by very rough estimates, fielding a single main battle tank in 2018 cost about the equivalent of 80 men-at-arms in the 15th century.\n\nFor this case I assumed that you're fielding a normal retainer as a man at arms, not a titled and landed noble. For the man-at-arms you could expect to pay about 1 shilling per day plus food and lodging. I have no idea what the running expense of an active MBT is but I expect it is significantly higher given that you would also need a crew of 3-5, mechanics, infrastructure, fuel, ammo, spare parts etc etc. The crew alone would mean, if we assume that the tank crew member makes about the same as a skilled journeyman did in the 15th century, that wages alone are twice as expensive for the tank compared to a man-at-arms.\n\nEDIT: Pay updated, thank you /u/Rittermeister.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1214902",
"title": "Knight's fee",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "In feudal Anglo-Norman England and Ireland, a knight's fee was a unit measure of land deemed sufficient to support a knight. Of necessity, it would not only provide sustenance for himself, his family, esquires and servants, but also the means to furnish himself and his retinue with horses and armour to fight for his overlord in battle. It was effectively the size of a fee (or \"fief\" which is synonymous with \"fee\") sufficient to support one knight in the ongoing performance of his feudal duties (knight-service). A knight's fee cannot be stated as a standard number of acres as the required acreage to produce a given crop or revenue would vary depending on many factors, including its location, the richness of its soil and the local climate, as well as the presence of other exploitable resources such as fish-weirs, quarries of rock or mines of minerals. If a knight's fee is deemed co-terminous with a manor, an average size would be between 1,000 and 5,000 acres, of which much in early times was still \"waste\", forest and uncultivated moorland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265128",
"title": "Cost-effectiveness analysis",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Conversely, if the difference in price is near zero, but the more costly competitor would convey an enormous battlefield advantage through special ammunition, radar fire control and laser range finding, enabling it to destroy enemy tanks accurately at extreme ranges, military planners may choose it instead – based on the same cost-effectiveness principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35757696",
"title": "Deadliest Warrior (season 1)",
"section": "Section::::Episode 4: Pirate vs. Knight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to the given statistics, the Knight had a size advantage of 1 inch and 10 lbs; roughly equal by the standards of Deadliest Warrior matchups. However, the Knight's gear was 50 lbs heavier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28173937",
"title": "List of Deadliest Warrior episodes",
"section": "Section::::Season 1 Deadliest Warrior.:Episode 4: Pirate vs. Knight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to the given statistics, the Knight had a size advantage of 1 inch and 10 lbs; roughly equal by the standards of Deadliest Warrior matchups. However, the Knight's gear was 50 lbs heavier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1476872",
"title": "Conqueror (tank)",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The armour was very heavy for the time, especially in the front, where it was seven inches (178 mm) in the horizontal plane. Unfortunately, this, along with the weight of the huge turret required to house the large gun and the very large hull volume, made the vehicle very heavy, giving it a relatively low top speed and making it mechanically unreliable. Also, few bridges could support its weight. However, rather like the Second World War Churchill tank, the Conqueror had exceptional terrain handling characteristics and proved to be as capable cross country as the lighter (and on paper slightly faster) Centurion tank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265128",
"title": "Cost-effectiveness analysis",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The concept of cost-effectiveness is applied to the planning and management of many types of organized activity. It is widely used in many aspects of life. In the acquisition of military tanks, for example, competing designs are compared not only for purchase price, but also for such factors as their operating radius, top speed, rate of fire, armor protection, and caliber and armor penetration of their guns. If a tank's performance in these areas is equal or even slightly inferior to its competitor, but substantially less expensive and easier to produce, military planners may select it as more cost-effective than the competitor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1061749",
"title": "Battle of Nicopolis",
"section": "Section::::Strength of forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The number of combatants is heavily contested in historical accounts. Historian Tuchman notes, \"Chroniclers habitually matched numbers to the awesomeness of the event,\" and the Battle of Nicopolis was considered so significant that the number of combatants given by medieval chroniclers ranges as high as 400,000, with each side insisting that the enemy outnumbered them two-to-one, which for the crusaders offered some solace for their defeat and for the Turks increased the glory of their victory. The oft-given figure of 100,000 crusaders is dismissed by Tuchman, who notes that 100,000 men would have taken a month to cross the Danube at Iron Gate, while the crusaders took eight days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22pb3m
|
Did businesses really flourish in the Nazi Regime?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many businesses enjoyed an extremely close relationship with the Reich government. The most notorious one, [IG Farben](_URL_3_), --a chemical conglomerate formed in 1925 and made up of Bayer, BASF and others-- was so deeply implicated in committing crimes against humanity--being the supplier of Zyklon B, the poison used in the gas chambers--that it was abolished after the war, and many of its [corporate officers were put on trial](_URL_1_). \n\nPost war examination has shown that the Nazi economy --and indeed the entire [Nazi bureaucracy](_URL_0_) was a house of cards, built on the loot and plunder of conquered nations in the former, and a personality cult and backstabbing on the latter. German industrial production peaked in 1944 under the direction of Minster of Armaments Albert Speer. These improvements can be principly attributed to him untangling the mess created by other Nazis, in their effort to win Hitlers favor, carving out little bureaucratic empires for themselves. This is especially evident in the restructuring of the [Reichswerke Hermann Göring](_URL_2_), an enormous state controlled steel conglomerate, formally headed by Hermann Göring. \n\nSources: \n\nInside the Third Reich, Speer, Albert\n\nThe Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, Shirer, William",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3283062",
"title": "Economics of fascism",
"section": "Section::::Political economy of Nazi Germany.:Pre-war economy: 1933–1939.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1268,
"text": "In the 1930s, Nazi Germany transferred many companies and services from state ownership into the private sector, while other Western capitalist countries were moving in the opposite direction and strove for increased state ownership of industry. In most cases, this was a return to the private sector of firms which had been taken into state ownership by the democratic government of the Weimar Republic as a result of the Great Depression. The firms returned to private ownership by the Nazi government \"belonged to a wide range of sectors: steel, mining, banking, local public utilities, shipyards, ship-lines, railways, etc.\" and in addition some public services began to be provided by semi-private entities that were connected to the Nazi Party rather than the German state. There were two primary reasons for the Nazi privatization policy. First, especially in the early years of the Nazi regime, it was used as a way to build good relations between the government and business interests. Second, the Nazi government greatly increased public expenditure, especially on military re-armament and infrastructure projects. Existing sources of revenue were not sufficient to cover the new expenses, so the government was forced to sell assets in order to gain funds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16354915",
"title": "Economy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Pre-war economy: 1933–1939.:Privatization and business ties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "The Nazis granted millions of marks in credits to private businesses. Many businessmen had friendly relations to the Nazis, most notably with Heinrich Himmler and his Freundeskreis der Wirtschaft Hitler’s administration decreed an October 1937 policy that “dissolved all corporations with a capital under $40,000 and forbade the establishment of new ones with a capital less than $200,000,” which swiftly effected the collapse of one fifth of all small corporations. On July 15, 1933 a law was enacted that imposed compulsory membership in cartels, while by 1934 the Third Reich had mandated a reorganization of all companies and trade associations and formed an alliance with the Nazi regime. Nonetheless, the Nazi regime was able to close most of Germany’s stock exchanges, reducing them “from twenty-one to nine in 1935,” and “limited the distributed of dividends to 6 percent.” By 1936 Germany decreed laws to completely block foreign stock trades by citizens. These moves showed signs of Antisemitism and a move towards a war economy, with the belief that the stock market was being operated by Jews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3283062",
"title": "Economics of fascism",
"section": "Section::::Political economy of Nazi Germany.:Pre-war economy: 1933–1939.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Big business developed an increasingly close partnership with the Nazi government as it became increasingly organized. Business leaders supported the government's political and military goals and in exchange the government pursued economic policies that maximized the profits of its business allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31045316",
"title": "Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Position within the political spectrum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "German business leaders disliked Nazi ideology but came to support Hitler, because they saw the Nazis as a useful ally to promote their interests. Business groups made significant financial contributions to the Nazi Party both before and after the Nazi seizure of power, in the hope that a Nazi dictatorship would eliminate the organized labour movement and the left-wing parties. Hitler actively sought to gain the support of business leaders by arguing that private enterprise is incompatible with democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151417",
"title": "IG Farben",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "The company had ties in the 1920s to the liberal German People's Party and was accused by the Nazis of being an \"international capitalist Jewish company\". A decade later it was a Nazi Party donor and, after the Nazi takeover of Germany in 1933, a major government contractor, providing significant material for the German war effort. Throughout that decade it purged itself of its Jewish employees; the remainder left in 1938. Described as \"the most notorious German industrial concern during the Third Reich\", IG Farben relied in the 1940s on slave labour from concentration camps, including 30,000 from Auschwitz. One of its subsidiaries supplied the poison gas, Zyklon B, that killed over one million people in gas chambers during the Holocaust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32216597",
"title": "Work Order Act",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "After the trade unions had been prohibited after May Day 1933, the Nazi controlled government was under pressure to ease working conditions and improve industrial relations. This was first attempted by establishing the position of a Trustee of Labour, who was tasked with fixing minimum wages and overcoming class tensions in businesses and companies. With the Labour organization law owners and managers became “factory leaders” and responsible not only for the successful operation of the businesses and companies but also for the well-being of their “followers” (i.e. employees), thus replicating the concept of national community within individual business entities. The law also mandated the formation of Councils of Trust in businesses and companies with more than 20 employees, which were headed by the “factory leader” while the other members were elected from a list set up by the “factory leader” and the German Labour Front overseer (\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16354915",
"title": "Economy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The Nazi government developed a partnership with leading German business interests, who supported the goals of the regime and its war effort in exchange for advantageous contracts and subsidies as well as the suppression of the trade union movement because the National Socialist German Worker's Party saw trade unions as exercising more power over the workers than it could. Cartels and monopolies were encouraged at the expense of small businesses, even though the Nazis had received considerable electoral support from small business owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dvoz1
|
Why do American lawyers have such a bad reputation? When did disrespect toward lawyers start?
|
[
{
"answer": "A major issue is defense laywers. People don't understand that there is a difference between due process and guilty v innocent. A defense lawyer, regardless of whether or not the jury finds him guilty has to make sure his client has their rights observed. While this can be explained by say, a public defender (I just take the cases the state gives me) it doesn't work so well for private defense lawyers who (supposedly) know their client is guilty and still defends them. People like this are seen as \"without shame.\" \n\nFurthermore, it seems to me at first glace that a lawyers job is largely the same job of any academic: create a theory, support it with evidence, and then present your work to a panel of peers in hopes that it is approved. The problem is that a lot of people don't see Law like this, they see it as justice, and if you turn out to be a prosecutor who's plaintiff loses, or a defense lawyer who's client is found guilty BOOM you are an evil jerk trying to get away with (or wrongly label someone with) murder. \n\nThe reality is that few lawyers are courtroom lawyers, and few courtroom lawyers regular deal with \"big\" cases like murder, rape, major theft, etc. Most crimes that end up in courtrooms are pretty minor, and the importance of due process, rather than whether he was guilty or not, is what is going to take up people's time. \n\nIts the same with any sort of general case of technical skills and education are required to get a job and keep it. Those without the technical skills and education don't appreciate what you are doing, and perhaps even miss a lot of the skill. Most people don't stop and think that most Congressmen are lawyers, that all judges are lawyers, that people with their JD teach at law schools, at undergraduate schools, people who work in the Town Hall are lawyers, etc, etc. They just assume all lawyers are blood sucking defense lawyers who protect corrupt corporations, because stereotypes are fun and easy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Disrespect and low opinion of lawyers goes back to at least the colonial era for Americans, and I wouldn't be surprised if the origins go back to pre-colonial England.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To understand it, you have to split the American legal system up.\n\nIf you're a business person that hates lawyers, it may well be because of the worsening problem of patent trolls, and the fact that even in cases that are specifically rigged overwhelming in an employer's favor, legal cases can be hugely expensive. A business that does absolutely nothing wrong may still find itself eating tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars defending against frivolous lawsuits, brought by people who surely can never reimburse you if they lose. It can be because someone sues you over a patent for [1-click shopping](_URL_2_) or [shopping carts](_URL_3_), or an employee decides to accuse you of racial discrimination because you fired them for being an idiot.\n\nIf you're a victim of a crime and hate lawyers, it's probably because some crimes are notoriously hard to prosecute (rape and burglary) and easy to defend. Worse, rape victims get the double whammy of invariably being slandered at trial as a legal defense. If it's a corporation that's wronged you, they probably won't see any jail time, and the courts have become markedly more pro-business in the last 30 years.\n\nThen there are stories where lawyers managed to claim up to [$233 million per lawyer](_URL_1_) from the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement between the states and the Tobacco industry. \n\nOn the flip side, corporate lawyers happily defame tort lawyers (such as the [Hot Coffee case](_URL_0_), which was arguably misrepresented) and vice versa.\n\nIn my experience, lawyers as a whole tend to be disrespected, but they are generally respected more on an individual level. But there is a growing feeling in America that the legal system doesn't work, and lawyers seem to bear the brunt of the blame",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work on the history of 19th century humour and I've encountered plenty of lawyer jokes in this period. Interestingly, American lawyers (and especially those from Chicago) were highlighted as being particularly unscrupulous shysters. This joke was originally published in an American newspaper, before being clipped out and re-printed by a British editor:\n\n > CHICAGO WOMAN: How much do you charge for a divorce?\n\n > CHICAGO LAWYER: One hundred dollars ma'am, or six for five hundred.\n\nThe joke is also made at the expense of women from Chicago, who were stereotyped in the New York press (and in London) as marrying and divorcing men at the drop of a hat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "2863180",
"title": "Pre-Code Hollywood",
"section": "Section::::Social problem films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Americans' mistrust and dislike of lawyers was a frequent topic of dissection in social problem films such \"Lawyer Man\" (1933), \"State's Attorney\", and \"The Mouthpiece\" (1932). In films such as \"Paid\" (1930), the legal system turns innocent characters into criminals. The life of Joan Crawford's character is ruined and her romantic interest is executed so that she may live free, although she is innocent of the crime for which the district attorney wants to convict her. Religious hypocrisy was addressed in such films as \"The Miracle Woman\" (1931), starring Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Frank Capra. Stanwyck also portrayed a nurse and initially reluctant heroine who manages to save, via unorthodox means, two young children in danger from nefarious characters (including Clark Gable as a malevolent chauffeur) in \"Night Nurse\" (1931).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17541",
"title": "Lawyer",
"section": "Section::::Prejudices against lawyers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the Watergate scandal. In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers. Lawyer jokes (already a perennial favorite) also soared in popularity in English-speaking North America as a result of Watergate. In 1989, American legal self-help publisher Nolo Press published a 171-page compilation of negative anecdotes about lawyers from throughout human history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34317667",
"title": "The Official Lawyer’s Handbook",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the Watergate scandal. In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers. Lawyer jokes (already a perennial favorite) also soared in popularity in English-speaking North America as a result of Watergate. In 1989, American legal self-help publisher Nolo Press published a 171-page compilation of negative anecdotes about lawyers from throughout human history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25184515",
"title": "Legal advertising in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Bar associations and consumer advocates were concerned that the members of the public would not protect themselves against false or misleading lawyer advertisements. The bar also argued that legalizing advertising would cause more and more people to pursue a career in law. This was a result of a study that showed that between the years of 1951 and 1971 the number of lawyers increased by 326%. They also believed that an increase in advertising would promote a larger client base and would make it harder for lawyers to serve their clients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27715919",
"title": "Bitter Lawyer",
"section": "Section::::Notable Interviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Bitter Lawyer regularly interviews celebrities with a connection to the legal community, typically people were formerly lawyers but have since made a name for themselves in another profession. Past interviews have included:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "340401",
"title": "Public interest",
"section": "Section::::Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 656,
"text": "In a celebrated 1905 speech, Brandeis decried the legal profession, complaining that “able lawyers have to a large extent allowed themselves to become adjuncts of great corporations and have neglected their obligation to use their powers for the protection of the people.” In the late 1960s and 1970s, large numbers of American law school graduates began to seek “relevance” in their work — wishing to have an effect on the social issues that were so visibly and hotly debated within American society at that time. They defined themselves as public interest lawyers in order to distinguish themselves from the “corporate adjuncts” referred to by Brandeis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "43672972",
"title": "Levin Papantonio Law Firm",
"section": "Section::::Notable cases and activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "The law firm's most controversial act occurred in 1993 when it rewrote a Florida statute that allowed the state of Florida to sue the Tobacco Industry, and then orchestrated its passage through the state legislature. After the law was upheld by the United States Supreme Court, the Tobacco Industry settled with Florida for an unprecedented $13 billion. The secretive legal maneuvering, which some described as immoral, became part of the national debate on whether personal injury law was negatively impacting the American business environment, including a July 2000 article in \"Time\" magazine titled \"Are Lawyers Running America?\" that included a photo of Fred Levin wearing a red blazer and sunglasses and leaning on a vintage Rolls-Royce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f1ho5a
|
Did ancient civilizations have ancient civilizations?
|
[
{
"answer": "I hope this reply isn't too late for you u/urag_the_librarian. This is a fun question because, as is sensible enough...of course ancient peoples knew about *even more ancient* peoples. But how can we understand their level of knowledge? That is a much more difficult question. We are left with history (literacy and orality) and artifacts. And while this sub is dedicated to the literature side, I think it's equally as important to see the commonality of heirloom objects in the archeological record. \n\nSo as you're thinking, the Romans understood their \"cultural origins\" to be in the Aegean; whether they had come from the Trojans, or simply had adopted Greek “high culture.” Some other peoples around the world have also done this, this conceptualization of history is in its essence a form of \"translatio imperii.\" Literally, “the translation of empires,” the ideological tool that later peoples used to cement their political position through their supposed ancestry with an earlier golden age. The Aztecs believed their cultural origins were in the Toltec empire of a few hundred years prior, and controlled the narrative around the sacred usage of the even earlier site of Teotihuacan. See u/400-Rabbits answer [here](_URL_2_) for more details. \n\nAnd similarly, the Qin of ca. 100 BCE China believed their cultural origins to be in the earlier Shang and Xia dynasties. Sima Qian, *the* historian of this time, says the earliest Xia histories were about 2000 years prior to him and he is right; as these two \"dynasties\" roughly correspond to the Shang and Erlitou periods of the bronze age of the north Chinese plain, ca. 1000-2000 years before his writing. These periods were not necessarily “dynasties” but simply correspond to the “over-kingship” of a particular powerful city’s lineage in northern China central plain, first at the Erlitou site then Erligang, then at the Shang “capitals” Luoyang and eventually Anyang. The details Sima Qian gives about the rulers and chronology for both periods are probably entirely mythological, having been invented in the succeeding Zhou dynasty of the early iron age when this new state needed its own translatio imperii (i.e. the Mandate of Heaven). \n\n > ...Allan (1991) further suggests that the Shang may have had an ordinary myth of the Xia as a previous people who were their inverse, but not as a dynasty. This myth, according to Allan, was later transformed by the Zhou into the story of an historical dynasty which was conquered by the Shang. This new interpretation was made in the beginning of the Western Zhou dynasty [ca. 1000 BCE], in order to justify their conquest of Shang under the mandate of Heaven (Allan 1991: 57-73). These arguments are plausible given that no contemporary writing of the Xia has been found. At present, there is no way to prove the existence of the Xia as a dynasty, although there may have been a Xia people in oral tradition among the Shang and other contemporary peoples in the later second millennium BC.\n- [Li & Hong](_URL_3_)\n\nBut most peoples credit their ancient history to have been the establishment of their lineage/people by a great ancestor after the creation of the world...as you mention, the Maya, their stories are like this; or at least the Popul Vuh of the Quiche. \n\nI think we should give ancient peoples the benefit of the doubt. They were intelligent, and they knew (in some way) how to interpret ancient artifacts they found. I am in love with \"The Pessimistic Dialogue Between Master and Servant,” this bronze age Babylonian text has a master suggesting things, and then his supplicant servant supporting his decision even when he’s flip-flopping. It’s actually wonderful philosophy, but I’ll quote a segment which not only speaks to how they remembered their own history, but also how they remembered their deep unknown history. Translation by Robert Pfeiffer.\n\n > Master: I will do something helpful for my country.\n\n > Servant: Do it, my lord, do it. The man who does something helpful for his country, his helpful deed is placed in the bowl of Marduk. [The tablets listing men’s deeds were stored in Marduk’s bowl]\n\n > Master: No servant, I will not do something helpful for my country.\n\n > Servant: Don’t do it my lord, don’t do it. Climb the mounds of ancient ruins and walk about, look at the skulls of late and early [men]; who [among them] is an evildoer, who is a public benefactor?\n\nI find this a particularly beautiful statement of ancient wisdom, an honest reckoning with the realization that whether one is good or bad for one’s community is utterly obliterated by time. A process which, by their time, had already created “ancient ruins of early men.” We find a similar realization about death in Gilgamesh, when an enraged Inanna threatens to raise the dead (6.2), translation by David Ferry.\n\n > Give me the Bull of Heaven or I will go\n\n > to the Underworld and break its doors and let\n\n > the hungry dead come out to eat the living.\n\n > How many are the dead compared to the living!\n\nBrief references to situations like this give us a glance into how a bronze age person was conceiving their own past, even how they conceived of a deep and unknown past. Yet generally, as with the Mayans, Babylonians conceived of their history as a chain of events by culturally similar mythical kings who lived in the deep past soon after creation. And when Babylonians conducted archeological digs, and found ancient texts written in an archaic yet similar language; the evidence they had uncovered only confirmed this hypothesis. This is detailed in a wonderful paper by Irene J. Winter, [Babylonian Archaeologists of their Mesopotamian Past](_URL_0_). \n\nIn it, she gives an example of an iron age Neo-Babylonian period excavation at a bronze age Old Babylonian period temple. At this dig, the excavators found a fragmentary Old Babylonian tablet which had been placed there as a foundation deposit by a king some 1000-1500 years earlier. The tablet was restored, even going so far as to attempt to (incorrectly) write in Old Babylonian so as to restore the broken text. The foundation deposit was replaced, and the uncovered foundations were re-used for a new temple. In the eyes of the king who “restored” such ancient temples, he had simply replaced many planks in Theseus’ ship. Textual reconstructions of ancient languages were probably overseen by people such as Nabu-zer-lishir, who was in effect the “field director” of excavations under King Nabonidus. Historians today give him the title “scribe,” but specifically he was appointed to this position by the king because he was an expert in ancient languages. While their tradition of archeology and philology did not survive, and was re-invented by Europeans thousands of years later; it is heartwarming to know that we have a record of ancient people who were, as we are in this online forum, obsessed with understanding history. \n\nThis desire to physically recover the past, and using history to advise one’s choices during excavation is actually seen thousands of years earlier, by people at Catalhoyuk. As noted by Ian Hodder [here](_URL_1_).\n\n > ...in Building 1 retrieval pit F.17 was dug [in ancient times] to remove or retrieve a relief sculpture (only traces of which remained on the wall)...Given the large amount of erosion off the top of the mound that occurred in the millennia after the Neolithic occupation, we cannot know how deep these Neolithic 'archaeologists' had to dig, but it was at least 0.7m and probably substantially more. We do know that Building 1 had been filled and that any digging down implies a precise historical memory even if embedded within wider knowledge about where important sculptures were generally placed. Not all houses have major relief sculptures on the west walls of main rooms [where the retrieved sculpture was].",
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"answer": "One of the best and most well-known examples of this is Classical Egypt and their understanding of the Pyramids, which were well over a thousand years old by that point. As such, I will refer you to older AskHistorians posts that address that specific piece of the answer.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_1_)\n\n[_URL_3_](_URL_2_)\n\nI expect that Chinese history from the same time period would offer additional good examples, but that is not something I'm very familiar with. Fingers crossed that someone with that expertise follows up with this post, because I'm interested in that as well.",
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"answer": "A previous post about Xenophon and the assyrian cities in Anabasis by /u/Iphikrates\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "One of my older answers deals with this topic. Another user already (and very kindly) mentioned it, but I'll paste it up anyway, to allow anyone interested to ask follow-up questions:\n\nThe Greeks and Romans were aware that other civilizations were older than theirs. Egypt was a special source of fascination, as witnessed by evidence ranging from Herodotus' long description of Egyptian history and customs to Roman graffiti in the Valley of the Kings. Yet in the case of Egypt (and, as we shall see, more generally), they had a poor understanding of chronology. They tended to think that the Pyramids, for example, [were about 1500 years younger than they actually were](_URL_0_).\n\nWhen it came to ruins not associated with any living culture (which are, I think, more the focus of your question), it tended to be assumed that almost everything could be fit into a traditional mythological/historical schema that began around 1600 BCE (by our reckoning) and identified the Bronze Age with the age of heroes. When describing the ruins of the Mycenaean citadel at Tiryns, for example, Pausanias (who wrote in the second century CE) observes:\n\n\"The wall, which is the only part of the ruins still remaining, is a work of the Cyclopes made of unwrought stones, each stone being so big that a pair of mules could not move the smallest from its place to the slightest degree.\" (2.25.8)\n\nAnother Mycenaean wall, on the Athenian Acropolis, was associated with nebulous prehistoric Pelasgians (e.g. Hdt. 6.137). Chance discoveries of ancient burials, likewise, tended to be linked with the heroes of history/legend. The bones of a tall man found with bronze weapons on the island of Skyros, for example, were proclaimed to be the remains of Theseus. Later, an ancient burial exposed at Rome was decided to be the body of the legendary king Numa.\n\nThe Greeks and Romans, in other words, tended to assume that they knew what civilization/era ruins belonged to, even if they actually had no idea. Plutarch, for example, recounts what happened when the Spartan king Agesilaus decided to open a tomb traditionally thought to belong to Alcmene, the mother of Hercules:\n\n\"In the tomb itself no remains were found, but only a stone, together with a bronze bracelet of no great size and two pottery urns containing earth which had by then, through the passage of time, become a petrified and solid mass. Before the tomb, however, lay a bronze tablet with a long inscription of such amazing antiquity that nothing could be made of it, although it came out clear when the bronze was washed; but the characters had a peculiar and foreign conformation, greatly resembling that of Egyptian writing...\" (Mor. 577F-78A)\n\nAssuming that Plutarch's source is reputable, Alcmene's tomb probably belonged to a Mycenaean worthy, and the writing on the mysterious table was Linear A or Linear B. Agesilaus & friends, however, didn't know that - and so, since the writing looked more or less Egyptian, a Spartan was sent to Egypt with the tablet. There, a learned priest (who of course knew no more about Linear B than the Greeks) pretended to translate it.\n\nWhen in came to ruins in the classical world, in short, ignorance was no barrier to confident interpretation.\n\n\\[I'm on the road at the moment, but I'll address any follow-up questions later today.\\]",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1757,
"text": "Sumerians were the first people to develop complex systems as to be called \"Civilization\", starting as far back as the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onwards, the Iranian Medes followed by Achaemenid Persia and other subsequent Iranian states empires dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd up to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and Sassanid Persia. From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, mainly Turkic, swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople and made themselves sultans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19323",
"title": "Middle East",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "The world's earliest civilizations, Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia) and ancient Egypt, originated in the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley regions of the ancient Near East. These were followed by the Hittite, Greek and Urartian civilisations of Asia Minor, Elam in pre-Iranian Persia, as well as the civilizations of the Levant (such as Ebla, Ugarit, Canaan, Aramea, Phoenicia and Israel), Persian and Median civilizations in Iran, North Africa (Carthage/Phoenicia) and the Arabian Peninsula (Magan, Sheba, Ubar). The Near East was first largely unified under the Neo Assyrian Empire, then the Achaemenid Empire followed later by the Macedonian Empire and after this to some degree by the Iranian empires (namely the Parthian and Sassanid Empires), the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. However, it would be the later Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages, or Islamic Golden Age which began with the Arab conquest of the region in the 7th century AD, that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant Islamic ethnic identity that largely (but not exclusively) persists today. The Mongols, the Kingdom of Armenia, the Seljuks, the Safavids, the Ottoman Empire, and the British Empire also dominated the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59060917",
"title": "Ancient aesthetics",
"section": "Section::::Ancient civilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Civilizations that fall under classification of ancient are: Ancient Greece (800 B.C. and 500 B.C.), the Incas (1438 A.D – 1532 A.D.), the Aztecs (1345 A.D – 1521 A.D), the Romans (550 B.C. – 465 B.C.), the Persians (550 B.C. – 465 B.C.), Chinese civilization (1600 B.C.E. – 1046 B.C.E.), Mayan civilization (2600 B.C. – 900 A.D.), Ancient Egypt (3100 B.C.E. – 2686 B.C.E.), Indus Valley civilization (3300 B.C. – 1900 B.C.) and Mesopotamia (3500 B.C. – 500 B.C.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18994022",
"title": "Prehistory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Sumer in Mesopotamia, the Indus valley civilization, and ancient Egypt were the first civilizations to develop their own scripts and to keep historical records; this took place already during the early Bronze Age. Neighboring civilizations were the first to follow. Most other civilizations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The three-age system of division of prehistory into the Stone Age, followed by the Bronze Age and Iron Age, remains in use for much of Eurasia and North Africa, but is not generally used in those parts of the world where the working of hard metals arrived abruptly with contact with Eurasian cultures, such as the Americas, Oceania, Australasia and much of Sub-Saharan Africa. These areas also, with some exceptions in Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas, did not develop complex writing systems before the arrival of Eurasians, and their prehistory reaches into relatively recent periods; for example 1788 is usually taken as the end of the prehistory of Australia. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Near East.:Cradle of civilization, Sumer and Akkad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The earliest civilizations in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the Sumerians, in Mesopotamia (Iraq), widely regarded as the cradle of civilization. The Sumerians and the Akkadians (later known as Babylonians and Assyrians) all flourished in this region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "21566765",
"title": "South Asia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The earliest prehistoric culture have roots in the mesolithic sites as evidenced by the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as neolithic times. According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for South Asian religions, but these links from the Indus religion to later-day South Asian traditions are subject to scholarly dispute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3747962",
"title": "List of Stargate SG-1 characters",
"section": "Section::::Recurring alien characters.:Ancients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "The Ancients are the original builders of the Stargate network, who by the time of \"Stargate SG-1\" have Ascended beyond corporeal form into a higher plane of existence. The humans of Earth are the \"second evolution\" of the Ancients. The Ancients (originally known as the Alterans) colonized the Milky Way galaxy millions of years ago and built a great empire. They also colonized the Pegasus galaxy and seeded human life there, before being driven out by the Wraith. The civilization of the Ancients in the Milky Way was decimated thousands of years ago by a plague, and those who did not learn to Ascend died out. With few exceptions, the Ascended Ancients respect free will and refuse to interfere in the affairs of the material galaxy. However, their legacy is felt profoundly throughout \"Stargate\" universe, from their technologies such as Stargates and Atlantis, to the Ancient Technology Activation gene, that they introduced into the human genome through interbreeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
4wrlje
|
if you wore an oxygen mask that simulates the elevation of 5,000 feet, would it make breathing at 6,000 feet easier, the same, or harder?
|
[
{
"answer": "I assume by \"oxygen man simulating 5,000 feet\" you are actually talking about a tanker full of normal air that has been pressurized to match that elevation, and not a tanker full of just oxygen. It would be easier. That is what any pressurized container meant for human life is trying to do. Airplanes are pressurized so they simulate ground-level pressure vs. the atmosphere at 20,000 feet up. Submarines are pressured so they simulate ground-level pressure vs. the ocean at 5,000 feet down.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1297796",
"title": "Oxygen mask",
"section": "Section::::Masks for high-altitude climbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Oxygen masks are used by climbers of high peaks such as Mt. Everest. Because of the severe cold and harsh conditions oxygen masks for use at extreme altitude must be robust and effective. The oxygen storage tanks used with the masks (called oxygen bottles) are made of lightweight, high-strength metals and are covered in high-strength fiber such as kevlar. These special oxygen bottles are filled with oxygen at a very high pressure which provides a longer time duration of oxygen for breathing than standard pressure oxygen bottles. These systems are generally only used above .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "51235563",
"title": "Training masks",
"section": "Section::::Training masks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Originally designed to simulate training at altitude, the concept failed to deliver in multiple research trials. Training in hypoxic (low oxygen) environments increases red blood cell mass and improves oxygen transport, giving athletes a measurable performance boost when competing at sea level. The use of training masks, however, has no measurable effect on haemoglobin, hematocrit levels and oxygen transport in athletes, as they do not alter the oxygen concentration of the air taken in. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1297796",
"title": "Oxygen mask",
"section": "Section::::Hoses and tubing and oxygen regulators.:Regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "In a \"pressure-demand system\", oxygen in the mask is above ambient pressure, permitting breathing above . Because the pressure inside the mask is greater than the pressure around the user’s torso, inhalation is easy, but exhalation requires more effort. Aviators are trained in pressure-demand breathing in altitude chambers. Because they seal tightly, pressure-demand-type oxygen masks are also used in hyperbaric oxygen chambers and for oxygen breathing research projects with standard oxygen regulators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "44495823",
"title": "Shital Mahajan",
"section": "Section::::Skydiving career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "30,000ft height and above HALO jumps requires a little more planning. The extreme altitude and reduced air pressure require skydivers to start pre-breathing with the oxygen mask on the ground for an hour prior to takeoff. Due to the special oxygen equipment jump becomes little more challenging. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2686391",
"title": "Hypobaric chamber",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "One or more subjects (usually, pilots or crew members, though anyone interested in the effects of high altitude can usually arrange a visit) are placed in the chamber. Before \"ascending\" to the desired altitude, subjects breathe oxygen from oxygen masks to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream so decompression sickness (DCS) does not occur. With masks in place, the atmospheric pressure inside the chamber is then reduced to simulate altitudes of up to tens of thousands of feet. The subjects then remove their oxygen masks and experience the symptoms of hypoxia. An inside safety observer, breathing oxygen by mask, should always be present to place a subject's mask back on in the event a subject passes out unconscious. Outside observers monitor the subjects' condition via closed circuit television and viewing ports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1269618",
"title": "Altitude training",
"section": "Section::::Training regimens.:Artificial altitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "In Finland, a scientist named Heikki Rusko has designed a \"high-altitude house.\" The air inside the house, which is situated at sea level, is at normal pressure but modified to have a low concentration of oxygen, about 15.3% (below the 20.9% at sea level), which is roughly equivalent to the amount of oxygen available at the high altitudes often used for altitude training due to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen at altitude. Athletes live and sleep inside the house, but perform their training outside (at normal oxygen concentrations at 20.9%). Rusko's results show improvements of EPO and red-cell levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1269618",
"title": "Altitude training",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Altitude training can be simulated through use of an altitude simulation tent, altitude simulation room, or mask-based hypoxicator system where the barometric pressure is kept the same, but the oxygen content is reduced which also reduces the partial pressure of oxygen. Hypoventilation training, which consists of reducing the breathing frequency while exercising, can also mimic altitude training by significantly decreasing blood and muscle oxygenation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
oyl8p
|
the movie "primer."
|
[
{
"answer": "Not possible at all. I don't think it's possible to explain to a thirty year old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In short: multiple time lines running parallel to each other. In long: See this image _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134373",
"title": "Primer (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "\"Primer\" is of note for its extremely low budget, experimental plot structure, philosophical implications, and complex technical dialogue, which Carruth, a college graduate with a degree in mathematics and a former engineer, chose not to simplify for the sake of the audience. The film collected the Grand Jury Prize at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival, before securing a limited release in the United States, and has since gained a cult following.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3425901",
"title": "Low-budget film",
"section": "Section::::Micro budget.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "\"Primer\" is a 2004 American science fiction film about the accidental invention of time travel. The film was written, directed and produced by Shane Carruth, a former mathematician and engineer, and was completed on a budget of only $7,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134373",
"title": "Primer (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "\"Primer\" received positive reception from critics. Review aggregator Metacritic rated it a 68 while Rotten Tomatoes rated it a \"Fresh\" 73%, stating \"Dense, obtuse, but stimulating, \"Primer\" is a film ready for viewers ready for a cerebral challenge\", and the site listed it as one of the best science fiction films \"for the thinking man (... or woman)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134373",
"title": "Primer (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Primer is a 2004 American science fiction film about the accidental discovery of time travel. The film was written, directed, produced, edited and scored by Shane Carruth, who also stars with David Sullivan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134373",
"title": "Primer (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The film has been selected to be part of \"The A.V. Club\" New Cult Canon. Donald Clarke, film critic with \"The Irish Times\", included \"Primer\" at No. 20 on his list of the top twenty films of the decade (2000–2010). Science fiction author Greg Egan described it as \"an ingenious, tautly constructed time-travel story\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134373",
"title": "Primer (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "\"\"Primer\" is hopelessly confusing and grows more and more byzantine as it unravels,\" Chuck Klosterman writes in an essay on time travel films five years later. \"I've watched it seven or eight times and I still don't know what happened.\" He nonetheless says it is \"the finest movie about time travel I've ever seen\" because of its realism:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24959828",
"title": "Henio Zytomirski",
"section": "Section::::The Primer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "It is \"The Primer\" that teaches children how to organize and describe the world. It contains the simplest social categories that form the basis for relations between a human being and the world that surrounds him. A unique characteristic of \"The Primer\" lies in presenting a world without cruelty and evil. The children were \"dragged out\" from this simple and naive world of \"The Primer\" and forcibly thrown into the \"Camp World\". This world requires a completely different \"Primer\" – the Death camp Primer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2q5znk
|
Why can't the core of a star be "more" than iron?
|
[
{
"answer": "A star is held up by the equilibrium between the inward force of gravity and the outward pressure of fusion energy. However, fusing iron or any heavier elements than iron doesn't produce a net output of energy, but rather extracts energy from the environment. So when that sort of reaction occurs in stars, it cannot sustain the equilibrium, and the star quickly collapses and undergoes a supernova, leaving behind a neutron star or black hole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Elements heavier than iron *can* be produced by absorbing neutrons with a sufficient amount of energy.\n\nCertain nuclear reactions in a star produce high-energy neutrons. In small stars, the most common of these are:\n(1) H-2 + H-2 ---- > He-3 + n\n(2) H-2 + H-3 ---- > He-4 + n\n\nThese tend to be relatively rare compared to [other reactions involving hydrogen or helium.](_URL_1_)) In small stars, hydrogen-1 and helium-4 make up the overwhelming majority of the material in the star's core. \n\nIn stars appreciably larger than the sun, the main source of neutrons is one branch of the [C-N-O cycle.](_URL_0_) Note: The CNO cycle tends to account for most of the energy production in larger stars. \n\nThat is:\n(3) C-13 + He-4 ---- > O-16 + n\n\nIt starts out with iron absorbing several neutrons, then beta decaying into nickel, and so on.\n\nThis is known as the \"S-process\". typically, there is a time frame of several decades between each successive capture. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6813",
"title": "Chandrasekhar limit",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "943817",
"title": "Convective overturn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "When the iron core of a super massive star becomes heavier than electron degeneracy pressure can support, the core of the star collapses, and the iron core is compressed by gravity until nuclear densities are reached when a strong rebound sends a shock wave throughout the rest of the star and tears it apart in a large supernova explosion. The remains of this core will eventually become a neutron star. The collapse produces two reactions: one breaks apart iron nuclei into 13 helium atoms and 4 neutrons, absorbing energy; and the second produces a wave of neutrinos that form a shock wave. While all models agree that there is a convective shock, there is disagreement as to how important that shock is to the supernova explosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55836547",
"title": "WASP-47",
"section": "Section::::Stellar characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The star is very metal-rich, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of about +0.36, or about twice the amount of iron and other elements heavier than Hydrogen and Helium than the Sun. This would explain how two massive gas giants, as well as a Mega-Earth, were able to form around the same star. WASP-47 is estimated to have a luminosity of 1.16 .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemical composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327-2326, with only 1/200,000th the iron content of the Sun. By contrast, the super-metal-rich star μ Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun, while the planet-bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron. There also exist chemically peculiar stars that show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum; especially chromium and rare earth elements. Stars with cooler outer atmospheres, including the Sun, can form various diatomic and polyatomic molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44401",
"title": "Brown dwarf",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:The lithium test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Heavier stars, like the Sun, can also retain lithium in their outer layers, which never get hot enough to fuse lithium, and whose convective layer does not mix with the core where the lithium would be rapidly depleted. Those larger stars are easily distinguishable from brown dwarfs by their size and luminosity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11009033",
"title": "Type II supernova",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "A much larger star, however, is massive enough to create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse when the star contracts at the end of the helium-burning stage. The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center, with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas, surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium, surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple-alpha process, surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements. As a star this massive evolves, it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops, and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion, reigniting to halt collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26903",
"title": "Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Sun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The Sun is a population I star; it has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (\"metals\" in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars. Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the Universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's development of a planetary system because the planets form from the accretion of \"metals\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60wmpy
|
How did the Soviet Union attempt to domestically and internationally justify plainly different standards of living between party leaders and ordinary citizens?
|
[
{
"answer": "Followup and/or related question: how aware would the average soviet worker have *been* of the standard of living differences? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "87382",
"title": "Human rights in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Right to vote.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "According to communist ideologists, the Soviet political system was a true democracy, where workers' councils (\"soviets\") represented the will of the working class. In particular, the Soviet Constitution of 1936 guaranteed direct universal suffrage with the secret ballot. Practice, however, departed from principle. For example, all candidates had been selected by Communist Party organizations before democratization and the March 1989 elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5957493",
"title": "History of East Germany",
"section": "Section::::Creation, 1945–1949.:Division of Germany.:Political developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Incidentally, the party system was designed to allow reentry of only those former NSDAP adherents who had earlier decided to join the National Front, which was originally formed by emigrants and prisoners of war in the Soviet Union during World War II. Political denazification in the Soviet zone was thus handled rather more transparently than in the Western zones, where the issue soon came second to considerations of practicality or even just privacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1919221",
"title": "Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, other political parties as well as labor, youth and other public organisations and mass movements, through their representatives elected to the Councils of People's Deputies and in other forms participate in the policy-making of the Soviet state, in the management of state and public affairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1354420",
"title": "Politics of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Role of the Communist Party.:Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Single party rule combined with democratic centralism, which in practice consisted of a hierarchal structure which with the aid of a secret police organization enforced decisions made by the ruling party as well on the personnel of all governmental institutions, including the courts, the press, cultural and economic organizations and labor unions. The Soviet Union is considered by many to have been a totalitarian state for much of its existence. Critics include Western authors such as Robert Conquest and Russian critics such as Alexander Yakovlev.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11113765",
"title": "Estonia–Russia relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Estonia and Soviet Union.:Political relations.:Comintern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "In 1920 the rules were laid down in Russia at the Comintern's Second Congress, Communist parties abroad were to be created either afresh or else by splitting Social Democratic parties; in any case, they were to be accountable to Moscow and not to their domestic constituencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9953692",
"title": "1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In 1920 the rules were laid down in the Soviet Union at the Comintern's Second Congress, Communist parties abroad were to be created either afresh or else by splitting Social Democratic parties; in any case, they were to be accountable to Moscow and not to their domestic constituencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13456",
"title": "Head of state",
"section": "Section::::Constitutional models.:Single-party states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1142,
"text": "In certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as \"Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR\"; \"Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet\"; and in the case of the Soviet Russia \"Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets\" (pre-1922), and \"Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR\" (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3523up
|
Why do deep sounds seem to travel further?
|
[
{
"answer": "Low frequency waves are long. Quite long. Some take as much as 20-30 ft to fully develop. They go right through most walls, whereas high frequencies (very short wavelengths) get stuck in a pillow. It's the same reason why it takes so much more power to drive bass speakers than treble & midrange. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10567426",
"title": "Underwater acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Propagation of sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "At equator and temperate latitudes in the ocean, the surface temperature is high enough to reverse the pressure effect, such that a sound speed minimum occurs at depth of a few hundred metres. The presence of this minimum creates a special channel known as Deep Sound Channel, previously known as the SOFAR (sound fixing and ranging) channel, permitting guided propagation of underwater sound for thousands of kilometres without interaction with the sea surface or the seabed. Another phenomenon in the deep sea is the formation of sound focusing areas, known as Convergence Zones. In this case sound is refracted downward from a near-surface source and then back up again. The horizontal distance from the source at which this occurs depends on the positive and negative sound speed gradients. A surface duct can also occur in both deep and moderately shallow water when there is upward refraction, for example due to cold surface temperatures. Propagation is by repeated sound bounces off the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58991",
"title": "Fog",
"section": "Section::::Sound propagation and acoustic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Sound typically travels fastest and farthest through solids, then liquids, then gases such as the atmosphere. Sound is affected during fog conditions due to the small distances between water droplets, and air temperature differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34423259",
"title": "Liquid sound",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "For Liquid Sound, for instance, a special stereo set is necessary because one hears differently underwater than in the air: it is impossible to hear from where the tones are coming. The reason is that sound waves go through water about five times as fast as through the air. Due to its higher speed, the sound seems to be coming from everywhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385319",
"title": "Sound (geography)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Sometimes a sound is produced by a glacier carving out a valley on a coast then receding, or the sea invading a glacier valley. The glacier produces a sound that often has steep, near vertical sides that extend deep under water. The sea floor is often flat and deeper at the landward end than the seaward end, due to glacial moraine deposits. This type of sound is more properly termed a \"fjord\" (or \"fiord\"). The sounds in Fiordland, New Zealand, have been formed this way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10567426",
"title": "Underwater acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Applications of underwater acoustics.:Seismic exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Seismic exploration involves the use of low frequency sound (< 100 Hz) to probe deep into the seabed. Despite the relatively poor resolution due to their long wavelength, low frequency sounds are preferred because high frequencies are heavily attenuated when they travel through the seabed. Sound sources used include airguns, vibroseis and explosives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385319",
"title": "Sound (geography)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "A sound is often formed by the seas flooding a river valley. This produces a long inlet where the sloping valley hillsides descend to sea-level and continue beneath the water to form a sloping sea floor. The Marlborough Sounds in New Zealand are a good example of this type of formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305265",
"title": "Underwater environment",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Acoustic properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Sound is transmitted about 4.3 times faster in water (1,484 m/s in fresh water) than in air (343 m/s). The human brain can determine the direction of sound in air by detecting small differences in the time it takes for sound waves in air to reach each of the two ears. For these reasons divers find it difficult to determine the direction of sound underwater. However, some animals have adapted to this difference and many use sound to navigate underwater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ylgjq
|
Why did all of the reptilian megafauna of the seas disappear?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was severe enough that highly specialized animals died out. Mammals survived because they were scavengers and could survive on a very broad died. Of course, other factors come into play. Large size always seems to be selected against during extinction events. Also, it is important to know that whales evolved [after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A big chunk of their diversity was lost in the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction. A lot of marine reptiles like [mosasaurs](_URL_5_) and [plesiosaurs](_URL_8_) went extinct. The mosasaurs are interesting because they show up in the Early Cretaceous, exibit a big explosion in diversity, and then go extinct at the K-Pg boundary. \n\nHowever, the [ichthyosaurs](_URL_1_) and [pliosaurs](_URL_2_) (a type of plesiosaur), which get lumped in with other marine reptiles, are extinct before the K-Pg. \n\nSome marine reptiles make it through. Sea turtles first appeared at least as far back as the Cretaceous and are still around. [*Toxochelys*](_URL_4_) is an example of a Cretaceous sea turtle. [*Protosphargis*](_URL_3_) is even a genus belonging to the same family as the leatherback. \n\nSome crocodyliforms (crocodylians and their extinct relatives) survived, and a lot of them were pretty big. Crown-group crocs (Crocodylia) survived, but also groups like the [Dyrosauridae](_URL_0_), many of which were marine. [Choristoderes](_URL_7_) make it through and go extinct in the Miocene (~20 million years ago). We're not sure how choristoderes are related to other reptiles.\n\nWhales evolved after the K-Pg extinction. I wrote up a brief overview [here](_URL_6_).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "387369",
"title": "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Life.:Ocean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1180,
"text": "The deep-sea extinctions are difficult to explain, because many species of benthic foraminifera in the deep-sea are cosmopolitan, and can find refugia against local extinction. General hypotheses such as a temperature-related reduction in oxygen availability, or increased corrosion due to carbonate undersaturated deep waters, are insufficient as explanations. Acidification may also have played a role in the extinction of the calcifying foraminifera, and the higher temperatures would have increased metabolic rates, thus demanding a higher food supply. Such a higher food supply might not have materialized because warming and increased ocean stratification might have led to declining productivity and/or increased remineralization of organic matter in the water column, before it reached the benthic foraminifera on the sea floor (). The only factor global in extent was an increase in temperature. Regional extinctions in the North Atlantic can be attributed to increased deep-sea anoxia, which could be due to the slowdown of overturning ocean currents, or the release and rapid oxidation of large amounts of methane. Oxygen minimum zones in the oceans may have expanded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48803",
"title": "Gamma-ray burst",
"section": "Section::::Rate of occurrence and potential effects on life.:Effects on Earth.:Hypothetical effects on Earth in the past.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "The major Ordovician–Silurian extinction events 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB. The late Ordovician species of trilobites that spent portions of their lives in the plankton layer near the ocean surface were much harder hit than deep-water dwellers, which tended to remain within quite restricted areas. This is in contrast to the usual pattern of extinction events, wherein species with more widely spread populations typically fare better. A possible explanation is that trilobites remaining in deep water would be more shielded from the increased UV radiation associated with a GRB. Also supportive of this hypothesis is the fact that during the late Ordovician, burrowing bivalve species were less likely to go extinct than bivalves that lived on the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314510",
"title": "Dire wolf",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "During the American megafaunal extinction event around 12,700YBP, 90genera of mammals weighing over became extinct. The extinction of the large carnivores and scavengers is thought to have been caused by the extinction of the megaherbivore prey upon which they depended. The cause of the extinction of the megafauna is debated but has been attributed to the impact of climate change, competition with other species including overexploitation by newly arrived human hunters, or a combination of both. One study proposes that several extinction models should be investigated because so little is known about the biogeography of the dire wolf and its potential competitors and prey, nor how all these species interacted and responded to the environmental changes that occurred at the time of extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41110239",
"title": "Sea star wasting disease",
"section": "Section::::1978 plague.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In 1978 large numbers of the predatory starfish \"Heliaster kubiniji\" succumbed to a wasting disease in the Gulf of California. At the time it was suspected that high water temperatures were a causal factor. This starfish became locally extinct in some parts of the gulf and some populations had still not recovered by the year 2000. Because this starfish is a top-level predator, its disappearance had profound effects on the ecosystem. In the Channel Islands off the coast of California, ten species of sea star were recorded as being affected as well as three species of sea urchins, two brittle stars and a sea cucumber, all of which experienced large population declines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319558",
"title": "Ocean liner",
"section": "Section::::Other.:Maritime disasters and incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Among the other famous sinkings are that of RMS \"Lusitania\" in 1915, which resulted in the loss of 1,198 lives and provoked an international outcry, and that of , which caught fire and sank in the Gulf of Aden in 1932, killing 54 people. In 1956, the sinking of , with the loss of 46 lives, after a collision with MS \"Stockholm\" made the headline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127008",
"title": "Lottia alveus",
"section": "Section::::Cause of extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "The extinction of \"Lottia alveus\" does not seem to have been caused directly by human interference. This small limpet disappeared from the fauna because of a sudden catastrophic collapse of the populations of the eelgrass plant, \"Zostera marina\", which was its sole habitat and food source. In the early 1930s, the seagrass beds all along that part of the coastline were decimated by \"wasting disease\", which was caused by a slime mold of the genus \"Labyrinthula\". Some colonies of \"Zostera marina\" lived in brackish water, and these areas served as refugia for the eelgrass since the wasting disease did not spread to brackish water. The eelgrass was thus able to survive the catastrophic impact of the disease. The limpet however was unable to tolerate anything but normal salinity seawater, and therefore it did not live through the crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70144",
"title": "Cypriniformes",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Threats and extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Habitat destruction, damming of upland rivers, pollution, and in some cases overfishing for food or the pet trade have driven some Cypriniformes to the brink of extinction or even beyond. In particular, Cyprinidae of southwestern North America have been severely affected; a considerable number went entirely extinct after settlement by Europeans. For example, in 1900 the thicktail chub (\"Gila crassicauda\") was the most common freshwater fish found in California; 70 years later, not a single living individual existed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8x6blt
|
why when lying on my side, my brain prefers to watch parallel to the floor instead of parallel to my eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain knows that you are lying on your side. It expects things to look rotated for the eyes. If they are not something is wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain is a very complicated machine that does a lot of things you're not aware of, especially with regard to processing images. Your brain figures out what's up and down based on visual cues and a special little gravity sensor inside your ear.\n\nFun fact, in an \\[experiment\\]([_URL_0_](_URL_0_)), a guy was able to completely adjust to seeing the world upside-down, through the use of mirrored glasses. It took the guy about a week, but when they took the goggles off, the \"normal world\" was as confusing and disorienting as the \"upside-down\" world had initially been.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does it? I prefer to have it parallel to my eyes actually.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3407720",
"title": "Exotropia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The brain's ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can \"control\" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek \"exo\" meaning \"outward\" and \"trope\" meaning \"a turning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531432",
"title": "Autostereogram",
"section": "Section::::How they work.:Simple wallpaper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "When the brain is presented with a repeating pattern like wallpaper, it has difficulty matching the two eyes' views accurately. By looking at a horizontally repeating pattern, but converging the two eyes at a point behind the pattern, it is possible to trick the brain into matching one element of the pattern, as seen by the left eye, with another (similar looking) element, beside the first, as seen by the right eye. With the typical wall-eyed viewing, this gives the illusion of a plane bearing the same pattern but located behind the real wall. The distance at which this plane lies behind the wall depends only on the spacing between identical elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50335175",
"title": "Corticospinal tract",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Because some of the connections cross the midline, each side of the brain is responsible for controlling muscles for the limbs on opposite sides of the body, while controlling trunk muscles on the same side of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1969542",
"title": "Extraocular muscles",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Movement coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599917",
"title": "Mental image",
"section": "Section::::Physical basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "The visual pathway is not a one-way street. Higher areas of the brain can also send visual input back to neurons in lower areas of the visual cortex. [...] As humans, we have the ability to see with the mind's eye—to have a perceptual experience in the absence of visual input. For example, PET scans have shown that when subjects, seated in a room, imagine they are at their front door starting to walk either to the left or right, activation begins in the visual association cortex, the parietal cortex, and the prefrontal cortex—all higher cognitive processing centers of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1466175",
"title": "Insight",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Specific results.:In the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Differences in brain activation in the left and right hemisphere seem to be indicative of insight versus non-insight solutions. Using RAT’s that were either presented to the left or right visual field, it was shown that participants having solved the problem with insight were more likely to have been shown the RAT on the left visual field, indicating right hemisphere processing. This provides evidence that the right hemisphere plays a unique role in insight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bd4yk
|
How close could a person get to the sun, realistically?
|
[
{
"answer": "That depends on the vessel, do you mean like in the space shuttle? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know the closest you can get to the sun on earth is mount chimborazo its not the tallest mountain in the world but it is the tallest one on the equator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is highly dependent on the space ship in question and how efficiently it can cool itself radiatively. At any rate, the [Helios II spacecraft](_URL_0_) currently holds the record for closest Solar approach by a human made artifact, at .29 AU (a bit inside Mercury's orbit). It wasn't carrying people, but it remained intact through many orbits (these orbits were elliptical, so .29 AU was closest approach).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1345179",
"title": "List of people from Merseyside",
"section": "Section::::H.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "BULLET::::- Jeremiah Horrocks: Astronomer who calculated that the distance between Earth and the sun was 59,000,000 miles – though well short of the actual distance of 93,000,000 miles, his estimate was more accurate than any other calculations of his time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3497974",
"title": "On Sizes and Distances",
"section": "Section::::Modern reconstructions.:Book 2 reconstruction (Swerdlow).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Following Pappus and Ptolemy, Swerdlow suggested that Hipparchus had estimated 490 Earth radii as a minimum possible distance to the Sun. This distance corresponds to a solar parallax of 7', which may have been the maximum that he thought would have gone unnoticed (the typical resolution of the human eye is 2'). The formula obtained above for the distance to the Sun can be inverted to determine the distance to the Moon:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14596339",
"title": "Our Mr. Sun",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Dr. Research explains that the Sun is 93 million miles away and its light takes 8 minutes to reach the earth. Light from the next closest star, Alpha Centauri, takes more than 4 years to get to us at a speed greater than 186,000 miles per second. The sun weighs the same as 330,000 earths and is 95% hydrogen and helium gas and not solid. The Sun is compressed by gravity so tightly that the gas at the center is more than 100 times heavier than water with a pressure of one billion tons per square inch while the surface is about one pound per square inch. The center is 30 million degrees Fahrenheit while the surface is only 10,000 degrees, but the corona is 1 million degrees Fahrenheit though nobody knows why, so scientists study the corona during each solar eclipse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44927859",
"title": "HIP 85605",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "With the release of Gaia DR2, it was determined that HIP 85605 is actually a much more distant 1790 ± 30 light-years away, and as such will not be passing remotely close to the Sun at any point in time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28162",
"title": "List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs",
"section": "Section::::Distant future and past encounters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "One of the first stars known to approach the Sun particularly close is Gliese 710. The star, whose mass is roughly half that of the Sun, is currently 62 light-years from the Solar System. It was first noticed in 1999 using data from the Hipparcos satellite, and was estimated to pass less than from the Sun in 1.4 million years. With the release of Gaia's observations of the star, it has since been refined to a much closer , close enough to significantly disturb objects in the Oort cloud, which extends out to from the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "931880",
"title": "Delta-v budget",
"section": "Section::::Budget.:Interplanetary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "To get to the sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δ\"v\" of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go very far away from the sun, then use a negligible Δ\"v\" to bring the angular momentum to zero, and then fall into the sun. This can be considered a sequence of two Hohmann transfers, one up and one down. Also, the table does not give the values that would apply when using the moon for a gravity assist. There are also possibilities of using one planet, like Venus which is the easiest to get to, to assist getting to other planets or the sun. The \"Galileo\" spacecraft used Venus once and Earth twice in order to reach Jupiter. The Ulysses solar probe used Jupiter to attain polar orbit around the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155760",
"title": "Hohmann transfer orbit",
"section": "Section::::Application to interplanetary travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "To get to the Sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δ\"v\" of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go very far away from the Sun, then use a negligible Δ\"v\" to bring the angular momentum to zero, and then fall into the Sun. This can be considered a sequence of two Hohmann transfers, one up and one down. Also, the table does not give the values that would apply when using the Moon for a gravity assist. There are also possibilities of using one planet, like Venus which is the easiest to get to, to assist getting to other planets or the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z6xr5
|
how exactly do we move our limbs and why don't we mimic our movement in robots?
|
[
{
"answer": "In order to move a muscle, we need to send a signal to a primary motor neuron. This specialized neuron controls groups of muscle fibers in one particular muscle, causing them to contract. When you want to consciously move a muscle you directly send a signal to the appropriate motor neuron which causes the action. We do it this way because we have other signals we want to control muscles; like reflexes or autonomous control. \n \nThe reason we don't make robots like this is because we already have motors that spin around an axis, but we don't have ones that constrict like muscles. We could build motors that function that way, but theres not a lot of incentive because the current system works as it is. I'm not an engineer or robotics expert so I can't get any more specific with this part of the question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10549090",
"title": "Legged robot",
"section": "Section::::Gait and support pattern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Legged robots, or walking machines, are designed for locomotion on rough terrain and require control of leg actuators to maintain balance, sensors to determine foot placement and planning algorithms to determine the direction and speed of movement. The periodic contact of the legs of the robot with the ground is called the gait of the walker. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2132661",
"title": "Actroid",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Actroid can also imitate human-like behavior with slight shifts in position, head and eye movements and the appearance of breathing in its chest. Additionally, the robot can be \"taught\" to imitate human movements by facing a person who is wearing reflective dots at key points on their body. By tracking the dots with its visual system and computing limb and joint movements to match what it sees, this motion can then be \"learned\" by the robot and repeated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57769929",
"title": "Articulated soft robotics",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Robots able to co-exist and co-operate with people and reach or even surpass their performance require a technology of actuators, responsible for moving and controlling the robot, which can reach the functional performance of the biological muscle and its neuro-mechanical control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2746898",
"title": "Articulated robot",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "A point through which the robot's tool should pass without stopping; via points are programmed in order to move beyond obstacles or to bring the arm into a lower inertia posture for part of the motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72750",
"title": "Prosthesis",
"section": "Section::::Current technology and manufacturing.:Robotic prostheses.:Robotic legs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The research of Robotic legs has made some advancement over time, allowing exact movement and control. A company in Switzerland called Ossur, has created a robotic leg that moves through algorithms and sensors that automatically adjust the angle of the foot during different points in its wearer's stride. Also there are brain-controlled bionic legs that allow an individual to move his limbs with a wireless transmitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4347444",
"title": "Japanese robotics",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The characteristics of robots are however progressive, their abilities being enlarged as the technology has progressed. The same CB² acts more and more as human and it was capable of teaching itself how to walk with the aid of human help. The robot learned how to move around the room by using its 51 \"muscles,\" which are driven by air pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48180",
"title": "Humanoid robot",
"section": "Section::::Actuators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body, so they use actuators that perform like muscles and joints, though with a different structure. To achieve the same effect as human motion, humanoid robots use mainly rotary actuators. They can be either electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, piezoelectric or ultrasonic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
igblu
|
How do we determine when a common ancestor
lived?
|
[
{
"answer": "Using [molecular clock](_URL_4_) genetic dating methods, generally following [coalescent theory](_URL_5_). It basically works like this. If we take a chunk of DNA from a human and the same chunk of DNA from a chimp then the differences in these two strands of DNA is an approximation of the time depth of the ancestor of the two species. This difference is proportional to the rate of evolution of that chunk of DNA. \n\nNow, if we have some way of calibrating that rate of evolution we can turn this into a time estimate. There are two common ways of doing this. First is to use a fossil that dates some part of the family tree that neighbors the species we're interested in. So, for example, the next closest species to humans/chimps are Gorillas and then Orang-utans. If we have a fossil Orang at (from memory) 10-13 million years ago, and there are, say, 1000 changes in the DNA strands between humans and orangs, then we have a rate of about 1 mutation per 10,000 years. If we see 500 changes between chimps and humans then we can take the rate and extrapolate it. \n\nThe other alternative is to use a well-studied molecule where we have good estimates of the rate of molecular evolution. [Mitochondrial DNA](_URL_1_) is the most commonly used one for animals, and we have good evidence suggesting that it evolves at around one [transition mutation](_URL_2_) every ~6764yrs. So then it's just a matter of counting the changes. \n\nThings get much more complicated than that though, most people these days use some form of [Bayesian phylogenetic methods](_URL_0_) with a number of different \"relaxed\" clock models that handle variation in rates of change between sites in the DNA, or different rates across species, etc.\n\n(and we [do have fossil chimpanzees](_URL_3_), for the record).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521784",
"title": "River Out of Eden",
"section": "Section::::All Africa and her progenies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Given any gene in the body of an organism, we can trace a single chain of \"ancestor organisms\" back in time, following the lineage of this one gene, as stated in the coalescent theory. Because a typical organism is built from tens of thousands of genes, there are numerous ways to trace the ancestry of organisms using this mechanism. But all these inheritance pathways share one common feature. If we start with all humans alive in 1995 and trace their ancestry by one particular gene (actually a locus), we find that the farther we move back in time, the smaller the number of ancestors become. The pool of ancestors continues to shrink until we find the \"most recent common ancestor\" (MRCA) of all humans alive in 1995 \"via this particular gene pathway\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1034339",
"title": "Most recent common ancestor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In biology and genealogy, the most recent common ancestor (MRCA, also last common ancestor (LCA), or concestor) of any set of organisms is the most recent individual from which all the organisms from such set are directly descended. The term is also used in reference to the ancestry of groups of genes (haplotypes) rather than organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2421384",
"title": "Identical ancestors point",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In genetic genealogy, the identical ancestors point (IAP) or all common ancestors (ACA) point is the most recent point in a given population's past where each individual then alive turned out to either be the ancestor of every individual alive now or has no currently living descendants. This point lies further in the past than the population's most recent common ancestor (MRCA).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169269",
"title": "Family tree",
"section": "Section::::Graph theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Assuming no common ancestor, an ancestry chart is a perfect binary tree, as each person has exactly one mother and one father, for two parents; these thus have a regular structure. A descendancy chart, on the other hand, does not in general have a regular structure, as a person can have any number of children, or none at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6383817",
"title": "Ancestral reconstruction",
"section": "Section::::Methods and algorithms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "Any attempt at ancestral reconstruction begins with a phylogeny. In general, a phylogeny is a tree-based hypothesis about the order in which populations (referred to as taxa) are related by descent from common ancestors. Observed taxa are represented by the \"tips\" or \"terminal nodes\" of the tree that are progressively connected by branches to their common ancestors, which are represented by the branching points of the tree that are usually referred to as the \"ancestral\" or \"internal nodes\". Eventually, all lineages converge to the most recent common ancestor of the entire sample of taxa. In the context of ancestral reconstruction, a phylogeny is often treated as though it were a known quantity (with Bayesian approaches being an important exception). Because there can be an enormous number of phylogenies that are nearly equally effective at explaining the data, reducing the subset of phylogenies supported by the data to a single representative, or point estimate, can be a convenient and sometimes necessary simplifying assumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1454659",
"title": "Lineage (evolution)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "An evolutionary lineage is a temporal series of organisms, populations, cells, or genes connected by a continuous line of descent from ancestor to descendant. Lineages are subsets of the evolutionary tree of life. Lineages are often determined by the techniques of molecular systematics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor. Each time a certain mutation (SNP) appears in an individual and is passed on to his or her descendants, a haplogroup is formed including all of the descendants of the individual who will also carry that mutation. By comparing mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vhr4z
|
Why do you think people use the term "Native American" instead of referring to tribes individually? Is this fair?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, for one, they are native to North America so the term fits in that sense. Secondly, the United States government recognizes [565](_URL_0_) different Native American tribes and having to memorize or distinguish based on this, especially when the physical differences between tribe are virtually non-existent (unlike the differences in race) makes it much easier to just use the blanket term, especially as it is still correct. One other reason could also be the lack of clearly defined regions and areas that Native Americans inhabit. While it is easy to define a Japanese person as hailing from Japan, and an Indian as hailing from India, the Native American tribes never had such defined borders and as such, cannot always be defined by where they lived. \n\nThis same usage of broad nomenclature is seen as well with people of Chinese descent but varying ethnicity. Despite differences in ethnicity, they are termed Chinese, most likely for simplicity's sake. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Generally speaking there are far too many tribes to refer to them individually unless you are talking about an individual or a single tribe doing something. I think there are 500+ tribes recognized. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Isn't the preferred term now American Indian?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've taken to using the terms indigenous peoples or indigenous tribes when I'm not referring to a particular tribe or nation. This choice came after the realization that \"Native American\" was just as much a Euro-centric term as \"Indian.\" That being said, sometimes American Indian or Native American are simply the best terms to use because they can be easily recognized by a wider audience. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same reason we say European rather than be bothered naming every European country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2579018",
"title": "Native American name controversy",
"section": "Section::::United States.:\"Native American\" (since the 1960s).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Other objections to \"Native American\"—whether capitalized or not—include a concern that it is often understood to exclude American groups outside the continental US (e.g., Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico), and indigenous groups in South America, Mexico and Canada. The word \"American\" is sometimes questioned because the peoples referred to resided in the Americas before they were so named.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2402376",
"title": "Indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Native American name controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Since the late 20th century, indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about how they want to be addressed, pushing to suppress use of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term \"Native American,\" to recognize the primacy of indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation. As may be expected among people of different cultures, not all Native Americans or American Indians agree on its use. No single group naming convention has been accepted by all indigenous peoples. They prefer to be addressed as people of their tribe or nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852073",
"title": "Russell Means",
"section": "Section::::Other political involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Since the late 20th century, there has been a debate in the United States over the appropriate term for the indigenous peoples of North America. Some want to be called Native American; others prefer American Indian. Means said that he preferred \"American Indian\", arguing that it derives not from explorers' confusion of the people with those of India, but from the Italian expression \"in Dio\", meaning \"in God\". In addition, Means noted that since treaties and other legal documents in relation to the United States government use \"Indian\", continuing use of the term could help today's American Indian people forestall any attempts by others to use legal loopholes in the struggle over land and treaty rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2579018",
"title": "Native American name controversy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about the ways they wish to be referred to, pressing for the elimination of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term \"Native American\", to recognize the primacy of indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation. The term has met with only partial acceptance. Other naming conventions have been proposed and used, but none are accepted by all indigenous groups. Typically, each name has a particular audience and political or cultural connotation, and regional usage varies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39117329",
"title": "Contemporary Native American issues in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Terminology differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "The term \"Native American\" was introduced in the United States by academics in preference to the older term \"Indian\" to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas from the people of India. Some academics believe that the term \"Indian\" should be considered outdated or offensive while many indigenous Americans, however, prefer the term \"American Indian\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21217",
"title": "Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary issues.:Terminology differences.:Common usage in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Native Americans are often known as Indians or American Indians. The term \"Native American\" was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term \"Indian\" to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas from the people of India and to avoid negative stereotypes associated with the term \"Indian\". Many indigenous Americans, however, prefer the term \"American Indian\" and many tribes include the word Indian in their formal title.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2579018",
"title": "Native American name controversy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The Native American name controversy is an ongoing discussion about the changing terminology used by indigenous peoples of the Americas to describe themselves, as well as how they prefer to be referred to by others. Preferred terms vary primarily by region and age. As indigenous people and communities are diverse, there is no consensus on naming, aside from the fact that most people prefer to be referred to by their specific nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
75403n
|
astronomy question
|
[
{
"answer": "Inverse square law-\n\nThe inverse-square law, in physics, is any physical law stating that a specified physical quantity or intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity. The fundamental cause for this can be understood as geometric dilution corresponding to point-source radiation into three-dimensional space.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24669",
"title": "Pauli exclusion principle",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Astrophysics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1357,
"text": "Astronomy provides a spectacular demonstration of the effect of the Pauli principle, in the form of white dwarf and neutron stars. In both bodies, atomic structure is disrupted by extreme pressure, but the stars are held in hydrostatic equilibrium by \"degeneracy pressure\", also known as Fermi pressure. This exotic form of matter is known as degenerate matter. The immense gravitational force of a star's mass is normally held in equilibrium by thermal pressure caused by heat produced in thermonuclear fusion in the star's core. In white dwarfs, which do not undergo nuclear fusion, an opposing force to gravity is provided by electron degeneracy pressure. In neutron stars, subject to even stronger gravitational forces, electrons have merged with protons to form neutrons. Neutrons are capable of producing an even higher degeneracy pressure, neutron degeneracy pressure, albeit over a shorter range. This can stabilize neutron stars from further collapse, but at a smaller size and higher density than a white dwarf. Neutron stars are the most \"rigid\" objects known; their Young modulus (or more accurately, bulk modulus) is 20 orders of magnitude larger than that of diamond. However, even this enormous rigidity can be overcome by the gravitational field of a massive star or by the pressure of a supernova, leading to the formation of a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19626302",
"title": "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38890",
"title": "Natural science",
"section": "Section::::Branches of natural science.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars, planets, comets, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50650",
"title": "Astronomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Astronomy (from ) is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry to try and explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates outside Earth's atmosphere. Cosmology is a branch of astronomy. It studies the Universe as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "507266",
"title": "Observational astronomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "As a science, the study of astronomy is somewhat hindered in that direct experiments with the properties of the distant universe are not possible. However, this is partly compensated by the fact that astronomers have a vast number of visible examples of stellar phenomena that can be examined. This allows for observational data to be plotted on graphs, and general trends recorded. Nearby examples of specific phenomena, such as variable stars, can then be used to infer the behavior of more distant representatives. Those distant yardsticks can then be employed to measure other phenomena in that neighborhood, including the distance to a galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23638",
"title": "Outline of physical science",
"section": "Section::::Branches of physical science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Astronomy – study of celestial objects (such as stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae), the physics, chemistry, and evolution of such objects, and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth, including supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3400190",
"title": "Outline of astronomy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gb3fm
|
What rules of the english language came into play when determining that some words had no plural form- e.g fish, deer, etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "Any \"rules\" of the English language are artificial constraints created a posteriori. English is the way it is because some people spoke that way and it became a *custom* (rather than a rule).\n\nThis becomes clearer when implementing [speech recognition and machine translation](_URL_0_). Rule based systems are brittle and don't work as well, while statistical approaches do much better. Statistical approaches basically work by compiling a huge database of how people actually talk and computing how common words and phrases *are* used (rather than how they are supposed to be used). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7148",
"title": "Collective noun",
"section": "Section::::Terms of venery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "The tradition of using \"terms of venery\" or \"nouns of assembly\", collective nouns that are specific to certain kinds of animals, stems from an English hunting tradition of the Late Middle Ages. The fashion of a consciously developed hunting language came to England from France. It was marked by an extensive proliferation of specialist vocabulary, applying different names to the same feature in different animals. The elements can be shown to have already been part of French and English hunting terminology by the beginning of the 14th century. In the course of the 14th century, it became a courtly fashion to extend the vocabulary, and by the 15th century, the tendency had reached exaggerated proportions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1229988",
"title": "Dunglish",
"section": "Section::::Word order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "This is because English and Dutch do not follow exactly the same word order. English has a subject–verb–object word order, but this is shared only partially by Dutch, which has a verb-second order, causing the subject to follow the verb if another constituent already precedes it; e.g., \"Hij is daar\" (\"He is there\"), but \"Daar is hij\"; literally \"There is he\" (idiomatically, \"There he is\"). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725072",
"title": "Word order",
"section": "Section::::Grammaticality of word order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "There is a difference between grammatical word order and natural word order. In many languages, topicalization and questions can change the grammatical word order. Languages such as O'odham and Hungarian, which are discussed below, have almost all iterations of the sentences as grammatical, but not all of them are used. This surfaces in English and German as well, in question and answer sentences in Particular. Here is an example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "393722",
"title": "Dutch grammar",
"section": "Section::::Nouns.:Cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Noun cases were still prescribed in the formal written standard up until the 1940s, but were abolished then because they had long disappeared from the spoken language. Because of this, they are nowadays restricted mostly to set phrases and are archaic. The former Dutch case system resembled that of modern German, and distinguished four cases: nominative (subject), genitive (possession or relation), dative (indirect object, object of preposition) and accusative (direct object, object of preposition). Only the nominative and genitive are productive, with the genitive seldom used and only surviving in the margins of the language. Some examples of the three non-nominative cases in fixed expressions:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26689",
"title": "Swedish language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, which means that the finite verb (V) appears in the second position (2) of a declarative main clause. Swedish morphology is similar to English; that is, words have comparatively few inflections. Swedish has two genders and is generally seen to have two grammatical cases – nominative and genitive (except for pronouns that, as in English, also are inflected in the object form) – although it is debated if the genitive in Swedish should be seen as a genitive case, or just the nominative plus the so-called genitive \"s\", then seen as a clitic. Swedish has two grammatical numbers – plural and singular. Adjectives have discrete comparative and superlative forms, and are also inflected according to gender, number and definiteness. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes (endings), complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles. The prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a comparatively large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3868056",
"title": "Hungarian noun phrase",
"section": "Section::::Cases and other noun suffixes.:A note on terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The concept of grammatical cases was first used in the description of Ancient Greek and Latin grammar, which are fusional languages. Over the centuries the terminology was also used to describe other languages, with very different grammatical structures from Indo-European languages. Some linguists believe that the concept does not fit agglutinative languages very well. Rather than using the \"case\" paradigm and terminology for describing Hungarian grammar, they prefer to use the terms \"(case) suffixes\" and \"endings\". Despite these opinions, nowadays the term \"case\" is used by most Hungarian linguists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20646",
"title": "Morphology (linguistics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1466,
"text": "While words, along with clitics, are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, in most languages, if not all, many words can be related to other words by rules that collectively describe the grammar for that language. For example, English speakers recognize that the words \"dog\" and \"dogs\" are closely related, differentiated only by the plurality morpheme \"-s\", only found bound to noun phrases. Speakers of English, a fusional language, recognize these relations from their innate knowledge of English's rules of word formation. They infer intuitively that \"dog\" is to \"dogs\" as \"cat\" is to \"cats\"; and, in similar fashion, \"dog\" is to \"dog catcher\" as \"dish\" is to \"dishwasher\". By contrast, Classical Chinese has very little morphology, using almost exclusively unbound morphemes (\"free\" morphemes) and depending on word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese [\"Mandarin\"], however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using, and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ebm4ns
|
In The Communist Manifesto, it's fairly accepted that Marx imagined the workers revolution to start in heavily industrialized nations. Yet the majority of former Communist States when their Revolutions happened were in primarily agricultural societies, why did this happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "I answered a [similar question](_URL_0_) a few months ago which talks about Marxism's application in the Russian Empire.\n\nThe short answer is that the October Revolution was almost entirely orchestrated in the nation's industrial capital, Saint-Petersburg (then called Petrograd) so Marx was right to a certain extent. Despite this, very few early Marxist thinkers (including Lenin himself) predicted that the socialist revolution would occur in Russia because of its largely agrarian society-- as you mention.\n\nLenin combated this diversion from Marxist orthodoxy by implementing certain language like 'rural proletariat,' to bring those outside the actual cities under the purview of his revolutionary aims. When that wasn't totally effective, the Bolsheviks just reverted to type and socialized the countryside by violence and coercion. There's several responses in that question beyond the initial answer that talk about this in pretty excruciating but I'm happy to answer any follow-up questions you might have.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::Red flag and revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Karl Marx published the Communist Manifesto in February 1848, with little attention. However, a few days later the French Revolution of 1848 broke out, which replaced the monarchy of Louis Philippe with the Second French Republic. In June 1848, Paris workers, disenchanted with the new government, built barricades and raised red flags. The new government called in the French Army to put down the uprising, the first of many such confrontations between the army and the new worker's movements in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18687",
"title": "Leninism",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "In the 19th century, \"The Communist Manifesto\" (1848), by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, called for the international political unification of the European working classes in order to achieve a communist revolution and proposed that because the socio-economic organization of communism was of a higher form than that of capitalism, a workers' revolution would first occur in the economically advanced, industrialized countries. Marxist social democracy was strongest in Germany throughout the 19th century and the Social Democratic Party of Germany inspired Lenin and other Russian Marxists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8467077",
"title": "Democracy in Marxism",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union and Bolshevism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In the 19th century, \"The Communist Manifesto\" (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels called for the international political unification of the European working classes in order to achieve a Communist revolution; and proposed that, because the socio-economic organization of communism was of a higher form than that of capitalism, a workers' revolution would first occur in the economically advanced, industrialized countries. Marxist social democracy was strongest in Germany throughout the 19th century, and the Social Democratic Party of Germany inspired Lenin and other Russian Marxists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43069524",
"title": "Marxist philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Karl Marx's philosophy.:Rupture with German idealism and the Young Hegelians.:Criticisms of Ludwig Feuerbach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "A year before the Revolutions of 1848, Marx and Engels thus wrote \"The Communist Manifesto\", which was prepared to an imminent revolution, and ended with the famous cry: \"Proletarians of all countries, unite!\". However, Marx's thought changed again following Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's December 2, 1851 coup, which put an end to the French Second Republic and created the Second Empire which would last until the 1870 Franco-Prussian War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42549239",
"title": "Revolutionary socialism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Twenty-four years after \"The Communist Manifesto\", Marx and Engels admitted that in developed countries \"labour may attain its goal by peaceful means\". Marxist scholar Adam Schaff argued that Marx, Engels and Lenin have expressed such view \"on many occasions\". By contrast, the Blanquist view emphasised the overthrow by force of the ruling elite in government by an active minority of revolutionaries, who then proceed to implement socialist change, disregarding the state of readiness of society as a whole and the mass of the population in particular for revolutionary change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38860786",
"title": "Types of socialism",
"section": "Section::::Socialist ideologies.:Marxist communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Some forms of the communist society that Marx envisioned, as emerging from capitalism, have been claimed to be achieved for limited periods during certain historical moments and under certain circumstances. For example, the Paris Commune in fact let Marx reinforce and implement his theories by adapting them to a real experience he could draw from. Another similar case, though disputed by anarcho-syndicalism or even anarchism, was the Spanish Revolution of 1936 (often missed or unmentioned by official historiography), during which much of Spain's economy in most of Republican areas, some of which enjoyed a practical absence of state, was put under workers' direct collective control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39903086",
"title": "Working class",
"section": "Section::::Marxist definition: the proletariat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "In \"The Communist Manifesto\", Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that it was the destiny of the working class to displace the capitalist system, with the dictatorship of the proletariat (the rule of the many, as opposed to the \"dictatorship of the bourgeoisie\"), abolishing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then developing into a future communist society in which \"the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.\" \"The Communist Manifesto\" was a response to Adam Smith's pro capitalist text \"The Wealth of Nations\" \"(\"published in 1776)\".\" Some issues in Marxist arguments about working-class membership have included:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mqpfi
|
how alcoholic must your breath be to catch fire, and why does it even work?
|
[
{
"answer": "80 proof and above is generally flammable. Although I really don't see how this could happen, this would require actually inhaling some embers, which doesn't really happen when you smoke. \n\nFurther more, its going down different \"tubes\" the alcohol is going down through your stomach. \n\nSmoke goes through the respiratory system to your lungs, there wouldn't be much if any alcohol in your respiratory system to catch fire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43613296",
"title": "Fire breather's pneumonia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Fuels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Fire breathing is typically performed with a high flash point fuel, such as lamp oil (liquid paraffin), while fire eating is performed with low flash point fuels, such as white gas or naphtha. Highly purified fuels are preferred by fire performers due to their minimized toxicity, but other, more dangerous fuels may sometimes be used, such as ethanol, isopropanol, kerosene, gasoline, or charcoal lighter fluid. All fuels run the risk of causing pneumonitis if inhaled, however longer chain oils are more persistent than smaller molecules. Alcohols and volatile naphthas are likely to be absorbed or expelled from the body by evaporation and respiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55453598",
"title": "Oxygen firebreak",
"section": "Section::::Home oxygen fires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Most home oxygen fires are caused by patients smoking whilst using medical oxygen. Despite the inherent dangers, researchers estimate that between 10 and 50 per cent of home oxygen patients continue to smoke. Other sources of naked flames, such as gas flames and birthday candles, can also pose a risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8653966",
"title": "Flaming drink",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "Combining fire with alcohol can be dangerous. Proper precautions must be taken to ensure the safety of both the bartender and the patrons consuming the drink. The fire should always be lit away from the area in which the patrons are located to ensure their safety. The drink should not be consumed while the flames are still burning. The drinkware may become quite hot to hold or to sip from, and that could result in burns. Additionally, there is always a risk of spills or catching other items on fire, especially if the patrons are already intoxicated. Servers must carry lit shots or drinks carefully when delivering to tables. In addition, only an experienced bartender should light the given shot before serving or handing off to a server. Untrained bartenders should refrain from handling fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314667",
"title": "Fire breathing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Fire breathing is the act of making a plume or stream of fire by creating a precise mist of fuel from the mouth over an open flame. Regardless of the precautions taken, it is always a dangerous activity, but the proper technique and the correct fuel reduces the risk of injury or death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314667",
"title": "Fire breathing",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Fuels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "To increase safety, fire breathers must avoid highly combustible fuels such as alcohol, spirit-based fuels, and most petrochemicals, instead using safer combustibles with a higher flash point (50 °C). Due to its relatively safe (≈90 °C) flash point, paraffin, or highly purified lamp oil, is the preferred fuel for fire breathing. Although corn starch has been cited as a non-toxic fuel, the hazards of inhalation increase the potential risk of lung infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43613296",
"title": "Fire breather's pneumonia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In both disciplines, the performer holds their breath until the air is clear of vapors, so as to not inhale the hazardous fumes. However, improper technique or an accident can lead to ingestion, inhalation, or aspiration of fine droplets or vapors. Fire breathing and fire eating are separate acts, but the terms are sometimes erroneously used interchangeably in the literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "A 1927 paper produced by Emil Bogen, who collected air in a football bladder and then tested this air for traces of alcohol, discovered that the alcohol content of 2 litres of expired air was a little greater than that of 1 cc of urine. However, research into the possibilities of using breath to test for alcohol in a person's body dates as far back as 1874, when Francis E. Anstie made the observation that small amounts of alcohol were excreted in breath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
187h5b
|
why can't we capture light?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm a chemist, and not a physicist, so it's quite possible that I'll be wrong on some of these things. But I'll do my best.\n\nFirst, it is somewhat possible to capture light in the way you're suggesting, at least transiently. The problem is that matter absorbs light and turns it into an alternative form of energy. So the light bouncing around the solid will eventually all be absorbed and then... not be there anymore. You can make the box quite large, and then the light will \"last\" longer. After all, some light from the sun manages to travel millions of miles. I don't read much of the physics literature, but I'm sure somebody has published papers on the fabrication of a near perfect mirror for this application. \n\nAs for the second thing, I can think of two problems. First, you can't \"see\" photons. You see things that light reflects off of. If we could see light, then... well... we really couldn't see anything at all because our eyes would be overloaded. Light waves (and waves of all energies, too) are constantly whizzing around in every direction. Luckily, we don't see their motion. We rely on the fact that light bounces off of an object and goes into our eyes to identify things.\n\nAdditionally, I know that light is affected by mass, but you'd have to have A LOT of mass to affect it's trajectory. Ancient astronomers did beautiful scientific work while completely ignoring the fact that mass distorts the trajectory of light. A little metal ball or cylinder is hardly going to affect it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"why can't we take a perfectly round ball with mirrored insides and \"capture\" light.\"\n\nThis was posted before in some science subreddit, and you could probably find it with a bit of searching. Even if you put light into a perfectly spherical mirror, it wouldn't be 'captured'. Some of the light energy would inevitably be converted to heat. \n\nYou can't beat the laws of thermodynamics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Okay, so you might now this already, but for others coming to this thread: photons (particles of light) aren't real. Not real like you or I or the ground or the air. They're something else entirely.\n\nThey come into being when an atom goes from an excited state into a less excited state. Technically, this is when an electron drops from a higher to a lower \"energy level\". These energy levels are strictly defined and electrons can only exist in one or the other, there's no in-between.\n\nSo when an electron drops from a high energy level to a lower one, it does so *instantaneously*, and creates a photon in the process. (Sidenote: the drop in energy dictates the wavelength, and thus the colour, of the light.) You might know that nothing can accelerate to the speed of light. Well, fortunately, from the moment that photon exists, it is *already* traveling at the speed of light, and it will continue to do so until it hits something. \n\nWhen it hits an atom, its energy is transferred into the electron/s, making them jump up an energy level (or two or three). Here's where we answer your question: the second law of thermodynamics says you can't have a perfect transfer of energy. When the receiving atom gets the photon, its electrons can't jump to a *higher* level, they can reach only the *same* or a *lower* level.\n\nSo, over time - and it would be a very short amount of time for any kind of vessel we would be building - the wavelength of the light would be getting longer and longer, and thus the energy would be getting lower and lower. Eventually, the energy of the light being emitted would be so low that it can't raise any electrons from their *ground state*, their lowest energy level.\n\n**But**, I hear you say, **but what about the conservation of energy? Energy can't be created or destroyed; it has to go *somewhere*.** Correct! It does.\n\nWhen a photon can't raise an electron from its ground state, all the energy is transferred into *heat*. Heat is really just atoms moving about on a small scale, so you can imagine the photons coming in and knocking the atoms about a little bit. So your vessel would be dark inside but slightly warmer.\n\nNote, because I can sense it already coming, that this is *not* infrared light. That's called \"radiant heat\", this kind of heat also has a name but it escapes me. Suffice to call it \"normal heat\". If the inside if your vessel is a vacuum, and I assume it is, then you inside it would not feel the heat; but if you touched the walls, you would. There would be a stage, when the wavelength of the light was becoming longer and longer, when some of the energy would be thrown around as infrared light, but after a while the energy is too low even for that. It ends up warming the vessel itself, not holding warmth *inside* the vessel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well I don't think I could give a satisfactory answer to a five year old, but maybe to a 10 year old?\n\nLight is a form of energy, and energy wants to disperse itself evenly throughout the universe (we call this idea entropy). If you put energy in a box, no matter how you make the box, eventually the walls will absorb the energy (you've never heard of a thermos that keeps things warm forever have you?).\n\nThe same applies to light. You perceive light energy with your eyes, and think of it as \"brightness\" but what you are really measuring is energy of a certain frequency. Like heat in a thermos, if you put light in a box, eventually it's energy will get absorbed by the walls of the container.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Astrophysical applications.:Gravitational lensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Since light is deflected in a gravitational field, it is possible for the light of a distant object to reach an observer along two or more paths. For instance, light of a very distant object such as a quasar can pass along one side of a massive galaxy and be deflected slightly so as to reach an observer on Earth, while light passing along the opposite side of that same galaxy is deflected as well, reaching the same observer from a slightly different direction. As a result, that particular observer will see one astronomical object in two different places in the night sky. This kind of focussing is well known when it comes to optical lenses, and hence the corresponding gravitational effect is called gravitational lensing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17939",
"title": "Light",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic spectrum and visible light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Data communication and other signalling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40501944",
"title": "Scuba skills",
"section": "Section::::Underwater communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Light signals are made using an underwater torch in dark places with reasonable visibility. There are not many standard light signals. The light can also be used to illuminate hand signals in the dark\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7525126",
"title": "Cloak of invisibility",
"section": "Section::::In science.:Acoustic cloaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "According to Prof Leonhardt, all optical illusions can slow down rays of light and the sphere can be used to bend this illusion around an object, reflecting off it and making it appear to be invisible. Mr Perczel added: \"When the light is bent it engulfs the object, much like water covering a rock sitting in a river bed, and carries on its path, making it seem as if nothing is there. Light however can only be sped up to a speed faster than it would travel in space, under certain conditions, and this restricts invisibility cloaks to work in a limited part of the spectrum, essentially just one colour. This would be ideal if somebody was planning to stand still in camouflage. However, the moment they start to move, the scenery would begin to distort, revealing the person under the cloak. By slowing all of the light down with an invisible sphere, it does not need to be accelerated to such high speeds and can therefore work in all parts of the spectrum.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153911",
"title": "Invisibility",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Since objects can be seen by light in the visible spectrum from a source reflecting off their surfaces and hitting the viewer's eye, the most natural form of invisibility (whether real or fictional) is an object that neither reflects nor absorbs light (that is, it allows light to pass through it). This is known as \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "985053",
"title": "Safelight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "A safelight is a light source suitable for use in a photographic darkroom. It provides illumination only from parts of the visible spectrum to which the photographic material in use is nearly, or completely, insensitive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7otdlw
|
What is the benefit to making new elements in labs?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is it simply for the furthering of knowledge or is there another reason?\n\nIs that not enough?\n\nWe learn about nuclear structure, nuclear reactions, etc. If we can study them chemically, we can learn about atomic structure as well. These extremely heavy elements could have very interesting chemical properties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a theorized \"island of stability\" for a few superheavy elements. The artificial elements that have been created and observed in the past few years have had extremely short half lives (MUCH less than a second), but some models suggest that even heavier elements will be more stable and will have longer half lives. These super heavy elements could have unique properties (since their density is likely to be much greater than elements we currently have access to). With unique properties comes unique applications. \n\nI would say that overall, however, this research is more for general knowledge and the prestige of pushing our limits. You get to name the new element, after all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of the artificial elements found practical applications later. You might even have one in your house. Americium is used in some smoke detectors, among other applications.\n\nWe don’t have practical applications for elements with an atomic number over 100 today - but who knows what we will have in 50 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "277914",
"title": "Science and technology in China",
"section": "Section::::Specific areas of R&D.:Mining and rare earth industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Finding rare earth elements is only the first and some argue the easiest step. Other steps towards manufacturing such as refining is controlled by China and Japan with the previously dominant United States having lost all of its producers and much of its fundamental technological ability with the number of scientists and engineers in the area declining dramatically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "673",
"title": "Atomic number",
"section": "Section::::New elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of 2010, all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half-life becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though an \"island of stability\" may exist for undiscovered isotopes with certain numbers of protons and neutrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44173789",
"title": "Mustafa Prize",
"section": "Section::::Categories.:Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Over the past few decades, researchers have passed through the normal features of the substances to give them new properties. The new capability is, in fact, the result of manipulating the properties through the smallest scales up to the molecules and atoms of the substances and living cells. The startling progress has opened new chapters in theoretical and applied interdisciplinary researches which, if further developed, can help other branches of science to grow in various parts of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16020608",
"title": "Lean laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Conventional laboratories.:High levels of work in progress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Laboratories often maintain high levels of work in process (WIP), which inevitably results in significant (non value adding) effort being expended in controlling, tracking, and prioritizing samples and in planning analyst work. Companies often respond to this situation by investing in a laboratory information management system (LIMS) or some other IT system. However these systems do not in themselves improve performance. The underlying process by which work is organized and moves through the lab must first be re-engineered based on lean principles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210537",
"title": "Renewable resource",
"section": "Section::::Examples of industrial use.:Biorenewable chemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Biorenewable chemicals are chemicals created by biological organisms that provide feedstocks for the chemical industry. Biorenewable chemicals can provide solar-energy-powered substitutes for the petroleum-based carbon feedstocks that currently supply the chemical industry. The tremendous diversity of enzymes in biological organisms, and the potential for synthetic biology to alter these enzymes to create yet new chemical functionalities, can drive the chemical industry. A major platform for creation of new chemicals is the polyketide biosynthetic pathway, which generates chemicals containing repeated alkyl chain units with potential for a wide variety of functional groups at the different carbon atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938758",
"title": "Open-source model",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Other related movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Synthetic Biology- This new technology is potentially important because it promises to enable cheap, lifesaving new drugs as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem. Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its \"lab\" stage, it has potential to become industrialized in the near future. In order to industrialize open source science, there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59107367",
"title": "Unbihexium",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties in synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Consequently, future experiments must be done at facilities such as the under-construction superheavy element factory (SHE-factory) at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) or RIKEN, which will allow experiments to run for longer stretches of time with increased detection capabilities and enable otherwise inaccessible reactions. Even so, it will likely be a great challenge to synthesize elements beyond unbinilium (120) or unbiunium (121), given their short predicted half-lives and low predicted cross sections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
80riqs
|
active reading and why it's important to a reader
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Active Reading\" is simply reading, but with an emphasis on paying attention to content and critically analyzing the text as you read, instead of just reading the words and moving on. \n\nIt's important as it gets a person to focus on the content of the text, it lets them identify unknown words or grammatical concepts to research further, it can arguably be helpful as a memorization tool since you are concentrating more on it, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Active reading\" usually just means reading to understand what is important rather than just mindlessly reading. As for why it's important, I'm sure many of us have at one time or another read a page in a book a couple of times half heartedly before realizing we don't remember anything at all and putting the book down. That is the opposite of active reading and what happens if you don't read actively.\n\nThink of reading like a conversation. Which method makes you learn more; actively paying attention to the person talking to you or just zoning out while they drone in your ear? That's why active reading is important; it lets you quickly understand the parts of information in texts that are important and remember those instead of forgetting quickly.\n\nAs for techniques many of them are things many readers do already; things such as looking for key words, summarizing ideas in your head, or predicting what is going to come next can all work as active reading techniques.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of my lit profs drilled into me that I needed to not only know what all the words on the page meant, but what they would have meant to the person writing them.\n\nI found a pocket etymological dictionary to be of invaluable help in understanding the correct period usage of words I was reading.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13063808",
"title": "Slow reading",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy and literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Birkerts, in his book \"The Gutenberg Elegies\", stated \"Reading, because we control it, is adaptable to our needs and rhythms. We are free to indulge our subjective associative impulse; the term I coin for this is deep reading: the slow and meditative possession of a book.\" Birkerts' emphasis on the importance of personal control over the speed of reading is echoed by Pullman, who additionally argued that taking control of the pace of one's reading is a form of personal freedom, and develops an appreciation of democracy. A similar view was stated by Postman, who noted the character of the ordinary citizen of the 19th century, a mind that could listen for hours on end to political orations clearly shaped by a culture favouring text. Postman warns that reading books is important for developing rational thinking and political astuteness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5283362",
"title": "Reading motivation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "For students who know how to read, but need extra encouragement, giving a book talk is a way to inspire reading. It is an especially effective tool with reluctant readers who need a hook before they will invest the energy into reading a book. Reading motivation for children can be enhanced when it is read with songs or music playing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19340623",
"title": "Accessible publishing",
"section": "Section::::Aim.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The aim of accessible publishing is to make reading easier for those who have difficulties doing so. This group includes people who are blind or visually impaired, people with learning disabilities, and people who are learning a second language. Accessible publishing also aims to allow people to read whichever format allows them to read fastest or allows them to absorb the information in a better way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5283362",
"title": "Reading motivation",
"section": "Section::::Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The motivation to read is one of the major factors that determine student success or failure in elementary school. Therefore, it is crucial to come up with ways to motivate and include all students to read. Reading is a task requiring interest and effort; as such, the reading skill of students has been associated with reading motivation. Students who are extremely motivated to read choose to find the time to read, which in turn will develop into a lifelong reading habit. Hence, motivation plays a crucial role in elementary schools to foster reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2956358",
"title": "SQ3R",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "BULLET::::- Use the background work done with \"S\" and \"Q\" in order to begin reading actively. This means reading in order to answer the questions raised under \"Q\". Passive reading, in contrast, results in merely reading without engaging with the study material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5283362",
"title": "Reading motivation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Reading motivation is the motivational drive to read, an area of interest in the field of education. Studying and implementing the conditions under which students are motivated to read is important in the process of teaching and fostering learning. Reading and writing motivation are the processes to put more effort on reading and writing activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378914",
"title": "Speed reading",
"section": "Section::::Effect on comprehension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Comprehension is considered to be better if the text is skimmed and main key words are underlined before regular reading due to the function of RAS (Reticular Activating System) in the brain. This is the part of the brain that dislikes incomplete information. It aids the reader to find the information close to a topic. For the RAS is activated by the questions and prioritized information, this makes the reader more focused while reading with a purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mv2l5
|
socialism vs. capitalism (and right-wing vs. left-wing)
|
[
{
"answer": "Socialism is when the 'means of production' (factories, land, raw materials) are owned cooperatively. Either by groups involved in the production, or by the state on behalf of the people. either the products or the profits from their sale are distributed according to the group's plan.\n\nCapitalism is when the 'means of production' are privately owned. the product or the profits from its sale are distributed according the owner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At least in America, the Right Wing accuses the Left Wing of being Socialist as though it is an insult; and the Left wing accuses the Right Wing of being Capitalists as though it is an insult. My point is that in America these meanings are slightly warped when compared to how 'Socialist' and 'Capitalist' are used everywhere else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Socialism is when the 'means of production' (factories, land, raw materials) are owned cooperatively. Either by groups involved in the production, or by the state on behalf of the people. either the products or the profits from their sale are distributed according to the group's plan.\n\nCapitalism is when the 'means of production' are privately owned. the product or the profits from its sale are distributed according the owner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At least in America, the Right Wing accuses the Left Wing of being Socialist as though it is an insult; and the Left wing accuses the Right Wing of being Capitalists as though it is an insult. My point is that in America these meanings are slightly warped when compared to how 'Socialist' and 'Capitalist' are used everywhere else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32589663",
"title": "Paternalistic conservatism",
"section": "Section::::Critique by free-market conservatives and socialists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "The term right-wing socialism is a term used by some free-market right-libertarian movements and politicians to describe paternalistic conservatism as they see it supporting paternalism and social solidarity as opposed to individualism, commercialism and \"laissez-faire\" economics. They argue that paternalist conservatism supports state promoted social hierarchy and allows certain people and groups to hold higher status in such a hierarchy, which is conservative. The term is also used—more commonly, but distinctly—to refer to moderate social democratic forms of socialism when contrasted with Marxism–Leninism and other more radical left-wing alternatives. In \"The Communist Manifesto\", Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels criticised the \"Philosophy of Poverty\" by the anarchist writer and theorist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as representing conservative or bourgeois socialism. Military socialism, guild socialism, agrarian socialism and some forms of Christian socialism are also termed right-wing socialism by various authors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "In modern times, \"right-wing\" is sometimes used to describe \"laissez-faire\" capitalism. In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right's support of capitalism can be traced to the late-nineteenth century. The so-called neoliberal Right, popularised by US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, combines support for free markets, privatisation and deregulation with traditional right-wing support for social conformity. Right-wing libertarianism (sometimes known as libertarian conservatism or conservative libertarianism) supports a decentralised economy based on economic freedom and holds property rights, free markets and free trade to be the most important kinds of freedom. Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked. Anthony Gregory has written that right-wing libertarianism \"can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations\". Gregory holds that the issue is neither right or left, but \"whether a person sees the state as a major hazard or just another institution to be reformed and directed toward a political goal\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "356041",
"title": "Left–right political spectrum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The left–right political spectrum is a system of classifying political positions, ideologies and parties, from equality on the left to social hierarchy on the right. Left-wing politics and right-wing politics are often presented as opposed, although a particular individual or group may take a left-wing stance on one matter and a right-wing stance on another; and some stances may overlap and be considered either left- or right-wing depending on the ideology. In France, where the terms originated, the Left has been called \"the party of movement\" and the Right \"the party of order\". The intermediate stance is called centrism and a person with such a position is a moderate or centrist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499",
"title": "Left-wing politics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy. It typically involves a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished. The term left-wing can also refer to \"the radical, reforming, or socialist section of a political party or system\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The meaning of right-wing \"varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems and ideologies\". According to \"The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics\", in liberal democracies, the political right opposes socialism and social democracy. Right-wing parties include conservatives, Christian democrats, classical liberals, nationalists; and on the far-right, racists and fascists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499",
"title": "Left-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from center-left to far-left (or ultra-left). The term center-left describes a position within the political mainstream. The terms far-left and ultra-left refer to positions that are more radical. The center-left includes social democrats, social liberals, progressives and also some democratic socialists and greens (including some eco-socialists). Center-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a mixed economy with a significant public sector and a thriving private sector. Center-left policies tend to favour limited state intervention in matters pertaining to the public interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Social stratification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1495,
"text": "Right-wing politics involves in varying degrees the rejection of some egalitarian objectives of left-wing politics, claiming either that social or economic inequality is natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society. Right-wing ideologies and movements support social order. The original French right-wing was called \"the party of order\" and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order. British conservative scholar R. J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: \"Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service\". American conservative Russell Kirk also rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: \"Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity\". Kirk took as one of the \"canons\" of conservatism the principle that \"civilized society requires orders and classes\". Right libertarians reject collective or state-imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative and enterprise. In their view, it is unjust, limits personal freedom and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity. In the view of philosopher Jason Stanley, the \"politics of hierarchy\" is one of the hallmarks of fascism, which refers back to a \"glorious past\" in which members of the rightfully dominant group sat atop the hierarchy, and attempt to recreate this state of being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xtzco
|
How does acidosis ( lactic, metabolitic etc) cause some one to go in to a coma?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've looked into this for you, and the conclusion is this is poorly understood.\n\nWith that said, there are a quite a few apparent effects of acidosis that would likely contribute to neurological impairment, which I'll detail for you. \n\nThe first (and in my opinion most important in this case) effect of acidosis is on the heart, not the nervous tissue. There is a wide body of evidence that notes that blood pH falling below 7.2 results in a reduced cardiac contractility, and also bradycardia. This fall in the activity of the heart frequently doesn't meet the criteria for cardiogenic shock, but is an important factor. Compounding the decreased cardiac activity is systemic arteriodilation with hypotension. This leads to a circulatory collapse over the period of a few hours in a manner not attributable to shock.\n\nFollowing this circulatory collapse, acidotic patients are at risk of developing cardiac arrhythmias which would further decrease cerebral perfusion.\n\nThe factors discussed so far explain a reduction in cerebral blood flow, but the actual oxygen delivered by each unit of blood may be compromised, too. An increase in hydrogen ions and CO2 both shift the oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin to the right; they decrease the amount of oxygen bound to haemoglobin at a given partial pressure of oxygen. In practical terms, this means that haemoglobin is less able to carry oxygen to the tissues.\n\nThis paints the picture of inadequate oxygen delivery to the brain. In addition to this, it's likely that the brain is less able to generate ATP. The brain's primary source of energy is glucose, which is broken down by glycolysis. One of the key enzymes in this process is phosphofructokinase. The activity of this enzyme is pH dependent, and an acidic environment significantly slows its action. \n\nFinally, the excitability of neurones is decreased by an acidic environment. Putting all these factors together results in the brain receiving inadequate oxygen, inadequate nutrients, slow metabolism and then an inability to use what energy it has quickly. This surely results in impaired cognition and potentially lethargy and coma. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "249961",
"title": "Lactic acidosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Lactic acidosis is typically the result of an underlying acute or chronic medical condition, medication, or poisoning. The symptoms are generally attributable to these underlying causes, but may include nausea, vomiting, Kussmaul breathing (laboured and deep), and generalised weakness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20551992",
"title": "High anion gap metabolic acidosis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Lactic acidosis results from excess formation and decreased metabolism of lactate, which occurs during states of anaerobic metabolism. It is the most common cause of metabolic acidosis in hospitalized patients. The most serious form occurs during various states of shock, due to episodes of decreased liver perfusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249961",
"title": "Lactic acidosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Lactic acidosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of lactate (especially L-lactate) in the body, with formation of an excessively low pH in the bloodstream. It is a form of metabolic acidosis, in which excessive acid accumulates due to a problem with the body's oxidative metabolism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48465378",
"title": "Congenital lactic acidosis",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Though lactic acidosis can be a complication of other congenital diseases, when it occurs in isolation it is typically caused by a mutation in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex genes. It has either an autosomal recessive or X-linked mode of inheritance. Congenital lactic acidosis can be caused by mutations on the X chromosome or in mitochondrial DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "558596",
"title": "Leigh syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The lactic acidosis sometimes associated with Leigh syndrome is caused by the buildup of pyruvate, which is unable to be processed in individuals with certain types of oxidative phosphorylation deficiencies. The pyruvate is either converted into alanine via alanine aminotransferase or converted into lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase; both of these substances can then build up in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249961",
"title": "Lactic acidosis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Lactic acidosis is commonly found in people who are unwell, such as those with severe heart and/or lung disease, a severe infection with sepsis, the systemic inflammatory response syndrome due to another cause, severe physical trauma, or severe depletion of body fluids. Symptoms in humans include all those of typical metabolic acidosis (nausea, vomiting, generalized muscle weakness, and laboured and deep breathing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1333992",
"title": "Metabolic acidosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Metabolic acidosis is a condition that occurs when the body produces excessive quantities of acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. If unchecked, metabolic acidosis leads to acidemia, i.e., blood pH is low (less than 7.35) due to increased production of hydrogen ions by the body or the inability of the body to form bicarbonate (HCO) in the kidney. Its causes are diverse, and its consequences can be serious, including coma and death. Together with respiratory acidosis, it is one of the two general causes of acidemia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lyxx4
|
How much Western pop culture (movies, music, etc.) was allowed in the USSR and Warsaw Pact countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "I remember a thread about music in the USSR - _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "hi! you'll find some responses regarding films in these posts\n\n* [What was the public perception of Cold War films such as Dr Strangelove in the Soviet Union?](_URL_3_) - includes a link to a list of all foreign films screened in the USSR\n\n* [Were the best Soviet film directors such as Tarkovsky able to see films unavailable to the general public of the USSR?](_URL_1_)\n\n* [During the cold war, were American films available in the USSR, and vice-versa?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [What was the attitude towards non-political or left-wing foreign literature or movies in the USSR?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6799490",
"title": "Russian pop",
"section": "Section::::The Russian-language music market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Russian-language market of popular music began to grow with the increase of Soviet influence in the world arena. In addition to the nearly 300 million Soviet citizens living in the 13% of the world landmass in 1990, Soviet pop music has become popular in the countries of the former Warsaw Pact, especially in the Slavic regions (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, but also in Hungary, China, Cuba). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3424494",
"title": "Broadcasting in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Television services.:Television programming.:Soviet Programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "During this period, the state used programs, films, and animations to redraw its citizens to the Soviet culture and away from the western ideas that were brought home during the war. Short animations were introduced that negatively portrayed western culture ans reiterated the ideas of old Russia, such as The Stranger's Voice, which aired in 1949. Specifically, this segment targeted American Jazz, comparing it to a magpie's call. Comparing jazz and a magpie's lack of musical ability meant there was no true art as there was in Soviet music, and that this American music was all for show with no actual talent required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1106367",
"title": "Culture of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the Soviet Union's 69-year existence. It was contributed to by people of various nationalities from every single one of fifteen union republics, although a slight majority of them were Russians. The Soviet state supported cultural institutions, but also carried out strict censorship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12607",
"title": "Glasnost",
"section": "Section::::Glasnost in the USSR.:Glasnost and Gorbachev.:International Relations under Glasnost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Propaganda about the supposedly higher quality of consumer goods and quality of life in the United States and Western Europe began to be transmitted to the Soviet population, along with western popular culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3265315",
"title": "Cinema of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Cinema.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The Soviet Union cinema comprises movies created by the constituent republics of the Soviet Union. Predominantly produced in the Russian language, the films reflect pre-Soviet elements including the history, language, and culture of the Union. It is different from the Russian cinema, even though the central government in Moscow regulates the movies. Among their republican films, Georgia, Armenia, Ukraine, and Azerbaijan were the most productive. Besides, Moldavia, Belarus, and Lithuania have also been prominent but to a lesser extent. The film industry was completely nationalized for a major part of the history of the country. It was governed by the laws and philosophies advocated by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party that brought a revolutionized perspective of the cinema in the form of ‘social realism’ that contrasted with the view that was in place before the Soviet Union or even after it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10786",
"title": "Cinema of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The cinema of the Soviet Union includes films produced by the constituent republics of the Soviet Union reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, albeit they were all regulated by the central government in Moscow. Most prolific in their republican films, after the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, and, to a lesser degree, Lithuania, Belarus and Moldavia. At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, socialist realism, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1233441",
"title": "Rock music in Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.:The early 1960s: Local bard music and first western influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Meanwhile, some Western music was either being smuggled across the border or released by Melodiya as part of what essentially was state-run media piracy, with The Beatles taking a firm place in Soviet popular culture, and artists such as The Rolling Stones and Deep Purple completing a somewhat distorted picture of Western music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wg44w
|
why do hdr videos require more processing?
|
[
{
"answer": "HDR is more information between the darkest and brightest points. The greater information per-frame means it takes longer to load, and better hardware to process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7482183",
"title": "Vimeo",
"section": "Section::::Video quality.:Standard definition playback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Non-HD videos are re-encoded at a maximum of 30 frames per second, but suffer in image quality, which is inline with the low bit rate for videos in the 640×360 size. Usually, the video content is re-encoded to bit rate below 0.5 Mbit/s. This is not enough to reproduce the fine details that can be captured from a consumer video camera or a smartphone, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17807503",
"title": "Apple Intermediate Codec",
"section": "Section::::About MPEG Compression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "HD video requires significantly more data than SD video. A single HD video frame can require up to six times more data than an SD frame. To record such large images with such a low data rate, HDV uses long-GOP MPEG compression. MPEG compression reduces the data rate by removing redundant visual information, both on a per-frame basis and also across multiple frames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "965409",
"title": "HD-MAC",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Recording.:Professional equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "On the studio and production side, it was entirely different. HD-MAC bandwidth reduction techniques bring the HD pixel rate down to the level of SD. So in theory, it would have been possible to use an SD digital video recorder, assuming it provides enough room for the DATV assistance stream, which requires less than 1.1 Mbit/s. SD video using 4:2:0 format (12 bits per pixel) needs 720x576x25x12 bits per second, which is slightly less than 125 Mbit/s, to be compared with the 270 Mbit/s available from a D-1 machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5933225",
"title": "Proprietary DVR",
"section": "Section::::Video formats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Another selling point of proprietary DVR systems is compression. Video compression removes information in exchange for a smaller file size. Increasing compression allows storing longer periods on a disk, at the expense of sacrificing some of the detail in the images. This trade-off must be considered when attempting to balance image quality and recording time in a DVR. As storage drives become cheaper and larger, less quality need be sacrificed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21916203",
"title": "Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH1",
"section": "Section::::Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH1 Features.:Dual CPU Engine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "HD video is extremely data intensive, and Panasonic designed the GH1 around a dual CPU image processing system named the \"Venus Engine HD\". This dual CPU greatly speeds up HD image processing and offers a number of other advantages, including improved image noise reduction performance, ability to display a live view direct from the sensor for either the fully articulated LCD display on the camera back or the high resolution electronic view finder, a very fast contrast detect auto focus system, and even the ability to output both images and sound via HDMI directly from the camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537442",
"title": "HDMI",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Digital cameras and camcorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Although often HD video capable cameras include an HDMI interface for playback or even live preview, the image processor and the video processor of cameras usable for uncompressed video must be able to deliver the full image resolution at the specified frame rate in real-time without any missing frames causing jitter. Therefore, usable uncompressed video out of HDMI is often called \"clean HDMI\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047056",
"title": "HDV",
"section": "Section::::Editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "HDV footage can be natively edited by most non-linear editors, with real-time playback being possible on modern mainstream personal computers. Slower computers may exhibit reduced performance compared to other formats such as DV because of high resolution and interframe compression of HDV video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39dafn
|
Does California's sinkhole problem magnify its precarious position on the fault lines as well as being in the subduction zone in speeding up its descent into the ocean?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure I understand the question... what subduction zone do you mean? And where in the article is any reference to fault lines? California is not descending into the ocean. \n\nThe drought might impact the San Andreas fault slightly as water can work as a lubricant in [strike-slip faults](_URL_2_) so there are more, but weaker earthquakes, which might mean fewer but larger earthquakes in the case of such a heavy and deep reaching drought. \n\nFurthermore, the water depleted valleys sink in relation to the surrounding mountains, but due to [isostatic response](_URL_1_), the region of the plate floats, so overall, California gets deeper valleys where the groundwater is depleted and the danger from flooding (due to heavy rains and snow melt) increases in these areas but the region will not sink into the ocean from it. Near the coast, there is also [saltwater instrusion](_URL_0_) that refills the aquifers with water that cannot be used in agriculture so those areas won't sink much from the missing groundwater. They might be flooded, however, by sea level rise one day. \n\nSource: Geohazards lecture a few years ago, so feel free to correct me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490777",
"title": "Garlock Fault",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Unlike most of the other faults in California, slip on the Garlock Fault is left-lateral; that is, the land on the other side of the fault moves to the left from the perspective of someone facing the fault. Thus, the terrain north of the fault is moving westward and that on the south is moving eastward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195468",
"title": "Ring of Fire",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under the southwestern United States and Mexico; the motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2577206",
"title": "1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Beginning with the 1983 Coalinga earthquake, a blind thrust event in the central coast ranges of California, a change in perspective was brought about regarding these types of (concealed) faults. The October 1987 shock occurred on a previously unrecognized blind thrust fault that is now known as the Puente Hills thrust system. The fault was delineated by the mainshock and aftershock focal mechanisms, fault plane reflection studies, and high resolution seismic profiles, which also revealed that the fault runs from downtown Los Angeles to near Puente Hills. The system is considered one of the highest-risk faults in the United States due to its moderate dip and its location under a large metropolitan area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4921786",
"title": "Elsinore Fault Zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The Elsinore Fault Zone is a large right-lateral strike-slip geological fault structure in Southern California. The fault is part of the trilateral split of the San Andreas fault system and is one of the largest, though quietest faults in Southern California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50792512",
"title": "1918 San Jacinto earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The San Jacinto Fault Zone is a major strike-slip fault zone that runs through San Bernardino, Riverside, San Diego, and Imperial Counties in Southern California. The SJFZ is a component of the larger San Andreas transform system and is considered to be the most seismically active fault zone in the area. Together they relieve the majority of the stress between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18519684",
"title": "San Jacinto Fault Zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The San Jacinto Fault Zone (SJFZ) is a major strike-slip fault zone that runs through San Bernardino, Riverside, San Diego, and Imperial Counties in Southern California. The SJFZ is a component of the larger San Andreas transform system and is considered to be the most seismically active fault zone in the area. Together they relieve the majority of the stress between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15488329",
"title": "1969 Santa Barbara oil spill",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "In the Santa Barbara Channel, geologists realized that the anticlinal trend which held the extremely productive Rincon and Ventura Oil Fields did not end at the shoreline, but extended underneath the Channel. Prospectors for oil sought ways to drill in deeper water. Seismic testing under the Channel began shortly after the Second World War, in an attempt to locate the suspected petroleum reservoirs deep underneath the ocean floor. The testing was noisy and disruptive; explosions rattled windows, cracked plaster, and filled the beaches with dead fish; local citizens as well as the Santa Barbara News-Press vocally opposed the practice, which continued nonetheless, but after a delay and under tighter controls. Yet the testing had revealed what the oil company geologists had suspected, and the population feared: the probable presence of sizeable exploitable petroleum reservoirs in relatively shallow water, approximately deep, within reach of developing ocean-drilling technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7bvtau
|
how does hydraulic fracturing work? and what are the pros and cons of the process.
|
[
{
"answer": "You drill a hole into a rock formation containing tiny pockets of trapped natural gas. Then you pump a mixture or water, solvents, and tiny bits of sand into the hole. You pressurize the liquid at high pressure, fracturing the rock and wedging the little bits of sand into the cracks. When you let the pressure off, the natural gas comes out, and you capture that and sell it. It pushes the liquid out, so you store that and then pump it in again and again until you've cracked all the rock and release/harvested all the gas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water is incompressible, so if you have a cubic meter of 'stuff' (dirt, stone, oil, gas) and you force water (fracking liquid is mostly water) into it, you'll get out a slurry of stuff mixed with the fracking fluid out. You can then filter it to get the oil/gas you want. \n\nIt's a way to drill for oil/gas in deposits that are not easily tapped with traditional oil wells, but is more costly than normal oil well drilling and has some environmental concerns related to groundwater, small earthquakes, etc. That being said the price of oil is relatively low at the moment and fracking is not that profitable at this trough in energy markets, so you're seeing less fracking and thus less env issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39034966",
"title": "Exemptions for hydraulic fracturing under United States federal law",
"section": "Section::::Hydraulic fracturing: background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a process used to extract oil and natural gas. The process to extract oil and natural gas begins with thousands of gallons of water, mixed with a slurry of chemicals, some of which are undisclosed. This liquid mixture is then forced into well casings under high pressure, and then is horizontally injected into bedrock to create cracks or fissures. The forced change in geologic structure allows gas molecules to escape, therefore allowing the natural gas to be harvested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544339",
"title": "Hydraulic fracturing",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hydraulic fracturing is a process to stimulate a natural gas, oil, or geothermal well to maximize extraction. The EPA defines the broader process to include acquisition of source water, well construction, well stimulation, and waste disposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13893404",
"title": "Well stimulation",
"section": "Section::::Extending the perforation tunnels and fractures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Hydraulic fracturing is performed by injecting high pressure fluids into the wellbore and into the perforation tunnels to cause the rock formation to fracture. This can either be done by injecting hydraulic fluid from surface, a process called hydraulic fracturing or using an explosive to generate a high speed gas flow, a process called propellant stimulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544339",
"title": "Hydraulic fracturing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Hydraulic fracturing (also fracking, fraccing, frac'ing, hydrofracturing or hydrofracking) is a well stimulation technique in which rock is fractured by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of 'fracking fluid' (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep-rock formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either sand or aluminium oxide) hold the fractures open.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30833394",
"title": "In situ chemical oxidation",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Hydraulic fracturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Hydraulic fracturing is the process of artificially creating fractures in a site that has low permeability and then filling the fractures with oxidants. First a hole is drilled into the ground, and then a forceful jet of water is used to create fractures. Coarse sand, which allows just enough permeability for oxidants to get though, is used to fill the fractures and prevent them from closing up, and after that, the oxidant is injected into the fracture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34888676",
"title": "Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Hydraulic fracturing is a well-stimulation technique in which rock is fractured by a hydraulically pressurized fluid. This process is also known as 'fracking'. Hydraulic fracturing requires a borehole to be drilled to target depth in the reservoir. For oil and gas production, hydraulically fractured wells can be horizontal or vertical, while the reservoir can be conventional or unconventional. After the well has been drilled, lined, and geophysically logged, the rock can be hydraulically fractured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544339",
"title": "Hydraulic fracturing",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 1234,
"text": "Hydraulic fracturing is used to increase the rate at which fluids, such as petroleum, water, or natural gas can be recovered from subterranean natural reservoirs. Reservoirs are typically porous sandstones, limestones or dolomite rocks, but also include \"unconventional reservoirs\" such as shale rock or coal beds. Hydraulic fracturing enables the extraction of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below the earth's surface (generally ), which is greatly below typical groundwater reservoir levels. At such depth, there may be insufficient permeability or reservoir pressure to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at high economic return. Thus, creating conductive fractures in the rock is instrumental in extraction from naturally impermeable shale reservoirs. Permeability is measured in the microdarcy to nanodarcy range. Fractures are a conductive path connecting a larger volume of reservoir to the well. So-called \"super fracking,\" creates cracks deeper in the rock formation to release more oil and gas, and increases efficiency. The yield for typical shale bores generally falls off after the first year or two, but the peak producing life of a well can be extended to several decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ijh2m
|
If I replace multiple light bulbs at the same time why do they burn out at different times?
|
[
{
"answer": "Light bulbs are made to last within a certain tolerance. \n\nExample: 100 light bulbs are manufactured to last 1000 hours. But in reality most of those light bulbs won't last 1000 hours. Some will last more, some will last less. So you might get 90 of those light bulbs that last between 950 to 1050 hours. The other 10 are outliers.\n\nIt is nearly impossible to produce all light bulbs as equals. And even if you could they would have to fall within a certain range of \"hour life\", as statistically it can be proven that they chance of every light bulb lasting exactly 1000 hours is zero. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Consider also *why* lightbulbs fail. When a tungsten filament is made, it isn't perfect. They are undetectable when the lightbulb is made, but over time these defects will grow under the stress of heating and cooling, and eventually will cause the filament to burn out. As a result, tiny differences between light bulbs can cause large differences in how long they last.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530190",
"title": "Longest-lasting light bulbs",
"section": "Section::::Longest-lasting light bulb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "While it might seem astonishing that so many longest-lasting light bulbs have been so infrequently turned off, this is the precise reason for their longevity. Most of the wear and tear that leads to burnouts in incandescent light bulbs is caused by turning them on and off, not by burning them. Each time the bulb is turned on and off, the filament is heated and cooled. This causes the material of the filament to expand and contract, in turn causing micro stress cracks to develop. The more the light is turned on and off, the larger these cracks grow, until eventually the filament breaks at some point, in non-spectacular fashion, thus causing the light to burn out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717012",
"title": "Shunt (electrical)",
"section": "Section::::Defective device bypass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "One example is in miniature Christmas lights which are wired in series. When the filament burns out in one of the incandescent light bulbs, the full line voltage appears across the burnt out bulb. A shunt across the burnt out filament will then short out to bypass the burnt filament and allow the rest of the string to light. If too many lights burn out however, a shunt will also burn out, requiring the use of a multimeter to find the point of failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5146334",
"title": "Over illumination",
"section": "Section::::Energy and economic considerations.:Leaving lights turned on.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Likewise, not switching off the lights when exiting a room will also cause higher energy consumption. Some people avoid frequently turning off CFL bulbs because they think that doing so will cause them to burn out prematurely. While this is true to a certain extent, the US Department of Energy recommends that 15 minutes is an appropriate time frame. If someone plans to leave the room for less than 15 minutes, then the light should be left on. If the room will be unoccupied for more than 15 minutes, then the light should be switched off. Another concern is that turning on a fluorescent bulb consumes large amounts of energy. While fluorescent bulbs do need more energy to turn on, the amount of electricity consumed is equal to only a few seconds of normal operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1923494",
"title": "Material efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Lighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Another way to reduce electricity consumption and save money with lighting is by installing dimming switches with these bulbs. A dimmer can increase and decrease the amount of light emitted by the bulb to your liking. It can not make a light bulb brighter than its maximum already is but it can reduce it thus using less electricity and saving you money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144056",
"title": "Fluorescent lamp",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Frequent switching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "If the lamp is installed where it is frequently switched on and off, it will age rapidly. Under extreme conditions, its lifespan may be much shorter than a cheap incandescent lamp. Each start cycle slightly erodes the electron-emitting surface of the cathodes; when all the emission material is gone, the lamp cannot start with the available ballast voltage. Fixtures intended for flashing of lights (such as for advertising) will use a ballast that maintains cathode temperature when the arc is off, preserving the life of the lamp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045357",
"title": "Scrim (lighting)",
"section": "Section::::On lights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Film and TV productions typically use constant lighting in the studio and on location. Some types of bulbs cannot be electrically dimmed because of their design, and incandescent bulbs will progressively change in colour temperature, becoming more orange, as they are dimmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19911166",
"title": "Holiday lighting technology",
"section": "Section::::Control technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Most multi-function sets feature eight to sixteen moving light functions. Some very common functions are fading and chasing. More extravagant and less common functions are stepping on and two-channel flashing. These lights usually come in sets of 140 or 150. This is because to give the chasing effect, bulbs must be arranged in four circuits of 35 (sets of 140) or three circuits of 50 (sets of 150). These light sets use even less power than a regular set of 150, because the lights are not always on, and therefore the bulbs also do not get as hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9g181m
|
are all physical traits “inherited”, or are some of them random?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some of them are random - that’s actually how evolution works.\n\nThe way your body grows is defined in a set of rules stored in each cell, which is your DNA. When your body makes new cells (as you’re growing, or when you need to heal a wound), that DNA has to be copied to the new cell. Sometimes errors occur during this copying process, and these are known as ‘mutations’.\n\nSome mutations are good, such as an immunity to a deadly disease. Some mutations are bad, such as those which result in cancer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When animals breed, they have mutations because the biological process is imperfect. Sometimes proteins get switched around or changed.\n\nIf those mutations (changes) don't kill anything, then they are passed down (maybe) to the next generation, in which case those changes become inherited, rather than an on-the-fly mutation.\n\nSome physical traits can occur in the womb during the gestation of the animal.\n\nbut in terms of evolution, mutations happen (imperfect system), and if there are beneficial mutations, say, a better immune system, they will be passed on and increased in frequency in the animal's population. Then they'll continue in the population to be inherited.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23251776",
"title": "Acquired characteristic",
"section": "Section::::Disputes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Inherited characteristics, by definition, are characteristics that are gained or predisposed to by an organism as a result of genetic transmission from its parents and will be passed to the organism's offspring. Therefore, every condition an organism does not gain or develop because of inheritance of its parents' genetic information must be considered an acquired characteristic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23251776",
"title": "Acquired characteristic",
"section": "Section::::Disputes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Acquired characteristics, by definition, are characteristics that are gained by an organism after birth as a result of external influences or its own activities that change its structure or function and cannot be inherited. Therefore, every condition an organism is born with must be considered an inherited characteristic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57196924",
"title": "Complex traits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Complex traits, also known as quantitative traits, are traits that do not behave according to simple Mendelian inheritance laws. More specifically, their inheritance cannot be explained by the genetic segregation of a single gene. Such traits show a continuous range of variation and are influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. Compared to strictly Mendelian traits, complex traits are far more common, and because they can be hugely polygenic, they are studied using statistical techniques such as QTL mapping rather than classical genetics methods. Examples of complex traits include height, circadian rhythms, enzyme kinetics, and many diseases including diabetes and Parkinson's disease. One major goal of genetic research today is to better understand the molecular mechanisms through which genetic variants act to influence complex traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Some traits are part of an organisms' physical appearance; such as a person's eye-color, height or weight. Other sorts of traits are not easily seen and include blood types or resistance to diseases. Some traits are inherited through our genes, so tall and thin people tend to have tall and thin children. Other traits come from interactions between our genes and the environment, so a child might inherit the tendency to be tall, but if they are poorly nourished, they will still be short. The way our genes and environment interact to produce a trait can be complicated. For example, the chances of somebody dying of cancer or heart disease seems to depend on both their genes and their lifestyle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155624",
"title": "Heritability",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "For traits which are not continuous but dichotomous such as an additional toe or certain diseases, the contribution of the various alleles can be considered to be a sum, which past a threshold, manifests itself as the trait, giving the liability threshold model in which heritability can be estimated and selection modeled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13457",
"title": "Heredity",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's phenotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: a striking example is people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21757930",
"title": "Particulate inheritance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Particulate inheritance is a pattern of inheritance discovered by Mendelian genetics theorists, such as William Bateson, Ronald Fisher or Gregor Mendel himself, showing that phenotypic traits can be passed from generation to generation through \"discrete particles\" known as genes, which can keep their ability to be expressed while not always appearing in a descending generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zw8uk
|
would an airplane be affected if it flew over land that was experiencing a massive earthquake (i.e. over 9.0)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Earthquakes in maritim regions can cause floods and Tsunamis, which in turn have a strong influence on local winds. Those can possibly influence airplanes close to the ground. I can't imagine an airplane being affected by earthquakes when it flies at its normal transition height of around 10-15 km and neither when its above large areas of solid grounds.\nEdit: If the earthquake comes with volcaninc eruptions, it's another story. But in that case, we have one cause (volcanic eruption) and independent consequences (1: earthquake, 2: a lot of air movement above the vulcan, 3: etc.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unless you were flying low, the only time an earthquake could effect an aircraft is if there was a volcanic eruption as ash would be able to reach the altitudes that an aircraft flies at.\n\nPlanes have been effected before by this, for example, British Airways Flight 9.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speaking as a pilot, and I am, the simple answer is NO. As soon as the plane is off the ground, the ground can shake all it wants. The air will be not be affected by the ground enough to cause any issue with the plane. So far the answers have been over thinking the basic question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47359672",
"title": "Walter Christie (physician)",
"section": "Section::::Stroke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "In March 2011, Dr. Christie and his wife were traveling via airplane from Los Angeles to Bangkok. Midway during the flight, he suffered a stroke. When pilots attempted to divert the flight to the nearest airport, which was Tokyo, Japan, they were told they could not land due to the earthquake that was happening at the time (see 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3024589",
"title": "Alaskan Air Command",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cold War.:1964 earthquake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The earthquake damaged 14 F-102As. Most of the damage resulted from light fixtures falling from the roof of hangars onto the aircraft causing skin damages. Other aircraft were similarly damaged. Maintenance personnel were able to remove all 26 aircraft that were parked in the hangars by 1800. No fires occurred despite the fact that fuel was on the hangar floors and the light fixtures that fell were still hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36620284",
"title": "Aeroflot Flight 217",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The cause of the crash could not be determined. Investigators did believe the most probable cause was the 'psycho-physiological incapacitation of the crew for reasons unknown'. Somewhere at the 500 – 600 m. elevation, 30 – 25 seconds before impact, the pilots either have been incapacitated or lost control of the plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52649649",
"title": "Aerosucre Flight 4544",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The investigation also determined that following the loss of pressure in both main hydraulic systems caused by the impact with ground structures, the crew did not activate the standby hydraulic system, which could have enabled them to maintain control of the aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32155863",
"title": "RusAir Flight 9605",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "In September 2011, the Interstate Aviation Committee published its report into the crash. The primary cause of the accident was found to be the decision by the crew to conduct the approach in meteorological conditions that were below the minimum allowed for the airfield, the aircraft, and the pilot in command. The failure of the crew to go-around and their descent below the minimum safe altitude in absence of visual contact with the approach lights or ground resulted in the collision with trees and the ultimate impact with the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31387099",
"title": "2011 United Nations Bombardier CRJ-100 crash",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Flight data recorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Impact with the ground seems to have occurred at 12:56. In the very last second before the aircraft impacted the ground, there was an attempt by the crew to pull up the nose of the aircraft, as evidenced by a significant and instantaneous elevator deflection recorded on the FDR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2132151",
"title": "Pacific Air Lines Flight 773",
"section": "Section::::Murder-suicide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The official accident report stated that witnesses along the flight path and near the impact area described \"extreme and abrupt changes in altitude of Flight 773 with erratic powerplant sounds\" before the plane hit a sloping hillside at a relative angle of 90 degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ybvie
|
Does the discovery of the Higgs help create a better defenition of mass
|
[
{
"answer": "Not really, for a couple of reasons: The Higgs field provides a mechanism for fundamental particles to have mass, but it says nothing about why diffenent particles have the masses they do. That has to be added by hand. Also, the Higgs field is not the only source of mass, and most of the mass of everyday things comes from QCD binding energy, not the Higgs field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37891767",
"title": "Tejinder Virdee",
"section": "Section::::Research career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The possibility of discovering a Higgs-like boson played a crucial role in the conceptual design of CMS, and served as a benchmark to test the performance of the experiment. In 1990 Virdee and a colleague, Christopher Seez, carried out the first detailed simulation studies of the most plausible way to detect the SM Higgs boson in the low-mass region in the environment of the LHC: via its decay into two photons. Understanding that dense scintillating crystals offer arguably the best possibility of achieving excellent energy resolution, Virdee made a compelling case for the use of lead tungstate scintillating crystals (PbWO4) for the electromagnetic calorimeter of CMS and then led the team that proved the viability of this technique, a technique that has played a crucial role in the discovery of the new heavy boson, in July 2012. Virdee was deeply involved in this search for the Higgs boson, especially via its two-photon decay mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Properties of the Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "It is also possible, although experimentally difficult, to estimate the mass of the Higgs boson indirectly. In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson has a number of indirect effects; most notably, Higgs loops result in tiny corrections to masses of W and Z bosons. Precision measurements of electroweak parameters, such as the Fermi constant and masses of W/Z bosons, can be used to calculate constraints on the mass of the Higgs. As of July 2011, the precision electroweak measurements tell us that the mass of the Higgs boson is likely to be less than about at 95% confidence level (this upper limit would increase to if the lower bound of from the LEP-2 direct search is allowed for). These indirect constraints rely on the assumption that the Standard Model is correct. It may still be possible to discover a Higgs boson above these masses if it is accompanied by other particles beyond those predicted by the Standard Model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697155",
"title": "Hierarchy problem",
"section": "Section::::Examples in particle physics.:The Higgs mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "It should be remarked that the problem cannot even be formulated in the strict context of the Standard Model, for the Higgs mass cannot be calculated. In a sense, the problem amounts to the worry that a future theory of fundamental particles, in which the Higgs boson mass will be calculable, should not have excessive fine-tunings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Evidence of the Higgs field and its properties has been extremely significant for many reasons. The importance of the Higgs boson is largely that it is able to be examined using existing knowledge and experimental technology, as a way to confirm and study the entire Higgs field theory. Conversely, proof that the Higgs field and boson do \"not\" exist would have also been significant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357353",
"title": "Large Hadron Collider",
"section": "Section::::Findings and discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "An initial focus of research was to investigate the possible existence of the Higgs boson, a key part of the Standard Model of physics which is predicted by theory but had not yet been observed before due to its high mass and elusive nature. CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard Model were correct, the LHC would produce several Higgs bosons every minute, allowing physicists to finally confirm or disprove the Higgs boson's existence. In addition, the LHC allowed the search for supersymmetric particles and other hypothetical particles as possible unknown areas of physics. Some extensions of the Standard Model predict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge bosons, which are also estimated to be within reach of the LHC to discover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Significance.:Particle physics.:Validation of the Standard Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The Higgs boson validates the Standard Model through the mechanism of mass generation. As more precise measurements of its properties are made, more advanced extensions may be suggested or excluded. As experimental means to measure the field's behaviours and interactions are developed, this fundamental field may be better understood. If the Higgs field had not been discovered, the Standard Model would have needed to be modified or superseded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41555255",
"title": "History of subatomic physics",
"section": "Section::::Physics goes to high energies.:Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "Confirmation of the Higgs boson or something very much like it would constitute a rendezvous with destiny for a generation of physicists who have believed the boson existed for half a century without ever seeing it. Further, it affirms a grand view of a universe ruled by simple and elegant and symmetrical laws, but in which everything interesting in it being a result of flaws or breaks in that symmetry. According to the Standard Model, the Higgs boson is the only visible and particular manifestation of an invisible force field that permeates space and imbues elementary particles that would otherwise be massless with mass. Without this Higgs field, or something like it, physicists say all the elementary forms of matter would zoom around at the speed of light; there would be neither atoms nor life. The Higgs boson achieved a notoriety rare for abstract physics. To the eternal dismay of his colleagues, Leon Lederman, the former director of Fermilab, called it the \"God particle\" in his book of the same name, later quipping that he had wanted to call it \"the goddamn particle\". Professor Incandela also stated,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23rxvo
|
How hard would you have to press your fingertips together to kill the bacteria between them through sheer pressure?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you had a perfectly smooth surface, I don't see any reason why you couldn't crush them. However, what looks smooth to us is probably not smooth on the size scale of bacteria — most of them would probably be slid out of the way into crevices in the surface — think trying to crush M & Ms with a slotted spoon. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23619",
"title": "Pressure",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "As an example of varying pressures, a finger can be pressed against a wall without making any lasting impression; however, the same finger pushing a thumbtack can easily damage the wall. Although the force applied to the surface is the same, the thumbtack applies more pressure because the point concentrates that force into a smaller area. Pressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of fluid \"normal to\" these boundaries or sections at every point. Unlike stress, pressure is defined as a scalar quantity. The negative gradient of pressure is called the force density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "774220",
"title": "Diamond anvil cell",
"section": "Section::::Innovative uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "In 2002, scientists at the Carnegie Institution of Washington examined the pressure limits of life processes. Suspensions of bacteria, specifically \"Escherichia coli\" and \"Shewanella oneidensis\", were placed in the DAC, and the pressure was raised to 1.6 GPa, which is more than 16,000 times Earth's surface pressure (985 hPa). After 30 hours, only about 1% of the bacteria survived. The experimenters then added a dye to the solution. If the cells survived the squeezing and were capable of carrying out life processes, specifically breaking down formate, the dye would turn clear. 1.6 GPa is such great pressure that during the experiment the DAC turned the solution into ice-IV, a room-temperature ice. When the bacteria broke down the formate in the ice, liquid pockets would form because of the chemical reaction. The bacteria were also able to cling to the surface of the DAC with their tails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35490713",
"title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life",
"section": "Section::::High pressures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The question whether pressure is an impediment to (microbial) life is surprisingly opposite what has been assumed for a long time. Anurag Sharma, a geochemist, James Scott, a microbiologist, and others at the Carnegie Institution of Washington performed an experiment with Diamond Anvil Cell and utilized \"direct observations\" on microbial activity to over 1.0 Gigapascal pressures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016515",
"title": "Grip strength",
"section": "Section::::Training methods.:For opening grip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "BULLET::::- Doing fist pushups on the backside of the first fingerbone would increasingly put pressure on the extensor muscles as weight was shifted from knuckle-end to the further joint. When in a tight first, the flat of the fingernails can dig into the palm and push the skin down to create a bridge to stabilize the first structure and prevent hyperflexion of the knuckle joints (which can be observed by doing pushups with the entire backside of the fingers flat on the ground, fingers pointing towards the opposite hand).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016515",
"title": "Grip strength",
"section": "Section::::Training methods.:For stabilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fingertip pushups would utilize both opening and closing grip muscles to keep the finger from sliding, as well as more focused bone density in the hand, though they are very strenuous and dangerous unless approached progressively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35490713",
"title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life",
"section": "Section::::High pressures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "Their goal was to test microbes and discover under what level of pressure they can carry out life processes. The experiments were performed up to 1.6 GPa of pressure, which is more than 16,000 times Earth's surface pressure (Earth's surface pressure is 985 hPa). The experiment began by placing a solution of bacteria, specifically \"Escherichia coli\" and \"Shewanella oneidensis\", in a film and placing it in the DAC. The pressure was then raised to 1.6 GPa. When raised to this pressure and kept there for 30 hours, at least 1% of the bacteria survived. The experimenters then added a dye to the solution and also monitored formate metabolism using in-situ Raman spectroscopy. If the cells survived the squeezing and were capable of carrying out life processes, specifically breaking down formate, the dye would turn clear. 1.6 GPa is such great pressure that during the experiment the DAC turned the solution into ice-IV, a room-temperature ice. When the bacteria broke down the formate in the ice, liquid pockets would form because of the chemical reaction. The bacteria were also able to cling to the surface of the DAC with their tails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822649",
"title": "DNA fragmentation",
"section": "Section::::Intentional.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "BULLET::::- French pressure cells pass DNA through a narrow valve under high pressure to create high shearing forces. With a French press, the shear force can be carefully modulated by adjusting the piston pressure. The Press provides a single pass through the point of maximum shear force, limiting damage to delicate biological structures due to repeated shear, as occurs in other disruption methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ej9sc
|
What are the largest animal populations on Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many insects have numbers in the trillions, and biomasses far surpassing ours. We have much greater numbers than any other large mammal. A few birds also outnumber us.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22037519",
"title": "Springtail",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "In sheer numbers, they are reputed to be one of the most abundant of all macroscopic animals, with estimates of 100,000 individuals per square meter of ground, essentially everywhere on Earth where soil and related habitats (moss cushions, fallen wood, grass tufts, ant and termite nests) occur. Only nematodes, crustaceans, and mites are likely to have global populations of similar magnitude, and each of those groups except mites is more inclusive: though taxonomic rank cannot be used for absolute comparisons, it is notable that nematodes are a phylum and crustaceans a subphylum. Most springtails are small and difficult to see by casual observation, but one springtail, the so-called snow flea (\"Hypogastrura nivicola\"), is readily observed on warm winter days when it is active and its dark color contrasts sharply with a background of snow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1528711",
"title": "Human extinction",
"section": "Section::::Possible scenarios.:Habitat threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "BULLET::::- There is no other population of a large vertebrate animal like humans in the history of the planet that has grown so much, so fast, or with such devastating consequences to fellow earthlings. The growth of population occurred rapidly from 1 billion in 1800 to 2 billion in 1930, and has reached over 7 billion today. With the population going up, people will annually absorb more primary productivity of the Earth's terrestrial net, and increasing the use of land. Mentioned by Center for Biological Diversity, the species will eventually lead to a crash when its population grows beyond the capacity of its environmental sustainment and reduces its capacity below the original level. Evidence suggests birth rates may be rising in the 21st century in the developed world. The work of Hans Rosling, a Swedish medical doctor, academic, statistician and public speaker predicts global populations peaking at less than 12 billion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12173612",
"title": "Bramble Cay melomys",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Population estimates for the species varied widely. Observers in 1845 stated there were \"hundreds\" of the animal present, as did a survey from 1978. A 1998 survey captured 42 animals, and based on that, estimated the population size at approximately 90 individuals. Subsequent surveys in 2002 and 2004 only captured 10 and 12 individuals, respectively. The population was variously estimated as fewer than 50 mature individuals, and as fewer than 100 individuals, in 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12534622",
"title": "Wildlife of Rwanda",
"section": "Section::::Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three National Parks, which are designated conservation areas. Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants, while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one third of the worldwide mountain gorilla population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25645",
"title": "Rwanda",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Biodiversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three National Parks, which are designated conservation areas. Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants, while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one-third of the worldwide mountain gorilla population. Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate species including common chimpanzees and Ruwenzori colobus arboreal monkeys; the Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate in Africa. Rwanda's population of lions was destroyed in the aftermath of the genocide of 1994, as national parks were turned into camps for displaced people and remaining animals were poisoned by cattle herders. In June 2015, two South African parks donated seven lions to Akagera National Park, reestablishing a lion population in Rwanda. The lions were held initially in a fenced off area of the park, and then collared and released into the wild a month later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47492",
"title": "Biomass (ecology)",
"section": "Section::::Global biomass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "The most successful animal species, in terms of biomass, may well be Antarctic krill, \"Euphausia superba\", with a fresh biomass approaching 500 million tonnes, although domestic cattle may also reach these immense figures. However, as a group, the small aquatic crustaceans called copepods may form the largest animal biomass on earth. A 2009 paper in \"Science\" estimates, for the first time, the total world fish biomass as somewhere between 0.8 and 2.0 billion tonnes. It has been estimated that about 1% of the global biomass is due to phytoplankton, and 25% is due to fungi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20598041",
"title": "Largest organisms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Among animals, the largest species are all marine mammals, specifically whales. The blue whale is believed to be the largest animal to have ever lived. The largest land animal classification is also dominated by mammals, with the African bush elephant being the largest of these.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3am7sd
|
what is going on inside my phone that causes it to freeze?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a lot of different things, but basically it's the same reason computers occasionally freeze - lack of system resources or a critical error in core code. Because we keep pushing technology forward towards more features and more power, we never have time to optimize code and operating systems to remove ALL of the bugs that are in them, for perfect reliability. Intermittent issues that can be solved with a reboot is a price that consumers have shown they're willing to pay, so companies have little to no incentive to perfect systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39935334",
"title": "Nokia Lumia 1020",
"section": "Section::::Reported problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The Windows Phone 8.1 update introduced an issue for some Lumia 1020 and 925 users where their phones would freeze randomly on a regular basis. Microsoft has been working on the issue since September 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28999825",
"title": "List of 12 oz. Mouse characters",
"section": "Section::::Minor characters and creatures.:Cold Phone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Fitz found the Cold Phone in his icebox, ringing with a rattle. When Fitz questioned Rhoda about it, in episode 6 \"Spharktasm\", Rhoda replied \"You don't EVER want to get one... not ever!\". Shark first directed Fitz to find the Cold Phone in his icebox during a phone conversation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42319754",
"title": "Cellphone surveillance",
"section": "Section::::Detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Some indications of possible cellphone surveillance occurring may include a mobile phone waking up unexpectedly, using a lot of the CPU when on idle or when not in use, hearing clicking or beeping sounds when conversations are occurring and the circuit board of the phone being warm despite the phone not being used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30006269",
"title": "LG Optimus 7",
"section": "Section::::Technical issues.:Overheating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "It has also been reported that after reaching high temperatures, the phone can reboot. Upon rebooting, the phone can hang on LG startup logo indefinitely, or until the user resets the device manually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873212",
"title": "Broken Saints",
"section": "Section::::Chapters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Raimi Matthews begins to dig into his company's mainframe. Things go well at first, he finds his way into the information he is looking for when his computer freezes. Suddenly his monitor displays the sentence, \"I SEE YOU,\" making him try to disconnect. His electrical cord shorts, shocking him and taking out the power. His screens, now powerless, light up with a flashing symbol, and he passes out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210476",
"title": "SIM lock",
"section": "Section::::Unlocking technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Most handsets have security measures built into their firmware that protects them from repeated attempts to guess the unlock code. After entering more than a certain number of incorrect codes the phone becomes \"frozen\". This is a state where the phone will display a security message that the phone needs service. Older phones could no longer be used at all at this point, however modern smartphones often keep working with the original SIM but require extra work to then unlock them correctly. In extreme situations physical access to internal hardware via in-circuit debugging may be utilised (for example, via JTAG headers on a circuit board). Such access may be required to modify initalization software used for booting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7941486",
"title": "Perfect World (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Perfect World Boutique/Item Mall.:Phone Lock System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "As a prevention system against account hackers, Perfect World has a Phone Lock feature for those who wish to use it. The Phone Lock, when activated, will freeze an account until the player of that account dials in using the registered phone number. Once the number is recognized, the account is temporarily activated for login. The player must login within 10 minutes of activation before the account login is frozen again. The player may continue to play despite the freeze. If the player logs out after the 10 minutes are up, that player must once again dial in to temporarily deactivate the Phone Lock. The phone lock feature is exclusive to the Chinese Malaysian version of the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kc8i8
|
There's an episode of ST:TNG where Picard tells Wesley that before Marco Polo most people in Europe didn't know whether or not China really existed. That's not true ....right?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Romans where aware of the Han Dynasty and traded Silk, wine and olive oil. What they knew about each other was limited by the sheer distance that separated them. The western Roman Empire probably did little trade with China the parts of Rome closer to Persia probably did most of Rome's trade with China. \n\n[A map of the world by Ptolemy, in the east of the map is \"Sinae\" China.](_URL_0_)\n\n[Chinese description of Rome and there products.](_URL_2_) \n\nAlso check this question out _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Codswallop. Marco Polo's father and uncle had been to China before him; Venetian and other Italian traders had dealt in Chinese goods for centuries. Marco Polo was the just the first to write about it, exposing his travels to a wider audience. However, the popularity of his book also has to do with the fact that he made a lot if things up (admittedly, he also did some fairly remarkable things when he was there).\n\nFurther, as posters have noted below, some, sporadic knowledge of China had existed since Roman times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "538167",
"title": "The Travels of Marco Polo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The book was written in Old French by romance writer Rustichello da Pisa, who worked from accounts which he had heard from Marco Polo when they were imprisoned together in Genoa. From the beginning, there has been incredulity over Polo's sometimes fabulous stories, as well as a scholarly debate in recent times. Some have questioned whether Marco had actually travelled to China or was just repeating stories that he had heard from other travellers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32729933",
"title": "Did Marco Polo Go to China?",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "The historian David Morgan also points out basic errors made such as confusing the Liao dynasty with the Jin dynasty, and he found no compelling evidence in the book that would convince him that Marco Polo did not go to China. Haw also argues in his book \"Marco Polo's China\" that Marco's account is much more correct and accurate than has often been supposed and that it is extremely unlikely that he could have obtained all the information in his book from second-hand sources. Haw also criticizes Wood's approach to finding mention of Marco Polo in Chinese texts by contending that contemporaneous Europeans had little regard for using surnames and that a direct Chinese transliteration of the name \"Marco\" ignores the possibility of him taking on a Chinese or even Mongol name with no bearing or similarity with his Latin name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19334",
"title": "Marco Polo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Though he was not the first European to reach China (see Europeans in Medieval China), Marco Polo was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers. There is substantial literature based on Polo's writings; he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32729933",
"title": "Did Marco Polo Go to China?",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Did Marco Polo Go to China? is a 1995 book, by Frances Wood, arguing that Italian explorer Marco Polo never visited China but travelled no further than Persia and that he based his description of China on accounts from Persian travelers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "836724",
"title": "Early western influence in Fujian",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Given that Marco Polo dictated his book in prison several years after he returned from China, the accuracy of his remarks may be suspect. Either his memory was clouded by that time, or his ghost writer was more imaginative than he was. Some suggest that he did not visit this part of China at all. Nevertheless, he was impressed with Quanzhou(Zaiton), two hundred kilometres to the south of Fuzhou and according to Marco Polo, fifteen miles from Guangzhou. He claims to have visited Quanzhou, after leaving Fuzhou and making a detour that takes in Guilin and Guangzhou. He found to be Quanzhou a bustling port, was impressed by the quantity of pepper imports and noted that sugar was produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19334",
"title": "Marco Polo",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly analyses.:Omissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1513,
"text": "Skeptics have long wondered if Marco Polo wrote his book based on hearsay, with some pointing to omissions about noteworthy practices and structures of China as well as the lack of details on some places in his book. While Polo describes paper money and the burning of coal, he fails to mention the Great Wall of China, tea, Chinese characters, chopsticks, or footbinding. His failure to note the presence of the Great Wall of China was first raised in the middle of seventeenth century, and in the middle of eighteenth century, it was suggested that he might have never reached China. Later scholars such as John W. Haeger argued the Marco Polo might not have visited Southern China due to the lack of details in his description of southern Chinese cities compared to northern ones, while Herbert Franke also raised the possibility that Marco Polo might not have been to China at all, and wondered if he might have based his accounts on Persian sources due to his use of Persian expressions. This is taken further by Dr. Frances Wood who claimed in her 1995 book \"Did Marco Polo Go to China?\" that at best Polo never went farther east than Persia (modern Iran), and that there is nothing in \"The Book of Marvels\" about China that could not be obtained via reading Persian books. Wood maintains that it is more probable that Polo only went to Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) and some of the Italian merchant colonies around the Black Sea, picking hearsay from those travellers who had been farther east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "538167",
"title": "The Travels of Marco Polo",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Marco Polo was accompanied on his trips by his father and uncle (both of whom had been to China previously), though neither of them published any known works about their journeys. The book was translated into many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the original manuscripts are now lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lx4ki
|
What is the biggest earthquake the Earth is capable of producing?
|
[
{
"answer": "The largest earthquake every recorded was about a magnitude 9.5. Magnitude is largely controlled by the maximum stress rock can sustain. Higher magnitude quakes aren't really possible because the rocks will break before the stresses can build high enough to make a larger quake.\n\nThis topic was covered in detail in [this thread](_URL_0_) about 6 months ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The largest earthquake every recorded was about a magnitude 9.5. Magnitude is largely controlled by the maximum stress rock can sustain. Higher magnitude quakes aren't really possible because the rocks will break before the stresses can build high enough to make a larger quake.\n\nThis topic was covered in detail in [this thread](_URL_0_) about 6 months ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11986472",
"title": "Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant",
"section": "Section::::Incidents and accidents.:Nuclear disaster of March 2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1547,
"text": "On March 11, 2011, an earthquake categorized as 9.0 M on the moment magnitude scale occurred at 14:46 Japan Standard Time (JST) off the northeast coast of Japan, one of the most powerful earthquakes in history. Units 4, 5 and 6 had been \"shut down\" prior to the earthquake for planned maintenance. The remaining reactors were shut down/SCRAMed automatically after the earthquake, and the remaining decay heat of the fuel was being cooled with power from emergency generators. The subsequent destructive tsunami with waves of up to 14 meters that over-topped the station, which had seawalls, disabled emergency generators required to cool the reactors and Spent fuel pools in Units 1-5. Over the following three weeks there was evidence of partial nuclear meltdowns in units 1, 2 and 3: visible explosions, suspected to be caused by hydrogen gas, in units 1 and 3; a suspected explosion in unit 2, that may have damaged the primary containment vessel; and a possible uncovering of the Spent fuel pools in Units 1, 3 and 4. Units 5 & 6 were reported on March 19, by the station-wide \"alert log updates\" of the IAEA, to have gradually rising spent fuel pool temperatures as they had likewise lost offsite power, but onsite power provided by Unit 6's two diesel generators that had not been flooded, were configured to do double-duty and cool both Unit 5 and 6's spent fuel pools \"and cores\". As a precautionary measure, vents in the roofs of these two units were also made to prevent the possibility of hydrogen gas pressurization and then ignition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334312",
"title": "Megathrust earthquake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones at destructive convergent plate boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath another, caused by slip along the thrust fault that forms the contact between them. These interplate earthquakes are the planet's most powerful, with moment magnitudes (\"M\") that can exceed 9.0. Since 1900, all earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes. No other type of known terrestrial source of tectonic activity has produced earthquakes of this scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46514718",
"title": "April 2015 Nepal earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Earthquake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "The risk of a large earthquake was well known beforehand. In 2013, in an interview with seismologist Vinod Kumar Gaur, \"The Hindu\" quoted him as saying, \"Calculations show that there is sufficient accumulated energy [in the Main Frontal Thrust], now to produce an 8 magnitude earthquake. I cannot say when. It may not happen tomorrow, but it could possibly happen sometime this century, or wait longer to produce a much larger one.\" According to Brian Tucker, founder of a nonprofit organization devoted to reducing casualties from natural disasters, some government officials had expressed confidence that such an earthquake would not occur again. Tucker recounted a conversation he had had with a government official in the 1990s who said, \"We don't have to worry about earthquakes anymore, because we already had an earthquake\"; the previous earthquake to which he referred occurred in 1934.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10106",
"title": "Earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Frequency of occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56383587",
"title": "2018 Gulf of Alaska earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Earthquake.:Tectonic setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The earthquake was a strike-slip event that occurred within the Pacific Plate. The epicenter was to the south of the Aleutian Trench, where the Pacific Plate subducts beneath the North American Plate. The region has produced twelve large earthquakes since 1900, including several megathrust earthquakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3868736",
"title": "Mima mounds",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Seismic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "However, since this hypothesis has been proposed, there have been many large earthquakes throughout the world and none have been reported to have formed Mima mounds. In addition, Mima mounds have been gradually growing on the Carrizo Plain (California) since the 1980s when plowing of the fields was halted. These mounds have been forming in the absence of any large earthquakes. Therefore, there is no geological evidence supporting the 'earthquake' hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "393834",
"title": "Japan Trench",
"section": "Section::::Seismicity.:2011 Tōhoku earthquake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "On March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred on the subduction interface boundary of the Pacific Plate sinking underneath Japan along the Japan Trench. A rupture within the central region of the trench spanning an area of about 450 km long and 150 km wide resulted here. It is considered as the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan as well as one of the four most powerful earthquakes ever recorded since the start of modern record-keeping in 1900. This megathrust earthquake caused giant tsunami waves to form which eventually caused destruction to the coastline of northern Japan. The damage left about 16,000 people killed along with a catastrophic level 7 nuclear meltdown of three nuclear reactors located at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant complex. The World's Bank recorded the total cost of damage to be about US$235 billion, making it the costliest natural disaster in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3a0ruz
|
what happens in my brain when i get inspired?
|
[
{
"answer": "i don't know for sure, but it would make sense to me (again no idea on the science), but synapses fire that trigger parts of the brain that release endorphins which make you feel good and happy about it. the more inspired, the more synapses fire the more endorphins released",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5709846",
"title": "Artistic inspiration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Inspiration (from the Latin \"inspirare\", meaning \"to breathe into\") is an unconscious burst of creativity in a literary, musical, or other artistic endeavour. The concept has origins in both Hellenism and Hebraism. The Greeks believed that inspiration or \"enthusiasm\" came from the muses, as well as the gods Apollo and Dionysus. Similarly, in the Ancient Norse religions, inspiration derives from the gods, such as Odin. Inspiration is also a divine matter in Hebrew poetics. In the \"Book of Amos\" the prophet speaks of being overwhelmed by God's voice and compelled to speak. In Christianity, inspiration is a gift of the Holy Spirit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14833451",
"title": "Impulse (psychology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "An impulse is a wish or urge, particularly a sudden one. It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of human thought processes, but also one that can become problematic, as in a condition like obsessive-compulsive disorder, borderline personality disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21684014",
"title": "Pinky and the Brain",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:The Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1357,
"text": "Brain sees his inevitable rise to power as good for the world, and not mere megalomania. In \"Wakko's Wish\", he said to Pinky \"We're on our way to fame, fortune and a world that's a better place for all.\" Many of the Brain's plots had the endgame of winning over the people's hearts and then having them make him their ruler. However, his motives are not pure. In one episode, Brain finds himself hypnotized by a psychologist that he had planned to manipulate for one of his schemes, who turns out to be none other than Sigmund Freud. There Brain reveals that he originally lived with his parents in a tin can at the base of a tree in a large field. When he was young, ACME researchers captured Brain and took him from his home, and the last he saw of it was a picture of the world on the side of the can. Dr. Freud speculates that Brain's hunger to take over the world is misplaced, and that all he really wants is to go back home to his parents. According to the creators, Brain wants to take over the world not for the sake of being a dictator, like his rival Snowball, but because he believes that he could do a much better job of it than the people currently in charge. Brain has even helped save the world by doing everything in his power to prevent Snowball's evil schemes, knowing that a world under Snowball's rule would be the worst-case scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "793825",
"title": "Goose bumps",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Canadian researchers have suggested that when humans are moved by music their brains behave as if reacting to delicious food, psychoactive drugs, or money. The pleasure experience is driven by the chemical dopamine, which produces physical effects known as \"chills\" that cause changes in heart rate, breathing, temperature and the skin's electrical conductance. The responses correlate with the degree to which people rate the \"pleasurability\" of music. Dopamine release is greatest when listeners had a strong emotional response to music. \"If music-induced emotional states can lead to dopamine release, as our findings indicate, it may begin to explain why musical experiences are so valued,” wrote the scientists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5709846",
"title": "Artistic inspiration",
"section": "Section::::History of the concepts.:Modernist and modern concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In modern psychology, inspiration is not frequently studied, but it is generally seen as an entirely internal process. In each view, however, whether empiricist or mystical, inspiration is, by its nature, beyond control. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50045283",
"title": "Got You on My Mind (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "\"Got You on My Mind\" is a song written by Howard Biggs and Joe Thomas. The lyrics commence: \"Got you on my mind feeling kinda sad and low / Wonderin' where you are / wonderin' why you had to go / Tears began to fall ev'rytime I hear your name.\" The song was recorded by John Greer and the Rhythm Rockers 1951, for whom it was a hit, and then covered by Hawkshaw Hawkins 1952, Buddy Morrow and His Orchestra 1952, Jim Reeves early 1950s, Varetta Dillard 1956, The Del Royals 1961, Cookie and the Cupcakes 1963, Jerry Lee Lewis 1965, Carl Hall 1966, Sleepy LaBeef 1970, Price Mitchell & Jerri Kelly 1974, Carol Channing & Webb Pierce 1977, and by Dale Sellers. The song was also the title track on albums of the same title by Jean Shephard 1961 and William Galison and Madeleine Peyroux 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3233040",
"title": "G. Alan Marlatt",
"section": "Section::::Urge Surfing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Urge surfing is a technique attributed to the late psychologist Alan Marlatt, Ph.D., a pioneer in the field of addictions treatment. We can think of an urge as an impulse to engage in an old habit, such as drinking or using, and they are often experienced as physical sensations in the body. Urges are like waves in that they rise in intensity, peak, and eventually crash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5o5xj4
|
why do domestic trailers have less material than international ones? why not just use the international trailer for foreign and domestic audiences, especially when youtube exists?
|
[
{
"answer": "Trailers are often made to appeal to a specific audience.\n\nFor the most part, trailers for western countries will all be the same, but you may see some difference in trailers for Japan and China, as those audience have different tastes for films and content then western audiences, and if the film contains asian actors, they would often be incorporated more into the trailers, while they may not be given any additional time in the western ones. \n\n Other than that, if you do see other differences in western countries, they will be very minor, and again, just made to appeal to the audience who its target at.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "89690",
"title": "Trailer park",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Outside United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, \"trailers\" are commonly known as static caravans, and are generally used for one of two purposes: firstly as holiday homes, designed for short-term living; and secondly as retirement homes for the elderly, designed for long-term occupancy. Both types of trailers usually enjoy good amenities and are surrounded by highly manicured gardens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358630",
"title": "Caravan (towed trailer)",
"section": "Section::::Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "In Australia, camper trailers are common alongside the traditional caravan. Camper trailers differentiate themselves from similar products due to their ability to go off-road. They feature large water holding tanks, batteries for electricity and off-road suspension. See also Caravan, RV & Accommodation Industry of Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "853744",
"title": "Trailer (promotion)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Movie trailers have now become popular on DVDs and Blu-ray discs, as well as on the Internet and mobile devices. Of some 10 billion videos watched online annually, film trailers rank third, after news and user-created video. The trailer format has also been adopted as a promotional tool for television shows, video games, books, and theatrical events/concerts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23165204",
"title": "Teardrop trailer (truck)",
"section": "Section::::Adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The trailers have been used in the United Kingdom for several years by various operators. Deutsche Post DHL operates over 1,100 in the UK and was the first operator in continental Europe; it announced in 2014 that it would utilize the trailers in France and Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "853744",
"title": "Trailer (promotion)",
"section": "Section::::Other types of trailers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Beginning in the late 1990s to early 2000s, and along with the development of the Internet and sites such as YouTube as well as animation techniques, more types of trailers began to be created due to easier and cheaper costs to produce and show trailers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "853744",
"title": "Trailer (promotion)",
"section": "Section::::Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Some cinemas also began to show \"trailer trash\" programs of trailers without a main feature. Similarly, several DVDs containing nothing but trailers for films, typically from exploitation film genres, have been produced for sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20460",
"title": "Film promotion",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:In theaters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Trailers are a mainstay of film promotion, because they are delivered directly to movie-goers. They screen in theatres before movie showings. Generally they tell the story of the movie in a highly condensed fashion compressing maximum appeal into two and half minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
43ypsc
|
What would happen if you frayed the ends of hundreds of small wires connected to two ends of a battery, and brushed them together?
|
[
{
"answer": "You'd be creating a short circuit, with consequences possibly including a damaged battery, melting insulation / vaporized or molten wire / fire, and a chemical hazard, depending on the battery chemistry and the exact nature of your setup. \n \nTo start with, let's say that there's only one wire attached to each end of the battery. The wire happens to be two 6\" lengths of [22 AWG](_URL_2_), and is attached to the terminals of a 9 V (alkaline) battery. Looking at that table, we can see that the resistance of the wire (both pieces in series) will be 16.14 mOhms - that is, 0.01614 Ohms. [Ohm's Law](_URL_3_) tells us that V = I x R -- that the difference in electric potential (voltage) is equal to the amount of electrical current flowing multiplied by the resistance. \n \nIn this situation, V and R are known, and I can be calculated. In addition to the wire resistance, the 9 V battery has some internal resistance - about 1 Ohm, which saves us from complete disaster. So I = V / R, and the current is about 9 Amps. Going back to the AWG table, the wire shouldn't melt or vaporize (although it will probably become noticeably hot), and might melt through the cheaper types of insulation. The battery, since it's probably [not expected to handle 9 A of current](_URL_0_), will become very hot and unhappy, possibly igniting. If the battery didn't have any internal resistance, then we'd be looking at a current of well over 500 A - ten times what it would take to melt the wire! \n \nPulling that much current out of a battery / through a wire causes them to heat up, as the electrons try to move and collide with inconveniently placed atoms. More current ~ more collisions ~ more heat.\n \nAll things considered, alkaline batteries are fairly safe in this scenario - they'll (more or less safely) self-destruct instead of providing a ridiculous amount of current, and you probably won't be exposed to any nasty chemicals. A car battery, on the other hand, has a smaller internal resistance (~0.01-0.001 Ohms), and can handle lots of current. With a car battery, you'd easily melt the wires - although, if you short the car battery with large enough wires that can handle the current, you'll damage the battery and probably wind up with vented hydrogen gas and a good chance of a fire / worse. \n \nBack to your original question! Lots of tiny wires, random battery, and shorting the wires together. [Fire](_URL_1_). The wires will *probably* burn out quickly enough to avoid damaging the battery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2938316",
"title": "Punch-down block",
"section": "Section::::Reliable connections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "It is possible to insert wiring without the proper tool, but this requires great care to avoid damaging the connectors. For example, pushing a screwdriver down the middle of the block is a bad practice as it forces the two blades of the terminal post apart, leading to bad contacts. It is also possible to punch-down multiple wires on top of each other in a single post of a punch-down block, but this practice is discouraged because of reliability concerns. If these multiple wires are of different thicknesses (wire gauges), it is even more likely that the thinner wire will develop contact problems. Similarly, stranded wire can be used on punch-down blocks, even though they were originally designed for solid wire connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235898",
"title": "Short circuit",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "In electrical devices unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's insulation breaks down, or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing charge to flow along a different path than the one intended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230643",
"title": "Braid",
"section": "Section::::Industrial history and use.:Ropes and cables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Flat braids made of many copper wires can also be used for flexible electrical connections between large components. The numerous smaller wires comprising the braid are much more resistant to breaking under repeated motion and vibration than is a cable of larger wires. A common example of this may be found connecting a car battery's negative terminal to the metal chassis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2595419",
"title": "Aluminum building wiring",
"section": "Section::::Aluminum wiring in older homes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "For smaller branch circuits with solid wires (15A/20A circuits) typical connections of an electrical wire to an electrical device are usually made by wrapping the wire around a screw on the device, also called a terminal, and then tightening the screw. At around the same time the use of steel screws became more common than brass screws for electrical devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537422",
"title": "National Electrical Code",
"section": "Section::::Requirements.:Conduit and cable protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "A wire pulled with excessive force may break inside the conduit, requiring costly removal and replacement. However, a wire pulled with enough force to stretch the wire, but not break it, creates a hazard of future failure or fire. The stretched wire section will have a thinner cross section and higher resistance than other parts of the cable, and may have damaged insulation. Breaks may form in the stretched insulation, which may not be discovered until the circuit is powered and damage from arcing or shorting has occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1917294",
"title": "Safety wire",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Witness wire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Typically the wire is threaded through existing holes in the associated equipment, using a single strand loop, and a single crossover, such that the closure is secured without impedance to the normal functioning of the equipment. The single crossover provides the appropriate friction such that the wire cannot fall completely free of the equipment when broken. The loose ends of the strand may be twisted in a pigtail fashion, or crimped with a lead seal, securing both strands as close to the closure as practical. In each case, the loose ends of the strands should be tucked neatly away from inadvertent impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015982",
"title": "Ignition coil",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1822,
"text": "The primary winding has relatively few turns of heavy wire. The secondary winding consists of thousands of turns of smaller wire, insulated from the high voltage by enamel on the wires and layers of oiled paper insulation. The coil is usually inserted into a metal can or plastic case with insulated terminals for the high voltage and low voltage connections. When the contact breaker closes, it allows current from the battery to flow through the primary winding of the ignition coil. The current does not flow instantly because of the inductance of the coil. Current flowing in the coil produces a magnetic field in the core and in the air surrounding the core. The current must flow long enough to store enough energy in the field for the spark. Once the current has built up to its full level, the contact breaker opens. Since it has a capacitor connected across it, the primary winding and the capacitor form a tuned circuit, and as the stored energy oscillates between the inductor formed by the coil and the capacitor, the changing magnetic field in the core of the coil induces a much larger voltage in the secondary of the coil. More modern electronic ignition systems operate on exactly the same principle, but some rely on charging the capacitor to around 400 volts rather than charging the inductance of the coil. The timing of the opening of the contacts (or switching of the transistor) must be matched to the position of the piston in the cylinder so that the spark may be timed to ignite the air/fuel mixture to extract the most angular momentum possible. This is usually several degrees before the piston reaches top dead center. The contacts are driven off a shaft that is driven by the engine camshaft, or, if electronic ignition is used, a sensor on the engine shaft controls the timing of the pulses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7utstl
|
the new memo release and what it means
|
[
{
"answer": " > Is this release as bad as they say?\n\nWho is \"They\"?\n\n > What does it mean?\n\nIt means we know nothing we didn't already know. The FBI used in part, a democratic-funded dossier as evidence to obtain warrants to conduct surveillance against Carter Page. Related information much later was found to be false Republicans claim that the dossier was a central part of why they obtained a warrant and thus the FBI is allowing democrats to (extremely) indirectly fund surveillance against republicans. The FBI is claimng this memo willfully omits key facts - which could include anything up to and including numerous other facts they had that would have justified surveillance making the entire issue a moot point.\n\nFurthermore, almost everyone involved in approving said surveillance was appointed by Trump so the concept that this is a Democratic plot relies on this idea that there's secret sub-organizations within the FBI so powerful that they're more powerful than the director, deputy director, etc etc etc - all appointed by Trump.\n\nSo basically the memo says things we already knew for months, and means absolutely nothing in and of itself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8271848",
"title": "Naval Consolidated Brig, Charleston",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The memos were released to the Post and Courier in response to a Freedom of Information Act request, filed eight years previously, for information about changes to the role of the prison triggered by al Qaeda's attacks on September 11, 2001. They wrote that when the DoD's response was finally received, \"\"A Pentagon official apologized but gave no explanation for the long delay.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56398981",
"title": "Nunes memo",
"section": "Section::::Responses.:U.S. intelligence community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Shortly after becoming a trending topic, the memo drew polarizing reactions from government officials and the media, and generally along party lines for lawmakers. The Justice Department (DOJ) released a letter to Congress calling a release of the memo without review \"reckless\" because it could expose intelligence sources and methods. FBI Director Christopher Wray was allowed to read the memo and did so on January 28. On January 29, the majority of the House Intelligence Committee disregarded the DOJ's warnings and voted to approve the memo's release. In response, Democrats on the House Intelligence Committee drafted a ten-page rebuttal memo on January 24. Both memos were released to the full House. The Republicans voted against making public the competing memo Democrats had crafted, and rejected a proposal to give the Justice Department and FBI more time to vet the document. The President then had up to five days to review it before it could be officially released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4519583",
"title": "Operation Iraqi Freedom documents",
"section": "Section::::Website closure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1103,
"text": "In November 2006, the documents were removed from the Internet by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. The U.S. government had already received warnings about the site's content from the International Atomic Energy Agency, who was specifically concerned about sensitive documents about the pre-1991 Iraqi nuclear program, but the documents were not removed until the \"New York Times\" informed the government that it would be publishing an article about the sensitive material. The \"New York Times\" called the material a \"nuclear primer\" because it included about a dozen documents in Arabic that contained \"charts, diagrams, equations and lengthy narratives about bomb building that nuclear experts who have viewed them say go beyond what is available elsewhere on the Internet and in other public forums. For instance, the papers give detailed information on how to build nuclear firing circuits and triggering explosives, as well as the radioactive cores of atom bombs.\" The fear was that these documents would give Iraq's nuclear secrets to Iran and thus aid the Iranian WMD program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230025",
"title": "Pentagon Papers",
"section": "Section::::Full release in 2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The full release was coordinated by the Archives's National Declassification Center (NDC) as a special project to mark the anniversary of the report. The NDC worked with the agencies having classification control over the material to prevent the redaction of the last 11 words of the \"Pentagon Papers\" that would not have been made available. It is unknown which 11 words were at issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "590464",
"title": "Freedom of Information Act (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.:1995–99 expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Between 1995 and 1999, President Clinton issued executive directives (and amendments to the directives) that allowed the release of previously classified national security documents more than 25 years old and of historical interest, as part of the FOIA. This release of information allowed many previously publicly unknown details about the Cold War and other historical events to be discussed openly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8596369",
"title": "Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History of decriminalization.:State recreational legalization begins (2012).:Federal response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The Cole memo remained in effect until January 2018, when it was rescinded by Attorney General Jeff Sessions. The intended impact of the rescission was not immediately made clear, however, in regards to what kind of crackdown (if any) on the states would be forthcoming. In response to the memo's rescission, the STATES Act was introduced in Congress (upon consultation with President Trump) to enshrine into law protections that the Cole memo previously provided. President Trump confirmed to reporters his intent to sign the STATES Act should it be approved by Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131780",
"title": "Alberto Gonzales",
"section": "Section::::White House Counsel.:Executive Order 13233.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1301,
"text": "Executive Order 13233, drafted by Gonzales and issued by President George W. Bush on November 1, 2001, shortly after the September 11, 2001 attacks, attempted to place limitations on the Freedom of Information Act by restricting access to the records of former presidents. The order asserted the President's power to delay the release of presidential records longer than the congressionally mandated period of 12 years after the president leaves office. Executive Order 13233 revoked President Ronald Reagan's Executive Order 12667 on the same subject and had the effect of delaying the release of Reagan's papers, which were due to be made public when Bush took office in 2001. While the policy was being drawn up, Gonzales as Counsel to the President issued a series of orders to the U.S. Archivist to delay the release of Reagan's records. This order was the subject of a number of lawsuits and Congressional attempts to overturn it. In 2007, a D.C. district court ordered the Archivist not to obey this order, finding it to be \"arbitrary, capricious, and contrary to law in violation of the Administrative Procedure Act.\" On January 21, 2009 (his first day in office), President Barack Obama revoked Executive Order 13233 by issuing , with wording largely matching Reagan's Executive Order 12667.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hetvb
|
If there are magnetic field lines are there gravitational field lines also?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Newton's theory of gravity, you can definitely define gravitational field lines. The reason they aren't used very much is that they aren't as useful as magnetic field lines are, for two reasons:\n\n1. Magnetic field lines can be seen directly. For instance, plasma is often frozen onto magnetic field lines, as in this [example on the Sun](_URL_0_). You can use a magnet to force iron filings to align with the magnetic field. In contrast, the gravitational field is much less useful directly.\n\n2. Newtonian gravity has no speed limit. There was never any need to use a field to transfer the force from one place to another, because Newtonian gravity is instantaneous. Note that electrostatics (Culomb's Law) is also instantaneous, so electric field lines were not invented until after magnetic field lines were invented.\n\n3. (related to the second) There are no (Newtonian) gravitational waves. Fields become necessary (as opposed to just useful) when they carry significant energy independently of matter. Light is an electromagnetic wave which can only be understood classically in terms of a field. There are no free gravitational waves in Newtonian theory, because Newtonian gravity is instantaneous. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. Similar to how magnetic field lines give some indication of which way a dipole will orient at that location and how strongly, and electric field lines indicate the direction of force a positive charge would experience, gravitational field lines indicate the strength of gravitational force a mass would experience at a particular location. \n\nIn the case of the Earth, these gravitational field lines would point towards the center of the Earth, and converge(indicating more force) as a mass moves toward the surface.\n\nKeep in mind these field lines are just visual depictions of the field. They aren't \"real\" in the way gravity is real, just representations. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58686423",
"title": "Introduction to electromagnetism",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic field and force.:Magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Magnetic field lines have a very similar representation to electric field lines. There is an analogous notion of magnetic flux. Magnetic field lines begin at north poles and end at south poles, and cannot cross. Magnetic fields arise due to the motion of charges, and also due to the alignment of the domains of magnetic materials where the magnetic moments of the atoms point in the same direction. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16094518",
"title": "Gauss's law for magnetism",
"section": "Section::::Field lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The magnetic field , like any vector field, can be depicted via field lines (also called \"flux lines\") – that is, a set of curves whose direction corresponds to the direction of , and whose areal density is proportional to the magnitude of . Gauss's law for magnetism is equivalent to the statement that the field lines have neither a beginning nor an end: Each one either forms a closed loop, winds around forever without ever quite joining back up to itself exactly, or extends to infinity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5000404",
"title": "Field line",
"section": "Section::::Precise definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "For example, Gauss's law states that an electric field has sources at positive charges, sinks at negative charges, and neither elsewhere, so electric field lines start at positive charges and end at negative charges. They can also form closed loops, or extend to or from infinity, or continue forever without closing in on themselves. A gravitational field has no sources, it has sinks at masses, and it has neither elsewhere, gravitational field lines come from infinity and end at masses. A magnetic field has no sources or sinks (Gauss's law for magnetism), so its field lines have no start or end: they can \"only\" form closed loops, extend to infinity in both directions, or continue indefinitely without ever crossing itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563",
"title": "Magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic field lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic forces. In ferromagnetic substances like iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by imagining that the field lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band) along their length, and a pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. \"Unlike\" poles of magnets attract because they are linked by many field lines; \"like\" poles repel because their field lines do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other. The rigorous form of this concept is the electromagnetic stress–energy tensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563",
"title": "Magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic field and permanent magnets.:Amperian loop model and the B-field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "These magnetic dipoles produce a magnetic -field. One important property of the -field produced this way is that magnetic -field lines neither start nor end (mathematically, is a solenoidal vector field); a field line either extends to infinity or wraps around to form a closed curve. To date, no exception to this rule has been found. (See magnetic monopole below.) Magnetic field lines exit a magnet near its north pole and enter near its south pole, but inside the magnet -field lines continue through the magnet from the south pole back to the north. If a -field line enters a magnet somewhere it has to leave somewhere else; it is not allowed to have an end point. Magnetic poles, therefore, always come in N and S pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19737",
"title": "Maxwell's equations",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual descriptions.:Gauss's law for magnetism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no \"magnetic charges\" (also called magnetic monopoles), analogous to electric charges. Instead, the magnetic field due to materials is generated by a configuration called a dipole, and the net outflow of the magnetic field through any closed surface is zero. Magnetic dipoles are best represented as loops of current but resemble positive and negative 'magnetic charges', inseparably bound together, having no net 'magnetic charge'. In terms of field lines, this equation states that magnetic field lines neither begin nor end but make loops or extend to infinity and back. In other words, any magnetic field line that enters a given volume must somewhere exit that volume. Equivalent technical statements are that the sum total magnetic flux through any Gaussian surface is zero, or that the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9550",
"title": "Electricity",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Electric field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18v2sk
|
Why did some Jews get out of Germany before the WWII and others stayed behind?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many, many reasons.\n\nUnlike what the Nazis were claiming the \"Jewish\" people of Germany considered themselves to be just as German as non Jewish people considered themselves to be. It was their home. They had a stake in it. I say \"Jewish\" because there were laws which determined if one was Jewish or not and you didn't have to consider yourself as Jewish to be Jewish under the law.\n\nFor those who wanted to leave was the problem of being able to afford to do so, being allowed to do so and finding somewhere to take you. The US was a popular destination but the US had immigration quotas. Other countries in Europe were also in a number of ways antiSemetic (obviously not to the extent of the Nazis) and so limited the numbers of Jewish people they would take, if they would at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2125860",
"title": "History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland",
"section": "Section::::Polish Jews in the Soviet Union.:Communist rule: 1945–1989.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1643,
"text": "Soon after the end of the Second World War, Jews began to exit Poland thanks to the repatriation agreement with the USSR. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah to Mandate Palestine. The exodus took place in stages. After the war, the vast majority of survivors left for several reasons, often more than one. Many left simply because they did not want to live in a communist country. Some left because the refusal of the Communist regime to return prewar private property. Others did not wish to rebuild their lives in the places where their families were murdered. Yet others wanted to go to British Mandate of Palestine soon to become Israel. Some of the survivors had relatives abroad. The dominant factor, however, was the decision made by Gen. Spychalski of PWP to sign a decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah upon the conclusion of World War II. Consequently, the Jewish emigration from Poland increased dramatically. Britain demanded from Poland (among others) to halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful. Jewish-Polish writer Rachela Auerbach, who visited Treblinka in November 1945 as part of an official delegation for the Main Commission for the Investigation of Hitlerite Crimes, found that some Polish peasants were digging up the ashes in search of overlooked valuables. Bełżec was similarly desecrated from 1943 onwards after the camp was closed, (see: Sonderaktion 1005 for the 1943 liquidation of the actual mass graves in both Treblinka and Belzec).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17288544",
"title": "Jews escaping from German-occupied Europe to the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Initially, Germany encouraged Jews to leave, then they restricted the amount of money they could take from German banks and imposed high emigrations taxes. The German government forbade emigration after October 1941. The German Jews who remained, about 163,000 in Germany and less than 57,000 from annexed Austria, were mostly elderly who were murdered in ghettos or taken to Nazi concentration camps, where most of them were killed. Although Jews could easily leave Germany initially, it was difficult to find countries in which they could live, particularly after accepting the initial wave of immigrants in Europe, Britain, and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51047851",
"title": "Flüchtlingspolitik",
"section": "Section::::Empire and Weimar Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1443,
"text": "During the German Empire and the Weimar Republic, Germany was one of the countries most sought after by Jews who were fleeing violence and discrimination in eastern, central and south-eastern Europe. The first big wave of Jewish refugees to Germany from the east reached was a result of the Russian Revolution and Counter Revolution in 1904–05. During the First World War which turned Poland into a war zone, there was a second big wave of Jewish immigrants from the East. Due to the Axis powers' blockade, this wave settled mainly in Central Europe, Germany and Austria. \"Hundreds of thousands of Polish Jews fled to Vienna and Berlin: children of foreign culture, speaking a foreign language, upholding foreign customs and beliefs.\" These were mostly forced to come as refugees with nothing to their name, and just tried to scrape a living in any possible way. There are no indications of any correlation between Jews from Eastern Europe and an increased crime rate. The historian Anne-Christin Saß discovered that in the second half of the 1920s in Berlin, Jews were prevented from continuing to move further west in Europe or even as far as the USA, as they had riginally intended; thus Berlin developed into a world Jewish center. This change not only intensified antisemitic resentment by the right wing supporters, but also triggered defensive reactions of fully integrated, sometimes even completely assimilated, \"Jews from the West\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12989061",
"title": "Hinzweiler",
"section": "Section::::History.:Jewish history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Growing antisemitism, however – even before the beginning of the Third Reich – made many Jews choose emigration, while some also moved to Germany's cities. However, those who could not get themselves to safety in time were rounded up by the Nazis on 22 October 1940 and deported to Gurs in southwestern France, whence they were further sent to the death camps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16938566",
"title": "Antisemitism in Europe",
"section": "Section::::After 1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "With the end of World War II in 1945, surviving Jews began to return to their homes although many chose to emigrate to the United States, Great Britain, and British-controlled Palestine. To some extent, the antisemitism of the Nazi regime continued in different guises. Claims of blood libel and persecution of Jews continued, in part due to fear that returning Jews would attempt to reclaim property stolen during the Holocaust or expose assistance given by elements of the local population in previously Nazi-occupied territories. An example was the Kielce pogrom, which occurred in 1946 in Poland when citizens violently attacked Jews based on a false accusation of the kidnapping of a Christian child.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8953248",
"title": "Nowy Żmigród",
"section": "Section::::History.:Jewish community in Żmigród.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "With the outbreak of World War II, many Jews fled across the San river to the Soviet occupation zone, but most of them soon returned home. Some of those who went east were soon rounded up by the Soviet NKVD and deported to the interior of the country in 1940. As soon as the Germans occupied Nowy Żmigród, orders aimed at the Jews began to appear. Jews were not allowed to travel, had to wear armbands and were forced to contribute money and forced labor. In 1940, many Jews from the area were transported to Nowy Żmigród from as far away as Łódź. The Judenrat and the J.S.S. (Jewish Self Help) local committee provided lodgings, clothing and medical assistance for the new arrivals. Jews received meals from the public kitchen. Early in 1942, a ghetto was established in Nowy Żmigród. More Jews were forced to move into the community from nearby villages. The Jewish population reached 2,000 people with an unbelievable level of overcrowding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1263527",
"title": "History of the Jews in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Jews in Germany from 1945 to the reunification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "When the Soviet army took over Berlin in late April 1945, only 8,000 Jews remained in the city, all of them either in hiding or married to non-Jews. Most German Jews who survived the war in exile decided to remain abroad; however, a small number returned to Germany. Additionally, approximately 15,000 German Jews survived the concentration camps or survived by going into hiding. These German Jews were joined by approximately 200,000 displaced persons (DPs), Eastern European Jewish Holocaust survivors. They came to Allied-occupied western Germany after finding no homes left for them in eastern Europe (especially in Poland) or after having been liberated on German soil. The overwhelming majority of the DPs wished to emigrate to Palestine and lived in Allied- and U.N.-administered refugee camps, remaining isolated from German society. When Israel became independent in 1948, most European-Jewish DPs left for the new state; however, 10,000 to 15,000 Jews decided to resettle in Germany. Despite hesitations and a long history of antagonism between German Jews (\"Yekkes\") and East European Jews (\"Ostjuden\"), the two disparate groups united to form the basis of a new Jewish community. In 1950 they founded their unitary representative organization, the Central Council of Jews in Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16s3o8
|
How did gold atoms coalesce into relatively homogenous nuggets rather than mixing with other elements as the solar system formed?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThose nuggets form later",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the early earth differentiated, almost all the gold was taken in to the core. The current gold on the surface is due to later meteorite bombardment, see _URL_0_ on how we figured that out.\nSo now we have random gold on the crust, but still too dispersed to be of any use to us. It has to be subducted and remelted to start the process of enrichment. \n\nAfter it is melted this way, it is in the the form of a pluton( a big hunk of magma that does not make the surface) or on the surface. It is still spread out in a very homogeneous way, we have to make real deposits for it to be economical. How do we do that? Lots and lots of hot water.\n\nThis water will essentially dissolve the gold from the original rock and move it to another area. What causes the gold to come out? The water either cools or come to some other chemical change that causes the solubility of gold in that water to change. It will start dropping the gold off there and start to make a deposit. This is the basic process for all gold deposits. You can further enrich the concentration of gold in something by weathering out the lighter stuff and using rivers etc to move that heavy gold even more concentrated.\n\nThe previous is our old understanding of gold deposits, but it has issues. A lot of current gold deposit work is going on the awesomely named field of geomicrobiology. They have found evidence that bacteria play a huge role in gold ore deposits, but honestly I know very little about how this process works.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12240",
"title": "Gold",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Celestial origin theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Gold is thought to have been produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, and from the collision of neutron stars, and to have been present in the dust from which the Solar System formed. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the gold present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Therefore, most of the gold that is in the Earth's crust and mantle is thought to have been delivered to Earth later, by asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment, about 4 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12240",
"title": "Gold",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Celestial origin theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Traditionally, gold is thought to have formed by the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernova nucleosynthesis, but more recently it has been suggested that gold and other elements heavier than iron may also be produced in quantity by the r-process in the collision of neutron stars. In both cases, satellite spectrometers only indirectly detected the resulting gold: \"we have no spectroscopic evidence that [such] elements have truly been produced,\" wrote author Stephan Rosswog. However, in August 2017, the signatures of heavy elements, including gold, were observed by gravitational wave detectors and other electromagnetic observatories in the GW170817 neutron star merger event. Current astrophysical models suggest that a single neutron star merger event generated between 3 and 13 Earth masses of gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4687832",
"title": "Witwatersrand Basin",
"section": "Section::::Gold origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The vast majority of the Earth's gold and other heavy metals are locked up in the earth's core. Evidence from tungsten isotope studies indicates that most gold in the crust is derived from gold in the mantle which resulted from a meteorite bombardment some 3900 million years ago (i.e. at approximately the time that the Kaapvaal craton formed). The gold bearing meteorite events occurred millions of years after the segregation of the earth's core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156331",
"title": "Thomas Gold",
"section": "Section::::Origins of petroleum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1523,
"text": "Gold theorized that since petroleum and its component hydrocarbons were present across the entire universe, there was no reason to believe \"that on Earth they must be biological in origin\". Gold proposed that fuels were trapped inside the core of the Earth in randomized molecular form nearly 4.5 billion years ago. Over time, the extreme heat of the core \"sweated\" the rocks that contained these molecules, pushing them up through the porous layers of the Earth. As they move up toward the surface, the hydrocarbons fueled the development of large microbial colonies, which served as the basis for life on Earth. The migrating fossil fuels collect biological remnants before becoming trapped in deep underground reservoirs. Soon after Gold started publishing his theories, researchers discovered a number of ecosystems functioning under \"conditions of heat and pressure once thought impossible to sustain life\". In addition, Gold discovered that the location of major oil-producing regions in the Middle East and southeast Asia was defined by large scale patterns in surface geology and topography, such as deep fault lines. He also pointed to the abundance of helium in oil and gas reserves as evidence for \"a deep source of the hydrocarbons\". Moreover, a few oil reserves thought to have been exhausted were suddenly generating vast amounts of crude oil. From this, Gold proposed that the Earth may possess a virtually endless supply – suggesting as much as \"at least 500 million years' worth of gas\" – of fossil fuels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181556",
"title": "Period 6 element",
"section": "Section::::d-block elements.:Gold.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "It has been claimed that most of the Earth's gold lies at its core, the metal's high density having made it sink there in the planet's youth. Virtually all of the gold that mankind has discovered is considered to have been deposited later by meteorites which contained the element. This supposedly explains why, in prehistory, gold appeared as nuggets on the earth's surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17655150",
"title": "Metallophilic interaction",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The polymerization of metal atoms can lead to the formation of long chains or nucleated clusters. Gold nanoparticles formed from chains of gold(I) complexes often give rise to intense luminescence in the visible region of the spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402244",
"title": "Gold cyanidation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "In 1783, Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that gold dissolved in aqueous solutions of cyanide. Through the work of Bagration (1844), Elsner (1846), and Faraday (1847), it was determined that each atom of gold required two cyanide ions, i.e. the stoichiometry of the soluble compound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68wq28
|
why dixon ticonderoga pencils can erase better than other pencils.
|
[
{
"answer": "You kids should stop playing with rubbers.\n\nSerious answer, it has to do with the composition of the rubber. I've noticed that the rubber on those erasers rolls off it into little cylinders. This is important because it increases the surface area of the rubber. Imagine wiping up a desk with a Clorox wipe. You use one side until it's black. What do you do? You flip it over and use the other side! The rolling effect of the rubber flips the dirty side and the clean side, and because the rubber is strong enough to remain connected to itself, you can roll those little suckers around and wipe up your mistakes! \n\nOn other lower quality erasers, the rubber doesn't quite hold together and just kinda breaks apart and disintegrates(not a literal disintegration, but it gets the point across). Now you have all these tiny itsy bitsy chunks which in theory have more surface area than the cylinders from before because they can use their sides and front and back and top and bottom, whereas the cylinders can only use front and back. Buuuuut, because the chunks break apart and scatter (and because there is no compression force acting upon them) they don't do shit. They don't have the structural integrity to withstand the pressure you are applying to them, so they they turn into dust and make it even more difficult to erase things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24508",
"title": "Pencil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Most pencil cores are made of graphite powder mixed with a clay binder. Graphite pencils (traditionally known as 'lead pencils') produce grey or black marks that are easily erased, but otherwise resistant to moisture, most chemicals, ultraviolet radiation and natural aging. Other types of pencil cores, such as those of charcoal, are mainly used for drawing and sketching. Coloured pencils are sometimes used by teachers or editors to correct submitted texts, but are typically regarded as art supplies—especially those with waxy core binders that tend to smear when erasers are applied to them. Grease pencils have a softer, crayon-like waxy core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32781965",
"title": "Manon Cleary",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "This process was a challenge for Cleary, as there was no precedent or guide to help her with her style. There was a lot of trial and error to figure out not only what erasers worked best, but also how much stress the paper could take. Cleary developed this style out of a fear of white paper; she also found it easier to cover a mistake by working this way, as it was easier to add more graphite instead of erase a line. By working in this reductive fashion, Cleary created an image that was original and unique. Without the harsh pencil lines, her drawings had a softness and ethereal quality. While her work is considered photo-realism, it stands out from other artists of the time. Cleary's mastery of drawing flowed over into other mediums as well, such as pastels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40516793",
"title": "Colored pencil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Despite colored pencils' existence of more than a century, the art world has greatly treated the medium with less admiration and even disdain compared to other art mediums. However, the discovery of new techniques and methods and the formation of authoritative organizations is better enabling colored pencils to compete with other mediums. Additionally, colored pencils are more affordable, cleaner, and simpler compared to other mediums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24508",
"title": "Pencil",
"section": "Section::::Types.:By use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "BULLET::::- Erasable colour pencils: Unlike wax-based coloured pencils, these can be easily erased. Their main use is in sketching, where the objective is to create an outline using the same colour that other media (such as wax pencils, or watercolour paints) would fill or when the objective is to scan the colour sketch. Some animators prefer erasable colour pencils as opposed to graphite pencils because they don't smudge as easily, and the different colours allow for better separation of objects in the sketch. Copy-editors find them useful too, as their markings stand out more than graphite but can be erased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2220159",
"title": "Writing implement",
"section": "Section::::Autonomous.:With inherent pigment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24508",
"title": "Pencil",
"section": "Section::::Grading and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil. There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1049521",
"title": "Dixon Ticonderoga Company",
"section": "Section::::Ticonderoga pencil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Dixon Ticonderoga makes a variety of pencils, including the Classic, Black, Noir, Tri-Conderoga, Microban, Laddie, My First (formerly Beginners), SenseMatic, and colored pencils. The pencils are available in different grades: #1 (Extra Soft), #2 (Soft), #2½ (Medium), #3 (Hard), and #4 (Extra Hard).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xoo6e
|
if humans are really that bad a multitasking, how can people sing and play an instrument at the same time?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're *good* at multitasking if the two tasks can be done with different parts of the brain.\n\nThis is why you can drive a car and carry on a conversation with ease, but you can't tap two different rhythms with your hands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because to an experienced musician, both singing and playing an instrument come so naturally that they require very little conscious thought - or sometimes, the conscious thought all goes into the singing, and playing the guitar or piano or whatever just happens automatically.\n\nA good analogy would be having a conversation while driving a car. If you've been driving for 10 years, it's easy to have a conversation with someone even as you change lanes, put on a turn signal, adjust your speed with traffic, and so on. If you've been a professional musician for years and that's included singing and playing an instrument, it's easy to sing while playing an instrument too.\n\nAlso, note that the singing and playing are both the same song, and they're very much related. The musician has to think about the part to sing and the parts to play, but they fit together.\n\nSinging one song while playing another would be *very very* hard. Maybe not impossible, but it'd require lots of practice and probably wouldn't be very good. That's the kind of thing that's meant when we say humans are bad at multitasking.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8241195",
"title": "Multi-boxing",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Overall, Multiboxing can be considered a play style choice. Many people find the additional strategy of multiboxing to be very challenging and, with those additional efforts, very rewarding. Rather than require the collaboration and cooperation of multiple human players, people who multibox instead rely upon themselves to control multiple game characters and utilize their own abilities as a replacement for human cooperation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11707911",
"title": "Human multitasking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Human multitasking is an apparent human ability to perform more than one task, or activity, at the same time. An example of multitasking is taking a phone call while driving a car. Multitasking can result in time wasted due to human context switching and apparently causing more errors due to insufficient attention. If one becomes proficient at two tasks it is possible to rapidly shift attention between the tasks and perform the tasks well/proficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20484955",
"title": "Real Sound: Kaze no Regret",
"section": "Section::::Production history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "I had a chance to visit people who are visually disabled, and I learned that there are blind people who play action games. Of course, [blind people are] not able to have the full experience, and they're kind of trying to force themselves to be able to play, but they're making the effort. So I thought that if you turn off the monitor, both of you are just hearing the game. So after you finish the game, you can have an equal conversation about it with a blind person. That's an inspiration behind [\"Real Sound: Kaze no Regret\"] as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "359293",
"title": "Unison",
"section": "Section::::\"In unison\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "When several people sing together, as in a chorus, the simplest way for them to sing is to sing in \"one voice\", in unison. If there is an instrument accompanying them, then the instrument must play the same notes being sung by the singers (in order for there to be unison). Otherwise the instrument is considered a separate \"voice\" and there is no unison. If there is no instrument, then the singing is said to be \"a cappella\". Music in which all the notes sung are in unison is called monophonic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5446467",
"title": "Game accessibility",
"section": "Section::::Barriers to access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- Not being able to understand how to play the game or what input to provide due to a cognitive impairment. People with learning disabilities may have low literacy or a combination of complex needs, for instance an individual might also have Ataxia or limited coordination. For example, real-time strategy games require a lot of micromanagement, which may be too difficult to understand and to perform for someone with a learning impairment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3459904",
"title": "Barred parakeet",
"section": "Section::::Aviculture.:Learning to talk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Sometimes they will mimic a specific person’s tone, normally the person they spend the most time with. They might additionally learn to imitate noises that are undesirable for them to repeat. Unwanted vocalizations can be minimised by not rewarding the bird with laughter or attention, or redirecting by getting the bird to perform another known trick.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48277054",
"title": "Piccolo (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Two men live in neighboring apartments. They are good friends and help each other out however possible. However, when one of them starts playing his piccolo to accompany the song of a nearby bird, the other gets angry. They proceed to play louder instruments than the other, even hiring extra people to assist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45wrsq
|
What all did Einstein's theory of special relativity predict?
|
[
{
"answer": "Einstein's special theory of relativity, which he published in 1905, said nothing about gravity, black holes, etc. That all came from the general theory of relativity, which was published a decade later.\n\nSpecial relativity includes such effects as time dilation, Lorentz contraction, the relativistic velocity addition formula, simultaneity not being an absolute notion, and the notion of rest mass as a form of energy, among other things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "171377",
"title": "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences",
"section": "Section::::Responses to Wigner's original paper.:Richard Hamming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hamming argues that Albert Einstein's pioneering work on special relativity was largely \"scholastic\" in its approach. He knew from the outset what the theory should look like (although he only knew this because of the Michelson–Morley experiment), and explored candidate theories with mathematical tools, not actual experiments. Hamming alleges that Einstein was so confident that his relativity theories were correct that the outcomes of observations designed to test them did not much interest him. If the observations were inconsistent with his theories, it would be the observations that were at fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Traditional \"two postulates\" approach to special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Einstein discerned two fundamental propositions that seemed to be the most assured, regardless of the exact validity of the (then) known laws of either mechanics or electrodynamics. These propositions were the constancy of the speed of light in a vacuum and the independence of physical laws (especially the constancy of the speed of light) from the choice of inertial system. In his initial presentation of special relativity in 1905 he expressed these postulates as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Several experiments predating Einstein's 1905 paper are now interpreted as evidence for relativity. Of these it is known Einstein was aware of the Fizeau experiment before 1905, and historians have concluded that Einstein was at least aware of the Michelson–Morley experiment as early as 1899 despite claims he made in his later years that it played no role in his development of the theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60880859",
"title": "Eddington experiment",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1196,
"text": "Although Einstein's main work on general relativity was not published until 1915, he was aware before then that his 1911 calculation had been wrong, and that in fact the predicted effect in the Newtonian model is only half the value predicted by general relativity. This suggested a possible test for his theory, and in 1913 Einstein asked George Ellery Hale to suggest a way of detecting the deflection of light from a star as it passed the Sun. Hale suggested this could be done during a total solar eclipse. This led to another eclipse expedition, with German and US astronomers, which took place in 1914. It was organised by Erwin Finlay-Freundlich, from the University of Berlin, where Einstein was working at the time, and included the US astronomer William Wallace Campbell from the Lick Observatory. The expedition travelled to the Crimea to observe the eclipse of 21 August. However, the First World War started in July of that year, and Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August. The German astronomers were either forced to return home or were taken prisoner by the Russians. Although the US astronomers were not detained, clouds prevented observations being made during the eclipse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57264039",
"title": "Einstein's thought experiments",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Trains, embankments, and lightning flashes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "However, all of the above is supposition. In later recollections, when Einstein was asked about what inspired him to develop special relativity, he would mention his riding a light beam and his magnet and conductor thought experiments. He would also mention the importance of the Fizeau experiment and the observation of stellar aberration. \"They were enough\", he said. He never mentioned thought experiments about clocks and their synchronization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30001",
"title": "Theory of relativity",
"section": "Section::::Experimental evidence.:Tests of special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Relativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes predictions that can be tested by experiment. In the case of special relativity, these include the principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time dilation. The predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in numerous tests since Einstein published his paper in 1905, but three experiments conducted between 1881 and 1938 were critical to its validation. These are the Michelson–Morley experiment, the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, and the Ives–Stilwell experiment. Einstein derived the Lorentz transformations from first principles in 1905, but these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from experimental evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "Special relativity was originally proposed by Albert Einstein in a paper published on 26 September 1905 titled \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\". The inconsistency of Newtonian mechanics with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and, experimentally, the Michelson-Morley null result (and subsequent similar experiments) demonstrated that the historically hypothesized luminiferous aether did not exist. This led to Einstein's development of special relativity, which corrects mechanics to handle situations involving all motions and especially those at a speed close to that of light (known as \"\"). Today, special relativity is proven to be the most accurate model of motion at any speed when gravitational effects are negligible. Even so, the Newtonian model is still valid as a simple and accurate approximation at low velocities (relative to the speed of light), for example, the everyday motions on Earth. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
855tbh
|
why does gps need almanac data?
|
[
{
"answer": "It could, but that would mean a lot more processing. Almanac data is almost always available, so it is much more efficient to use that instead of listening to everything and then figuring things out from there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You could listen for all the satellites at the same time, but it takes up a lot of signal processing power. GPS satellites transmit almanac data every 12 minutes so your GPS receiver knows which satellites to look for. In military applications it also makes it harder to spoof as military receivers can listen for an encrypted signal and will ignore signals from satellites that aren't supposed to be visible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem with GPS signals is that they are extremely faint, and they are all transmitted on the exact same frequency using a \"spread spectrum\" approach. On top of that, the satellites are in orbit, so will have widely varying Doppler shifts affecting both the signal frequency and the code frequency/phase. The code sequence for each satellite is published in advance and built into the receiver firmware.\n\nYou cannot even detect a GPS signal unless you know the frequency, code and the code phase in advance. Once you know the frequency, code and code phase, you have to use a long (1 second+) averaging process to collect many signal samples and average them out to confirm a detection.\n\nIn practice, the code phase can't be known in advance. So you have to brute force search for the code phase. The problem is that each search requires a long averaging period. So, you really, really do not want to have to brute force search the frequency and code as well. So, having an almanac allowing rough calculation of which satellites are visible (and therefore which codes to check) and what their rough frequencies will be, can drastically reduce the search space. \n\nReceivers typically include a large number of signal search cores, so that the search can be done in parallel, but more processor cores increases cost and power consumption. However, these days, there is increasing demand for GPS receivers with very fast start and other features as a result, manufacturers are integrating huge numbers of search cores (multiple millions) which can complete a brute force search in about 30 seconds in good signal conditions, and 1-2 minutes in marginal signal conditions where longer averaging times are needed for confirmation.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "192230",
"title": "Almanac",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contemporary use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The GPS almanac, as part of the data transmitted by each GPS satellite, contains coarse orbit and status information for all satellites in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Hence the GPS almanac provide a similar goal as the ancient Babylonian almanac, to find celestial bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200085",
"title": "Cardinal direction",
"section": "Section::::Locating the directions.:Satellite navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1582,
"text": "Near the end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced. Since there are no periodic access fees, or other licensing charges, they have become widely used. GPSR functionality is becoming more commonly added to other consumer devices such as mobile phones. Handheld GPSRs have modest power requirements, can be shut down as needed, and recalibrate within a couple of minutes of being restarted. In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver, if it has only one antenna, must be moving, typically at more than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions. On ships and aircraft, GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas, separately attached to the vehicle. The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are determined, which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure of the vehicle. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41593",
"title": "Pseudorandom noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "GPS receivers correlate the received PN bit stream with a local reference to measure distance. GPS is a receive-only system that uses relative timing measurements from several satellites (and the known positions of the satellites) to determine receiver position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10059597",
"title": "GPS signals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "GPS signals include ranging signals, used to measure the distance to the satellite, and navigation messages. The navigation messages include \"ephemeris\" data, used to calculate the position of each satellite in orbit, and information about the time and status of the entire satellite constellation, called the \"almanac\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14099173",
"title": "Intelligent speed adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Speed and location determination and verification.:Position-based systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "GPS is based on a network of satellites that constantly transmit radio signals. GPS receivers pick up these transmissions and compare the signals from several satellites in order to pinpoint the receiver’s location to within a few meters. This is done by comparing the time at which the signal was sent from the satellite to when it was picked up by the receiver. Because the orbital paths of the satellites are known very accurately, the receiver can perform a calculation based on its distance to several of the orbiting satellites and therefore obtain its position. There are currently 31 satellites making up the GPS network, and their orbits are configured so that a minimum of five satellites are available at any one time for terrestrial users. Four satellites are the minimum required to determine a precise three-dimensional position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26270139",
"title": "Unified S-band",
"section": "Section::::Ranging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Modern GPS receivers work somewhat similarly in that they also correlate a received PN bit stream (at 1.023 Mbit/s) with a local reference to measure distance. But GPS is a receive-only system that uses relative timing measurements from a set of satellites to determine receiver position while the Apollo USB is a two-way system that can only determine the instantaneous distance and relative velocity. However, an orbit determination program can find the unique spacecraft state vector from range, range-rate (relative velocity) and antenna look angle observations made by one or more ground stations assuming purely ballistic spacecraft motion over the observation interval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17800413",
"title": "GPS navigation device",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1095,
"text": "A GPS device can retrieve from the GPS system location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth. A GPS reception requires an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites, and is subject to poor satellite signal conditions. In exceptionally poor signal conditions, for example in urban areas, satellite signals may exhibit multipath propagation where signals bounce off structures, or are weakened by meteorological conditions. Obstructed lines of sight may arise from a tree canopy or inside a structure, such as in a building, garage or tunnel. Today, most standalone GPS receivers are used in automobiles. The GPS capability of smartphones may use assisted GPS (A-GPS) technology, which can use the base station or cell towers to provide a faster Time to First Fix (TTFF), especially when GPS signals are poor or unavailable. However, the mobile network part of the A-GPS technology would not be available when the smartphone is outside the range of the mobile reception network, while the GPS aspect would otherwise continue to be available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wawkr
|
Would it be possible to put a human into a permanent hypothermic state instead of cryogenically frozen in order to slow down ageing for hundreds of years?
|
[
{
"answer": "this link maybe of intrest to you: _URL_0_\n\nThis is the next step in the \"cooling the body for surgery\" idea. This could also be a next step towards some sort of hibernation like we see in Sc-Fi film/games. Any state of 'stasis' that the human body is put in could have long term negative medical effects on the body, especially the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "NASA is currently doing studies for people lying in bed for 3 months without getting up. Test subject received $18,000. Results include fainting 8 min after once standing for the first time. I think we are capable of intentionally putting people in a coma and are testing for a duration mission trip",
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},
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"answer": "It would be difficult to keep microorganisms from destroying the person over time. Fungus, mold, and a billion other bacteria can function quite well at low temperatures. Just read an article that demonstrated HPV can survive in a liquid nitrogen bottle. So there would be some technical challenges to say the least. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure about prolonged stasis but there are pilot studies being conducted now that involve acutely cooling patients with major trauma, as well as post cardiac arrest. I don't believe any of the trauma trials have been completed yet, but hopefully there will be some good literature coming out soon. \n\nRegarding prolonged low-temp stasis though, it seems far fetched for the time being. There are lots of physiologic effects of deep cooling that are harmful and difficult to control: blood clots differently at low temp, cardiac arrhythmias, immunosupression, electrolyte abnormalities.... \n\nTL;DR: Prolonged stasis is still science fiction, but short term cooling in acutely ill patients is being studied actively. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "177052",
"title": "Immortality",
"section": "Section::::Physical immortality.:Prospects for human biological immortality.:Cryonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Cryonics, the practice of preserving organisms (either intact specimens or only their brains) for possible future revival by storing them at cryogenic temperatures where metabolism and decay are almost completely stopped, can be used to 'pause' for those who believe that life extension technologies will not develop sufficiently within their lifetime. Ideally, cryonics would allow clinically dead people to be brought back in the future after cures to the patients' diseases have been discovered and aging is reversible. Modern cryonics procedures use a process called vitrification which creates a glass-like state rather than freezing as the body is brought to low temperatures. This process reduces the risk of ice crystals damaging the cell-structure, which would be especially detrimental to cell structures in the brain, as their minute adjustment evokes the individual's mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6760",
"title": "Cryonics",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Cryonics uses temperatures below −130 °C, called cryopreservation, in an attempt to preserve enough brain information to permit future revival of the cryopreserved person. Cryopreservation may be accomplished by freezing, freezing with cryoprotectant to reduce ice damage, or by vitrification to avoid ice damage. Even using the best methods, cryopreservation of whole bodies or brains is very damaging and irreversible with current technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "6760",
"title": "Cryonics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 609,
"text": "Cryonics procedures can begin only after clinical death, and cryonics \"patients\" are legally dead. Cryonics procedures ideally begin within minutes of death, and use cryoprotectants to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. It is however not possible for a corpse to be reanimated after undergoing vitrification, which causes damage to the brain including its neural networks. The first corpse to be frozen was that of Dr. James Bedford in 1967. As of 2014, about 250 bodies were cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation after their legal death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "19349845",
"title": "Cryopreservation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1213,
"text": "Cryo-preservation or cryo-conservation is a process where organelles, cells, tissues, extracellular matrix, organs, or any other biological constructs susceptible to damage caused by unregulated chemical kinetics are preserved by cooling to very low temperatures (typically −80 °C using solid carbon dioxide or −196 °C using liquid nitrogen). At low enough temperatures, any enzymatic or chemical activity which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice crystals during freezing. Traditional cryopreservation has relied on coating the material to be frozen with a class of molecules termed cryoprotectants. New methods are constantly being investigated due to the inherent toxicity of many cryoprotectants. By default it should be considered that cryopreservation alters or compromises the structure and function of cells unless it is proven otherwise for a particular cell population. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is the process in which animal genetic material is collected and stored with the intention of conservation of the breed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6760",
"title": "Cryonics",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Cryopreservation was applied to human cells beginning in 1954 with frozen sperm, which was thawed and used to inseminate three women. The freezing of humans was first scientifically proposed by Michigan professor Robert Ettinger when he wrote \"The Prospect of Immortality\" (1962). In April 1966, the first human body was frozen—though it had been embalmed for two months—by being placed in liquid nitrogen and stored at just above freezing. The middle-aged woman from Los Angeles, whose name is unknown, was soon thawed out and buried by relatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1231522",
"title": "Biological immortality",
"section": "Section::::Attempts to engineer biological immortality in humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "For several decades, researchers have also pursued various forms of suspended animation as a means by which to indefinitely extend mammalian lifespan. Some scientists have voiced support for the feasibility of the cryopreservation of humans, known as cryonics. Cryonics is predicated on the concept that some people considered clinically dead by today's medicolegal standards are not actually dead according to information-theoretic death and can, in principle, be resuscitated given sufficient technological advances. The goal of current cryonics procedures is tissue vitrification, a technique first used to reversibly cryopreserve a viable whole organ in 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267014",
"title": "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience",
"section": "Section::::Applied sciences.:Health and medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cryonics – A field of products, techniques, and beliefs supporting the idea that freezing the clinically dead, at very low temperatures (typically below −196 degrees Celsius) will enable future revival or re-substantiation. These beliefs often hinge on the existence of advanced human or alien societies, in the distant future, who will possess as-of-yet unknown technology for the stabilization of dying cells. There is no evidence a human being can be revived after such freezing, and no solid scientific evidence suggests that reanimation will be possible in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
rnbn4
|
Physiologically speaking, how different am I from someone who lived 200 years ago? 500 years ago?
|
[
{
"answer": "We are a lot taller and fatter compared to people 100 years ago, they did not have anywhere as near as much meat on average compared to what we do now.",
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},
{
"answer": "I happened to read [this article](_URL_0_) a few days ago... It looks like our teeth may have become more crooked in the last 10k years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please note that the differences mentioned here result from dietary and other health differences, not genetic differences.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16829413",
"title": "Timeline of human prehistory",
"section": "Section::::Holocene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::- 10,000–5,000 years ago (8,000–3,000 BC) Identical ancestors point: sometime in this period lived the latest subgroup of human population consisting of those that were all common ancestors of all present day humans, the rest having no present day descendants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27762",
"title": "Star Frontiers",
"section": "Section::::Sapient races.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "BULLET::::- Humans are a race of beings virtually identical to Earthly humans. The most notable difference between these and earth humans are that the humans of the Frontier have a 200-year lifespan (possibly due to the advanced technology of the setting).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195007",
"title": "Centenarian",
"section": "Section::::Supercentenarian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Even rarer is a person who has lived to age 115 – there are only 48 people in recorded history who have indisputably reached this age, of whom only Kane Tanaka, Lucile Randon, and Shin Matsushita are living as of 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1034339",
"title": "Most recent common ancestor",
"section": "Section::::Time to MRCA estimates.:TMRCA of all living humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The age of the MRCA of all living humans is unknown. It is necessarily younger than the age of either the matrilinear or the patrilinear MRCA, both of which have an estimated age of between roughly 100,000 and 200,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "37615833",
"title": "2013 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:March.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- After studying the DNA of a modern African American, scientists estimate that the Y-chromosomal Adam – the most recent male common ancestor of human beings – lived much earlier than previously thought, over 338,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30387944",
"title": "Nicolas Savin",
"section": "Section::::Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "If Savin was indeed aged 126 when he died, in Russia, where he had resided for more than eighty years, he would be the longest-lived man on record, and the longest-lived human of any gender. However, as this age has not been verified, the record for the oldest man is held by the Japanese-born Jiroemon Kimura (1897–2013), who died at the verified age of 116. The record for the longest verified lifespan of a human is currently 122 years, held by the Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment (1875–1997) and that was challenged in 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12152443",
"title": "The Improving State of the World",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "BULLET::::- For much of human history, life expectancy used to be between 20–30 years. By 1900 it had increased to 31 years. By 2003 it was 66.8 years. Even in Africa, the poorest continent, it has increased to 45.6 years. Not only are people living longer, they are also healthier in old age. During the course of the 20th century, the average onsets of diseases such heart disease (9 years), respiratory disease (11 years), and cancer (8 years), have been delayed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
3vmemk
|
[Psychology] What's the science of obsession? Questions below
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm really surprised that no one has attempted to answer this yet.\n\n1. Obsession is defined in the DSM-5 as the following:\n * Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and unwanted, and that in most individuals cause marked anxiety or distress.\n * The individual attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, urges, or images, or to neutralize them with some other thought or action (i.e., by performing a compulsion).\n2. Obsessions usually develop under a somewhat specific set of circumstances. Internalizing stress can cause a person to develop obsessions. Physical and sexual abuse in childhood have also been associated with increased risk for developing OCD, a psychological disorder marked by severe obsessions and compensatory behaviors (compulsions) designed to alleviate those obsessions.\n3. The major difference is that generally addiction is pursued based on deriving some sort of pleasure from participating in the addictive behavior. Substances produce a pleasurable effect on the user, at least for some time. Obsessions are generally unpleasant in nature, causing distress (as defined by the first bullet point in my first answer).\n4. There are several ways to treat disorders that include obsessions. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is commonly used. Exposure therapy is also used commonly, but some people may have adverse reactions to the therapy. Anxiolytic drugs can also be prescribed to help keep symptoms under control while the client undergoes therapy.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1121710",
"title": "Obsession (Star Trek: The Original Series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 204,
"text": "\"Obsession\" is the thirteenth episode of the of the American science fiction television series \"\". Written by Art Wallace and directed by Ralph Senensky, it was originally broadcast on December 15, 1967.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1065357",
"title": "Mental status examination",
"section": "Section::::Domains.:Thought content.:Obsessions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "An obsession is an \"undesired, unpleasant, intrusive thought that cannot be suppressed through the patient's volition\", but unlike passivity experiences described above, they are not experienced as imposed from outside the patient's mind. Obsessions are typically intrusive thoughts of violence, injury, dirt or sex, or obsessive ruminations on intellectual themes. A person can also describe obsessional doubt, with intrusive worries about whether they have made the wrong decision, or forgotten to do something, for example turn off the gas or lock the house. In obsessive-compulsive disorder, the individual experiences obsessions with or without compulsions (a sense of having to carry out certain ritualized and senseless actions against their wishes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6115948",
"title": "Ken Robinson (educationalist)",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "\"The Element: How Finding Your Passion Changes Everything\", was published in January 2009 by Penguin. \"The element\" refers to the experience of personal talent meeting personal passion. He argues that in this encounter, we feel most ourselves, most inspired, and achieve to our highest level. The book draws on the stories of creative artists such as Paul McCartney, \"The Simpsons\" creator Matt Groening, Meg Ryan, and physicist Richard Feynman to investigate this paradigm of success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1077353",
"title": "Curiosity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 407,
"text": "Curiosity (from Latin \"cūriōsitās\", from \"cūriōsus\" \"careful, diligent, curious\", akin to \"cura\" \"care\") is a quality related to inquisitive thinking such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation in humans and other animals. Curiosity is heavily associated with all aspects of human development, in which derives the process of learning and desire to acquire knowledge and skill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1077353",
"title": "Curiosity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The term \"curiosity\" can also be used to denote the behavior or emotion of being curious, in regard to the desire to gain knowledge or information. Curiosity as a behavior and emotion is attributed over millennia as the driving force behind not only human development, but developments in science, language, and industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14459339",
"title": "Natural Obsessions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Natural Obsessions is a book written by American science author Natalie Angier published in 1988. It chronicles a year in the laboratories of two prominent cancer biologists during a period where there was a race to discover and characterize some of the first cancer-causing and cancer-suppressing genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20982422",
"title": "Interest (emotion)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Interest is a feeling or emotion that causes attention to focus on an object, event, or process. In contemporary psychology of interest, the term is used as a general concept that may encompass other more specific psychological terms, such as curiosity and to a much lesser degree surprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
36w9go
|
What is the difference between a scientific theory and law?
|
[
{
"answer": "Someone asked a very similar question a few months ago, [and this is a fairly frequently asked question,](_URL_0_) so I'll copy paste what I wrote there, since that user specifically asked about 'Newton's Laws' vs 'Einstein's theory' as well.\n\n-----------------------------------------------------\n\nA lot of people make the mistake of thinking, \"Gee, I know what the words *law* and *theory* mean. You can't break *laws*, so those must be the things that are really solid, but a *theory* is just a like some kind of guess, I can come up with my own theory right now!\" So let's try to tease out why these people are wrong. To scientists, words like *law* and *theory* have very specific definitions, so we need to do some semantics.\n\n**A law is a declarative statement, based on observation, that seems to describe some behavior of some naturalistic phenomena.** Newton's Laws are exactly that. \"Objects in motion remain in motion, and objects at rest remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside force.\" This statement seems consistent with every observation we've ever made, and it has a great deal of predictive power. Basically, a law is a statement of a fact that can be experimentally falsified. One experiment that shows a body accelerating under its own volition, for no reason and with no discernible outside force, and this is refuted. \n\nNow for *theory*. I have a definition of theory that I like, and others are free to disagree. **A theory is a testable explanation of some set of natural phenomena that explains all the best currently available evidence.** Basically, a theory explains the laws or some bundle of them and it offers some *reason* for them. Einstein's *theory* is that we live in a four dimensional universe, and that space and time are related in some nontrivial way, and things get curvey which is the source of attraction between masses. The 'theory' provides a mechanism by which the 'laws' act. \n\nEinstein's theory explains the results of tons of experiments or makes predictions (mathematically) that are consistent with them, such as the Michelson-Morley experiment and Gravity Probe-B. The theory *explains* the facts. A bunch of laws, together, form the pillars that a theory stands on. If one of those facts turns out to be bunk, (like in Einstein's theory, that nothing goes faster than light), it will have to be modified or entirely replaced in order to account for this new evidence. \n\nFurthermore, now that we have our definition of a 'theory' we can see that a theory is a fundamentally different thing from a law, so it wouldn't make sense to take Newton's law of inertia and try to promote it into a theory, because it's just a single statement about *one specific type of observation.* \n\nAnother good example is evolution. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is a *theory*. It explains the *fact* that organisms aren't the same as their parents, that new traits can emerge, and these traits can proliferate through the population over successive generations if they prove to be beneficial. Natural selection is the mechanism so maybe (as much as I hate the phrase) we should call 'survival of the fittest.' Species changing over time is the *evidence* from experiments and the fossil record, and Darwin's *theory* ties it all together. It's amazing that Darwin came up with his theory before DNA was even known about, but was found to be very consistent with the microbiological understanding of genes and mutations.\n\n\nBottom line: Theories don't somehow graduate into laws after they get proven, because they're different beasts entirely. Laws are statements about specific phenomena, and the laws, together with the evidence and facts, are explained in aggregate as theories. ",
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"answer": "A law is a simple statement about an observational trend. It usually goes something like \"The more cars there are on the freeway, the more time it takes to get to work\" or something like that.\n\nA theory is a deductive argument in which the logical consequences of a small number of premises are deduced. So it goes something like \"IF the speed of light is constant, THEN we deduce that... < THINGS > \".\n\nThe < THINGS > themselves are laws and lesser theories, including laws and theories we have yet to observe, hence a theory's great predictive power. Laws have very limited predictive power.\n\nSince a theory is a deductive argument, not a simple observational statement, it's a totally different animal, and changing it to a law would not be an upgrade. Theories that consistently correctly predict the outcomes of experiments are called *accepted theories.* Accepted theory is as good as it gets in science.",
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"answer": "Other posters in this thread in generally correct, but words can have different meanings in different contexts, and ignoring this can cause confusion or frustration when sticking to a rigid definition.\n\nFor example, in physics \"theory\" often means what other fields would call \"mathematical modelling\" and can also refer to specific mathematical techniques like perturbation theory or Hartree-Fock theory, rather then self-consistent evidence-based frameworks. You can also have physics theory that doesn't correspond to reality but are still interesting to study.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "244629",
"title": "Scientific law",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 326,
"text": "The term \"scientific law\" is traditionally associated with the natural sciences, though the social sciences also contain laws. For example, Zipf's law is a law in the social sciences which is based on mathematical statistics. In these cases, laws may describe general trends or expected behaviors rather than being absolutes.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "814513",
"title": "Theoretical definition",
"section": "Section::::In different fields.:Sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_character": 401,
"text": "The term scientific theory is reserved for concepts that are widely accepted. A scientific law often refers to regularities that can be expressed by a mathematical statement. However, there is no consensus about the distinction between these terms. Every scientific concept must have an operational definition, however the operational definition can use both direct observations and latent variables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "244629",
"title": "Scientific law",
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"text": "Laws differ from hypotheses and postulates, which are proposed during the scientific process before and during validation by experiment and observation. Hypotheses and postulates are not laws since they have not been verified to the same degree, although they may lead to the formulation of laws. Laws are narrower in scope than scientific theories, which may entail one or several laws. Science distinguishes a law or theory from facts. Calling a law a fact is ambiguous, an overstatement, or an equivocation. The nature of scientific laws has been much discussed in philosophy, but in essence scientific laws are simply empirical conclusions reached by scientific method; they are intended to be neither laden with ontological commitments nor statements of logical absolutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "244629",
"title": "Scientific law",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
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"text": "Scientific laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. A scientific law is \"inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present.\" The production of a summary description of our environment in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "244629",
"title": "Scientific law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Laws of science or scientific laws are statements that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. A scientific law is a statement based on repeated experiments or observations that describe some aspect of the natural world. The term \"law\" has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) across all fields of natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy, etc.). Laws are developed from data and can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than invented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198507",
"title": "Scientific theory",
"section": "Section::::Theories and laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Both scientific laws and scientific theories are produced from the scientific method through the formation and testing of hypotheses, and can predict the behavior of the natural world. Both are typically well-supported by observations and/or experimental evidence. However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions. Scientific theories are broader in scope, and give overarching explanations of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics. Theories are supported by evidence from many different sources, and may contain one or several laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16366",
"title": "Jurisprudence",
"section": "Section::::Natural law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In its general sense, natural law theory may be compared to both state-of-nature law and general law understood on the basis of being analogous to the laws of physical science. Natural law is often contrasted to positive law which asserts law as the product of human activity and human volition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lv1n9
|
why do screens use red/blue/green pixels but printers use red/blue/yellow ink?
|
[
{
"answer": "Inks subtract color, screens add. Basic ink colors are cyan, yellow and magenta. So cyan is white minus red, but on a screen it's constructed as blue plus green. It works like this because white light goes through ink, so the color comes from what is subtracted. On a CRT or LED screen, a pixel is a tiny lamp of red, green or blue color, so the color comes from what is added to black (screen off). Also, pixels are monochromatic on LCD screens even though they absorb light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The inks used in printers are cyan, magenta and yellow (and black), not red, blue and yellow. This is called a subtractive color model, because adding ink to the white paper subtracts some wavelengths of light. If you add all three colors, you get black (but in reality you get something brownish, which is why black ink is also used). \n\nThe monitor on the other hand, does use red, green and blue pixels. This is called an additive color model, because wavelengths of light is being added to the otherwise black screen. If you add all colors, you get white. \n\nIn art, the base colors taught are usually red, blue and yellow. Why this is I do not know, but if I were to speculate I would say that at least a part of the reason is that it's much easier to get kids to remember \"red\" and \"blue\" rather than \"cyan\" and \"magenta\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the difference between additive and subtractive primary colors. Pigments are \"subtractive\" because when you look at red paint, it reflects red light that is shined on it and absorbs all other colors, \"subtracting\" them. Light is \"additive\" because shining two different colors of light on a (white) surface adds them together and doesn't subtract any color.\n\nAlso, technically speaking the subtractive primary colors used in printers are CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Printers don't actually use red/blue/yellow ink, but instead a mixture of four colours generally, you may have seen this written somewhere as CMYK, this just stands for cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (key being a fancy term for black, really a mixture of all of the others).\n\nBecause printers start with a white surface (something that gives off every colour of light) and cover up the white surface with certain pigments to create colour each pigment is actually subtracting from the origional 'full spectrum'. This is called \"subtractive colour model\". \n\nThese colours are approximated in art using similar colours, red being the substitute for magenta (a very bright pink colour, red is actually a mixture of almost equal parts magenta and yellow), blue being the substitute for cyan (a very blight almost baby blue colour, what we call blue or use as blue in art would really be a mixture of mostly cyan with some majenta in it) and yellow for yellow (again, the yellow used in art actually being a slightly more lustrous yellow than the somewhat pale looking yellow used in printing)\n\nWhen these colours are combined in different ratios they are able to remove certain wavelengths (subtracting them) until eventually with all of them being applied as thick as possible you would reach a theroetical 'key' (black) colour, this generally can't happen in a printer as they don't really apply a very thick amount so a key tone is added (black) to be used to 'darken' the image anywhere that needs to happen (somewhere that all three would be applied in equal amounts).\n\nFor example, to create a very pale red you would apply a fine amount of yellow and a fine amount of majenta, and this would subtract all of the colours other than the wavelengths between the yellow and magenta masks which would make the paper appear red. To darken it one could apply a mist of equal parts of each colour, or using black could simply apply a black mist and darken it much easier this way. \n\nScreens on the other hand are not natually white, they are black. They also use a combination of four colours really, the exact opposite of the colours used in subtractive model colour making. When equal parts of red, green and blue light are given off something will appear white. This is an additive colour model, the more wavelengths of light you want present the more colours of light you will turn on. The fourth colour is white, given off by your backlight, which is the opposite of key just to give you an idea of how the key would be used in subtractive printing. \n\nTherefore the one obvious difference is not so, in art the red and blue used are not perfect colours and limit the range that one can produce, but they are good approximations to create many colours and are often easier pigments to find and deal with at a more primary level. In reality there is a huge difference, they are totally opposite colours with the intention of completing totally opposite processes!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You've got a lot of great explanations here, but maybe this one will be a little simpler:\n\nFirst of all, when people told you in art class that the primary colors are red, blue and yellow... they lied. Sort of. Actually, those \"primary\" colors are magenta, cyan and yellow. Close enough for a beginner's art class to simplify as red blue and yellow, but not really true.\n\nWhy is this important? Because when you're talking about mixing pigments on paper or canvas in art, what's happening is you're mixing *reflected* light. Light bounces off the paint. Your TV is creating light-- it's not reflected, it's the actual light.\n\nThat's the easy answer, but here's a little more in-depth:\n\nOkay. So white light (not REFLECTED light, but the light itself) is made up of red, blue, and green. If you combine all three of those colors of light you get white light.\n\nBut what if you only combine two of them? Then you get another color-- Blue and red make magenta, blue and green make cyan, red and green make yellow.\n\nMagenta, cyan, yellow. Your \"reflective\" primaries.\n\nSo another way of looking at that is, say you take white light, and you subtract green. That means all you have is blue and red, which makes magenta.\n\nSo magenta is white light without the green in it.\n\nAnd when you paint on something, what happens is the white light hits the paper, hits the paint, and the paint soaks up the green light, leaving only magenta. That's why the reflective colors are different-- you have to take *away* light to make colors, since the light you're seeing is reflected off of something.\n\nWhereas with your computer screen, it's actually emitting the light itself, so it has to *add* the colors of light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44682",
"title": "CMYK color model",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with RGB displays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult, since the color reproduction technologies and properties are very different. A computer monitor mixes shades of red, green, and blue light to create color pictures. A CMYK printer instead uses light-absorbing cyan, magenta, and yellow inks, whose colors are mixed using dithering, halftoning, or some other optical technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16733484",
"title": "Apple II graphics",
"section": "Section::::Graphics mode details.:High-Resolution (Hi-Res) graphics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "While this feature allows six colors onscreen simultaneously, it does have one unpleasant side effect. For example, if a programmer tried to draw a blue line on top of a green one, portions of the green line would change to orange. This is because drawing the blue line sets the MSB for each block of seven pixels in this case. \"Green\" and \"orange\" pixels are represented the same way in memory; the difference is in the setting (or clearing) of the MSB. Another side effect is that drawing a pixel required dividing by seven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46408",
"title": "Magenta",
"section": "Section::::History.:Web colors magenta and fuchsia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "While the magenta used in printing and the web color have the same name, they have important differences. Process magenta (the color used for magenta printing ink—also called printer's or pigment magenta) is much less vivid than the color magenta achievable on a computer screen. CMYK printing technology cannot accurately reproduce on paper the color on the computer screen. When the web color magenta is reproduced on paper, it is called fuchsia and it is physically impossible for it to appear on paper as vivid as on a computer screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Black ink is the most common color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus the easiest color to read. Similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44682",
"title": "CMYK color model",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with RGB displays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Similar to monitors, the inks used in printing produce a color gamut that is \"only a subset of the visible spectrum\" although both color modes have their own specific ranges. As a result of this, items which are displayed on a computer monitor may not completely match the look of items which are printed if opposite color modes are being combined in both mediums. When designing items to be printed, designers view the colors which they are choosing on an RGB color mode (their computer screen), and it is often difficult to visualize the way in which the color will turn out post-printing because of this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34368",
"title": "Yellow",
"section": "Section::::Science and nature.:Optics, color printing, and computer screens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "In color printing, yellow is one of the three colors of ink, along with magenta and cyan, which, along with black, can be overlaid in the right combination, along with black, to print any full color image. (See the CMYK color model). A particular yellow is used, called Process yellow (also known as \"pigment yellow\", \"printer's yellow\", and \"canary yellow\") subtractive primary colors, along with magenta and cyan. Process yellow is not an RGB color, and there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB. Different formulations are used for printer's ink, so there can be variations in the printed color that is pure yellow ink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6102",
"title": "Cyan",
"section": "Section::::Cyan on the web and in printing.:The web colors cyan and aqua.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The web colors are more vivid than the cyan used in the CMYK color system, and the web colors cannot be accurately reproduced on a printed page. To reproduce the web color cyan in inks, it is necessary to add some white ink to the printer's cyan below, so when it is reproduced in printing, it is not a primary subtractive color. It is called \"aqua\" (a name in use since 1598) because it is a color commonly associated with water, such as the appearance of the water at a tropical beach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c76vfq
|
why don’t we have fat and muscle surrounding our brains as an added protective layer over our skulls?
|
[
{
"answer": "Heat retention. The brain uses a large portion of our energy and the temperature range from normal to heat stroke is all of 3 degrees C. Also because of all of the blood vessels in the brain, a lot of the body's heat is pumped through your head.\n\nJust being hot makes you think slower and make more mistakes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Muscle tissue has the sole purposes of enabling movement of the body and organs, fat tissue is mostly only for energy storage. So neither of those two tissues really qualify as a protective tissue and if we start thinking evolution it makes little sense for an individual to have increased reproduction rates because of two ridiculously energy cost intensive tissues around the skull which already protects the brain.\n\nTissues that are fit for acting as protective Barriers are bone, skin, and mucous membranes and those are already pretty solidly implemented into our heads at this point. Anything beyond that would probably just drive the cost-effect balance into negative and would decrease our fitness as individuals, thus leaving us more susceptible to natural selection which would lead to a relatively fast extinction of such a muscle-fat-head human.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We do, only the very top of the skull doesn't have skeletal muscle attached. There's a specialized type of skin called scalp that covers the skull, it's extra thick and tough for added protection. All skin has a layer of subcutaneous fat as well. Inside the skull there's several more layers of protection called the meninges, made up of three layers; the dura mater which it tough and thick, the arachnoid mater which is spongy and the pia mater which is thin and delicate. The brain itself also floats in a tub of liquid called cerebrospinal fluid that flows between the meninges and through the brain itself via a system of ventricles and canals, supporting it and further cushioning it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876641",
"title": "Human skull symbolism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Moreover, a human skull with its large eye sockets displays a degree of neoteny, which humans often find visually appealing—yet a skull is also obviously dead, and to some can even seem to look sad due to the downward facing slope on the ends of the eye sockets. As such, human skulls often have a greater visual appeal than the other bones of the human skeleton, and can fascinate even as they repel. Our present society predominantly associates skulls with death and evil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14414679",
"title": "Jaw reduction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "A wide lower face can primarily be caused by a wide mandibular bone or over-sized masseter muscle. Over-sized masseter muscle can be resolved with the use of botox injections whereas having a wide mandibular bone requires surgical intervention to reduce the size of the bones. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045927",
"title": "Gyrus",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "The gyri are part of a system of folds and ridges that create a larger surface area for the human brain and other mammalian brains. Because the brain is confined to the skull, brain size is limited. Ridges and depressions create folds allowing a larger cortical surface area, and greater cognitive function, to exist in the confines of a smaller cranium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16731978",
"title": "Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism",
"section": "Section::::Skull.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "The human skull is balanced on the vertebral column: The foramen magnum is located inferiorly under the skull, which puts much of the weight of the head behind the spine. Furthermore, the flat human face helps to maintain balance on the occipital condyles. Because of this, the erect position of the head is possible without the prominent supraorbital ridges and the strong muscular attachments found in, for example, apes. As a result, in humans the muscles of the forehead (the occipitofrontalis) are only used for facial expressions. Increasing brain size has also been significant in human evolution. It began to increase around 2.4 million years ago but modern levels of brain size were not attained until after 500,000 years ago. Zoological analyses have shown that the size of human brains is significantly larger than what you would expect for our size. The human brain is in fact three to four times larger than its closest relative - the chimpanzee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic.:Sanguine: warm and wet.:Lifestyle tips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 222,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 222,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "BULLET::::- As they have muscular body and a body composition of larger proportion of muscle tissue rather than fat they need to exercise and lack of movement would cause waste products and other toxins to build up in their bodies. Therefore, they are more prone to develop high uric acid and cholesterol levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "583238",
"title": "Axial skeleton",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Flat bones house the brain and other vital organs. This article mainly deals with the axial skeletons of humans; however, it is important to understand the evolutionary lineage of the axial skeleton. The human axial skeleton consists of 80 different bones. It is the medial core of the body and connects the pelvis to the body, where the appendix skeleton attaches. As the skeleton grows older the bones get weaker with the exception of the skull. The skull remains strong to protect the brain from injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5018166",
"title": "Co-adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Similar to traits on a genetic level, aspects of organs can also be subject to co-adaptation. For example, slender bones can have similar performance in regards to bearing daily loads as thicker bones, due to slender bones having more mineralized tissue. This means that slenderness and the level of mineralization have probably been co-adapted. However, due to being harder than thick bones, slender bones are generally less pliant and more prone to breakage, especially when subjected to more extreme load conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6fqv7v
|
how did fentanyl become part of the illegal drug trade and is it here to stay?
|
[
{
"answer": "Parmacist.\n\nEvery opioid has become apart of the illegal drug trade because they all cause euphoria when abused. Causing big issues. It's as unavoidable as gravity. But they're also irreplaceable in pain treatment. \n\nFentanyl in particular has several forms, like mucosal sticks and long-duration patches. No other drug has these formulas. Even if there were, patients routinely complain that only one type of thing alleviates their pain. So it's continues presence is also quite certain as it is a drug medicine needs.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's synthetic and much more powerful than heroin, so it can be mass produced in labs at lower cost and marketed as a \"better\" high. It's also used to cut normal heroin. It's going to be a global problem for the foreseeable future. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fentanyl was completely uncontrolled in China until 2015, which meant that legitimate chemical companies were free to produce and sell it without restriction. That meant that a legitimate Chinese chemical plant could produce it and sell it to drug dealers in the US and, as far as the Chinese government was concerned, everything was completely legal. It also helps that Fentanyl is extremely cheap to produce - much more so than other opioids.\n\nIn 2015 China began regulating Fentanyl, but enforcement is fairly light. Basically, the Chinese government will only act when the US government complains about a specific supplier, and even then there usually isn't a punishment as long as the company stops producing Fentanyl for long enough.\n\nAnother factor is that ts possible to slightly alter the Fentanyl molecule so they you get something that is technically a different chemical, but which is so similar to Fentanyl that it behaves in the exact same manner and is just marketed as Fentanyl. The US considers those new chemicals to be \"analogues\" of Fentanyl and they are automatically treated identically to Fentanyl under US law.\n\nConversely, Chinese law treats analogues as being a completely new, and therefore unregulated chemical. China has been slowly banning Fentanyl analogues, but its a slow process that, again, only really starts occurring when the US begins complaining loudly enough.\n\nBecause of that, there is a large amount of cheap Chinese Fentanyl that is easily accessible to US dealers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "141915",
"title": "Fentanyl",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Recreational use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Illicit use of pharmaceutical fentanyl and its analogues first appeared in the mid-1970s in the medical community and continues in the present. More than 12 different analogues of fentanyl, all unapproved and clandestinely produced, have been identified in the U.S. drug traffic. In February 2018, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration indicated that illicit fentanyl analogs have no medically valid use, and thus applied a \"Schedule I\" classification to them. The biological effects of the fentanyl analogues are similar to those of heroin, although often with less euphoria and stronger sedative and analgesic effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141915",
"title": "Fentanyl",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Overdose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Fentanyl has started to make its way into heroin and oxycodone, and more recently, cocaine. A kilogram of heroin laced with fentanyl may sell for more than US$100,000, but the fentanyl itself may be produced far more cheaply for about US$6,000 per kilogram. Fentanyl is often produced in China and exported illegally to the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60367555",
"title": "Opioid epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Accessibility of prescribed opioids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "In 2016, the medical news site \"STAT\" reported that while Mexican cartels are the main source of heroin smuggled into the U.S., Chinese suppliers provide both raw fentanyl and the machinery necessary for its production. In British Columbia, police discovered a lab making 100,000 fentanyl pills each month, which they were shipping to Calgary, Alberta. 90 people in Calgary overdosed on the drug in 2015. In Southern California, a home-operated drug lab with six pill presses was uncovered by federal agents; each machine was capable of producing thousands of pills an hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141915",
"title": "Fentanyl",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Recreational use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Some heroin dealers mix fentanyl powder with heroin to increase potency or compensate for low-quality heroin. In 2006, illegally manufactured, non-pharmaceutical fentanyl often mixed with cocaine or heroin caused an outbreak of overdose deaths in the United States and Canada, heavily concentrated in the cities of Dayton, Ohio; Chicago; Detroit; and Philadelphia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46714610",
"title": "Furanylfentanyl",
"section": "Section::::Chinese manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "According to the DEA, fentanyl and its analog are being mass-produced in clandestine labs in China and are then smuggled into the United States. These new variants of fentanyl are manufactured by Chinese chemists in order to circumvent restrictions on the sale of fentanyl in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141915",
"title": "Fentanyl",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Enforcement and seizures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Several large quantities of illicitly produced fentanyl have been seized by U.S. law enforcement agencies. In November 2016, the DEA uncovered an operation making counterfeit oxycodone and Xanax from a home in Cottonwood Heights, Utah. They found about 70,000 pills in the appearance of oxycodone and more than 25,000 in the appearance of Xanax. The DEA reported that millions of pills could have been distributed from this location over the course of time. The accused owned a pill press and ordered fentanyl in powder form from China. A seizure of a record amount of fentanyl occurred on February 2, 2019 by U.S. Customs and Border Protection in Nogales, Arizona. The of fentanyl, which was estimated to be worth US$3.5M, was buried under a pile of cucumbers and stowed under a special floor compartment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5636887",
"title": "Fenethylline",
"section": "Section::::Abuse and illegal trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Fenethylline is a popular drug in Western Asia, and is allegedly used by militant groups in Syria. It is manufactured locally in a cheap and simple process and it sells for between $1.5 and $2.0 a pill as of July 2019 in Lebanon. According to some leaks, militant groups also export the drug in exchange for weapons and cash. According to Abdelelah Mohammed Al-Sharif, secretary general of the National Committee for Narcotics Control and assistant director of Anti-Drug and Preventative Affairs, 40% of the drug users who fall in the 12–22 age group in Saudi Arabia are addicted to fenethylline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
axa7le
|
Can you determine the secondary/tertiary structure of a protein based solely on the amino acid sequence?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you know what patterns and properties to look for in the primary sequence you can make fairly accurate predictions about some features of secondary structure. Principally alpha helices. You can predict beta sheets as well, but since beta sheets, particularly parallel beta sheets, can form between amino acids that are on distant parts of the primary sequence, its much harder to accurately predict them. Additionally many proteins have loop, and unstructured regions, that are hard to predict. Many amino acids also undergo post translational modification which can affect their chemical properties. The ability to predict tertiary structure is much harder unless you have structural models of similar protein sequences to compare to. There are common domain structures like leucine zippers, zinc fingers, greek keys ect, that you could predict with a decent accuracy if you know what primary sequences to look for. \n\nBottom line there are features of protein structure that you can predict from the primary sequence, but you can't accurately model the entire protein structure de novo from the primary sequence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11344743",
"title": "Biomolecular engineering",
"section": "Section::::Basic biomolecules.:Proteins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Primary structure refers to the amino acid backbone sequence. Secondary structure focuses on minor conformations that develop as a result of the hydrogen bonding between the amino acid chain. If most of the protein contains intermolecular hydrogen bonds it is said to be fibrillar, and the majority of its secondary structure will be beta sheets. However, if the majority of the orientation contains intramolecular hydrogen bonds, then the protein is referred to as globular and mostly consists of alpha helices. There are also conformations that consist of a mix of alpha helices and beta sheets as well as a beta helixes with an alpha sheets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5054730",
"title": "Biomolecular structure",
"section": "Section::::Primary structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly termed \"primary sequence\", but there is no such term, as well as no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence. By convention, the primary structure of a protein is reported starting from the amino terminal (N) to the carboxyl terminal (C), while the primary structure of DNA or RNA molecule is reported from the 5′ end to the 3′ end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366555",
"title": "Biomolecule",
"section": "Section::::Amino acids.:Protein structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The particular series of amino acids that form a protein is known as that protein's primary structure. This sequence is determined by the genetic makeup of the individual. It specifies the order of side-chain groups along the linear polypeptide \"backbone\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262401",
"title": "Translation (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Genetic code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Whereas other aspects such as the 3D structure, called tertiary structure, of protein can only be predicted using sophisticated algorithms, the amino acid sequence, called primary structure, can be determined solely from the nucleic acid sequence with the aid of a translation table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8713219",
"title": "Helical wheel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The sequence of amino acids that make up a helical region of the protein's secondary structure are plotted in a rotating manner where the angle of rotation between consecutive amino acids is 100°, so that the final representation looks down the helical axis. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31032",
"title": "Protein tertiary structure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Protein tertiary structure is the three dimensional shape of a protein. The tertiary structure will have a single polypeptide chain \"backbone\" with one or more protein secondary structures, the protein domains. Amino acid side chains may interact and bond in a number of ways. The interactions and bonds of side chains within a particular protein determine its tertiary structure. The protein tertiary structure is defined by its atomic coordinates. These coordinates may refer either to a protein domain or to the entire tertiary structure. A number of tertiary structures may fold into a quaternary structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28691",
"title": "Protein secondary structure",
"section": "Section::::Prediction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Predicting protein tertiary structure from only its amino acid sequence is a very challenging problem (see protein structure prediction), but using the simpler secondary structure definitions is more tractable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
81zmtt
|
Resources on pre-modern/medieval warfare/armies in East Asia that are not in the recommended reading list? Specifically regarding Korea.
|
[
{
"answer": "Specifically for Korea, the major event that has attracted most attention is Hideyoshi's invasion, 1592-1598. The resources resulting from that attention amount to 3 major books, and various journal articles and other books. Two of these books are in the reading list (but in the Imperial China section of the list):\n\n* *The Imjin War: Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China* by Samuel Hawley (2005). One of the three main English accounts of the Imjin War, perhaps the only thing that comes close to a \"world war\" in East Asia. This is not the most comprehensive text on the war but it gives an excellent introduction. Hawley uses mostly Korean sources for this book and writes from a Korean perspective, so the book does suffer from a pro-Korean bias.\n\n* *A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592–1598* by Kenneth M. Swope (2009). The newest of the three books, Swope writes from a Chinese perspective and uses a lot of Chinese primary sources. Though his text has been criticized for providing flawed information, as a military historian, Swope gives an excellent account of the capabilities of the Ming military. It is best to read Hawley, Turnbull, and Swope together.\n\nThe third book, referred to in the comments on Swope above, but not in the list, is\n\n* Stephen Turnbull, *Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War 1592-1598*, Cassell, 2002. Turnbull depends on Japanese sources, Swope on Chinese sources, and Hawley on Korean sources. It's good to read all three.\n\nAlso useful is\n\n* Peter H. Lee (ed), *Record of the Black Dragon Year*, Univ of Hawaii Pr, 2000. This is a translation of a contemporary Korean popular history of the war.\n\nTwo books that cover the modernisation of the Korean army as a result of the Japanese invasion in the context of wider changes in East Asian warfare c. 1600 are:\n\n* Peter A. Lorge, *The Asian Military Revolution: From Gunpowder to the Bomb*, Cambridge University Press, 2008.\n\n* Tonio Andrade, *The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History*, Princeton University Press, 2016.\n\nSee also\n\n* Tonio Andrade, Hyeok Hweon Kang, Kirsten Cooper, \"A Korean Military Revolution? Parallel Military Innovations in East Asia and Europe\", *Journal of World History* 25(1), 51-84 (2014)\n\nThere are also some sources on the US war in 1871:\n\n* Gordon H. Chang, \"Whose \"Barbarism\"? Whose \"Treachery\"? Race and Civilization in the Unknown United States-Korea War of 1871,\" *Journal of American History* 89(4) 1331-1365 (2003)\n\n* Carolyn A. Tyson, \"Marine Amphibious Landing in Korea, 1871\", _URL_1_\n\nSome sources on weapons and armour:\n\n* Sang H. Kin (trans), *Muye Dobo Tongji: Comprehensive Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts of Ancient Korea*, Turtle Press, 2000. Translation of a late 18th century Korean military manual.\n\n* Boots, J. L., \"Korean Weapons and Armour\", *Trans. Korean Branch Royal Asiatic Society*, XXIII, Pt. 2, pp. 1-37 (1934). _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4736129",
"title": "Gim Busik",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Samguk Sagi(“The History of the Three Kingdoms of Korea”) is the oldest extant work of Korean history and often the only written source of information about the Three kingdoms and Unified Silla periods\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4135579",
"title": "Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles (, abbr. \"PSRL\") is a series of published volumes aimed at collecting all medieval East Slavic chronicles, with various editions published in Imperial Russia, the Soviet Union, and Russian Federation. The project is ongoing and far from finished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334158",
"title": "Himiko",
"section": "Section::::Historical references.:Korean sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The oldest Korean history book, the 1145 \"Samguk Sagi\" (三國史記 \"Chronicles of the Three [Korean] Kingdoms\") records that Queen Himiko sent an emissary to King Adalla of Silla in May 173 (Saeki 1988:35, 113, 154).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188144",
"title": "Samguk sagi",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "In any case, it is clear that Kim Busik's Samgik Sagi is critical to the study of Korean history during the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods. Not only because this work, and its Buddhist counterpart Samguk yusa, are the only remaining Korean sources for the period, but also because the Samguk_Sagi contains a large amount of information and details. For example, the translation tables given in Books 35 and 36 have been used for a tentative reconstruction of the former Koguryeo language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8060141",
"title": "Sindanminsa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The treatise divides Korean history into ten chronological segments: Shinshi, Gojoseon, Buyeo, Several States, North South States Period, Goryeo and Liao Dynasty, Goryeo and Jin dynasty, Goryeo, Joseon, and Korea Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47066581",
"title": "Nurimedia",
"section": "Section::::Products.:KRpia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The Korean language database covers 600 publications in such fields as literature, economics, business, theology, law, administration, arts, engineering and natural science. It is a primary source reference database divided into ten topics and one hundred forty subcategories and includes special dictionaries, archival and historical resources, biographical sources, and other reference materials related to Korean history, literature, civilization and medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42522980",
"title": "Daehanjiji",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1814,
"text": "Daehanjiji (; Hanja: 大韓地誌) is a Korean geography book about the Great Korean Empire, written by Hyeun Chae (; Hanja: 玄采) and published by Gwangmun-sa (; Hanja: 廣文社), Seoul. Hyeun Chae wrote \"Daehanjiji,\" a two-volume set of Korean elementary school geography books, in 1899 translating and compiling Japanese and Korean sources. The titles, authors, and chronologies of source material for the compilation are not always stated, yet Gomatsu Susumu(小松運)'s Chōsenhachidō-shi(朝鮮八道誌; Joseon Paldo-ji, 1887) and Matsumoto Nikichi(Kendo)(松本仁吉; a.k.a. 謙堂)'s Chōsenchishi Yoryaku (朝鮮地誌要略; Joseon Jiji Yoryak, 1894) and their styles are suspected as primary sources and models of emulation. The author states in the postface that he employed several Japanese geographies on Korea, and that he supplemented these with the historical sections from Shinjeung Dongguk Yeojiseungram. Daehanjiji was published in 1899 and reprinted in 1901. It gave a summary description of late 19th century Korean geography with greater emphasis on physical geography. The written language conformed to the then innovative Gukhanmun Honyongche, one combining han'geul and hanja, and was popular for the relative ease of deciphering. As the first western style geography textbook published in late Joseon dynasty, it contributed to the Gaehwa movement, the opening up to enlightenment for the Korean masses and raising awareness and unity as a nation by inviting commoners to learn everything they could about the Korean Empire and its landscape, namely the Korean Peninsula at late 19th century. It was foreworded by Lee Gyu-hwan (; Hanja: 李圭桓), Director of Editorial Office, Ministry of Education. Daehanjiji was employed in the school system, but was banned, confiscated, and burned by Protectorate General by Notice No. 72 of Nov. 19, 1910.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5dbpkh
|
why microwaves don't explode with the pressure of accumulated steam from food.
|
[
{
"answer": "The microwave is actually not air tight. There are air vents on the microwave itself. I also believe that the door itself is also not air tight. Microwave energy is also not kept inside of the microwave completely, given why pregnant women should not stand by the microwave. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has air vents. Microwave energy is prevented from leaving the microwave due to a metal mesh that surrounds it. [This mesh is not airtight, and doesn't need to be](_URL_0_) to function properly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting if preheated. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks, producing small quantities of molten rock. Some ceramics can also be melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:Metal objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Another hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth between the tube and the cooking chamber. This may cause the tube to overload and burn out. High reflected power may also cause magnetron arcing, possibly resulting in primary power fuse failure, though such a causal relationship isn't easily established. Thus, dehydrated food, or food wrapped in metal which does not arc, is problematic for overload reasons, without necessarily being a fire hazard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1277505",
"title": "Steam explosion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "If a steam explosion occurs in a confined tank of water due to rapid heating of the water, the pressure wave and rapidly expanding steam can cause severe water hammer. This was the mechanism that, in Idaho, USA, in 1961, caused the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel to jump over in the air when it was destroyed by a criticality accident. In the case of SL-1, the fuel and fuel elements vaporized from instantaneous overheating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14395105",
"title": "Cooker",
"section": "Section::::Cookers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pressure cooker – heats food quickly because the internal steam pressure from the boiling liquid causes saturated steam (or \"wet steam\") to bombard and permeate the food. Thus, higher temperature water vapour (i.e., increased energy), which transfers heat more rapidly compared to dry air, cooks food very quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Water and other homogeneous liquids can superheat when heated in a microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven or while adding solid ingredients such as powdered creamer or sugar. This can result in spontaneous boiling (nucleation) which may be violent enough to eject the boiling liquid from the container and cause severe scalding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6413844",
"title": "Underwater explosion",
"section": "Section::::Deep nuclear explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Despite being in direct contact with a nuclear explosion, the water of the expanding bubble wall does not boil. This is because the pressure inside the bubble exceeds (by far) the vapor pressure of ocean water. The water touching the blast can only boil during contraction. This boiling is like evaporation, cooling the bubble wall, and it is another reason that an oscillating blast bubble contains only 40% of the energy it had in the previous cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
284br3
|
weed smokers of reddit: what is the advantage of smoking marijuana instead of making pot brownies?
|
[
{
"answer": "But once it does kick in... :o",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And there's just something inexplicable about the vibe and mood of blazing a joint somewhere isolated in nature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Smoking, you need a somewhat secluded or private area, where as the brownies, you can eat pretty much anywhere without others being alerted to it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of us actually appreciate the bud. We smell it. We inspect it. We look at it with magnifying glasses. We taste it delicately. We compare it to others. We seek out specific strains and specific features. We celebrate specific growers. We take notes. Ok, some of us do. \n\nFor all the reasons that some people drink wine instead of jello shots, we like to smoke finely cured buds, instead of eating sugary shit brownies filled with leaves and shake.\n\nYou're not appreciating the buds if you're just grinding them up into cake batter to get fucked up. Any crappily-grown weed or improperly cured weed gets thrown into edibles. To get a truly good *smoking* weed, the process really has to be done right from start to finish. Learning to appreciate that, and all the steps involved, is a huge part of my enjoyment.\n\nAnd you don't need to \"smoke\" it. I use a vaporizer a lot of the time. It's instantaneous and basically harmless healthwise. You can taste all the subtle characteristics of what you're vaping. It's really easy to find your favorites using a vape.\n\nI still hit the bong quite a bit because goddamnit, that's the way I was raised and nobody will ever convince me to give it up!\n\nI think edibles and concentrates are a waste of time, money, and bud. They're jello shots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you've ever eaten a pot brownie, you'd know. A high from smoking is virtually instant (latency is usually no more than 15s if you inhaled enough), and it doesn't last too long (likely no more than 45-60min, usually much less). Meanwhile, a brownie has a much longer latency (could be 45min-1hour), and then the effects last much longer (could be several hours). This doesn't accommodate proper functioning in society, while smoking can be a break in the day or just a nice chill at night. \n\nOn a side note, vaping, while still with some negative effects, would be much safer than smoking because you're not burning the plant so you produce less toxic chemicals in the process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31686195",
"title": "Lumír Ondřej Hanuš",
"section": "Section::::Views on cannabis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "According to Hanuš, alcohol and tobacco should be \"black listed\" rather than cannabis, as there is a possibility of both physical and psychological addiction to the first two, while there is no possibility of physical and only limited possibility of psychological addiction to marijuana. Moreover, people under influence of marijuana are not dangerous to others. He does not support smoking of marijuana because of the dangers of smoke inhalation. Hanuš is against uncontrolled use of marijuana, but he fully supports its use for medical purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1487987",
"title": "National Institute on Drug Abuse",
"section": "Section::::Medical marijuana monopoly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "An article in \"Mother Jones\" describes their crop as \"brown, stems-and-seeds-laden, low-potency pot—what's known on the streets as \"schwag\"\"aka \"Bobby Brown\" United States federal law currently registers cannabis as a Schedule I drug. Medical marijuana researchers typically prefer to use high-potency marijuana, but NIDA's National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse has been reluctant to provide cannabis with high THC levels, citing safety concerns:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38314",
"title": "Bong",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "However, a 2000 NORML-MAPS cannabis study found that \"water pipes filter out more psychoactive THC than they do other tars, thereby requiring users to smoke more to reach their desired effect\". In the study, smoke from cannabis supplied by the NIDA was drawn through a number of smoking devices and analyzed. This study looked at the tar to cannabinoid ratio in the gas in output by various bongs, as well as unfiltered and filtered joints, and vaporizers. The results showed that only vaporizers produced a better tar to cannabinoid ratio than unfiltered joints, but that within the cannabinoids produced, even vaporizers warped the ratio of THC (the psychoactive component of the smoke) to CBN (capable of producing medical benefits but is not psychoactive) in favor of CBN. This showed an unfiltered joint had the best tar to THC ratio of all, and bongs were actually seriously detrimental in this respect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22259591",
"title": "Edward M. Brecher",
"section": "Section::::Works And Awards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The editorial concluded: \"Good or bad, marijuana is here to stay. The billions spent to fight it are wasted dollars. Indeed, they may be worse than wasted: properly regulated, marijuana might serve as a less dangerous substitute for alcohol.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4223023",
"title": "Lacing (drugs)",
"section": "Section::::Commonly laced drugs.:Marijuana and Hashish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Rarely, cannabis (especially that of low quality) is laced with PCP, particularly in the United States. However, it is not always done surreptitiously. Dealers who do so often (but not always) advertise their wares as being \"enhanced\" with other substances, and charge more money than they would otherwise, even if they do not say exactly what the lacing agents are. Such concoctions are often called \"fry\", \"wet\", \"illy\", \"sherm\", \"water-water\", \"dust(ed)\", \"super weed\", \"grecodine\" or other names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481886",
"title": "Cannabis (drug)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "There are also other difficulties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis also smoke tobacco. This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8770048",
"title": "Next (cigarette)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Philip Morris International committing fraudulent practices with tobacco in Morocco.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "According to the international definition, brown cigarettes must be at least 60% brown tobacco. But in Morocco, there is no standard for tobacco mixtures. To counter cheating, some distributors demand the standardization of taxation of blond and brown tobacco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9oqgb5
|
- what is preventing the us government from making voting day a national holiday?
|
[
{
"answer": "The US has no legal holidays where all businesses are required to give all workers the day off, it's a capitalist country.\n\nThere are about 260 working days per year. Adding another federal holiday thus costs about 0.4% of productivity. While it's a small number, 0.4% of the US GDP is a really big amount of money. Spending that money on voting day isn't perceived as worth it.\n\nWhen you suggest switching another existing holiday for \"Voting Day\", you get a lot of pushback. If you pick a day like Columbus Day/Indigenous Peoples Day that not everybody gets off, it costs a lot of money. If you pick a day most people get off, like Thanksgiving, then you get a whole new level of angry. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1050340",
"title": "Election Day (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Most voters have work on Tuesdays. This has led activists to promote alternatives to improve voter turnout. Alternatives include making Election Day a Federal holiday or merging it with Veterans Day, allowing voting over multiple days, mandating paid time off to vote, encouraging voters to vote early or vote by mail, and encouraging states to promote flexible voting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1823142",
"title": "Democracy Day (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Conyers' proposed the holiday in Resolution (H.R.) 63 - Democracy Day Act of 2005. The bill called for the Tuesday after the first Monday in November of every even-numbered year, Election Day, to be a legal public holiday. The purpose of the holiday was to increase voter turnout by giving citizens more time to vote, as well as to allow for the opening of more polling places with more workers while raising awareness of the importance of voting and civic participation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1050340",
"title": "Election Day (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Holiday and paid leave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Delaware, Hawaii, Kentucky, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and the territory of Puerto Rico have declared Election Day a civic holiday. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off from employment without loss of pay. California Elections Code Section 14000 and New York State Election Law provide that employees without sufficient time to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. Democracy Day, a planned federal holiday to coincide with Election Day, was unsuccessfully proposed in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate in 2005. It was later reintroduced in the Senate in 2014 and has not been enacted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168341",
"title": "Veterans Day",
"section": "Section::::Observance.:Armistice Day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Election Day is a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls the following week, is a federal holiday. The National Commission on Federal Election Reform called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote. They state this as a way to honor voting by exercising democratic rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29152",
"title": "Super Bowl XXVII",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Arizona's Martin Luther King Day controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1198,
"text": "Polls showed that over 60% of the electorate approved of an MLK holiday in Arizona; however, the issue was confused since there were two competing initiatives and it was not clear that voters could vote \"yes\" for both. One initiative called for replacing President's Day with MLK Day while the other called for a new holiday on MLK's birthday. Both initiatives required a yes/no vote, and voters were confused if they could vote yes on both. Each initiative was defeated; however, a professor of statistics at Arizona State University demonstrated that all the yes/yes, yes/no, and no/yes votes totaled just over 60% of ballots cast, which corresponded with every poll taken prior to and after the vote. The NFL responded by making good on its threat to remove the Super Bowl from Tempe and held another vote in Kohala, Hawaii on March 19, 1991, with Pasadena chosen as the site for the first time since Super Bowl XXI was played there six years earlier. Arizona voters approved the MLK Day holiday in the 1992 elections when voters were simply asked to vote Yes or No on whether or not Arizona should recognize an MLK Day. The NFL responded by awarding Tempe Super Bowl XXX at their 1993 meeting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220304",
"title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal holidays due to presidential proclamation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Federal law also provides for the declaration of other public holidays by the President of the United States. Generally the president will provide a reasoning behind the elevation of the day, and call on the people of the United States to observe the day \"with appropriate ceremonies and activities.\" Examples of presidentially declared holidays were the days of the funerals for former Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and Gerald Ford; federal government offices were closed and employees given a paid holiday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33900147",
"title": "Barack Obama Day",
"section": "Section::::History.:Illinois.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In 2017, Illinois State Representatives André Thapedi and Sonya Harper introduced a bill to designate Barack Obama Day as a state holiday. The original measure would have closed schools and state offices for the day. It was rejected by the House in March 2017, citing expense and the lack of a holiday for other presidents from Illinois, such as Ronald Reagan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61s5oi
|
how are paintings restored?
|
[
{
"answer": "First they study the picture to see how the painting constructed. They use X-rays and ultra violet lights to see what paints and varnishes were used.and if any repairs have been done before. Also knowledge of the artists usual technique and of the time period are important.\n\nOnce they have this info they might put a new backing on the canvas to make it stronger. Then they use solvents and knives to gently clean away old varnish and previous restorations.\n\nThey do fill in the missing areas. But they use special compounds that can be easily removed in the future. As well as detailed records of the work that was done.\n\nThen they cover it with special non-yellowing varnish to keep it looking good. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "738649",
"title": "Art forgery",
"section": "Section::::Problems with authentication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "At times restoration of a piece is so extensive that the original is essentially replaced when new materials are used to supplement older ones. An art restorer may also add or remove details on a painting, in an attempt to make the painting more saleable on the contemporary art market. This, however, is not a modern phenomenon - historical painters often \"retouched\" other artist's works by repainting some of the background or details.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42038766",
"title": "Paintings conservator",
"section": "Section::::Responsibilities and duties.:Restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "A painting's natural aging process, as well as environmental factors, can require intervention by a paintings conservator to restore the work. Reasons for restoration may include water damage, tearing, flaking, and a weakened canvas. The primary goal of a paintings conservator conducting a restoration is to ensure the work is stable. From there, they may integrate repairs that preserve the artist's original intent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53622622",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of panel paintings",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Surface and painting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The conservation of paintings varies for the different types of oil, acrylic and fresco paintings. These techniques include cleaning, removal and replacement of degraded varnish and the restoration of paint losses. The Tate Museum described that \"Cleaning is a particularly delicate and demanding part of conserving and restoring paintings. Layers of dirt, discoloured varnish and old restorations that may be disfiguring or obscuring parts of the composition are painstakingly removed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50187915",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of paintings",
"section": "Section::::Conservation treatments and processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "After determining an artworks condition, stability, history of previous restoration, and documenting and photographing the examination, future conservation treatments can be determined. The results of conservation treatments often yield a more \"stable paint layer and support, more appropriate aesthetic presentation through cleaning, and a more unified paintings through the reintegration of the paint losses. It is not possible to restore a painting to its original form, but with careful preservation, documentation and restoration, conservators can help to extend the life expectancy of a painting.\" These treatments depend on the materials that make up an artwork. They can include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2623568",
"title": "Antiques restoration",
"section": "Section::::Restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Restoration can be as simple as light cleaning to remove disfiguring dirt or grime, such as on the surface of a painting, or it may include near complete rebuilding or replacement, as might be the case with old automobiles or furniture. Often done in preparation for sale, or by a collector upon acquiring a new piece, the main goal of restoration is to \"restore\" the original appearance or functionality of a piece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42038766",
"title": "Paintings conservator",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Conservation and the practice of restoration are controversial themselves, as they involve permanent changes made to an artist's work. This is why it is important for a paintings conservator to examine a work closely before making restorative changes. In doing so, they can often identify original varnishes and layers that contributed to the artist's intent for the appearance of the work. However, even close examination and careful restoration does not protect a paintings conservator or a work from being the center of controversy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44100495",
"title": "Sala delle Asse",
"section": "Section::::Current restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The long-term goal is to provide a valid “aesthetic restoration”. First of all, painted surfaces must be cleaned and stabilized. Then the problem of “peeling off” layers due to previous restorations and/or integrating missing spots with new painting (using modern material, such as watercolor, for example) must be faced. There are different opinions about several issues: previous paintings layers (due to restoration) should be totally removed? How much new painting is allowed? Too little, will leave the room in an aesthetically unpleasant state, too much will be somehow a “false”. The scientific committee (see below) is debating the issues, guiding and supervising operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tp2xp
|
How do they convert electric signal to type that our brain can read?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nervous systems already communicate with electrical signals. In fact, that's what your mechanoreceptors do: the hair cells in your ears, for instance, convert pressure changes into electrical signals which downstream neurons can then receive (the chemical synapse does utilize ligand/receptor kinetics, but all to the end of depolarization: electrical signalling).\n\nIn many experiments with neurons, a current is directly injected into the neuron to stimulate it. \n\nNow, how the brain (or specific nuclei in the brain) interpret it depends on that particular set of neurons and how the encode information. A very common kind of coding is rate coding, where the neuron spikes faster to encode more intense stimulus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Electronic ear and eye work the same. They push current, biphasic, negative first, at currents up to the 1 mAmp range. It may go up to 6 volts in a volt representation over a 1 kohm lead, but most of the stimulation occurs at much lower currents than that. Safely in the 0.100 mA to 6 mA range.\n \nSuch currents are necessarily fairly dispersed because of the size of the contacts (hundreds of microns wide). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9404689",
"title": "Brain-reading",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Brain-reading or thought identification uses the responses of multiple voxels in the brain evoked by stimulus then detected by fMRI in order to decode the original stimulus. Advances in research have made this possible by using human neuroimaging to decode a person's conscious experience based on non-invasive measurements of an individual's brain activity. Brain reading studies differ in the type of decoding (i.e. classification, identification and reconstruction) employed, the target (i.e. decoding visual patterns, auditory patterns, cognitive states), and the decoding algorithms (linear classification, nonlinear classification, direct reconstruction, Bayesian reconstruction, etc.) employed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16816355",
"title": "UCL Neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::History.:21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In March 2009 a team led by Professor Eleanor Maguire of UCL published a study showing that it is possible read a person's spatial memories by using a brain scanner to monitor the electrical activity of the brain. In December 2009, Professor Sophie Scott of the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience conducted research into how the human voice works and interacts with the brain as part of BBC Radio 4's Vox Project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9404689",
"title": "Brain-reading",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Human-machine interfaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Brain-reading has also been proposed as a method of improving human-machine interfaces, by the use of EEG to detect relevant brain states of a human. In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in patents for technology involved in reading brainwaves, rising from fewer than 400 from 2009–2012 to 1600 in 2014. These include proposed ways to control video games via brain waves and \"neuro-marketing\" to determine someone's thoughts about a new product or advertisement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39151518",
"title": "Neuronal recycling hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1077,
"text": "As was stated in the neuronal recycling hypothesis, brain circuits bias what we are able to learn. One bias identified involves the preference of central versus peripheral images at different points along the cerebral cortex. It was observed that in all individuals, the visual word form area fell on the region of the cortex with a massive preference for fine-grained, central images. This area is most suitable to accommodate reading ability, due to the high degree of visual precision necessary to perform this function effectively. Another cortical bias relevant to reading comes from the lateralization of cerebral hemispheres. Reading consistently activates the left hemisphere, which is associated with language abilities and discriminating between small shapes, showing a clear bias towards reading functions. There is a preadaptation of the inferior temporal cortex that we use when learning to read. It is the area activated during invariant object recognition, and its sufficient plasticity allows it to accommodate the new shapes and symbols necessary for reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12349360",
"title": "Mellon optical memory",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Reading the cells was accomplished by a grid of photocells arranged behind the phosphorescent layer, which emitted photons omnidirectionally. This allowed the cells to be read from the back of the device, as long as the phosphorescent layer was thin enough. To form a complete memory the system was arranged to be regenerative, with the output of the photocells being amplified and sent back into the CRT to refresh the cells periodically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378914",
"title": "Speed reading",
"section": "Section::::Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Computer programs are available to help instruct speed reading students. Some programs present the data as a serial stream, since the brain handles text more efficiently by breaking it into such a stream before parsing and interpreting it. The 2000 National Reading Panel (NRP) report (p. 3-1) seems to support such a mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251196",
"title": "Twistor memory",
"section": "Section::::Core memory.:Data retrieval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "In core memory, a third wire - the \"sense/inhibit line\" - is needed to write or read a bit. Reading uses the process of writing; the X and Y lines are powered in the same fashion that they would be to write a \"0\" to the selected core. If that core held a \"1\" at that time, a short pulse of electricity is induced into the sense/inhibit line. If no pulse is seen, the core held a \"0\". This process is destructive; if the core did hold a \"1\", that pattern is destroyed during the read, and has to be re-set in a subsequent operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aa0dob
|
how do game anti cheats, like battleye or gameguard work?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are different flags that can be detected to assume someone is trying to tamper the game, such as debugging another process (the game in this case), accessing the memory mapped to that game, running the game in a virtualized environment, tampering the binary or assets and many more. \nAnti-cheat try to detect those abnormal behaviors targeting the game's process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They guess. \"We know about a cheat program, and it looks like *this*. You currently have something running that looks like it, so we're gonna assume you're cheating.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Different anti cheats employ different methods to combat cheating. Most of them keep these methods secret so that they can remain one step ahead of cheaters. Common methods include memory modification detection, the idea that when the cheat program modifies memory, some code will scan the binary (.text section) and find differences. This will flag the account for further investigation. Some anti cheats, however, use pattern detection. If someone with aimbot and esp is killing people through walls they can flag accounts and allow for further investigation. The goal of cheat makers is essentially to bypass these detection vectors and allow the cheater to continue cheating. Anti cheats have also gotten more complex over time because cheat makers have found more security holes in the OS and games in general. This led to Kernel level anti cheats which basically act like anti virus programs (have the same privilege level) and locate cheats that utilize better stealth. Even with these sophisticated anti cheats like BattleEye, cheaters can still remain safe for long periods of time due to how difficult detecting some cheats can be. To sum, the anti cheats basically scan memory for modifications, look for patterns both in the user and the program, or search through the PC for cheat related software that is present. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8544406",
"title": "Cheating in video games",
"section": "Section::::Cheating in online games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Examples of cheats in first-person shooter games include the aimbot, which assists the player in aiming at the target, giving the user an unfair advantage, the wallhack, which allows a player to see through solid or opaque objects or manipulate or remove textures, and ESP, with which the information of other players is displayed. There are also cheats that increase the size of the enemies' hitbox which allows you to shoot next to the enemy, which would usually result in a miss, but the game would detect as a hit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8544406",
"title": "Cheating in video games",
"section": "Section::::Unusual effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1091,
"text": "Cheat codes may sometimes produce unusual or interesting effects which don't necessarily make the game easier to play. For example, one cheat in \"\" makes dinosaurs appear \"undead\". Another example occurs in the game \"Dungeon Siege\", where activating the cheat to extend the range of a bow also allows the enemies to fire at the same distance, thereby eliminating the advantage the cheat would have given. A cheat may even make the game harder to play; for instance, one could give the enemy special abilities, increase general difficulty, make neutral bystanders attack the player or grant the player a disadvantage such as low health points. Cheats in \"Grand Theft Auto\" games can make NPCs start rioting or wield weapons. In \"Grand Theft Auto III\", the player can activate a cheat to enable blowing off the limbs of NPCs, a feature originally included in the game. Recently, however, Rockstar Games has not included such violent or unusual cheat codes in its games, instead choosing to focus on cheats such as vehicle spawns, player effects (for example, invincibility) and weapon spawns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252279",
"title": "PEEK and POKE",
"section": "Section::::POKEs as cheats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Using a 'POKE' cheat is more difficult in modern games, as many include anti-cheat or copy-protection measures that inhibit modification of the game's memory space. Modern operating systems enforce virtual memory protection schemes to deny external program access to non-shared memory (for example, separate page tables for each application, hence inaccessible memory spaces).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2115723",
"title": "Video game exploit",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "In defense of these behaviors are arguments that the rules of the game allow it and that players might not know they are behaving against the designer's intention. So-called exploits, in this view, are not cheats because they do not change the game in any way and therefore could be accessible to all players if they know how to do it. The players who use such techniques may consider them fair for use in the game in cases when they are not explicitly disallowed in the Terms of Service or other such rules governing participation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897134",
"title": "Cheating",
"section": "Section::::Sport, games and gambling.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1684,
"text": "Another form of video game cheating is when a player does things to interact with game objects that are unforeseen by the programmers and break the intended function or reward system of the object. This can involve the way enemies are encountered, objectives met, items used, or any other game object that contains a software bug. One common example is the exploitation of errors in an enemy's pathfinding; if a player can cause an enemy to become \"stuck\" in a given terrain feature, that player can then usually dispatch the enemy from a distance without risk, even if much stronger, and achieve greater rewards than the player is intended to be able to at that level of progression. Another example was common in early first-person shooter games and involved skipping a weapon's reload timer by quickly switching weapons back and forth without actually reloading the weapons; resulting in what was effectively instant reloading. It also can be accomplished through means of altered game files are substituted for the normal files, or image graphics changed to permit greater visibility of the targets, etc. - for example, replacing the colors on a dark-colored enemy intended to blend in with the background with a bright color permitting instant visibility and targeting. Generally speaking, there is often some concern that this is not truly cheating, as it is the fault of the programmers that such an exploit exists in the first place. However, technically, as with live sports, it is cheating if the player is not playing the game in a formally approved manner, breaking unwritten rules. In some cases, this behavior is directly prohibited by the Terms of Service of the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "596202",
"title": "Sissyfight 2000",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Cheating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Players found several ways to cheat in the game. Most often, two players resort to using a third-party instant messaging service in order to coordinate their moves outside of the in-game chat interface. Other players developed more sophisticated methods, including running multiple sessions of the game and creating secondary or unregistered accounts (\"sock puppets\" or \"socks\") to tilt a game's outcome in their favor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1444834",
"title": "Jak 3",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Cheats, made available as the player progresses, can upgrade weapons, flip the game world around into a mirror image of itself, or grant the player invincibility. After the game has been completed, the Hero Mode option is made accessible, which, when purchased, allows the player to re-play the game at a harder difficulty level, but with all previously unlocked cheats and extras still available. As Precursor Orb count is not reset, and the orbs are regenerated at their original locations, the player is able to regather orbs that he or she had already collected the previous time they played through the game. Collecting all 600 Precursor Orbs has some cosmetic effects on Jak's appearance, but has no effects other than this. In Hero Mode, Jak also keeps all twelve of his weapons but loses his light flight along with two of his dark powers until they are collected in their respective parts of the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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