id
stringlengths 5
6
| input
stringlengths 3
301
| output
list | meta
null |
|---|---|---|---|
87d96g
|
Why are some charging cables faster than others even when using the same power supply?
|
[
{
"answer": "Wire length, wire diameter, and wire material all effect total wire resistance. If you know the resistance of the cable, r, you can calculate the maximum theoretical power transfer across that cable to a phone, which is a maximum when the phone appears to have the same resistance as the cable (for an ideal power supply, which isn't the case, but we'll ignore that fact.)\n\nTotal Power = v*i\n\nPower in device = 1/2 v*i\n\ni = v/(2*r)\n\npower in device = 1/2 [v] * [v/(2*r)]\n\npower in device = v^2 /(4r)\n\nFor a 5v charger, you get\n\npower = 6.25/r\n\nr = 6.25/power\n\nSo, if you want to transfer 10 watts to your phone, you need a cable that has no more than 6.25/10 ohms or .625 ohms.\n\nA 1-meter cheap thin cable might have .6 ohms and be able to charge at 10W (slightly more than 2 amps). A cheap thin 5-meter long cable might have 1.4 ohms and only be able to charge to 4.5 watts. (just over 900ma).\n\nReal power supplies aren't ideal and have an internal resistance that must be added to that of the cable. That means the situation is a little worse than we just calculated. The good news is that while their resistance isn't generally published, it is typically small for a good charger. Also keep in mind that this is the maximum theoretical power, and not all phones can achieve it. Between the phone and charger and cable, short cheap cables generally work fine, as do longer heavy-duty cables, but cheap cables longer than about .5 meter may restrict your charging rate.\n\nWhether they are generic or not, the main thing to look for in longer cables is thicker wiring (low AWG). Harder to check, but also important, are the quality of the USB connectors at the ends of the cable and the quality of the soldering that joins them to the wire.\n\nIncidentally, USB-C generally eliminates this problem by adopting higher voltages as part of the official standard. Higher voltages mean more maximum power for the phone and less wasted power through the cable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Where devices (for example, high-speed disk drives) require more power than a high-power device can draw, they function erratically, if at all, from bus power of a single port. USB provides for these devices as being self-powered. However, such devices may come with a Y-shaped cable that has two USB plugs (one for power and data, the other for only power), so as to draw power as two devices. Such a cable is non-standard, with the USB compliance specification stating that \"use of a 'Y' cable (a cable with two A-plugs) is prohibited on any USB peripheral\", meaning that \"if a USB peripheral requires more power than allowed by the USB specification to which it is designed, then it must be self-powered.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.:USB Battery Charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1721161",
"title": "Submarine power cable",
"section": "Section::::Design technologies.:AC or DC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Most electrical power transmission systems use alternating current (AC), because transformers can easily change voltages as needed. Direct-current transmission requires a converter at each end of a direct current line to interface to an alternating current grid. A system using submarine power cables may be less costly overall if using high-voltage direct current transmission, especially on a long link where the capacitance of the cable would require too much additional charging current. The inner and outer conductors of a cable form the plates of a capacitor, and if the cable is long (on the order of tens of kilometres), the current that flows through this capacitance may be significant compared to the load current. This would require larger, therefore more costly, conductors for a given quantity of usable power to be transmitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7674",
"title": "Cable car (railway)",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "One apparent advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency. This is due to the economy of centrally located power stations, and the ability of descending cars to transfer energy to ascending cars. However, this advantage is totally negated by the relatively large energy consumption required to simply move the cable over and under the numerous guide rollers and around the many sheaves. Approximately 95% of the tractive effort in the San Francisco system is expended in simply moving the four cables at 9.5 miles per hour. Electric cars with regenerative braking do offer the advantages, without the problem of moving a cable. In the case of steep grades, however, cable traction has the major advantage of not depending on adhesion between wheels and rails. There is also the obvious advantage that keeping the car gripped to the cable will also limit the downhill speed to that of the cable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3339809",
"title": "Field coil",
"section": "Section::::Bipolar and multipolar fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "This change was needed because higher voltages transmit power more efficiently over small wires. To increase the output voltage, a DC generator must be spun faster, but beyond a certain speed this is impractical for very large power transmission generators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10592503",
"title": "Charging station",
"section": "Section::::Standards.:Plugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Fast charging, however and whenever it gets built out, is going to be key for the development of a mainstream market for plug-in electric vehicles. The broader conflict between the CHAdeMO and SAE Combo connectors, we see that as a hindrance to the market over the next several years that needs to be worked out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22991521",
"title": "Active cable",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Some opponents of active cables also believe that active cables do not provide power savings for signal processing reasons, because in an active cable design, there is at least one extra integrated circuit compared to passive cable designs. This extra IC must be powered separately, when in a passive cable design, the signal processing can be integrated onto a single chip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
93500e
|
what exactly happens when we bend paper? why is it permanent?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here's what paper looks like under a microscope.](_URL_0_) These are ~~collagen~~ cellulose fibers that came from the pulp of the trees used and they all kinda mesh and weave together all tangled up - giving paper its strength. When you crease a fold, the fibers that get bunched up on the inside of the crease force the fibers on the outside of the crease to stretch and tear. If you then crease the fold the other way, you now break the fibers on this side, leaving only a thin layer of fibers in the middle to hold the two sides together (and making it now relatively easy to tear apart). \n\nSame thing if you've ever had to use a piece of bread as a hotdog bun; the bottom of the bread always breaks in half. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "materials have 2 regions. Plastic and Elastic. Elastic means it can snap back to its original form. Plastic is permanently changing the properties of a material. Some materials have a higher elastic region which means they can take more abuse before causing permanent damage.\n\nYou can flex a piece of acrylic quite a bit before it permanently stays bent, or press your hand and squeeze an aluminum coke can and watch it snap back into its original shape. Press it too hard and now its bent, and changed forever. These materials have high elastic regions. Bending paper will also retain its original shape, until you crease it, crossing into the plastic region. Once something enters the plastic region, it is now permanently that shape and will never return to its original form. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine breaking a branch, but on a smaller level. If the branch is fairly new (not dry), it can be hard to break. One side will splinter while the other side still holds the two halves together. If you try to bend it back together, the first (splintered) side will still be broken, so it can't ever go back to how it was before. The same thing happens with paper; on a smaller scale than you can probably see, one side of the paper rips apart a little bit while the rest of it hold both halves together.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21699593",
"title": "Paper and ink testing",
"section": "Section::::Paper test.:Mechanical properties.:Compressibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The degree of reduction in thickness under compressive forces or pressure is known as compressibility of the paper. It influences the ability of paper to change its surface contour and conform to make contact with the printing plate or blanket during print production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23988563",
"title": "Postage stamp paper",
"section": "Section::::Paper characteristics.:Shrinkage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "Shrinkage is a characteristic of paper because of the nature of cellulose fibers. The cellulose fiber is hygroscopic and acts like a sponge when immersed in water. The fibers expand in their width and not in their length. With handmade paper, because there is no direction associated with the fibers, the paper expands and shrinks unevenly in both the length and width of the finished sheet. With machine-made paper, because there is a direction to the fibers, the paper shrinks unevenly, that is, less in its length (in the direction of the fibers) and more in its width (in the direction opposite of the fibers). This characteristic is important to the printer because certain printing techniques required the paper to be dampened prior to printing. As such, when the paper dried, the uneven shrinkage of machine-made paper would produce an image of different proportions than the die that created it. The differences in appearance between wet and dry printed stamps can sometimes be quite noticeable, with dry printed stamps generally having sharper images on stiffer and thicker paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7005434",
"title": "Inkjet paper",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to standard office paper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Paper is manufactured by forming pulp fibers into a mat on an open mesh screen (a deckle), and then drying and pressing this mat into paper. Large areas of inkjet color, such as in graphics and photographs, soak the paper fibers with so much moisture that they swell and return to their original shape before pressing, resulting in a wavy buckling of the paper surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3435592",
"title": "Gum bichromate",
"section": "Section::::Darkroom technique.:Stretching and sizing paper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Stretching (pre-shrinking) paper is necessary if you are printing more than one color or multiple times with the same color to build up density. If your paper is not sized (most watercolour papers are, though to varying degrees) it’s also advisable to size the paper to help minimize staining. A gelatin size (coating) prevents the unhardened dichromate from permeating the paper fibers. Without stretching, the paper will change shape between layer printings. Make lots of sized paper at one time. Label all paper with pencil after sizing. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21182020",
"title": "History of paper",
"section": "Section::::Precursors: papyrus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Paper contrasts with papyrus in that the plant material is broken down through maceration or disintegration before the paper is pressed. This produces a much more even surface, and no natural weak direction in the material which falls apart over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64219",
"title": "Bernoulli's principle",
"section": "Section::::Misapplications of Bernoulli's principle in common classroom demonstrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "A correct explanation of why the paper rises would observe that the plume follows the curve of the paper and that a curved streamline will develop a pressure gradient perpendicular to the direction of flow, with the lower pressure on the inside of the curve. Bernoulli's principle predicts that the decrease in pressure is associated with an increase in speed, i.e. that as the air passes over the paper it speeds up and moves faster than it was moving when it left the demonstrator's mouth. But this is not apparent from the demonstration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7849",
"title": "Crystallographic defect",
"section": "Section::::Line defects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hwjsw
|
Will we ever be able "read" a brain ?
|
[
{
"answer": "I do know that pictures you are observing can be recreated with software that uses nothing but scans of your brain. From [NewScientist](_URL_1_) in 2008:\n\n > Pictures you are observing can now be recreated with software that uses nothing but scans of your brain. It is the first \"mind reading\" technology to create such images from scratch, rather than picking them out from a pool of possible images.\n\n > Earlier this year Jack Gallant and colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley, showed that they could tell which of a set of images someone was looking at from a brain scan.\n\n > To do this, they created software that compared the subject's brain activity while looking at an image with that captured while they were looking at \"training\" photographs. The program then picked the most likely match from a set of previously unseen pictures.\n\n > Now Yukiyasu Kamitani at ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories in Kyoto, Japan has gone a step further: his team has used an image of brain activity taken in a functional MRI scanner to recreate a black-and-white image from scratch.\n\n > \"By analysing the brain signals when someone is seeing an image, we can reconstruct that image,\" says Kamitani.\n\nAlso, apparently brain scans have been used to [reveal memories](_URL_0_):\n\n > Scans of the part of the brain responsible for memory have for the first time been used to detect a person's location in a virtual environment. Using functional MRI (fMRI), researchers decoded the approximate location of several people as they navigated through virtual rooms.\n\n > This finding suggests that more detailed mind-reading, such detecting as memories of a summer holiday, might eventually be possible, says Eleanor Maguire, a neuroscientist at University College London.\n\n > Her team trained its scanner on the hippocampus, a region of the brain critical to the formation and storage of memories. It is known that in animals, specialised place cells in the hippocampus fire regularly as they move from place to place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I doubt we will be able to read other people's memories but we can \"read\" animal's brains in the sense that by watching there brains we can see what they're thinking about doing and successfully predict what they will in fact do. (You're in luck because this is one of my favorite topics). I'll give you an example. In [Mental Rotation of the Neuronal Population Vector](_URL_1_), Georgopoulos et al. found they could watch a rhesus monkey perform a mental rotation when performing a task. The task was to grab a handle on a freely movable bar and move it straight forward or at various angles. Now, I need to explain something about neurons in the motor cortex. Georgopoulos et al. knew that some neurons in the motor cortex had a \"preferred direction\". This means that some neurons fired stronger than others when the monkey moved the handle in a certain direction. Knowing this, they modeled the neurons with a mathematical abstraction called a \"population vector\". A vector is simply an arrow that has a length (magnitude) and direction. So each neuron can be described as a vector. Say a neuron fires with strength x when the monkey moves the handle to the right. This neuron can then be drawn as an arrow pointing to the right with a length x. A \"population vector\" is simply a sum of a bunch of individual neuronal vectors. [Vector addition](_URL_0_) is very easy. To add vectors simply connect them head to tail and draw a new vector from the beginning of the chain to the end. So Georgopoulos et al. recorded a bunch of neurons firing in the motor cortex and added them all up to get a population vector. This vector actually pointed in the direction that the monkey would move the handle. Most surprisingly, when the monkey had to think about moving the handle from, say, forward then to the right, the population vector would actually rotate from pointing ahead to pointing to the right (The vector's length would also increase during this period because the monkey didn't *move* forward but was merely thinking of moving forward. When the vector reached a certain length, i.e. when the neurons fired strong enough, that's when actual movement occurred). So, in this sense, Georgopoulos et al. could \"read\" the monkey's brain and see what it was thinking and what it was going to do. I hope this answers some of your questions!\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9404689",
"title": "Brain-reading",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Professor of neuropsychology Barbara Sahakian qualifies, \"A lot of neuroscientists in the field are very cautious and say we can't talk about reading individuals' minds, and right now that is very true, but we're moving ahead so rapidly, it's not going to be that long before we will be able to tell whether someone's making up a story, or whether someone intended to do a crime with a certain degree of certainty.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34112061",
"title": "Bioecological model",
"section": "Section::::Role of technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "According to technology writer Nicholas Carr, technology has always determined the development of the brain and the way we think throughout History. As he illustrates with examples of reading and the rise in the use of internet. He observes that development of reading habits motivated our brains to be concentrate on the text and imagine, whereas the over exposure of internet reinforce our capability to scan and filter information productively and easily. (Taylor, 2012, #14)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9404689",
"title": "Brain-reading",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Human-machine interfaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Brain-reading has also been proposed as a method of improving human-machine interfaces, by the use of EEG to detect relevant brain states of a human. In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in patents for technology involved in reading brainwaves, rising from fewer than 400 from 2009–2012 to 1600 in 2014. These include proposed ways to control video games via brain waves and \"neuro-marketing\" to determine someone's thoughts about a new product or advertisement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16816355",
"title": "UCL Neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::History.:21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In March 2009 a team led by Professor Eleanor Maguire of UCL published a study showing that it is possible read a person's spatial memories by using a brain scanner to monitor the electrical activity of the brain. In December 2009, Professor Sophie Scott of the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience conducted research into how the human voice works and interacts with the brain as part of BBC Radio 4's Vox Project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18581264",
"title": "Reading",
"section": "Section::::Reading skills.:Methods of reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Multiple intelligences\"-based methods, which draw on the reader's diverse ways of thinking and knowing to enrich appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can basically comprehend a text without resorting to other intelligences, such as the visual (e.g., mentally \"seeing\" characters or events described), auditory (e.g., reading aloud or mentally \"hearing\" sounds described), or even the logical intelligence (e.g., considering \"what if\" scenarios or predicting how the text will unfold based on context clues). However, most readers already use several kinds of intelligence while reading. Doing so in a more disciplined manner—i.e., constantly, or after every paragraph—can result in a more vivid, memorable experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47434598",
"title": "György Buzsáki",
"section": "Section::::Books and scientific papers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "He has released a book titled \"The Brain from Inside Out\" in 2019, which proposes a new framework of thinking of the brain as an explorer constantly controlling the body to test hypotheses and not as an information absorbing coding device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19635605",
"title": "Is Google Making Us Stupid?",
"section": "Section::::Themes and motifs.:Effect of technology on the brain's neural circuitry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1924,
"text": "Although there was a consensus in the scientific community about how it was possible for the brain's neural circuitry to change through experience, the potential effect of web technologies on the brain's neural circuitry was unknown. On the topic of the Internet's effect on reading skills, Guinevere F. Eden, director of the Center for the Study of Learning at Georgetown University, remarked that the question was whether or not the Internet changed the brain in a way that was beneficial to an individual. Carr believed that the effect of the Internet on cognition was detrimental, weakening the ability to concentrate and contemplate. Olds cited the potential benefits of computer software that specifically targets learning disabilities, stating that among some neuroscientists there was a belief that neuroplasticity-based software was beneficial in improving receptive language disorders. Olds mentioned neuroscientist Michael Merzenich, who had formed several companies with his peers in which neuroplasticity-based computer programs had been developed to improve the cognitive functioning of kids, adults and the elderly. In 1996, Merzenich and his peers had started a company called Scientific Learning in which neuroplastic research had been used to develop a computer training program called \"Fast ForWord\" that offered seven brain exercises that improved language impairments and learning disabilities in children. Feedback on \"Fast ForWord\" showed that these brain exercises even had benefits for autistic children, an unexpected spillover effect that Merzenich has attempted to harness by developing a modification of \"Fast ForWord\" specifically designed for autism. At a subsequent company that Merzenich started called Posit Science, \"Fast ForWord\"-like brain exercises and other techniques were developed with the aim of sharpening the brains of elderly people by retaining the plasticity of their brains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
63p6gu
|
Why is it impossible for an object to have an absolute velocity of 0?
|
[
{
"answer": "How would you like to define absolute velocity? Which frame of reference are you choosing to be your absolute reference frame for measuring speeds, and why is that frame of reference preferred rather than any other frame you could choose?\n\nIn short, Special Relativity states that there simply isn't any preferred absolute reference frame from which to measure these speeds. Sometimes one frame may be more convenient (measuring my car's velocity relative to the moon isn't very useful), but that doesn't make it special in any way compared to any other reference frame.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because no such thing as absolute velocity exists.\n\nif an object is at rest in one frame of reference, then you can easily give another frame of reference where it moves constantly with v = 0.5c in some direction. since no preferred or absolute reference frame exists, these frames are equally good.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An object at rest in one frame is not necessarily at rest in some other frame. So there's no meaning to the expression \"absolute velocity\". This was known since Galileo, no need to mention special or general relativity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10279126",
"title": "Aristotelian physics",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Natural motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "Aristotle proposed that the speed at which two identically shaped objects sink or fall is directly proportional to their weights and inversely proportional to the density of the medium through which they move. While describing their terminal velocity, Aristotle must stipulate that there would be no limit at which to compare the speed of atoms falling through a vacuum, (they could move indefinitely fast because there would be no particular place for them to come to rest in the void). Now however it is understood that at any time prior to achieving terminal velocity in a relatively resistance-free medium like air, two such objects are expected to have nearly identical speeds because both are experiencing a force of gravity proportional to their masses and have thus been accelerating at nearly the same rate. This became especially apparent from the eighteenth century when partial vacuum experiments began to be made, but some two hundred years earlier Galileo had already demonstrated that objects of different weights reach the ground in similar times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15357060",
"title": "Zero-velocity surface",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The zero-velocity surface is a concept that relates to the N-body problem of gravity. It represents a surface a body of given energy cannot cross, since it would have zero velocity on the surface. It was first introduced by George William Hill. The zero-velocity surface is particularly significant when working with weak gravitational interactions among orbiting bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15314901",
"title": "Proper velocity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "For example, proper velocity equals momentum per unit mass at any speed, and therefore has no upper limit. At high speeds, as shown in the figure at right, it is proportional to an object's energy as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39139834",
"title": "Relativistic angular momentum",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Rigid body rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The maximum angular velocity of any massive object therefore depends on the size of the object. For a given |x|, the minimum upper limit occurs when ω and x are perpendicular, so that \"θ\" = \"π\"/2 and sin\"θ\" = 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Specifics.:Earth's gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Assuming the standardized value for g and ignoring air resistance, this means that an object falling freely near the Earth's surface increases its velocity by 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s or 22 mph) for each second of its descent. Thus, an object starting from rest will attain a velocity of 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s) after one second, approximately 19.62 m/s (64.4 ft/s) after two seconds, and so on, adding 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s) to each resulting velocity. Also, again ignoring air resistance, any and all objects, when dropped from the same height, will hit the ground at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5786179",
"title": "Acoustic wave",
"section": "Section::::Wave properties.:Standing wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "At the ends particle velocity becomes zero since there can be no particle displacement. Pressure however doubles at the ends because of interference of the incident wave with the reflective wave. As pressure is maximum at the ends while velocity is zero, there is a 90 degrees phase difference between them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Descriptions.:Equilibrium.:Dynamic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the definition of dynamic equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m609b
|
how does nasa take super detailed pictures of space?
|
[
{
"answer": "What NASA and many other photographers do is they take a bunch of really zoomed in pictures, putting the zoomed in pictures right next to ones that are close to it, and stitch them together, making a really detailed picture. \n\nThis same process is used when making panoramic pictures. \n[Image Stitching; Wikipedia](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Taking them takes ages. Whereas a normal camera requires a split-second worth of light to produce a picture, the big telescopes (such as Hubble) stare at a single point in space for weeks, sometimes even months. That way much more photons hit the camera, and thus produce a better picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What NASA and many other photographers do is they take a bunch of really zoomed in pictures, putting the zoomed in pictures right next to ones that are close to it, and stitch them together, making a really detailed picture. \n\nThis same process is used when making panoramic pictures. \n[Image Stitching; Wikipedia](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Taking them takes ages. Whereas a normal camera requires a split-second worth of light to produce a picture, the big telescopes (such as Hubble) stare at a single point in space for weeks, sometimes even months. That way much more photons hit the camera, and thus produce a better picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "710034",
"title": "Skylab 4",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The crew also photographed the Earth from orbit. Despite instructions not to do so, the crew (perhaps inadvertently) photographed Area 51, causing a minor dispute between various government agencies as to whether the photographs showing this secret facility should be released. In the end, the picture was published along with all others in NASA's Skylab image archive, but remained unnoticed for years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25864167",
"title": "List of crowdsourcing projects",
"section": "Section::::G.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth – Image Detective\" is an interactive citizen science hunt for the Earth location of images taken from space by astronauts since the 1960s. Reviewing 1.8 million photos, individuals submit what they believe to be the location of a given photo, and thus accumulate \"points\" and \"badges\" on part of the NASA website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392143",
"title": "Palomar Observatory",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Clearest images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In September 2007, a team of astronomers from the United States and Britain released some of the clearest pictures ever taken of outer space. The pictures were obtained through the use of a new hybrid \"Lucky imaging\" and \"adaptive optics\" system that sharpens pictures taken from the Palomar Observatory. The resolution attained exceeds that of the Hubble Space Telescope by a factor of two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449531",
"title": "The Blue Marble",
"section": "Section::::The photograph.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The photograph's official NASA designation is AS17-148-22727. NASA photograph AS17-148-22726, taken just before and nearly identical to 22727, is also used as a full-Earth image. The widely published versions are cropped and chromatically adjusted from the original photographs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21269603",
"title": "Gene Carl Feldman",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Gene Carl Feldman has been an oceanographer at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) since 1985. His primary interest has been to try to make the data that NASA gathers from its spaceborne fleet of Earth observing instruments, especially those monitoring the subtle changes in ocean color, as scientifically credible, readily understandable and as easily available to the broadest group of people possible. He has been involved in a number of past and present NASA missions including the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS), the Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor (SeaWiFS) and the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and along with the NASA Ocean Biology Processing group which he co-leads, been given the responsibility for designing, implementing and operating the data processing and mission operations component of upcoming ocean salinity mission called Aquarius, a space mission developed by NASA and the Space Agency of Argentina - Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales (CONAE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314935",
"title": "Mars Climate Orbiter",
"section": "Section::::Mission background.:Spacecraft design.:Scientific instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The Mars Color Imager (MARCI) is a two-camera (medium-angle/wide-angle) imaging system designed to obtain pictures of the Martian surface and atmosphere. Under proper conditions, resolutions up to 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) are possible. The principal investigator on this project was Michael Malin at Malin Space Science Systems and the project was reincorporated on \"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\". Its objectives:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34035009",
"title": "The Leslie Cantwell Collection",
"section": "Section::::Photo collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "The collection is a montage of autographs and official NASA photographs including images of all six voyages that Man made to the moon. Some of the images are original Hasselblad photographs (the official camera of choice used on all missions) and many of the photographs were taken in space by the astronauts themselves; others were taken by their NASA colleagues on the ground. Walter Cunningham, Lunar Module Pilot of Apollo 7, has said of the photographs, “These are rare and unique pictures from a unique time in the history of the world.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u8esq
|
How were French soldiers who participated in the mutinies during WWI punished?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your history lecturer (I'm assuming University by lecturer) refused to talk about somthing because it was too horrific? ...how is he/she not the worst history lecturer ever? A fairly large proportion of history is horrific, surely?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where is our wonderful WWI expert!?\n\nI'll try to answer this question in the mean time: Your search appears to have found it all. Some were indeed convicted in a court martial, a few were executed but most were sent to the overseas colonies. Why your lecturer refused to talk about it is beyond me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lol, sounds like your professor didn't know the answer and was giving an excuse to get rid of you before you made him look bad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38072788",
"title": "June 1917",
"section": "Section::::June 8, 1917 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "BULLET::::- French Army Mutinies – The French Army began to crack down on mutinying soldiers, resulting in 3,427 courts-martial. Close to 3,000 soldiers were sentenced to hard labor, and 629 were sentenced to death, although only 43 executions were actually carried out. Rather than severe discipline, French army command rebuilt morale through a combination of rest periods, frequent rotations of the front-line units and regular home leave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11069994",
"title": "1917 French Army mutinies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The 1917 French Army mutinies took place amongst French Army troops on the Western Front in Northern France during World War I. They started just after the unsuccessful and costly Second Battle of the Aisne, the main action in the Nivelle Offensive in April 1917. General Robert Nivelle had promised a decisive war-ending victory over the Germans in 48 hours; the men were euphoric on entering the battle. The shock of failure soured their mood overnight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22708141",
"title": "French Army in World War I",
"section": "Section::::Western Front.:Mutinies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "In the spring of 1917, after the failed Nivelle Offensive, there were a series of mutinies in the French army. Over 35,000 soldiers were involved with 68 out of 112 divisions affected, but fewer than 3,000 men were punished. Following a series of court-martials, there were 49 documented executions and 2,878 sentences to penal servitude with hard labour. Of the 68 divisions affected by mutinies, 5 had been “profoundly affected”’ 6 had been “very seriously affected”, 15 had been “seriously affected”, 25 were affected by “repeated incidents” and 17 had been affected by “one incident only”, according to statistics compiled by French military historian Guy Pedroncini.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51499",
"title": "Western Front (World War I)",
"section": "Section::::1917.:Nivelle Offensive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "On 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Lacking the means to punish an entire division, its officers did not immediately implement harsh measures against the mutineers. Mutinies occurred in 54 French divisions and 20,000 men deserted. Other Allied forces attacked but suffered massive casualties. Appeals to patriotism and duty followed, as did mass arrests and trials. The French soldiers returned to defend their trenches but refused to participate in further offensive action. On 15 May Nivelle was removed from command, replaced by Pétain who immediately stopped the offensive. The French would go on the defensive for the following months to avoid high casualties and to restore confidence in the French High Command, while the British assumed greater responsibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205027",
"title": "A Very Long Engagement",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Five French soldiers are convicted of self-mutilation in order to escape military service during World War I. They are condemned to face near-certain death in the no man's land between the French and German trench lines. It appears that all of them were killed in a subsequent battle, but Mathilde, the fiancée of one of the soldiers, refuses to give up hope and begins to uncover clues as to what actually took place on the battlefield. She is all the while driven by the constant reminder of what her fiancé had carved into one of the bells of the church near their home, MMM for \"Manech Aime Mathilde\" (Manech Loves Mathilde; a pun on the French word \"aime\", which is pronounced like the letter \"M\". In the English-language version, this is changed to \"Manech's Marrying Mathilde\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764461",
"title": "World War I",
"section": "Section::::Progress of the war.:1917–1918.:Developments in 1917.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, the French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to a further 54 French divisions, and 20,000 men deserted. However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain, who suspended bloody large-scale attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21669164",
"title": "Nancy affair",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "While the French regiments involved escaped serious repercussions, the Swiss mutineers faced severe punishment after court-martial by their own officers. One identified as the prime ringleader was broken on the wheel, 22 were hanged, 41 sentenced to 30 years as galley slaves (in effect hard labour for life since galleys were no longer in service) and a further 74 imprisoned. The National Constituent Assembly approved of de Bouillé's actions, but radicals protested its severity. The effect on popular opinion of these draconian measures was to create widespread sympathy for the mutineers, who were subsequently released in the midst of a large-scale celebration; and to further weaken the discipline and morale of the regular army where disturbances continued until the final overthrow of the monarchy in August 1792.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yq7b0
|
gluons
|
[
{
"answer": "Ok since you understand the principles of bosons, and fermions, I'll step the cutesy analogies, and just explain it simply. Gluons are basically the exchange particle of the Strong interaction. The strong interaction is what keeps the quarks together. It works just like electromagnetism, where the photons are the exchange particles, where the force is carried between two other particles, making an interaction. \n\nNow this force (strong force) is very important, as quarks are the building blocks of Protons and neutrons (as well as other particles), which make up the nucleus of an atom. Also this force is extremely strong, much stronger than gravity. Which is what the basis for how nuclear power, bombs, etc. works. The amount of energy expelled from breaking this force is huge!\n\nNow what exactly does the gluon do? Well it doesn't do anything more than other exchange particle (or gauge boson), except in the matter of \"Color change\". The idea behind is that there is three different \"states\" (not to be confused with the 6 different quarks, but rather the state of each quark at a given time) at which a quark can be. This represented by colors, Red, Blue and Green. There is also the anti-colors: Anti-Red, Anti-Blue, and Anti-Green; which make up the states of the anti-quarks. Now gluons carry both an anti-color, and a color. This means that a Blue quark can emit a blue-anti-red gluon, that when interacting when a Red quark, the red quark becomes Blue, and the Blue quark becomes red. This works because the anti-state cancels out the \"color\" of the Red quark, and replaces it with the color of the gluon. This also means that the first quark has to be Red since it \"gave up\" it's blue state. \n\nThis is something that you don't find in the other forces, since for example, in the electromagnetism field exchange, there is only two: Positive and Negative; and the Photons that exchange that force will either be positive carrying or negative carrying (so the number of total states of the particle, matches the states of the exchange particle). But in the strong interaction, quarks can only be three possible states, while gluons can be six (Red-anti-blue, Red-anti-green, Blue-anti-red, Blue-anti-green, Green-anti-red, Green-anti-blue).\n\nIf you want me to explain down any further, I can try, but I figure if you understand bosons, then this shouldn't too much of a step upward.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why would a 5 year old need to know particle physics?!?!?!?!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12956",
"title": "OpenGL Utility Toolkit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The two aims of GLUT are to allow the creation of rather portable code between operating systems (GLUT is cross-platform) and to make learning OpenGL easier. Getting started with OpenGL programming while using GLUT often takes only a few lines of code and does not require knowledge of operating system–specific windowing APIs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12666",
"title": "Gluon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "A gluon () is an elementary particle that acts as the exchange particle (or gauge boson) for the strong force between quarks. It is analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles. In layman's terms, they \"glue\" quarks together, forming hadrons such as protons and neutrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12666",
"title": "Gluon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "In technical terms, gluons are vector gauge bosons that mediate strong interactions of quarks in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Gluons themselves carry the color charge of the strong interaction. This is unlike the photon, which mediates the electromagnetic interaction but lacks an electric charge. Gluons therefore participate in the strong interaction in addition to mediating it, making QCD significantly harder to analyze than QED (quantum electrodynamics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5732593",
"title": "Gluteomics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The word gluteomics describes the systematic study on the T cell stimulatory peptides in celiac disease. These peptides are derived from gluten or gluten-like proteins. Usually the term gluteomics is used in the context of global approach to identify, target or detect large sets of the disease-related sequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172709",
"title": "OpenGL Utility Library",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "It consists of a number of functions that use the base OpenGL library to provide higher-level drawing routines from the more primitive routines that OpenGL provides. It is usually distributed with the base OpenGL package. GLU is not implemented in the embedded version of the OpenGL package, OpenGL ES.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "471523",
"title": "Glulx",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Glulx is a 32-bit portable virtual machine intended for writing and playing interactive fiction. It was designed by Andrew Plotkin to relieve some of the restrictions in the venerable Z-machine format. For example, the Z-machine provides native support for 16-bit integers, while Glulx natively supports 32-bit integers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "Section::::Standard Model.:Fundamental bosons.:Gluons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Gluons mediate the strong interaction, which join quarks and thereby form hadrons, which are either baryons (three quarks) or mesons (one quark and one antiquark). Protons and neutrons are baryons, joined by gluons to form the atomic nucleus. Like quarks, gluons exhibit color and anticolor—unrelated to the concept of visual color—sometimes in combinations, altogether eight variations of gluons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47pn5b
|
Has there ever been a city that feigned defeat, letting in enemy troops, to only trap them once inside the city walls?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [\"trivia seeking\" questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of disjointed, partial responses, and not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about an historical event, period, or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact. For further explanation of the rule, feel free to consult [this META thread](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9655229",
"title": "Huaiyin–Huai'an Campaign",
"section": "Section::::First stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "After besieging the city, the enemy force did not immediately attack, but instead, made preparations by building fire support stations and digging trenches that extended all the way to the foot of the city wall. The fire support stations were built by creating hills higher than the city wall with earth so that they would also serve as reconnaissance platforms and everything inside the city was under the attacking enemy's surveillance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30275656",
"title": "Wars of the Roses",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Many areas did little or nothing to change their city defences, perhaps an indication that they were left untouched by the wars. City walls were either left in their ruinous state or only partially rebuilt. In the case of London, the city was able to avoid being devastated by convincing the York and Lancaster armies to stay out after the inability to recreate the defensive city walls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9818587",
"title": "Jingshan–Zhongxiang Campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "After witness the annihilation of the defenders outside the city wall, the defenders inside the city wall attempted to breakout via the south gate, but they were beaten back into the city. At 4:00 PM, the final assault on the city begun under the cover of shelling of the nationalist positions from several dozen artillery pieces and machine gun fire from over 90 machine guns. The defenders were completely suppressed and the attacking enemy was able to breach the city wall at places of White Tiger Hall (Bai Hu Tang, 白虎堂) and Fuying Hall (Fu Yin Hall, 福音堂). The enemy assault team was able to subsequently breach the defense at the Great East Gate of the city wall, enabling the main force of the attacking enemy to enter the city via the gap. After several hours of brave and desperate but futile street fighting put up by the nationalists, the defenders were completely wiped out by the enemy before dusk. The communists gathered 367 cadavers of the nationalist defenders in the battle to take Zhongxiang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3247950",
"title": "Realms (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Depending on grain levels, morale and whether a city has walls, a city can take a while to fall to a siege. When a city falls, it can be sacked, razed to the ground or captured. If you capture a city with a different race from your own, you can raise army units with that race, enabling specialised armies to be created in the later stages of the mission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34706837",
"title": "Siege of Jerusalem (1834)",
"section": "Section::::The siege.:Arrival of rebel forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "On 22 May 1,000 troops marched out of the city hoping to engage the rebels in the open, but failed to make contact with them. They returned to the city after sacking the village of Lifta. That night there was much shooting from outside the walls. On 26 May, the siege commenced with no food or water getting into the city. The defenders had two cannons, which they moved around the walls to disperse attacks. They could not rely on the loyalty of the city's Muslims and had to remain on duty day and night. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45229701",
"title": "Taking of Diest (1580)",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "In 1582 a force of royal soldiers successfully scaled the town walls in an attempt to retake Diest, but they were unable to open a gate for their supporting cavalry, and after fierce fighting the survivors were taken prisoner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60625347",
"title": "Siege of Megalopolis",
"section": "Section::::The siege.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Eventually three towers and part of the wall came down. Polyperchon then ordered his men to attack the city through the breaches. The defenders were able to hold the breaches and after a lot of hard fighting the attackers withdrew with heavy losses. During the night the defenders build stockades in the breaches and stationed archers and catapults on them to keep the enemy at bay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ge7u0
|
why do male orgasms get more intense in relatively short amounts of succession?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well everyone is different. Wildly so, in fact. Some people are capable of sustaining multiple, repeating orgasms of increasing intensity. This is more common in women, but certainly possible in men. Others can only have one orgasm of great intensity, after which they lose sexual stimulation for a long refractory period. \n\nWhat you experience is relatively rare compared to the general male population. But the reason they escalate in intensity is probanly because none of these are \"true\" orgasms that kick off a refractory period. Theyre more like partial orgasms that heighten sexual stimulation and pleasure, so the orgasms continue to build in pleasure until the satiation signal is triggered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a set of chemical responses within the nervous system that trigger other physiological responses. Generally, those regions responsible for chemical signals become more active and able to do so.\n\nA good analogy for this might be working out your muscles. As you do some warmup exercises, you're actually able to lift more weight than at the beginning of a workout. Then you get tired.\n\nOf course there is a refractory period for reserves of the transmitters in those regions to build back up, among other things, much like seeing a bright light depletes the chemicals in your retinas so you have to wait until you can see again.\n\nTo go back to the muscle analogy, this would be hitting a hard set of reps until you can't lift the weight anymore. In the short term, the chemicals are depleted, but the muscles are getting extra blood and signals now so the strength increases. Lather, rinse, repeat. No wait, don't lather... everyone knows soap is a bad idea here...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical biological and evolutionary functions of female orgasm.:Fertility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The observation that women tend to reach orgasm more easily when they are ovulating also suggests that it is tied to increasing fertility. Evolutionary biologist Robin Baker argues in \"Sperm Wars\" that occurrence and timing of orgasms are all a part of the female body's unconscious strategy to collect and retain sperm from more evolutionarily fit men. An orgasm during intercourse functions as a bypass button to a woman's natural cervical filter against sperm and pathogens. An orgasm before functions to strengthen the filter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Physiological response.:Female physiological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "If sexual stimulation continues, then sexual arousal may peak into orgasm. After orgasm, some women do not want any further stimulation and the sexual arousal quickly dissipates. Suggestions have been published for continuing the sexual excitement and moving from one orgasm into further stimulation and maintaining or regaining a state of sexual arousal that can lead to second and subsequent orgasms. Some women have experienced such multiple orgasms quite spontaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18488",
"title": "Libido",
"section": "Section::::Factors that affect libido.:Endogenous compounds.:Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm. Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes a woman feel aroused. Also, during these days, estrogen levels decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical biological and evolutionary functions of female orgasm.:Fertility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "There are theories that the female orgasm might increase fertility. For example, the 30% reduction in size of the vagina could help clench onto the penis (much like, or perhaps caused by, the pubococcygeus muscles), which would make it more stimulating for the male (thus ensuring faster or more voluminous ejaculation). The British biologists Baker and Bellis have suggested that the female orgasm may have a peristalsis or \"upsuck\" action (similar to the esophagus' ability to swallow when upside down), resulting in the retaining of favorable sperm and making conception more likely. They posited a role of female orgasm in sperm competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "702635",
"title": "Human sexual response cycle",
"section": "Section::::Resolution phase.:Resolution in females.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "According to Masters and Johnson, women have the ability to orgasm again very quickly, as long as they have effective stimulation. As a result, they are able to have multiple orgasms in a relatively short period of time. Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first, some sources state that men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful. After the initial orgasm, subsequent orgasms for women may also be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8390103",
"title": "Refractory period (sex)",
"section": "Section::::Factors and theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The female sexual response is more varied than that of men, and women are capable of attaining additional or multiple orgasms through further sexual stimulation. However, there are many women who experience clitoral hypersensitivity after orgasm, which can effectively create a refractory period. These women may be capable of further orgasms, but the pain involved in getting there makes the prospect undesirable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Physiological response.:Male physiological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "After orgasm and ejaculation, men usually experience a refractory period characterised by loss of erection, a subsidence in any sex flush, less interest in sex, and a feeling of relaxation that can be attributed to the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin. The intensity and duration of the refractory period can be very short in a highly aroused young man in what he sees as a highly arousing situation, perhaps without even a noticeable loss of erection. It can be as long as a few hours or days in mid-life and older men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
frcx1
|
what is the feasibility of a (manufactured) organic computer, and what are the scientific obstacles to making it a reality?
|
[
{
"answer": "Keeping it alive for the same amount of time a regular PC will last? (without mutations in it's cellular regeneration causing memory loss or SKYNET)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here's an article about a math problem solved with a DNA computer](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Women have been pushin' those things out for years now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2530148",
"title": "Wetware computer",
"section": "Section::::Applications & Goals.:Future Applications of Wetware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "The subfield of organic computers and wetware is still largely hypothetical and in a preliminary stage. While there has yet to be major developments in the creation of an organic computer since the neuron based calculator developed by William Ditto in the 1990s the research mentioned in the sections above continues to push the field forward. Specific examples of research such as the modeling of chaotic pathways in silicon chips by William Ditto have made new discoveries in ways of organizing traditional silicon chips, and structuring computer Architecture to be more efficient, and better structured. Ideas emerging from the field of cognitive biology also help to continue to push discoveries in ways of structuring systems for artificial intelligence, to better imitate preexisting systems in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42283768",
"title": "Doctor in a cell",
"section": "Section::::‘User-friendly’ DNA computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The team has also found a way to make these microscopic computing devices ‘user-friendly’ by creating a compiler – a program for bridging between a high-level computer programming language and DNA computing code. They sought to develop a hybrid \"in silico\"/\"in vitro\" system that supports the creation and execution of molecular logic programs in a similar way to electronic computers, enabling anyone who knows how to operate an electronic computer, with absolutely no background in molecular biology, to operate a biomolecular computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "891719",
"title": "Ehud Shapiro",
"section": "Section::::Doctor in a cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The team has also found a way to make these microscopic computing devices 'user-friendly' by creating a compiler a program for bridging between a high-level computer programming language and DNA computing code. They sought to develop a hybrid \"in silico\"/\"in vitro\" system that supports the creation and execution of molecular logic programs in a similar way to electronic computers, enabling anyone who knows how to operate an electronic computer, with absolutely no background in molecular biology, to operate a biomolecular computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16920259",
"title": "Free content",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Engineering and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Technologies such as distributed manufacturing can allow computer-aided manufacturing and computer-aided design techniques to be able to develop small-scale production of components for the development of new, or repair of existing, devices. Rapid fabrication technologies underpin these developments, which allow end users of technology to be able to construct devices from pre-existing blueprints, using software and manufacturing hardware to convert information into physical objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1024775",
"title": "Organic computing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Organic computing is computing that behaves and interacts with humans in an organic manner. The term \"organic\" is used to describe the system's behavior, and does not imply that they are constructed from organic materials. It is based on the insight that we will soon be surrounded by large collections of autonomous systems, which are equipped with sensors and actuators, aware of their environment, communicate freely, and organize themselves in order to perform the actions and services that seem to be required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29549",
"title": "Self-replication",
"section": "Section::::In industry.:Molecular manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "These systems are substantially simpler than autotrophic systems, because they are provided with purified feedstocks and energy. They do not have to reproduce them. This distinction is at the root of some of the controversy about whether molecular manufacturing is possible or not. Many authorities who find it impossible are clearly citing sources for complex autotrophic self-replicating systems. Many of the authorities who find it possible are clearly citing sources for much simpler self-assembling systems, which have been demonstrated. In the meantime, a Lego-built autonomous robot able to follow a pre-set track and assemble an exact copy of itself, starting from four externally provided components, was demonstrated experimentally in 2003 .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1758939",
"title": "Computer-integrated manufacturing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control entire production process. This integration allows individual processes to exchange information with each other and initiate actions. Although manufacturing can be faster and less error-prone by the integration of computers, the main advantage is the ability to create automated manufacturing processes. Typically CIM relies of closed-loop control processes, based on real-time input from sensors. It is also known as \"flexible design and manufacturing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pe0vp
|
i spent a frustrating hour with gimp before coming to you guys, please eli5 how to make animated .gifs.
|
[
{
"answer": "You'll need each individual 'frame' to be on a separate layer. If you already have all your pictures you want to turn into a .gif made (and named in proper order), simply go File > Open as layers, select all pictures, and it will imported as layers.\n\nOnce you have every frame on it's own layer, select File > Save As. Select .gif image. You should have two options, to flatten the image, or to save as an animation. You want to click \"Save as animation\" and then export. The only necessary thing left to do is to adjust the delay in miliseconds. It may take one or two shots to get the proper speed.\n\nI really hope this helped, I tried to use the simplest terms possible. (FYI this post is coming from a guy who downloaded GIMP for the sole purpose of making animated .gifs easily :P)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46367882",
"title": "Made with Code",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:GIF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "GIF lets users make a custom animation with a background and a series of frame. With the Blockly programming language, four images can be constructed which will then cycle so as to form an animation. The first step is to select the background, which includes characters such as Licky Ricky, Mayday Mary, Puss in Moon Boots, Purple Mess, Flappy the Uni-Horn, Tonsil Tammy, Bucky, Long Lidia, Permy and Mr. Hula Hips. The next step is to select frame(s), which includes various shapes and colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4404510",
"title": "M. Wartella",
"section": "Section::::Animation career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Wartella is a noted animator and director. Considered a pioneer of online animation, Wartella was among the earliest to use the animated .gif format to create story-driven independent animation. In 1998, The New York Times described his early animated web short \"The Dinky Dog Archive\" as \"the Steamboat Willie of the internet\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20964715",
"title": "Professor Toto",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The animation begins as avuncular and humorous Professor Toto invites his class to watch a cartoon about a day in the life of a boy named Eric. Eric describes what he is doing, \"I comb my hair,\" \"I put on my socks,\" \"I put on my shoes,\" \"I drink hot chocolate,\" \"Dad drinks coffee,\" and \"Mom drinks tea,\" in school, lunchtime, park, snack time, dinner, and bedtime environments. Then the professor introduces his class to more foreign language words and images periodically prompting viewers to repeat and asking review questions such as \"what is the cat wearing?\" The animation introduces animals, clothing, colors, body parts, foods, action verbs, adjectives, prepositions, places, directions, shapes, sports, musical instruments, time, months, and seasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40354726",
"title": "Jason Eppink",
"section": "Section::::Notable Curatorial Projects.:We Tripped El Hadji Diouf.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In 2012, Jason Eppink curated an installation of animated GIFs by members of Something Awful in response to a Photoshop challenge, “What tripped El Hadji Diouf?” Participants modified an animated GIF of the unpopular soccer player so he appeared to be tripped by a variety of sight gags and pop culture references. The 35 selected GIFs were displayed in a 50-foot-wide projection in the lobby of Museum of the Moving Image. In 2015, the project appeared for the first time in the United Kingdom at the National Museum of Football, as part of the exhibition Out of Play - Technology & Football.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37933927",
"title": "Black Blotter",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Within the episode is a 75-second animation in the style of Terry Gilliams animated sequences for \"Monty Python\", representing part of Walter's drug-induced memory. The animation was produced by 6 Point Harness over a two-week period, working in the various idiosyncrasies of Gilliam's animations into this sequence. Elements such as a giant foot crushing the characters are a direct homage to the same elements used in Gilliam's animation for the \"Monty Python\" title sequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35245119",
"title": "Edd Gould",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "In 2002, Gould began animating using a GIF animation program with the purpose of publishing in \"sfdt.com\". Upon discovering that the mentioned site was no longer accepting GIFs, Gould began watching flash animations. Astonished by the quality improvement, he abandoned the program and moved to Macromedia Flash in November 2002. After 7 months of learning the basics of Flash animation from his mentor Lavalle Lee (a flash animator and web designer), Gould published his first Newgrounds entry on 6 June 2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9954641",
"title": "Line moiré",
"section": "Section::::Speedup of movements with moiré.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The GIF animation shown in Figure 4 corresponds to a slow movement of the revealing layer. The GIF file repeatedly animates an upward movement of the revealing layer (perpendicular to layer lines) across a distance equal to \"p\". The animation demonstrates that the moiré lines of the superposition image move up at a speed, much faster than the movement speed of the revealing layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f44ou
|
What would happen, physiologically, if you drank Febreze?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) we go. Looks like beta cyclodextrin is the one in Febreze, and the listed instructions in the event of ingestion are: \n > \"Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious\nperson. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.\"\n\nAlpha cyclodextrin, on the other hand, instructs you to seek medical attention immediately and try to resuscitate if the victim isn't breathing. Seems that beta cyclodextrin is probably mostly harmless.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40649452",
"title": "Cereulide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "In addition to its cytotoxicity, cereulide causes nausea and vomiting. This effect is believed to be caused by its binding and activation of 5-HT receptors, leading to increased afferent vagus nerve stimulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23926802",
"title": "Drank (soft drink)",
"section": "Section::::Effects on health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Health experts have warned that the herbal ingredients in Drank and similar beverages induce drowsiness and sedation, which can be dangerous when combined with medications or products that do similar things, such as alcohol or anti-depressants. Gregory Carter, a neurologist on the clinical staff of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, told the \"Dallas Morning News\" that there is enough melatonin in Drank to induce sleepiness, and that this effect could occur quickly because the melatonin is in dissolved form. Regarding Valerian, Carter found that the content was probably \"not enough to have a strong effect\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1702015",
"title": "Gamma-Butyrolactone",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Recreational drug.:Dangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "GHB has biphasic effects, a euphoric effect at low doses (the reason for the term liquid ecstasy), and a sedative effect at higher doses. As a result of this sedation it can cause unconsciousness. When combined with alcohol the increased sedation and risk of vomiting results in a high risk of fatality. Many harm reduction organisations suggest never mixing the two drugs as a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38013668",
"title": "Gelsemine",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity and toxicology.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Gelsemine is a highly toxic and therefore possibly fatal substance for which there is no antidote, but the symptoms can be managed in low dose intoxications. In the case of an oral exposure a gastric lavage is performed, which must be done within approximately one hour of ingestion. Activated charcoal is then administered to bind the free toxin in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent absorption. Benzodiazepine or phenobarbital is also generally administered to help control seizing, and atropine can be used to treat bradycardia. Electrolyte and nutrient levels are monitored and controlled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2027006",
"title": "Visine",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "A common urban legend is that a few drops of Visine in an unsuspecting victim's drink will cause harmless but debilitating bouts of explosive diarrhea, akin to that of a laxative. This will not produce explosive diarrhea, but oral administration of Visine can induce dangerous side effects related to Visine's ingredient tetrahydrozoline hydrochloride such as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52878342",
"title": "Potassium permanganate (medical use)",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:By mouth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Concentrated solutions when drunk have resulted in adult respiratory distress syndrome or swelling of the airway. Recommended measures for those who have ingested potassium permanganate include gastroscopy. Activated charcoal or medications to cause vomiting are not recommended. While medications like ranitidine and N-acetylcysteine may be used in toxicity, evidence for this use is poor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2267273",
"title": "Glyndwr Michael",
"section": "Section::::Operation Mincemeat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "After being ingested, phosphide reacts with hydrochloric acid in the stomach, generating phosphine, a highly toxic gas. Bentley Purchase, coroner of St Pancras District, explained, \"This dose was not sufficient to kill him outright, and its only effect was so to impair the functioning of the liver that he died a little time afterwards\". When Purchase obtained Glyndwr's body, it was identified as being in suitable condition for a man who would appear to have floated ashore several days after having died at sea by hypothermia and drowning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gvbvh
|
georg cantor and set theory
|
[
{
"answer": "He came up with a new proof technique, called diagonalization, and was able to show some infinities were bigger than others. It goes something like this:\n\nThere are an infinite number of natural numbers, and also an infinite amount of real numbers. If these infinities are equivalent, it should be possible to come up with a process that matches all real numbers to a natural number:\n\n 1 - 0.12345....\n 2 - 3.14159....\n 3 - 2.71828....\n etc.\n\nLet's construct a real number, *s*, such that:\n\n* the 1st digit is different than the 1st digit of the real assigned to 1\n* the 2nd digit is different than the 2nd digit of the real assigned to 2\n* the *n*th digit is different than the *n*th digit of the real assigned to *n*\n\n*s* is clearly a valid real number, but it also is different from every real number on the list. This means it is impossible to create such a list, and the infinity of real numbers of \"bigger\" than the infinity of natural numbers. Such infinities, that cannot be mapped to natural numbers, are called uncountable.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27553",
"title": "Set theory",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Cantor's work initially polarized the mathematicians of his day. While Karl Weierstrass and Dedekind supported Cantor, Leopold Kronecker, now seen as a founder of mathematical constructivism, did not. Cantorian set theory eventually became widespread, due to the utility of Cantorian concepts, such as one-to-one correspondence among sets, his proof that there are more real numbers than integers, and the \"infinity of infinities\" (\"Cantor's paradise\") resulting from the power set operation. This utility of set theory led to the article \"Mengenlehre\" contributed in 1898 by Arthur Schoenflies to Klein's encyclopedia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12216",
"title": "Georg Cantor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( ; ; – January 6, 1918) was a German mathematician. He created set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence between the members of two sets, defined infinite and well-ordered sets, and proved that the real numbers are more numerous than the natural numbers. In fact, Cantor's method of proof of this theorem implies the existence of an \"infinity of infinities\". He defined the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic. Cantor's work is of great philosophical interest, a fact he was well aware of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12216",
"title": "Georg Cantor",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Cantor's work between 1874 and 1884 is the origin of set theory. Prior to this work, the concept of a set was a rather elementary one that had been used implicitly since the beginning of mathematics, dating back to the ideas of Aristotle. No one had realized that set theory had any nontrivial content. Before Cantor, there were only finite sets (which are easy to understand) and \"the infinite\" (which was considered a topic for philosophical, rather than mathematical, discussion). By proving that there are (infinitely) many possible sizes for infinite sets, Cantor established that set theory was not trivial, and it needed to be studied. Set theory has come to play the role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics, in the sense that it interprets propositions about mathematical objects (for example, numbers and functions) from all the traditional areas of mathematics (such as algebra, analysis and topology) in a single theory, and provides a standard set of axioms to prove or disprove them. The basic concepts of set theory are now used throughout mathematics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19636",
"title": "Mathematical logic",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.:Foundational theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Georg Cantor developed the fundamental concepts of infinite set theory. His early results developed the theory of cardinality and proved that the reals and the natural numbers have different cardinalities (Cantor 1874). Over the next twenty years, Cantor developed a theory of transfinite numbers in a series of publications. In 1891, he published a new proof of the uncountability of the real numbers that introduced the diagonal argument, and used this method to prove Cantor's theorem that no set can have the same cardinality as its powerset. Cantor believed that every set could be well-ordered, but was unable to produce a proof for this result, leaving it as an open problem in 1895 (Katz 1998, p. 807).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12216",
"title": "Georg Cantor",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical work.:Set theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Between 1879 and 1884, Cantor published a series of six articles in \"Mathematische Annalen\" that together formed an introduction to his set theory. At the same time, there was growing opposition to Cantor's ideas, led by Leopold Kronecker, who admitted mathematical concepts only if they could be constructed in a finite number of steps from the natural numbers, which he took as intuitively given. For Kronecker, Cantor's hierarchy of infinities was inadmissible, since accepting the concept of actual infinity would open the door to paradoxes which would challenge the validity of mathematics as a whole. Cantor also introduced the Cantor set during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12216",
"title": "Georg Cantor",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy, religion, literature and Cantor's mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Cantor's philosophy on the nature of numbers led him to affirm a belief in the freedom of mathematics to posit and prove concepts apart from the realm of physical phenomena, as expressions within an internal reality. The only restrictions on this metaphysical system are that all mathematical concepts must be devoid of internal contradiction, and that they follow from existing definitions, axioms, and theorems. This belief is summarized in his assertion that \"the essence of mathematics is its freedom.\" These ideas parallel those of Edmund Husserl, whom Cantor had met in Halle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12216",
"title": "Georg Cantor",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Cantor introduced fundamental constructions in set theory, such as the power set of a set \"A\", which is the set of all possible subsets of \"A\". He later proved that the size of the power set of \"A\" is strictly larger than the size of \"A\", even when \"A\" is an infinite set; this result soon became known as Cantor's theorem. Cantor developed an entire theory and arithmetic of infinite sets, called cardinals and ordinals, which extended the arithmetic of the natural numbers. His notation for the cardinal numbers was the Hebrew letter formula_1 (aleph) with a natural number subscript; for the ordinals he employed the Greek letter ω (omega). This notation is still in use today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fupvfr
|
how would the earn it act negatively affect end to end encryption?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hopefully a simple example:\n\nNo matter how good a safe you install to store your valuables, the government wants the safe manufacturer to make a door at the back with a key available to the government. This is just in case, the government feels that you might be storing something illegal in the safe. This means the safety provided by the safe is only as strong as the \"back door\". \n\nThe problem is similar for encryption. Any time (for software) you try to make a \"back door\" available, it becomes the vulnerable point for hackers. And what is worse, if the method for breaking the \"back door\" is found, ALL messages are potentially vulnerable. \n\nThis is like the government asking for a \"skeleton key\" for all the safes - if anyone steals or copies the key, then every safe built is now vulnerable to the thief.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55604987",
"title": "Human rights and encryption",
"section": "Section::::Encryption in media and communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "BULLET::::2. Encryption provided by service providers can prevent unauthorized third party access, but the service provider implementing it would still have access to the relevant user data. End-to-end encryption is an encryption technique that refers to encryption that also prevents service providers themselves from having access to the user's communications. The implementation of these forms of encryption have sparked the most debate since the year 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065362",
"title": "End-to-end encryption",
"section": "Section::::Modern usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Some non-E2EE systems, such as Lavabit and Hushmail, have described themselves as offering \"end-to-end\" encryption when they did not. Other systems, such as Telegram and Google Allo, have been criticized for not having end-to-end encryption, which they offer, enabled by default.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44204924",
"title": "Crypto Wars",
"section": "Section::::Messengers with end-to-end encryption and responsible encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "In October 2017, Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein called for responsible encryption as a solution to the ongoing problem of \"going dark\". This refers to wiretapping court orders and police measures increasingly becoming ineffective as strong end-to-end encryption are increasingly added to widespread messenger products. Responsible encryption means that companies need to introduce key escrow that allows them to provide their customers with a way to recover their encrypted data if they forget their password, so that it is not lost forever. According to Rosenstein's reasoning, it would be irresponsible to leave the user helpless in such a case. As a pleasant side effect, this would allow a judge to issue a search warrant instructing the company to decrypt the data, which the company would then be able to comply with. In contrast to previous proposals, the decentral storage of key recovery material by companies instead of government agencies would be an additional safeguard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065362",
"title": "End-to-end encryption",
"section": "Section::::Modern usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Some encrypted backup and file sharing services provide client-side encryption. The encryption they offer is here not referred to as end-to-end encryption, because the services are not meant for sharing messages between users. However, the term \"end-to-end encryption\" is often used as a synonym for client-side encryption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37704260",
"title": "Draft Communications Data Bill",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Weakening encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Experts have made it clear that weakening or banning encryption would be extremely dangerous and damaging to the safety of the economic Internet environment and could have great repercussion on the information stored online and how it is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37704260",
"title": "Draft Communications Data Bill",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Weakening encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Former UK Prime Minister David Cameron openly expressed a desire for encryption to be weakened or encrypted data to be easily accessible to legal forces in order to tackle terrorism and crime. This viewpoint has been widely addressed as uninformed and greatly dangerous to the privacy and information of the general public because of the dangers that this initiative would entail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44204924",
"title": "Crypto Wars",
"section": "Section::::Export of cryptography from the United States.:PC era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Legal challenges by Peter Junger and other civil libertarians and privacy advocates, the widespread availability of encryption software outside the U.S., and the perception by many companies that adverse publicity about weak encryption was limiting their sales and the growth of e-commerce, led to a series of relaxations in US export controls, culminating in 1996 in President Bill Clinton signing the Executive order 13026 transferring the commercial encryption from the Munition List to the Commerce Control List. Furthermore, the order stated that, \"the software shall not be considered or treated as 'technology'\" in the sense of Export Administration Regulations. This order permitted the United States Department of Commerce to implement rules that greatly simplified the export of proprietary and open source software containing cryptography, which they did in 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j8bg7
|
Why is the clock industry so strong in Switzerland?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not exactly answering the question, but I'd like to add a bit of related information.\n\nSwitzerland, being strong in [horology](_URL_0_), has excelled in other industries where extreme precision manufacture is paramount. I work in seismology, and there are an number of historic and current manufacturers of seismic instruments based in Switzerland. One good example is [Kinemetrics](_URL_1_). \n\nSeismometers are exceedingly delicate instruments. A high-gain seismometer can detect the seismic waves you produce simply by walking around several city blocks away. Doing this requires extremely small and extremely precise masses and springs. It just so happens that Switzerland already has manufacturers capable of producing tiny springs and masses--because it is making high-precision watches!\n\nSeismic instruments are just a field that I am familiar with, but I'm certain that there are many other high-precision industries that locate to Switzerland because of its high precision manufacturing prowess. That, in turn, helps to further fund and further develop the high precision manufacturing industry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This doesn't actually answer your question but if this is a topic you're interested in, you should consider checking out [The Discoverers.](_URL_0_) Daniel J. Boorstin covers the history of clock making and why it rose to such prominence in some countries and not others, and he places it in a greater context of innovation and technology and man's attempts to understand the world around him. It can be a bit dry at times, but it is thorough and the topics at hand are very interesting.\n\nGranted, I'm no expert, and it's only one, non-primary source. But I'd say it's worth the read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have no clue personally, but the good folks at /r/Watches and /r/WatchHorology might be able to assist you. Might get some information by crossposting there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "- This comment and the link below may help answer the question, but not completely answer it.\n\nIf there were no demand for Swiss time pieces, then the fascination would be merely hobbyists. Yet, skilled Swiss craftsman over generations have kept the modern mind's interest, and in this regard, remained profitable and passionate.\n\nPerfecting the mechanical clock, which in the past, has been guarded as the key to other sciences (not to mention, navigation) holds great fascination among philosophers, scientists, and thinkers worldwide. Time is such a strange concept. As you are reading this, snap your fingers continuously until the end and conscientiously count each snap. In a way, you have quantified time - ineffectively, of course. \n\nReflecting on ancient sundials and water timers, the engineering and precision involved in a mechanical clock, from a hands on, gear centric mindset, is staggering. Imagine having a wrist watch that never loses any time or is so accurate that it wouldn't be off for a century (over time mechanical clocks lose time). At the moment, time is measured to the atom, whereas most digital wrist watches are measured with pulsating quartz which is extremely precise, but advances to the mechanical clock are fascinating because they show a continuity with our ancestry. World fascination relates to a demand for profitable items from skilled workers.\n\nThese are a few videos I found enthralling:\n\n1- [10 minute video about Swiss watchmakers - how it started and personal perspectives as to why it exists to this day.](_URL_1_)\n\nAmazing Mechanical Watches\n\n1- _URL_2_\n\n2 - _URL_3_\n\n3 - _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Religious persecution. Seriously. French Protestantism was concentrated among the skilled craftsmen, for some reason. In 1685 Louis XIV revoked the edict of toleration [(The Edict of Nantes)](_URL_0_), causing a wholesale emigration of Protestant craftsmen, many of which ended up in French-speaking Switzerland and became the seeds of the Swiss watch industry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The history of the Swiss horology industry is a surprisingly cyclical one. As others have pointed out, many of the most notable early master watchmakers were not in fact Swiss (France, Germany, and to a lesser extent, England were leaders in the early development of mechanical timepieces), but by the 18th century as technology progressed to the point where it was practical to miniaturize a timekeeping mechanism to pocket size, enough talent and knowledge had been imported or imparted to Switzerland that by the turn of the 19th century Swiss watches were wildly popular around the world.\n\nAs with many other traditional industries, however, the Industrial Revolution had a large impact on watchmaking. A mechanical timepiece is made up of hundreds of tiny parts, each of which has to be machined to very high tolerances. Prior to the invention of machine tools, the process of creating a watch had to be done by hand, and as a result, as one can imagine, it was a very time- and labor-intensive process. By the middle of the 19th century, American companies had perfected the process, making watches cheaper, more accurate, and more accessible to the masses. While the Waltham Watch Co. in Massachusetts was one of the first and most successful ones, others that started around the same time include Elgin, Bulova, and Hamilton. This was the first crisis for Swiss watches, and while they struggled to catch up, the reputation suffered mightily, to the point where America, Britain, and other nations insisted that the now-sought-after 'Swiss Made' label be affixed to Swiss timepieces to ensure that consumers were not swindled into buying substandard, poor-quality pieces.\n\nDespite this, the Swiss did not stop the fine watchmaking tradition, and while many of their offerings at the time were subpar compared to the precision-machined American products, the 19th century saw the establishment of many more of what are today quite notable brands, including Jaeger-LeCoultre, Tissot, and Audemars Piguet, among others. Interestingly, this coincided with the rising popularity of wristwatches, which until 1910-1920 or so were considered largely female accessories only, while gentlemen strictly carried pocket watches. World War I played a large role in the transition, as soldiers were unable to use a free hand to pull out a pocket watch to check the time.\n\nBy the outset of World War II, high-end Swiss brands had once again regained position as industry leaders. Brands such as Jaeger-LeCoultre provided pilot's watches to both the RAF and Luftwaffe; stories such as [this one](_URL_0_) and [this one](_URL_1_) (the wiki link has a pretty good overview of the stories) suggest that the Swiss brands were seen as markedly better and more desirable than standard-issue watches from other manufacturers at the time. This would continue after the war, as the Swiss would continue to cement their position as the most prominent luxury watches in the world.\n\nAs mentioned in other comments, however, the Swiss watch industry was soon rocked by another crisis, which almost crippled them: the invention of quartz timekeeping. By the 1960s, manufacturers were experimenting with electronic timekeeping methods. One of the most successful early versions was New York-based Bulova's tuning fork-powered Accutron models, which were successful enough to gain a permanent place in the company's logo, and which remain highly sought-after by collectors today. Meanwhile, a competition broke out between the Swiss and the Japanese broke out to create the first quartz movement; the Swiss actually managed to beat the Japanese, but in one of the worst business miscalculations in recent memory, decided not to pursue the technology, believing that mechanical watches were here to stay.\n\nA timepiece, in simplest terms, is powered by a balance device that oscillates at a known interval. The back-and-forth motion of the device drives the shafts connected to the hands, which turn them. Generally, the higher the oscillation frequency, the more accurate a watch becomes. Mechanical watches range from 18000 beats per hour to 36000 bph, or 2.5 Hz to 5 Hz, with outliers on either end; quartz watches, powered by a tiny crystal (quartz, naturally) vibrated by an electric current, oscillate at *32,768 Hz*, making them exponentially more accurate than even the best mechanical watch (for reference, a mechanical movement is considered to be excellent if it gains or loses less than 5 seconds per day; the vast majority of quartz movements routinely gain or lose less than 5 seconds per month, with many remaining within those boundaries in a year). They also contain far fewer moving parts, making them much cheaper to manufacture. Japan's Seiko became the first company to mass-produce quartz watches in 1969, and as you might expect, people around the world thought it much better to pay hundreds or thousands of dollars less for a much more accurate watch. Mechanical watch sales plummeted, and many companies folded. American companies did not escape the carnage either; Waltham, Elgin, Gruen, and many others went under, and while the rights to the company names were bought and are still used today to create cheap, mass-produced timepieces, these companies have zero in common with their historical predecessors.\n\nBy the 80s, the Swiss watch industry was on the ropes - while some companies had bowed to the pressure and adopted quartz movements to stay afloat, many of those that did not had gone under. Amusingly, the Swiss watch industry was saved by Swatch, which in the 80s started producing cheap quartz watches with rather whimsical designs, which caught on in a big way. As Swatch began to become more and more successful, it began to quietly buy up other companies, such as Omega, Tissot, and the American Hamilton; they also acquired ETA SA, the world's largest maker of Swiss mechanical movements. They began to reposition these brands as luxury alternatives to the cheap brands, and played up the history of Swiss watchmaking (the good parts, of course) as a marketing technique. Other companies joined the party, including the Richemont Group, which has come to dominate the high-end luxury watch market, acquiring such names as Vacheron Constantin, Piaget, Jaeger-LeCoultre, and IWC. Since the mid-90s, the mechanical watch has seen a steady rise in popularity, despite the ongoing supremacy of quartz. As mechanical watches remain largely the territory of luxury brands, and many of the big luxury timepiece manufacturers remain Swiss, the country has once again become one of the major players in the horology world... until the next crisis, of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In *Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World* historian of technology David Landes argues that the Swiss became great clockmakers because of their particular take on Christianity.\n\nBy at least the fourteenth century, morality in many Swiss towns was connected to ordered daily routines and productive labor: both of which could be disciplined by the clock. This social force combined with increased literacy and numeracy following the Protestant Reformation to create conditions in which clocks were needed and many people had the basic skills necessary to be trained as clockmakers. \n\nTo make a long story short, more demand led to more industry which led to more innovation (both technological and organizational), creating a self-sustaining technological, social, and economic infrastructure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14449116",
"title": "History of timekeeping devices",
"section": "Section::::Clock and watch-making industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Switzerland established itself as a clockmaking center following the influx of Huguenot craftsmen, and in the 19th century, the Swiss industry \"gained worldwide supremacy in high-quality machine-made watches\". The leading firm of the day was Patek Philippe, founded by Antoni Patek of Warsaw and Adrien Philippe of Bern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19425421",
"title": "Léon Gallet",
"section": "Section::::Léon L. Gallet & The Industrialization of the Swiss Watch Industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Within a short period, exports of Swiss watches to America rapidly increased, greatly expanding the reach of watchmakers whose previous market was limited only to the local economies. As a result, Leon L. Gallet’s American marketing activities helped to provide the needed capital for the watchmakers of the Jura region to industrialize, and successfully meet one of the greatest challenges in Swiss timekeeping’s history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21417077",
"title": "Armand Nicolet",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "During the 1970s and 1980s, the entire Swiss watch industry entered difficult times, due to the influx of quartz timekeeping, a period known as the quartz crisis. Throughout these years, many storied Swiss watchmakers closed their doors, and the industry dramatically shrunk in size, due to its reliance on mechanical movements and its slow adoption of quartz technology. Armand Nicolet did not fold during these difficult times, and kept the doors open by working with some of the most important companies in the industry, thanks to the reputation they had built up as an excellent watchmaker. However, they were left with a large stock of mechanical movements and no one to assemble them for.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11596512",
"title": "Quartz crisis",
"section": "Section::::History.:The rise of quartz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "As a result of the economic turmoil that ensued, many once-profitable and famous Swiss watch houses became insolvent or disappeared. This period of time completely upset the Swiss watch industry both economically and psychologically. During the 1970s and early 1980s, technological upheavals, i.e. the appearance of the quartz technology, and an otherwise difficult economic situation resulted in a reduction in the size of the Swiss watch industry. Between 1970 and 1983, the number of Swiss watchmakers dropped from 1,600 to 600. Between 1970 and 1988, Swiss watch employment fell from 90,000 to 28,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120467",
"title": "Switzerland as a federal state",
"section": "Section::::Industrialisation and economic growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The Swiss watchmaking industry has its origins in the 18th century, but boomed during the 19th century, turning the village of La Chaux-de-Fonds into an industrial center. Rapid urban growth also enlarged Zürich, which incorporated its industrial suburb Aussersihl into the municipality in 1891.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120471",
"title": "Modern history of Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::Industrialisation and economic growth (1848–1914).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The Swiss watchmaking industry has its origins in the 18th century, but boomed during the 19th century, turning the village of La Chaux-de-Fonds into an industrial center. Rapid urban growth also enlarged Zürich, which incorporated its industrial suburb Aussersihl into the municipality in 1891.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27465",
"title": "Economy of Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::Economic sectors.:Watches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Switzerland is a leading exporter of high-end watches and clocks. Swiss companies produce most of the world's high-end watches: in 2011 exports reached nearly 19.3 billion CHF, up 19.2% over the previous year. The watches go to Asia (55%), Europe (29%), Americas (14%), Africa and Oceania (both 1%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yq0ao
|
how someone can recover from being paralyzed.
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain uses nerves to tell your body to move (think of your brain as a power strip and your nerves as the outlets) sometimes an injury destroys ALL the outlets, and your brain can't do anything causing a paralysis. Other times, only one outlet is destroyed, and the brain can just plug the function into another part to make the appliance work. hopefully that makes sense!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15286222",
"title": "Critical illness polyneuropathy",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Critically ill people that are in a coma can become completely paralyzed from CIP/CIM. Improvement usually occurs in weeks to months, as the innervation to the muscles are restored. About half of patients recover fully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13905022",
"title": "Neurorehabilitation",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "In case of a serious disability, such as caused by a severe spinal injury or brain damage, the patient and their families' abilities, life style, and projects, are suddenly shattered. In order to cope with this situation, the person and their family must establish and negotiate a \"new way of living\", both with their changed body and as a changed individual within their wider community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892612",
"title": "Blast injury",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Quaternary injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "Traumatic amputations quickly result in death, unless there are available skilled medical personnel or others with adequate training nearby who are able to quickly respond, with the ability for rapid ground or air medical evacuation to an appropriate facility in time, and with tourniquets (for compression of bleeding sites) and other needed equipment (standard, or improvised; sterile, or not) also available, to treat the injuries. Because of this, injuries of this type are generally rare, though not unheard of, in survivors. Whether survivable or not, they are often accompanied by significant other injuries. The rate of eye injury may depend on the type of blast. Psychiatric injury, some of which may be caused by neurological damage incurred during the blast, is the most common quaternary injury, and post-traumatic stress disorder may affect people who are otherwise completely uninjured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7846",
"title": "Central pontine myelinolysis",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "While some patients die, most survive and of the survivors, approximately one-third recover; one-third are disabled but are able to live independently; one-third are severely disabled. Permanent disabilities range from minor tremors and ataxia to signs of severe brain damage, such as spastic quadriparesis and locked-in syndrome. Some improvements may be seen over the course of the first several months after the condition stabilizes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28747761",
"title": "Qadir Bakhsh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "He has been partially paralyzed since 2003 and been receiving treatment at the Lyari General Hospital. A recent stroke had left him unable to use his right leg and hand and he needs to undergo regular physiotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15449837",
"title": "Robert A. Good",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "While an undergraduate, he developed a polio-like illness that left him partially paralyzed. His mother pushed his wheelchair into his medical school classrooms. He eventually recovered from the illness, but retained a pronounced limp for the remainder of his life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "667636",
"title": "Anesthesia awareness",
"section": "Section::::Causes and Risk Factors.:Paralytics/muscle relaxant use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Many types of surgery do not require the patient to be paralyzed. A patient who is anesthetized but not paralyzed can move in response to a painful stimulus if the analgesia is inadequate. This may serve as a warning sign that the anesthetic depth is inadequate. Movement under general anesthesia does not imply full awareness but is a sign that the anesthesia is light. Even without the use of paralytics the absence of movement does not necessarily imply amnesia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
202ooq
|
Did the Romans understand what inflation was?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not exactly inflation, but debasing the quality of coinage has a similar effect, and Romans did understand that. The reason to debase coinage is because you want to pass off the cheaper coin for the value of the more expensive coin. This periodically produced economic crises, such that people like Constantine had to re-establish a trusted coinage such as the solidus. Another option was fiat currency - the government simply declares the value of the coin regardless of its silver (or other precious metal) content, and that was sometimes tried. The most extreme example would be the [edict of Diocletian](_URL_0_), which set prices in terms of denarii regardless of metal content. Some ancient people were able to make this work; I think both the Ptolemies and the Attalids were able to run an economy on fiat currency (but I don't know too much about those). Republican Rome never seemed to make fiat currency work for whatever reason.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to LegalAction's answer, the issue of inflation/deflation would not explicitly have been known (economic theory is a modern discipline), but there was a general understanding that inflation as they understood it was a very bad thing, and even in the ancient period a knowledge that a coin debasement was going to cause it eventually. However, they simply understood it as bad because it made things more expensive to purchase. You mention the 'Barracks' emperors; they knew this too, because inflation meant you had to pay more to keep your soldiers happy. And to boot, by the end of the third century, there were even more of those soldiers to pay.\n\nTo control this, the only known mechanisms were currency reform (expensive and difficult) and price controls (such as the Edict mentioned in LegalAction's answer) which were likely less effective. I don't know of any evidence that suggests they were aware of the negative aspects of deflation (or the positive aspects of inflation) though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60667648",
"title": "Hyperinflation in Yugoslavia",
"section": "Section::::The concept of inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1331,
"text": "The very notion of inflation leads the origin of the Latin word inflare, which means to inflate, or to say inflatio which means overwhelming. The word inflation, in the sense of inflating the money circulation, was used for the first time in economic literature in the book \"The Big Paper Deception or the Approximation of a Financial Explosion\" published by Alexander Demler in New York in 1864. This book appeared in the period of the American Civil War (1861-1865) when, due to the years of bitter conflicts between the North and the South, there were massive destruction and almost complete paralysis of the economy. Due to its inability to provide funds for financing military expenditures in some other way, the state has resorted to issuing paper money without cover, which caused high prices growth and the deterioration of domestic money. Since then, there has been a very gloomy theoretical and political debate on inflation, and there is a very extensive economic literature on this phenomenon. The reason for this lies in the fact of her constant presence in economies up to the present day, but also because of the realization that there are many controversial attitudes about the phenomenon of inflation and that there are severe disputes about its causes, manifestations, consequences, and measures for its removal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38286",
"title": "Inflation",
"section": "Section::::Related definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Conceptually, inflation refers to the general trend of prices, not changes in any specific price. For example, if people choose to buy more cucumbers than tomatoes, cucumbers consequently become more expensive and tomatoes cheaper. These changes are not related to inflation; they reflect a shift in tastes. Inflation is related to the value of currency itself. When currency was linked with gold, if new gold deposits were found, the price of gold and the value of currency would fall, and consequently prices of all other goods would become higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2878852",
"title": "Financial crisis",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prior to 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Reinhart and Rogoff trace inflation (to reduce debt) to Dionysius of Syracuse, of the 4th century BC, and begin their \"eight centuries\" in 1258; debasement of currency also occurred under the Roman empire and Byzantine empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38286",
"title": "Inflation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "By the nineteenth century, economists categorized three separate factors that cause a rise or fall in the price of goods: a change in the \"value\" or production costs of the good, a change in the \"price of money\" which then was usually a fluctuation in the commodity price of the metallic content in the currency, and \"currency depreciation\" resulting from an increased supply of currency relative to the quantity of redeemable metal backing the currency. Following the proliferation of private banknote currency printed during the American Civil War, the term \"inflation\" started to appear as a direct reference to the \"currency depreciation\" that occurred as the quantity of redeemable banknotes outstripped the quantity of metal available for their redemption. At that time, the term inflation referred to the devaluation of the currency, and not to a rise in the price of goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26818",
"title": "Stagflation",
"section": "Section::::Postwar Keynesian and monetarist views.:Neo-Keynesianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Neo-Keynesian theory distinguished two distinct kinds of inflation: demand-pull (caused by shifts of the aggregate demand curve) and cost-push (caused by shifts of the aggregate supply curve). Stagflation, in this view, is caused by cost-push inflation. Cost-push inflation occurs when some force or condition increases the costs of production. This could be caused by government policies (such as taxes) or from purely external factors such as a shortage of natural resources or an act of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1123369",
"title": "Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Theories and explanations of a fall.:Decay owing to general malaise.:Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Historian Michael Rostovtzeff and economist Ludwig von Mises both argued that unsound economic policies played a key role in the impoverishment and decay of the Roman Empire. According to them, by the 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire had developed a complex market economy in which trade was relatively free. Tariffs were low and laws controlling the prices of foodstuffs and other commodities had little impact because they did not fix the prices significantly below their market levels. After the 3rd century, however, debasement of the currency (i.e., the minting of coins with diminishing content of gold, silver, and bronze) led to inflation. The price control laws then resulted in prices that were significantly below their free-market equilibrium levels. It should, however, be noted that Constantine initiated a successful reform of the currency which was completed before the barbarian invasions of the 4th century, and that thereafter the currency remained sound everywhere that remained within the empire until at least the 11th century - at any rate for gold coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33643110",
"title": "Economic history of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::16th–17th centuries.:Growth in money supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Various inflationary pressures existed; some were due to an influx of New World gold and a rising population. Inflation had a negative effect on the real wealth of most families. It set the stage for social upheaval with the gap between the rich and poor widening. This was a period of significant change for the majority of the rural population, with manorial lords beginning the process of enclosure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jwzjm
|
why is autism seemingly more common now that is has been in the past?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer from the medical community is: 'we're not entirely sure'\n\nOne factor may be increasing awareness so cases that were previously undiagnosed or misdiagnosed are coming under the ASD umbrella.\n\nIt's also not entirely clear what causes autism, and there may be multiple causes - there's certainly a genetic component and some cases have been linked to specific genetic abnormalities. Higher maternal age at childbirth might also be playing a role in the increase. Studies have also been looking at environmental triggers with some evidence pointing towards various organic pollutants. Some research is also linking ASD to immune system functioning in the mother.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe with aspergers (which now comes under the autism umbrella) more people are getting diagnosed. Not because its 'popular' but because they have suffered all their lives and finally managed to get a diagnosis. Aspergers has only been used as a diagnosis for approx the last 3 decades ...so anyone over about 30 might now be getting a diagnosis for the first time. Also its becoming known that females present traits differently to males and as this is recognised more females are getting diagnosed than before.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You probably know at least one old man or woman who is undiagnosed autistic",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With the most recent DSM (V) several diagnoses which used to be separate now fall under Autism Spectrum Disorder (there is no Artistic Spectrum!), so that's probably part of it. More awareness is probably another part. And finally, given that it's not known what causes autism in the first place, there might be an actual increase in autism (vs an apparent one) caused by an increase in whatever causes it.\n\nOr maybe we're just evolving and in a few thousand years non-autistic humans will be the aberration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* The term \"autism\" has been expanded to include a much larger demographic than you might expect. Many \"autistic\" people have no obvious signs. \n* In past times, the more stereotypical autistic children were killed/left to die/unable to survive. Obviously our medical technology and society has progressed far enough to stop this for the most part. \n* The Industrial revolution has exposed humanity to chemicals/pollutants that we still don't even fully understand/appreciate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "LGSW here: \n\nTwo key reasons:\n1) In 2003, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) changed its definition of autism to include a spectrum of disorders. \n2) As with many psychological conditions, public awareness increased, which leads to more individuals being diagnosed and treated. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "929970",
"title": "Controversies in autism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Diagnoses of autism have become more frequent since the 1980s, which has led to various controversies about both the cause of autism and the nature of the diagnoses themselves. Whether autism has mainly a genetic or developmental cause, and the degree of coincidence between autism and intellectual disability, are all matters of current scientific controversy as well as inquiry. There is also more sociopolitical debate as to whether autism should be considered a disability on its own. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3076858",
"title": "Autistic enterocolitis",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Until the 1970s, autism was rarely accepted to be a distinctive diagnosis, but, following changes to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association it is diagnosed much more often. How much of this increase is due to greater diagnostic vigilance by doctors, changes in diagnostic categories, or an actual increase in prevalence, remains unclear. Late-onset autism cases are estimated at 25% and reported by sources including the \"British Medical Journal\" as not having changed in recent years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10053482",
"title": "Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy",
"section": "Section::::Centers and Major Projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Autism is a condition characterized by impairments in communication, social interaction, and stereotyped or repetitive behaviors. No one knows with certainty what has caused autism prevalence—which has increased roughly ten-fold in the past forty years—to increase so precipitously. This group looks explores this increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11996900",
"title": "Societal and cultural aspects of autism",
"section": "Section::::Scholarship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Autism spectrum disorders received increasing attention from social-science scholars in the early 2000s, with the goals of improving support services and therapies, arguing that autism should be tolerated as a difference not a disorder, and by how autism affects the definition of personhood and identity. Sociological research has also investigated how social institutions, particularly families, cope with the challenges associated with autism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25",
"title": "Autism",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436831",
"title": "Special education",
"section": "Section::::Integrating technology in special education classrooms.:Autism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "There are several controversies surrounding the diagnoses and causes of autism. It's now believed that there's no single cause of autism. Research seems to suggest that autism is normally the result of both genetic and environmental influences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42199022",
"title": "Global perceptions of autism",
"section": "Section::::Developing countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "As recently as 1984, researchers questioned whether autism was a universal phenomenon. Some scientists believed that autism was a condition limited to Western and technologically developed nations; however, now there is evidence of increased prevalence of and knowledge about ASD cross-culturally and internationally. Although autism has a biological basis and there are clear criteria for an autism diagnosis, its symptoms may be viewed differently across cultures. These differences may extend to the perception of autism in different cultures and perceptions of the most effective treatment options.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p77w4
|
the fine print on the xkcd website
|
[
{
"answer": "It was a viral marketing campaign that XKCD took over, [like a boss](_URL_0_).\n\nNo idea why they're still there. Probably because the author thinks they're funny, or is proud of them.\n\nEdit: For a less disappointing response, ask again in r/shittyaskscience. :D",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More specifically, I believe it's a play on a much maligned [_URL_0_ billboard campaign a while back](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nFor all your \"I am not as smart as I thought\" needs.\n\nFrequent User,\ngarbaxo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54262404",
"title": "Machine Identification Code",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Using this steganographic process, high-quality copies of an original (e.g. a bank note) under blue light can be made identifiable. Using this process even shredded prints can be restored: The 2011 \"Shredder Challenge\" initiated by the DARPA was solved by a team called \"All Your Shreds Are Belong To U.S.\" consisting of Otavio Good and two colleagues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49070612",
"title": "Chakin'",
"section": "Section::::Release and reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "The vinyl pressing was limited to four-hundred and seven copies, with five unique sleeve illustrations: Green background print, limited to one-hundred and forty-nine copies. Green/grey background print, limited to three copies. Green/yellow background print, limited to eight copies. Grey background print, limited to ninety-nine copies. Yellow background print, limited to one-hundred and forty-eight copies. It made seventh place on The Vinyl Factory's \"The 10 Most Collectable Records of 2015\" end of the year list, with the columnist saying, \"the concept is charmingly shambolic, somewhat random and wonderfully egalitarian.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6863076",
"title": "Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 2",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Editions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "BULLET::::3. \"60 signed and numbered copies on amethyst coloured vinyl packaged in a white gatefold sleeve with a moon & trees picture attached to the front, a handprint in off-white paint on the back, a note saying that it is \"suitable for framing (but beware of sunlight!)\", and two signed prints. The records themselves have plain white labels, with gold leaf attached to the label on side four.\" -Brainwashed.com.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944825",
"title": "Negative imprinting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The imprinter superimposes the date and other information on the image and this can be distracting. Digital cameras can often encode all the information in the image file itself. The Exif format is the most commonly used format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3999940",
"title": "Yes L.A.",
"section": "Section::::Artwork and packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Designed by Pat Garrett, the record artwork was silkscreened by hand on the ungrooved side of each single disc, with one of three different color combinations, namely, green/black, green/blue, and green/red. Some of those copies were misprinted. Examples include discs with text only, with the background image in front of the text, or the image and text on the side with the grooves, rendering such a record unplayable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53294594",
"title": "Media Standard Print",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "A Media Standard Print conforming contract proof must contain the FOGRA media wedge, the measurement record, the colour profiles used, the time and date of the proof. The print of the media wedge should be measured. Colour measurement should be carried out in accordance with ISO 13655:2009 in measurement mode M1 on a white backing and the visual evaluation of the proof including its comparison with printed copies should be under a standard illuminant in accordance with ISO 3664:2009 (confirmed 2015).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1633265",
"title": "RedLightGreen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "RedLightGreen was a database of bibliographic descriptions on the Web created by Research Libraries Group (RLG). It used a set of four million records extracted from OCLC's WorldCat database, and was designed to help novice users make selections from the vast bibliographic resources they would encounter in such a large set. RedLightGreen also allowed users to create citations for works found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lma9i
|
why are dogs no longer found in the wilderness?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can find some wild dogs, mostly in cities, but dogs were never an existing species, they're wolves that we domesticated that became so removed from wolves they became their own species.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A dog is a domesticated wolf. Dogs were never a wild animal, humans tamed wolves and over time those animals where different enough to warrant a different species. \n\nOf course there are feral dogs out there, they can be a big issue in cities. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are dogs in the wilderness; they're known as coyotes, dingoes, wolves and foxes. Modern domestic dog breeds are all descendants of these species that have been bred to have certain traits and split off into subspecies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are wild dogs. And there are wild domestic dogs too.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\n\n**Bonus Pic:** I took 4 pics from the Wiki article and put them together.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's believed that at some point in history, someone caught and made a pet out of a wild animal similar to a wolf. After many hundreds of years of more humans catching, raising, and breeding that pet, you now have what we call a domesticated dog. \n\nToday, dogs sometimes end up outside and alone, outside the care of humans. Sometimes they've gotten lost or they've been released by people who don't know better. These dogs can become what we call feral, or wild, and have puppies which then become feral. This just means they aren't friendly or tame.\n\nThen there are animals we call Wild Dogs, like the Dingo or the African Wild Dog. They aren't the same as domesticated dogs. We know this because scientists like to make a family tree of all the animals in the world. Scientists study these animals and know they are related but not the same. Since no one is sure how closely related these animals are to each other, they might classify them differently from each other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "226211",
"title": "Glacier National Park (U.S.)",
"section": "Section::::Recreation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Dogs are not permitted on any trails in the park due to the presence of bears and other large mammals. Dogs are permitted at front country campsites that can be accessed by a vehicle and along paved roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52069460",
"title": "Cão de Gado Transmontano",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "\"This dog is an athlete of all terrain able to make many miles along rugged landscapes, protecting both day and night his herd of possible threats. The largest of these is the Iberian Wolf, an endangered species that with the help of dogs of this breed can be preserved.\" Representatives were selected and imported to the United States for a United States Department of Agriculture study on use of dogs to mitigate wolf predation in the western United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150742",
"title": "Richmond Park",
"section": "Section::::Organisation.:Access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "As the park is a national nature reserve and a Site of Special Scientific Interest, all dog owners are required to keep their dogs under control while in the park. This includes not allowing their dog to disturb other park users or disrupt wildlife. In 2009, after some incidents leading to the death of wildfowl, the park's dogs-on-leads policy was extended. Park users are said to believe that the deer are feeling increasingly threatened by the growing number of dogs using the park and Royal Parks advises against walking dogs in the park during the deer's birthing season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20143190",
"title": "Con Slobodchikoff",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Con Slobodchikoff has shown strong intention of preserving the habitats of prairie dogs. One specific area that has evidence of the destruction of their environment is New Mexico. An organization, Prairie Dog Pals has dedicated themselves to prevent the urban expansion that threatens the dog's lifestyles. Prairie Dogs are seen as bothersome creatures to city employees. They are viewed as a threat to home owners and the general public by digging burrows into parks and playgrounds. Unfortunately, animal lovers are worried that their extinction will be the cause of the extinction of other creatures. Drastic measures such as poisoning, bulldozing and drowning their habitats have been implemented by the city's urban expansion workers. This has caused a major push in Con Slobodchikoff research, because of his drive to inform society of how intelligent these remarkable creatures are, and how they can really can contribute to further research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24327",
"title": "Prairie dog",
"section": "Section::::Conservation status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Nevertheless, prairie dogs are often identified as pests and exterminated from agricultural properties because they are capable of damaging crops, as they clear the immediate area around their burrows of most vegetation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23275627",
"title": "African wild dog",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "The African wild dog is mostly found in savanna and arid zones, generally avoiding forested areas. This preference is likely linked to the animal's hunting habits, which require open areas that do not obstruct vision or impede pursuit. Nevertheless, it will travel through scrub, woodland and montane areas in pursuit of prey. Forest-dwelling populations of African wild dogs have been identified, including one in the Harenna Forest, a wet montane forest up to 2400 m in altitude in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia. At least one record exists of a pack being sighted on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. In Zimbabwe, the species has been recorded at altitudes of 1,800 m. In Ethiopia, this species has been found at great altitudes; several live wild dog packs have been sighted at altitudes of from 1,900 to 2,800 m, and a dead individual was found in June 1995 at 4,050 m on the Sanetti Plateau.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312678",
"title": "Footpath",
"section": "Section::::Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The main issues in urban areas include maintenance, litter, crime, and lighting after dark. In the countryside there are issues relating to conflicts between walkers and livestock, and these occasionally result in people being injured or even killed. Dogs often contribute to such conflicts – see in England and Wales The Dogs (Protection of Livestock) Act 1953. Also footpaths in remote locations can be difficult to maintain and a route along a country path can be impeded by ploughing, crops, overgrown vegetation, illegal barriers (including barbed wire), damaged stiles, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
v03a6
|
This Mathmatical problem has been bothering me for over a week
|
[
{
"answer": "What you want is called a [de Bruijn sequence](_URL_1_). They are well-studied and also awesome.\n\nIn this case, you have an alphabet of *k* = 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and want all words of length *n* = 4, so the total number of de Bruijn sequences is (10!)^10^3 / 10^4 , [which is approximately 5.79*10^6555](_URL_0_), which is a lot.\n\nEdit: bonus fun: there are algorithms right there on the Wikipedia page. How neat!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "you could also cross post in r/math, this seems to be the kinda thing they enjoy from time to time...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you can pluck 3368 out of 4379143568 like you did. Then wouldn't 43791 contain:\n\n4379\n4371\n4391\n4791\n3791\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40714604",
"title": "Bedtime Math",
"section": "Section::::Offerings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "BULLET::::- Nightly math problem: Bedtime Math's core offering is its daily math problems for kids, broadcast by email and posted daily on the website's homepage and Facebook page. The mental math problems are designed “to promote both giggles and mathematical thought” as a means to “increase ‘math awareness’ in our everyday lives.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44810721",
"title": "Problems, Problems, Problems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Problems, Problems, Problems is a series of educational mathematics textbooks ranging from grade 7-12. The math questions are from previous math contests held by the Centre for Education in Mathematics and Computing at the University of Waterloo. The series is a resource to complement the Canadian high school curriculum and for self-development, although it is also used to study for the CEMC Math Contests. Each combined grade level has several book volumes. Each book contains around 300 questions, and is categorized into various sections. Each question has a reference number in the form \"year-contest-question number\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146089",
"title": "Danica McKellar",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Her first book, \"Math Doesn't Suck: How to Survive Middle School Math without Losing Your Mind or Breaking a Nail\", was a \"New York Times\" bestseller, and was favorably reviewed by Tara C. Smith, the founder of Iowa Citizens for Science and a professor of epidemiology at the University of Iowa. The book also received a review from Anthony Jones, writing for the \"School Librarian\" journal, who described the book as \"a trouble-shooting guide to help girls overcome their biggest maths challenges,\" noting what he described as \"real-world examples of great mathematics in action.\" In an interview with Smith, McKellar said that she wrote the book \"to show girls that math is accessible and relevant, and even a little glamorous\" and to counteract \"damaging social messages telling young girls that math and science aren't for them\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37586795",
"title": "Carmen Sandiego Math Detective",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "A writer for PCWorld notes that \"you soon realize that the math drills go on far too long. The crystal hideaways are bleak and dull, and you don't really seem to be catching thieves\", and adds that her \"eight-year-old daughter, Julia, who actually asks us to buy math workbooks, quickly gave up\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49758265",
"title": "Why Johnny Can't Add",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Why Johnny Can't Add: The Failure of the New Math is a book written by Morris Kline, first published in 1973. In it, Kline severely criticized the teaching practices characteristic of the \"New Math\" fashion for school teaching, which were based on Bourbaki's approach to mathematical research, and were being pushed into schools in the United States. Reactions were immediate, and the book became a best seller in its genre and translated into many languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4313610",
"title": "Texas Math and Science Coaches Association",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "General Mathematics is a 50-question exam that students are given only 40 minutes to solve. These problems are usually more challenging than questions on the Number Sense test, and the General Mathematics word problems take more thinking to figure out. Every problem correct is worth 5 points, and for every problem incorrect, 2 points are deducted. Tiebreakers are determined by the person that misses the first problem and by percent accuracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47197272",
"title": "Mathiness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Mathiness is a term coined by Paul Romer to label a specific misuse of mathematics in economic analyses. An author committed to the norms of science should use mathematical reasoning to clarify his analyses. By contrast, \"mathiness\" is not intended to clarify, but instead to mislead. According to Romer, some researchers use unrealistic assumptions and strained interpretations of their results in order to push an ideological agenda, and use a smokescreen of fancy mathematics to disguise their intentions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rupim
|
Suppose I'm a typical voter in the U.S in the late 18th century. Am I aware the founders based the structure of the country on the work of other enlightenment philosophers (John Locke & so fourth), or do I think they made it all up them selves?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is that the typical voter in the US in the late 18th century was well aware of both the work of American and non-American enlightenment thinkers. \n \nIn the late 18th century, a \"typical voter\" would be, in most states, a white, land-owning male. [*Charters of Freedom - The New World At Hand*](_URL_0_) (an _URL_1_ online exhibit) has this to say: \n \n > At the time of the first Presidential election in 1789, only 6 percent of the population–white, male property owners–was eligible to vote. The Fifteenth Amendment extended the right to vote to former male slaves in 1870; American Indians gained the vote under a law passed by Congress in 1924; and women gained the vote with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. \n \nAs Harvey Graff writes in *Legacies of Literacy*, \n \n > In the \"new world,\" the level and social distribution of literacy were not static during the eighteenth century. Regional differences, as well as social divisions, had not been erased. New England again led the way. **The male literacy level there rose slowly to 70 percent by 1710, and by 1760 it had leapt to 85 percent.** Even comparatively impressive literacy levels and a cultural impetus toward schooling, the data suggests that many New Englanders in the eighteenth century still were **\"closer than we have imagined to the credulous word-of-mouth world of the peasant, closer to its dependency on tradition and on the informed few\"** \n \nGraff argues (and his arguments are echoed by Lawrence Cremin in *American Education: The National Experience, 1783-1876*, among other sources if you're interested) that the gulf between \"the informed few\" and other moderately literate white men was roughly as great as the gulf between someone who is moderately literate and someone who is completely illiterate. That is, the upper echelon of literate folks were not just literate, but highly literate, i.e. widely read. While this *would* change as the 18th century turned over into the 19th century and more and more folks gained a greater degree of literacy, but remained relatively narrow in terms of their reading choices (think newspapers, the Bible, some spellers/primers, etc.), within the parameters of your question it suggests that there is fairly direct correspondence between \"being a voter\" and \"being widely read.\" \n \nNow, the real question is does \"being widely read\" mean \"being widely read in the philosophies of the Enlightenment?\" And to that I directly to Cremin who, considering Thomas Paine's intellectual heritage, writes this: \n \n > Paine could easily have imbibed Newton and Locke, Collins and Toland, Rousseau and Condorcet, without ever having read a word of them. Like others of his generation, he received Enlightenment affirmations from newspapers and magazines, from informal study groups and itinerant lecturers, from conversations in taverns and disputes in coffeehouses. **And, like others of his generation, he mulled them, argued them, and translated them into his own terms, producing a new and powerful version that was at the same time coarse and clear, simple and persuasive, audacious and reasonable. \n \nWhat this indicates (something that Henry Mays' *Enlightenment in America* points out) is not only that the so-called \"philosophies of the Enlightenment\" circulated throughout America, but that America was an equally important site of Enlightenment-era philosophizing. Though he calls for a clearer demarcation between these American and non-American Englightenment-era thinkers, Mays writes, \n \n > Locke, Hume, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Jefferson can be described and admired together. These men shared certain very generous loyalties....The distinctions among them and their followers must be clearly made if one is to treat successfully the *history* of the Enlightenment: its spread, its victories, its defeats. \n \nSo, to return to your question, there is a problem with the formulation that the founders *based* the structure of the country on the work of other enlightenment philosophers. It is more accurate to say that both the founders, in their writings and their doings, participated in the same, very roughly drawn thought era as did other thinkers such as Locke, Rousseau, Hume, Newton, Condorcet, etc. And the residue, if you will, of this thought era (i.e. all the writings) circulated widely within and was influenced by a class of highly literate folks (mostly white guys), both in the US and abroad. And this class of highly literate folks was, for the most part, the \"typical voter\" in the late 18th century United States. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political parties and elections.:General developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Most of the Founding Fathers rejected political parties as divisive and disruptive. By the 1790s, however, most joined one of the two new parties, and by the 1830s parties had become accepted as central to the democracy. By the 1790s, the First Party System was born. Men who held opposing views strengthened their cause by identifying and organizing men of like mind. The followers of Alexander Hamilton, were called \"Federalists\"; they favored a strong central government that would support the interests of national defense, commerce and industry. The followers of Thomas Jefferson, the Jeffersonians took up the name \"Republicans\"; they preferred a decentralized agrarian republic in which the federal government had limited power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185311",
"title": "United States presidential primary",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "There is no provision for the role of political parties in the United States Constitution, since the Founding Fathers did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. Thus in the first two presidential elections, the Electoral College handled the nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 that selected George Washington. The beginnings of the American two-party system then emerged from Washington's immediate circle of advisors. Hamilton and Madison, who wrote the aforementioned Federalist Papers against political factions, ended up being the core leaders in this partisanship: Hamilton became the leader of Federalist Party while Madison co-helmed the Democratic-Republican Party with Thomas Jefferson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31756",
"title": "United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::Congress and the public.:Advantage of incumbency.:Public perceptions of Congress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 1485,
"text": "Prominent Founding Fathers writing in \"The Federalist Papers\" felt that elections were essential to liberty, that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential, and that \"frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured\". In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25% with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the \"size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution ... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize.\" Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, \"Congress is a remarkably resilient institution ... its place in the political process is not threatened ... it is rich in resources\" and that most members behave ethically. They contend that \"Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend\" and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run \"against\" Congress, which is an \"old form of American politics\" that further undermines Congress's reputation with the public:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31605",
"title": "Two-party system",
"section": "Section::::History.:History of American political parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan, early political controversies in the 1790s saw the emergence of a two-party political system, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, centred on the differing views on federal government powers of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85533",
"title": "United States Electoral College",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolution to the general ticket.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Alexander Hamilton described the Founding Fathers' view of how electors would be chosen: They assumed this would take place district by district. That plan was carried out by many states until the 1880s. For example, in Massachusetts in 1820, the rule stated \"the people shall vote by ballot, on which shall be designated who is voted for as an Elector for the district.\" In other words, the people did not place the name of a candidate for a president on the ballot, instead they voted for their local elector, whom they trusted later to cast a responsible vote for president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political parties and elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The United States Constitution does not mention political parties, primarily because the Founding Fathers did not intend for American politics to be partisan. In \"Federalist Papers\" No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. In addition, the first president of the United States, George Washington, was not a member of any political party at the time of his election or during his tenure as president. Washington hoped that political parties would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation. Nevertheless, the beginnings of the American two-party system emerged from his immediate circle of advisers. Hamilton and Madison ended up being the core leaders in this emerging party system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8893999",
"title": "Voter apathy",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Prominent Founding Fathers writing in \"The Federalist Papers\" believed it was \"essential to liberty that the government in general should have a common interest with the people,\" and felt that a bond between the people and the representatives was \"particularly essential.\" They wrote \"frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured.\" In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8lpezh
|
Could a really skilled knight or swordsman really take on and kill 5 or so other opponents at a time? Or is that just movie bs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you please clarify what specific historical time or times and locations you are interested in? I may be able to answer your question, but as posed it isn't a historical one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's been done, so it's clearly possible.\n\nOne example: William MacBean. From his VC citation, \"For distinguished personal bravery in killing eleven of the enemy with his own hand in the main breach of the Begum Bagh at Lucknow, on the 11th March, 1858.\" In the Indian Mutiny, he fought, single-handed, against 9 troopers, 1 *naik* (corporal) and 1 *havildar* (sergeant), and killed them all with his sword.\n\nYou can find similar feats on the battlefield in VC citations from the mid/late 19th century (and equivalents with firearms from then and later). Sometimes the VC winner faces a group in order to rescue a wounded soldier. Sometimes the VC winner doesn't kill them all - maybe only 1 or 2, and the rest flee, or merely holds them all off until help arrives. Sometimes the VC winner is wounded.\n\nPeople also failed trying to do it. For example, the death of Francisco Pizarro. He was trying to defend himself against his assassins, and killed two of them. He then ran a 3rd opponent through with his sword (according to some versions, a 4th opponent pushed the 3rd onto his sword), and he was killed before he could free his sword. (And sometimes, the VC winners discussed above are killed.)\n\nSuch feats are exceptional - that's why they have resulted in the award of VCs, and the creation of legends and stories.\n\nThere are tactics and techniques that the lone swordsman can use against a group, and these tactics and techniques can be effective against relatively unskilled opponents. However, it isn't always possible to apply these on the battlefield, the opponents might not be sufficiently unskilled for such methods to result in victory, and bad luck (e.g., breaking one's sword) can happen. Plenty can go wrong, and one-against-many on the battlefield often results in the death of the one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41621681",
"title": "List of Fables characters (The Homelands)",
"section": "Section::::Colonel Bearskin and \"Bearskin's Free Company\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Red Cross Knight, who almost won the battle all on his own, and could not be beaten, \"not by goblin or troll or giant. Not by the dozens or the hundreds.\" He was finally killed when the enemy set a dragon against him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5577654",
"title": "List of Fables characters",
"section": "Section::::The Homelands.:Colonel Bearskin and \"Bearskin's Free Company\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 348,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 348,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Red Cross Knight, who almost won the battle all on his own, and could not be beaten, \"not by goblin or troll or giant. Not by the dozens or the hundreds.\" He was finally killed when the enemy set a dragon against him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21838352",
"title": "League of Legends",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Champion types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "BULLET::::- Assassin: A champion who specializes in killing another champion as fast as possible, usually within melee range. These champions tend to go after the enemy's AD/AP Carry and other 'squishy' champions, but tend to have weak defenses themselves if caught. They are distinguished in having excellent mobility which allows them to reach and strike at priority targets. Examples of assassins are Diana, Fizz, Katarina, and Zed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1899947",
"title": "Dharma-yuddha",
"section": "Section::::In the \"Mahabharata\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- Two warriors may duel, or engage in prolonged personal combat, only if they carry the same weapons and they are on the same mount (no mount, a horse, an elephant, or a chariot). (Broken several times).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2263093",
"title": "Kurukshetra War",
"section": "Section::::Mahabharata account of the war.:War preparations.:Rules of Engagement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "BULLET::::- Two warriors may \"duel\", or engage in prolonged personal combat, only if they carry the same weapons and they are on the same type of mount (on foot, on a horse, on an elephant, or in a chariot).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30778",
"title": "Universe of The Legend of Zelda",
"section": "Section::::Races.:Creatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- are heavily armored knights with axes. While they are even slower than the Darknuts, they are the most powerful enemies in their games as they can take four hearts from Link with just one hit and because of that they are often used to guard treasures. They first appeared in \"The Adventure of Link\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50594331",
"title": "One Armed Swordsman Against Nine Killers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "One Armed Swordsman Against Nine Killers () is a 1976 Chinese film starring Jimmy Wang Yu. Although the film stars Jimmy Wang Yu as the one-armed swordsman, it has no connection to the 1967 film \"One-Armed Swordsman\" and its sequel the 1969 film \"Return of the One-Armed Swordsman\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1926gl
|
what is the difference between constant and variable bitrate mp3 files, and what makes the latter supposedly "better"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bitrate means how many bits are used per second of song. In general, the more bits you have the higher quality the recording. \n\nThe thing is, some sounds are more 'complicated' and have finer details (higher frequencies). To accurately capture this, you need more information per second. You could just record the entire song at really high bitrate, but then you are just wasting space on the sections that are simpler and don't need as much information.\n\nVariable bitrate is the middle ground, the sound is analyzed before hand and the more complex parts are assigned a higher bit rate, simpler parts are assigned a lower bitrate. That way you still get good reproduction of the original sound, but don't waste a lot of information; makeing the file smaller.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "100826",
"title": "Variable bitrate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Variable bitrate (VBR) is a term used in telecommunications and computing that relates to the bitrate used in sound or video encoding. As opposed to constant bitrate (CBR), VBR files vary the amount of output data per time segment. VBR allows a higher bitrate (and therefore more storage space) to be allocated to the more complex segments of media files while less space is allocated to less complex segments. The average of these rates can be calculated to produce an average bitrate for the file.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673",
"title": "MP3",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Bit rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "A more sophisticated MP3 encoder can produce variable bitrate audio. MPEG audio may use bitrate switching on a per-frame basis, but only layer III decoders must support it. VBR is used when the goal is to achieve a fixed level of quality. The final file size of a VBR encoding is less predictable than with constant bitrate. Average bitrate is a type of VBR implemented as a compromise between the two: the bitrate is allowed to vary for more consistent quality, but is controlled to remain near an average value chosen by the user, for predictable file sizes. Although an MP3 decoder must support VBR to be standards compliant, historically some decoders have bugs with VBR decoding, particularly before VBR encoders became widespread. The most evolved LAME MP3 encoder supports the generation of VBR, ABR, and even the ancient CBR MP3 formats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62317",
"title": "Speex",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "BULLET::::- Variable bit-rate (VBR): Variable bit-rate (VBR) allows a codec to change its bit rate dynamically to adapt to the \"difficulty\" of the audio being encoded. In the example of Speex, sounds like vowels and high-energy transients require a higher bit rate to achieve good quality, while fricatives (e.g. s and f sounds) can be coded adequately with fewer bits. For this reason, VBR can achieve lower bit rate for the same quality, or a better quality for a certain bit rate. Despite its advantages, VBR has three main drawbacks: first, by only specifying quality, there is no guarantee about the final average bit-rate. Second, for some real-time applications like voice over IP (VoIP), what counts is the maximum bit-rate, which must be low enough for the communication channel. Third, encryption of VBR-encoded speech may not ensure complete privacy, as phrases can still be identified, at least in a controlled setting with a small dictionary of phrases, by analysing the pattern of variation of the bit rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1934011",
"title": "Average bitrate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Average bitrate can also refer to a form of variable bitrate (VBR) encoding in which the encoder will try to reach a target average bitrate or file size while allowing the bitrate to vary between different parts of the audio or video. As it is a form of variable bitrate, this allows more complex portions of the material to use more bits and less complex areas to use fewer bits. However, bitrate will not vary as much as in variable bitrate encoding. At a given bitrate, VBR is usually higher quality than ABR, which is higher quality than CBR (constant bitrate). ABR encoding is desirable for users who want the general benefits of VBR encoding (an optimum bitrate from frame to frame) but with a relatively predictable file size. Two-pass encoding is usually needed for accurate ABR encoding, as on the first pass the encoder has no way of knowing what parts of the audio or video need the highest bitrates to be encoded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159963",
"title": "MPEG-1 Audio Layer II",
"section": "Section::::How the MP2 format works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "BULLET::::- The use of an additional entropy coding tool, and higher frequency accuracy (due to the larger number of frequency sub-bands used by MP3) explains why MP3 does not need as high a bit rate as MP2 to get an acceptable audio quality. Conversely, MP2 shows a better behavior than MP3 in the time domain, due to its lower frequency resolution. This implies less codec time delay — which can make editing audio simpler — as well as \"ruggedness\" and resistance to errors which may occur during the digital recording process, or during transmission errors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673",
"title": "MP3",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1322,
"text": "This observation caused a revolution in audio encoding. Early on bitrate was the prime and only consideration. At the time MP3 files were of the very simplest type: they used the same bit rate for the entire file: this process is known as Constant Bit Rate (CBR) encoding. Using a constant bit rate makes encoding simpler and less CPU intensive. However, it is also possible to create files where the bit rate changes throughout the file. These are known as Variable Bit Rate. The bit reservoir and VBR encoding were actually part of the original MPEG-1 standard. The concept behind them is that, in any piece of audio, some sections are easier to compress, such as silence or music containing only a few tones, while others will be more difficult to compress. So, the overall quality of the file may be increased by using a lower bit rate for the less complex passages and a higher one for the more complex parts. With some advanced MP3 encoders, it is possible to specify a given quality, and the encoder will adjust the bit rate accordingly. Users that desire a particular \"quality setting\" that is transparent to their ears can use this value when encoding all of their music, and generally speaking not need to worry about performing personal listening tests on each piece of music to determine the correct bit rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673",
"title": "MP3",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Bit rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "Bitrate is the product of the sample rate and number of bits per sample used to encode the music. CD audio is 44100 samples per second. The number of bits per sample also depends on the number of audio channels. CD is stereo and 16 bits per channel. So, multiplying 44100 by 32 gives 1411200—the bitrate of uncompressed CD digital audio. MP3 was designed to encode this 1411 kbit/s data at 320 kbit/s or less. As less complex passages are detected by MP3 algorithms then lower bitrates may be employed. When using MPEG-2 instead of MPEG-1, MP3 supports only lower sampling rates (16000, 22050 or 24000 samples per second) and offers choices of bitrate as low as 8 kbit/s but no higher than 160 kbit/s. By lowering the sampling rate, MPEG-2 layer III removes all frequencies above half the new sampling rate that may have been present in the source audio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sicqp
|
How can every point be the center of the universe if it isn't homogeneous?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best current models indicates that the universe is flat and infinite.\n\n > The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) has confirmed that the observable universe is **flat** with only a 0.5% margin of error. Within the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) model, **the presently most popular shape of the Universe found to fit observational data according to cosmologists is the infinite flat model**, while other FLRW models that fit the data include the Poincaré dodecahedral space and the Picard horn.\n\nOur observational sphere is based on the amount of time that light has had to travel since first light appeared roughly 370,000 years after the big bang (first light meaning light that could persist to today - this first light is the CMB).\n\nWe can not see past the observational sphere because light from there has not reached us.\n\nSo - you personally are centered in your observational sphere.\n\nIf you move one foot to your right - your observational sphere also moved one foot to the right. You can now see one foot farther (light wise) in one direction, than you could in the other.\n\nNow this amount of difference is too small to make anything meaningful... but the relationship stands. If you moved 50 million light years, your observational sphere also moves 50 million light years. So you would see new things.\n\nConsider if we could instantly teleport to the edge of our observational sphere... we would now have a new center. Half of what we observe would be half of our original observational sphere - and the other half would be totally new space with totally different galaxies, stars, etc.\n\nAre we 100% certain of this? No... but so far all indications point in this direction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here it from the [man himself](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7327",
"title": "Copernican principle",
"section": "Section::::Origin and implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1362,
"text": "In cosmology, if one assumes the Copernican principle and observes that the universe appears isotropic or the same in all directions from the vantage point of Earth, then one can infer that the universe is generally homogeneous or the same everywhere (at any given time) and is also isotropic about any given point. These two conditions make up the cosmological principle. In practice, astronomers observe that the universe has heterogeneous or non-uniform structures up to the scale of galactic superclusters, filaments and great voids. It becomes more and more homogeneous and isotropic when observed on larger and larger scales, with little detectable structure on scales of more than about 200 million parsecs. However, on scales comparable to the radius of the observable universe, we see systematic changes with distance from Earth. For instance, galaxies contain more young stars and are less clustered, and quasars appear more numerous. While this might suggest that Earth is at the center of the universe, the Copernican principle requires us to interpret it as evidence for the evolution of the universe with time: this distant light has taken most of the age of the universe to reach Earth and shows the universe when it was young. The most distant light of all, cosmic microwave background radiation, is isotropic to at least one part in a thousand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422645",
"title": "Edward Arthur Milne",
"section": "Section::::\"Relativity, Gravitation, and World Structure\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Milne argued that under the context of Einstein's special relativity, and the relativity of simultaneity, that it is impossible for a nonstatic universe to be homogeneous. Namely, if the universe is spreading out, its density is decreasing over time, and that if two regions appeared to be at the same density at the same time to one observer, they would not appear to be the same density at the same time to another observer. However, if each observer measures its local density at the same agreed-upon proper time, the measured density should be the same. In Minkowskian coordinates, this constant proper time forms a hyperbolic surface which extends infinitely to the light-cone of the event of creation. This is true even when proper time approaches 0, the time of the creation. The universe is already infinite at the creation time!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14865",
"title": "Isotropy",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cosmology:The Big Bang theory of the evolution of the observable universe assumes that space is isotropic. It also assumes that space is homogeneous. These two assumptions together are known as the cosmological principle. As of 2006, the observations suggest that, on distance scales much larger than galaxies, galaxy clusters are \"Great\" features, but small compared to so-called multiverse scenarios. Here homogeneous means that the universe is the same everywhere (no preferred origin) and isotropic implies that there is no preferred direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243316",
"title": "Homogeneous coordinates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "If the homogeneous coordinates of a point are multiplied by a non-zero scalar then the resulting coordinates represent the same point. Since homogeneous coordinates are also given to points at infinity, the number of coordinates required to allow this extension is one more than the dimension of the projective space being considered. For example, two homogeneous coordinates are required to specify a point on the projective line and three homogeneous coordinates are required to specify a point in the projective plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6064424",
"title": "Spatial descriptive statistics",
"section": "Section::::Measures of spatial homogeneity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "A homogeneous set of points in the plane is a set that is distributed such that approximately the same number of points occurs in any circular region of a given area. A set of points that lacks homogeneity may be \"spatially clustered\" at a certain spatial scale. A simple probability model for spatially homogeneous points is the Poisson process in the plane with constant intensity function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1508434",
"title": "Coplanarity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "In geometry, a set of points in space are coplanar if there exists a geometric plane that contains them all. For example, three points are always coplanar, and if the points are distinct and non-collinear, the plane they determine is unique. However, a set of four or more distinct points will, in general, not lie in a single plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "985963",
"title": "Lambda-CDM model",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Most modern cosmological models are based on the cosmological principle, which states that our observational location in the universe is not unusual or special; on a large-enough scale, the universe looks the same in all directions (isotropy) and from every location (homogeneity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kv6ya
|
Some planes from WW2 were designed in such a way that the bullets they fired had to go between the propeller blades. How did the designers make sure they won't hit a blade and was the fire rate affected?
|
[
{
"answer": " > How did the designers make sure they won't hit a blade\n\nAs far as I know the trigger mechanism to fire each bullet was coupled via a [cam](_URL_0_) to the shaft of the propeller. As the propeller shaft turned to a particular position the cam would trigger the gun to fire the bullet. This would mean that the bullet would fire and leave the barrel of the gun and pass through the rotating propeller blades only when the blades were in a position out of the firing line no matter what the rotational speed of the propellers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best way to fix this problem is to create a mechanical linkage between the engine and the trigger mechanism of the gun. The gun is triggered only when the prop is known to be out of the way.\n\nThis requires several things: \n\n- a gun that fires exactly when you tell it to (within hundredths of a second), not even a quarter of a second later, which was a problem for some types of guns;\n\n- a way to know where the propeller is at any given time; this one is relatively easy, as you can just attach a cam to the prop shaft; \n\n- and a way to connect the propeller to the trigger - this is a bit sticky as well because if this linkage isn't stiff and strong enough to resist distortion at any allowed speed, your timing will be off substantially.\n\nThis synchronization does affect the fire rate, in principle - you can't fire any more often than when you have \"holes\"; if you fire once per hole for a two-bladed prop, that means you can only fire at a rate of 2x the prop speed in RPM. In practice, this wasn't really a problem because the props moved fast enough.\n\n[Wikipedia has an extensive article on the subject.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7661871",
"title": "Propeller (aeronautics)",
"section": "Section::::Varying pitch.:Variable pitch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Following World War I, automatic propellers were developed to maintain an optimum angle of attack. This was done by balancing the centripetal twisting moment on the blades and a set of counterweights against a spring and the aerodynamic forces on the blade. Automatic props had the advantage of being simple, lightweight, and requiring no external control, but a particular propeller's performance was difficult to match with that of the aircraft's power plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "770634",
"title": "Air combat manoeuvring",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1318,
"text": "Fixed, forward-firing guns were found to be the most effective armament for a majority of World War I era fighter planes, but it was nearly impossible to fire them through the spinning propeller of one's own aircraft without destroying one's own plane. Roland Garros, working with Morane Saulnier Aéroplanes, was the first to solve this problem by attaching steel deflector wedges to the propeller. He achieved three kills but was shot down by ground fire and landed behind German lines. Anthony Fokker inspected the plane's wreckage and learned to improved the design by connecting the firing mechanism of the gun to the timing of the engine, thus allowing the gun to fire through the propeller without making contact with the propeller. As technology rapidly advanced, new and young aviators began defining the realm of air-to-air combat, such as Max Immelmann, Oswald Boelcke, and Lanoe Hawker. One of the greatest of these \"ace pilots\" of World War I, Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron), wrote in his book \"The Red Fighter Pilot\", \"The great thing in air fighting is that the decisive factor does not lie in trick flying but solely in the personal ability and energy of the aviator. A flying man may be able to loop and do all the stunts imaginable and yet he may not succeed in shooting down a single enemy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10669843",
"title": "Hans Roser",
"section": "Section::::The fight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "In the beginning of World War I, fire-arms were not common on airplanes. Sometimes pilots tried to shoot at each other with rifles and guns but usually this was too difficult and useless. By the late spring of 1915, the Germans invented the gun synchronizer that allowed a machine gun to fire through the propeller, but at the time of Roser's death the British had not developed a similar system. So Lanoe Hawker put a Lewis Gun at the side of his plane firing at an angle forwards and sideways, so that it could not shoot the blades of his own propeller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028296",
"title": "Tractor configuration",
"section": "Section::::World War I military aviation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Other solutions to avoiding the propeller arc include passing the gun's barrel through the propeller's hub or spinner (the nose of the aircraft) – first used in production military aircraft with the World War I French SPAD S.XII – or mounting guns in the wings. The latter solution was generally used from the early 1930s until the beginning of the jet age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19690",
"title": "Machine gun",
"section": "Section::::History.:Maxim and World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "Machine guns were mounted in aircraft for the first time in World War I. Immediately this raised a problem. The most effective position for guns in a single-seater fighter was clearly, for the purpose of aiming, directly in front of the pilot; but this placement would obviously result in bullets striking the moving propeller. Early solutions, aside from simply hoping that luck was on the pilot's side with an unsychronized forward-firing gun, involved either aircraft with pusher props like the Vickers F.B.5, Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and Airco DH.2, wing mounts like that of the Nieuport 10 and Nieuport 11 which avoided the propeller entirely, or armored propeller blades such as those mounted on the Morane-Saulnier L which would allow the propeller to deflect unsynchronized gunfire. By mid 1915, the introduction of a reliable gun synchronizer by the Imperial German Flying Corps made it possible to fire a closed-bolt machine gun forward through a spinning propeller by timing the firing of the gun to miss the blades. The Allies had no equivalent system until 1916 and their aircraft suffered badly as a result, a period known as the Fokker Scourge, after the Fokker Eindecker, the first German plane to incorporate the new technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045839",
"title": "Continuous-rod warhead",
"section": "Section::::Early anti-aircraft munitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Some anti-aircraft artillery projectiles were designed to fragment into long, thin pieces in an attempt to inflict damage on the airframe. Holes made by such fragments were more likely to cause destructive disruption of airflow around high-speed aircraft, but the hit probability was lowered for the smaller number of fragments from a warhead of equal size. The problem became more significant as anti-aircraft missiles were developed to replace guns after World War II. A smaller number of missiles would require an improved warhead to match the aircraft destruction probability of the larger number of artillery projectiles potentially carried by a weapon of the same size and cost. Some to increase the probability of aircraft destruction. The concept of a folded continuous rod warhead was suggested in 1952.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3244537",
"title": "Scimitar propeller",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "This can be controlled to some degree by adding more blades to the prop, thus producing more thrust at a lower rotational speed. This is why some World War II fighters started with two-blade props and were using five-blade designs by the end of the war. The only downside of this approach is that adding blades makes the propeller harder to balance and maintain. At some point, though, the forward speed of the plane combined with the rotational speed of the propeller will once again result in wave-drag problems. For most aircraft, this will occur at speeds over about 450 mph (725 km/h).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c94xqy
|
Was the Holy Roman Empire really a singular state? Or was it at best a loose league of states?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer to your question(s) would be a resounding \"neither\", I'm afraid. I'll try to get a bit more in-depth for the 1648-1806 period of HRE history where I'm best informed in, but hopefully you'll get other answers expounding on the many centuries before that. I can already give you a tl;dr though, if you like, and that's \"It's fiendishly complicated\".\n\nThe political and structural framework of the HRE was the following: There was the German King (who often also wore the Imperial Roman Crown) who stood at the top of the feudal structure of the Empire. Every lower-ranking prince received his (in rare cases also: her) fief from the King's hands, and throughout the HRE's history every time a fief passed hands or a new King/Emperor (I'll simply say \"Emperor\" from now on since throughout the entire early modern era, every German King also styled himself Emperor) there was a corresponding ceremony where the fief-holder would ritually swear fealty to the Emperor. So, a singular and centralised state with a strong monarch on top, no?\n\nWell, of course it was much more complicated than that. In practice, the Emperor being the feudal overlord was more a legal theorem than political reality, and while the aforementioned ceremonies continued to be followed, in most cases from the late 17th century on, the various German lords sent representatives instead of appearing themselves as a subtle sign of defiance towards Imperial claims. Also, the Emperor was basically alone, as he had no governmental bureaucracy to his side...\n\n...instead that this isn't the whole truth, either. Emperor Maximilian I, who ruled at the turn from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern, was very ambitious in his plans to centralise the Empire and create a functioning bureaucracy. For various reasons (the continuing resistance of the various princes being the central one), his plans didn't fully pan out and could only be realised in part. The most important achievements of Maximilian on this front were probably the establishment of an imperial court system, with the Imperial Chamber Court and the Imperial Aulic Council serving as the supreme appellation court in the Empire. But even there, we have to qualify that statement, since over the centuries many German territories tried (and often succeeded) in securing the privilege of their subjects not being able to appeal to the Imperial judiciary. Another enduring legacy of Maximilian's was the introduction of \"Imperial districts\" (*Reichskreise*), which ultimately got tasked with organising and supervising the mint, collecting the imperial taxes (well, tax - there was only one, and it didn't exactly constitute a lot of income), gathering and training Imperial Army troops and enforcing sentences of the Imperial judiciary. There also were a number of other, minor tasks, but it's more important to note that there were vast differences between the various districts; some of them were highly active, whereas others mostly existed on paper.\n\nBut there was an Imperial Judiciary and an Imperial Army so it can't have been too decentralised, right? Well, yes... and no. The two imperial courts had overlapping jurisdictions and sometimes worked openly against each other, the aforementioned *privilegia de non appellando* weakened the Imperial judiciary especially within the strongest individual member states, and the Imperial Chamber Court was notoriously underfunded; many of the cases brought before it took literal centuries to finally be resolved. Some never were, because the HRE's end in 1806 got in the way (although to be fair, those century-long cases also tended to be the politically most charged ones. In less exciting cases, the Court could be astonishingly quick, even!). The army was provided by the individual member states who generally speaking weren't all that inclined to supply the Emperor with a powerful standing military. In addition to that, there was no centralised Imperial Army doctrine or drill and the various units never exercised together, which in turn meant that their efficacy in actual warfare wasn't always a given.\n\nOn the other side of the scarce Imperial bureaucracy, there were the many (many, many) individual territories, who in themselves were highly varied and distinct. They were organised in the Imperial Diet (Reichstag), a mammoth parliament that until the 17th century would only come together sporadically. In 1663, the Reichstag met again in Regensburg, but when its members couldn't reach a consensus in several highly important questions they simply deferred the official end of the session (also because some princes feared that due to those debates the Emperor would refuse to call for another session) until perpetuity, creating the \"Perpetual Diet\" in the process which legally speaking was just one long, never-ending session of the Imperial Diet. This parliament didn't represent all of the Empire, however, since not every ruler in the Empire was allowed a seat (I'll tell more about them later on), and because Bohemia and Imperial Italy weren't represented either for a variety of reasons which all eventually end at \"they were arguably no longer a part of the Empire, anyway\".\n\nThe minor princes that were part of the Diet were divided in various groups. At the top were the prince-electors, a group of seven powerful princes and bishops whose most important job and privilege was to elect the Emperor. Who exactly was part of this elite group changed slightly over the centuries, and towards the end of the Empire the prince-electoral college even expanded to ten members. One of the prince-electors, the Archbishop of Mainz, also had the office of \"Imperial Arch-chancellor of Germany\" - in theory he led the imperial chancellery (in practice this was done by the \"Imperial Vice Chancellor\") and, most importantly, directed the sessions of the Imperial Diet. His prince-elector colleagues, the Archbishops of Cologne and Trier, also were Arch-chancellors of Italy and Burgundy, respectively, but those titles had long since lost virtually all of their practical power. The prince-electors even used to come together for parliamentary sessions of their own where they debated various imperial matters, but those mostly ceased with the Thirty Years' War.\n\nBelow the prince-electors came the Imperial Princes and Prelates. Those included powerful princes who didn't make it into the prince-electoral college, but also most Catholic bishops of the Empire and also all those abbots and abbesses who had the distinction of leading an \"Imperial Abbey\". This group had about 100 seats altogether, but six of those seats were \"curial votes\", i.e. one single vote cast together by a larger number of Diet members who didn't make the cut for a vote of their own. If I didn't miscount there were 166 of those unlucky princes and prelates.\n\nAt the lowest rung of the ladder were the Imperial cities, i.e. city-states (some of them very big and influential, others tiny) who weren't part of any larger territory, answered directly to the Emperor and took part at the Imperial Diet. Towards the end of the Empire there were 51 Imperial cities who had a whopping two votes inbetween them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13277",
"title": "Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Institutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers, collectively known as princes. There were also some areas ruled directly by the Emperor. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19476956",
"title": "Universal monarchy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The idea of a sole sovereign Emperor would re-emerge in the West with Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire. The idea of the Holy Roman Empire possessing a special sovereignty as a Universal Monarchy was respected by the surrounding powers and subject states, even when that Empire had undergone severe fragmentation. The symbolism of the A.E.I.O.U. phrase of Frederick III can be seen as an expression of the idea of all states being subject to one monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182007",
"title": "List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a highly decentralized state for most of its history, composed of hundreds of smaller states, most of which operated with some degree of independent sovereignty. Although in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, under the Salian and Hohenstaufen emperors, it was relatively centralized, as time went on the Emperor lost more and more power to the Princes. The membership of the Imperial Diet in 1792, late in the Empire's history but before the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, gives some insight as to the composition of the Holy Roman Empire at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256842",
"title": "List of states in the Holy Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The Holy Roman Empire was a complex political entity that existed in central Europe for most of the medieval and early modern periods and was generally ruled by a German-speaking Emperor. It should be mentioned that the states that composed the Empire, while enjoying a unique form of territorial authority (called \"Landeshoheit\") that granted them many attributes of sovereignty, were never fully sovereign states as the term is understood today. In the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 such territories, the majority being tiny estates owned by the families of Imperial Knights. This page does not directly contain the list, but it discusses the format of the various lists, and offers some background to understand the complex organisation of the Holy Roman Empire. The lists themselves can be accessed via the alphabetical navigation box at the top of this page; each letter will lead the reader to a page where states of the Empire which began with that letter are listed. For a more complete history of the empire, see Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3943310",
"title": "Kleinstaaterei",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Apart from these two states, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of hundreds of small, German-speaking principalities, most of which derived from successive dynastic splits (feudal fragmentation), sometimes reflected in compound names such as Saxe-Coburg; some of these were united through royal marriages, although the resulting entity was often not a contiguous territory. During the early modern period, these small states modernised their military, judicial, and economic administrations. These hardly existed at the imperial level, and the emperor was little more than a feudalistic confederal figurehead, without political or military clout. After the Reformation, the Empire's small states were divided along religious lines. Those headed by Roman Catholic dynasties faced those ruled by Protestant dynasties in the Thirty Years' War and other conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252905",
"title": "Classical antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Political revivalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "In politics, the late Roman conception of the Empire as a universal state, headed by one supreme divinely-appointed ruler, united with Christianity as a universal religion likewise headed by a supreme patriarch, proved very influential, even after the disappearance of imperial authority in the west. This tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned \"Roman Emperor\" in the year 800, an act which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a mere king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended to the entire civilized world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38580553",
"title": "Mozart's nationality",
"section": "Section::::The Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "However, although the Holy Roman Empire was largely German, it was hardly a nation state, but only a very loose confederation, the feeble residue of an empire that had been robust centuries earlier. According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", the princes whose states comprised the empire \"legislated at will, levied taxes, concluded alliances, and waged wars against each other ... The imperial Diet meeting in Regensburg had degenerated into a debating society without authority or influence. The splendid [imperial] coronation ceremony in Frankfurt am Main could not disguise the fact that the office conferred on its holder little more than prestige.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fpq5kc
|
Why couldn't Chiang Kai-Shek lead a unified Kuomintang, despite being appointed by Sun Yat-Sen to be the new leader?
|
[
{
"answer": "Chiang Kai-shek didn't want to lead a unified KMT. In fact, he totally planned, executed, and then perpetuated the persecution of communists and the CCP from 1926-1937. And to be fair, Sun Yat-sen also had no interest in seeing the party unified with communists either, he was forced to by the USSR who was funding the KMT's Northern Expedition.\n\nThe KMT's creation led it to attract a plethora of plural-minded individuals. The three major groups can be broken down into \"Liberals:\" Those who sought to create a sort of modern capitalist-federation in the likes of the US; \"Communists:\" by 1926, no one had universally agreed to what communism was or meant. They just knew that it had to make China a better, modernized state like it did for Russia in the USSR; and finally \"Nationalists:\" This group is kind of nebulous. Some in recent years have likened them to being fascist minded, while others note that these men adopted their own Chinese concepts of modern military totalitarianism. So Liberals, Communists, and Nationalists, and they're all working \"together\" under a singular party, the KMT. The Chinese didn't really have the whole 'political parties' thing nailed down the way it is in federal state like the US. But they were all unified in one major goal: Unite China, Modernize China, and Make China Great Again by any means possible!\n\n**Solidifying Chiang's Power; the Canton Coup and the Northern Expedition**\n\nWhen Sun died, there was no real successor for the KMT. Chiang and Sun, although friends, had a very tense political relationship due to Chiang's refusal to cooperate with the CCP. Upon Sun's death, Chiang had an edge over other generals; he was the head of the Whampoa Academy, which meant that he not only had a professional corps of loyal officers, but an army at his disposal located right in Canton. But he himself really had no legitimate means of being the leader of the KMT in the eyes of every other KMT general. They were all the same; a group of former cadets trained in the art of military at the Imperial Japan Military Academy that were unified by their youthful bravado to return to a fragmented homeland and not just unify it, but also turn it into a great world power that could stand up to the Westerners. All of them would play a key role in modern Chinese history, and *most* of them wanted the leadership role, along with various politicians.\n\nChiang needed to act fast if he was to keep his position as head of KMT, or even his head. Chiang chose a combination pretty common to most dictators, assassinating/arresting those who could threaten him, and then accelerating war preparation to give other generals something to be busy with other than plotting his demise. One of the first things he did upon the death of Sun was killing Liao Zhongkai and arresting Hu Hanmin, getting rid of two potential rivals. Next, Chiang instigated the \"Canton Coup\" (also known as the Zhongshan Incident), where he used his power as head of the Whampoa Military Academy to attack certain communists, arresting Zhou Enlai and exiling Wang Jingwei, but also in the process forcing Soviet advisers to flee. Despite the close calls and tensions, Stalin decided to continue his backing of Chiang and the CCP stayed as an artery of the KMT, though not for long.\n\nAfter ensuring he had control over the communists, Chiang then had to deal with fellow military generals. They weren't communists and they all weren't unified in who should replace Chiang, but many were convinced that Chiang should be disposed, a feeling that would soon dissipate as Japanese aggression became more and more belligerent. In order to cull the generals, Chiang basically took a gamble; he would launch the Northern Expedition in 1926 rather than later, against the advice of the Soviet advisers the year prior. Today we know the NE was a stunning success in many ways for the KMT, although it ultimately fell short. But at the time there was no guarantee the campaign would succeed. Fortunately for Chiang, as the KMT Army marched further north it became apparent that certain warlords had no real allegiance to their leaders, and Chiang's willingness to use what he called \"Silver Bullets\" (Bribes) meant that most of the warlords fell apart quite quickly; some even proved to be loyal allies in the future (Tang Shengzhi). But by 1928, Chiang was the undisputed leader of the KMT due to a combination of a successful war solidifying his leadership and him assassinating or exiling potential rivals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "198683",
"title": "Warlord",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples of warlordism.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Chiang Kai-shek's entire tenure as \"de facto\" leader of the Republic of China from 1928 until 1948, when the Nationalist army was decisively defeated by Mao Zedong's People's Liberation Army and the KMT fled the Chinese mainland to establish the ROC on Taiwan; was maintained under the auspices of his position as Chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist government. His power was derived from his ability to maintain the loyalty of the armed forces, not from the political legitimacy of democratic elections. This path to leadership and the military-political order he established to rule China constitutes warlordism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22638880",
"title": "Dang Guo",
"section": "Section::::Kuomintang holding supreme power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "After Sun Yat-sen decided to follow and copy the Soviet Union political system, his successor Chiang Kai-shek used Kuomintang to control and to operate both the Republic of China government and the Nationalist Revolutionary Army, which was sometimes called \"The Party's Army\" (黨軍), and equivalent to Mao Zedong's famous quote \"Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun\". The ROC bureaucracy had then become the means and tools of Kuomintang, where all the major national policies were formulated, resulting in the party holding the supreme power of the whole nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61106",
"title": "Chinese unification",
"section": "Section::::History of \"Chinese unification\" in Taiwan (ROC).:Rise of the Democratic Progressive Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "After the ROC Presidential elections of 2000, which brought the independence-leaning Democratic Progressive Party's candidate President Chen Shui-bian to power, the Kuomintang, faced with defections to the People First Party, expelled Lee Teng-hui and his supporters and reoriented the party towards unification. At the same time, the People's Republic of China shifted its efforts at unification away from military threats (which it de-emphasized but did not renounce) towards economic incentives designed to encourage Taiwanese businesses to invest in China and aiming to create a pro-Beijing bloc within the Taiwanese electorate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46921088",
"title": "Hereditary politicians",
"section": "Section::::Difference from political dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Current Premier Li Keqiang was once deemed as the most potential successor of former General Secretary Hu Jintao. However, Li did not succeed because he does not have a deeply-rooted political family background. On the other hand, Xi Jinping became the successor of Mr. Hu with the support of a strong political network which he inherited from his father, Xi Zhongxun, who had been a senior political leader for more than 50 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284343",
"title": "2000 Taiwan presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Candidates and platforms.:Kuomintang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Though more popular and consistently ranked higher in the polls, the outspoken former Taiwan Governor James Soong failed to gain the Kuomintang's nomination. As a result, he announced his candidacy as an independent candidate. The Kuomintang responded by expelling Soong and 21 of his allies in November 1999. It is a very common belief among KMT supporters that President Lee Teng-hui was secretly supporting Chen Shui-bian, and purposely supported the less popular Lien in order to split the Kuomintang, and this belief was given a great deal of credibility after the 2000 election with Lee's defection to the Pan-Green coalition, though Lee's defection came only after his humiliating expulsion by the KMT. Soong, a mainlander, tried to appeal to the native Taiwanese by nominating pro-independence surgeon Chang Chao-hsiung as his running-mate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3986480",
"title": "Beiyang government",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Its legitimacy was seriously challenged in 1917, by Sun Yat-sen's Guangzhou-based Kuomintang (KMT) government movement. His successor Chiang Kai-shek defeated the Beiyang warlords during the Northern Expedition between 1926 and 1928, and overthrew the factions and the government, effectively unifying the country in 1928. The Kuomintang proceeded to install its nationalist government in Nanking; China's political order became a one-party state, and subsequently received international recognition as the legitimate government of China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9505474",
"title": "Handan Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1212,
"text": "However, these troops of former Guominjun felt that their loyalty was not rewarded accordingly and they were discriminated against by Chiang Kai-shek and troops of his own clique. Such sentiment was certainly true because Chiang Kai-shek had planned to solve the warlord problem that had plagued China for so long together with the eradication of the communism, which proved to be a fatal mistake. These former warlords's troops believed that Chiang Kai-shek and his regime felt that they were expandable and used them just as tools of the civil war because instead of sending his crack troops such as the Newly Organized 1st Army, Chiang Kai-shek only send the second-rate troops to fight alongside with them, and moreover, it were them who bore the brunt of the fights instead Chiang's own troops. Such resentment against Chiang Kai-shek and his regime was exploited to the maximum by their communist enemy in the latter stage of the Handan Campaign, resulting in their defection to the communist side, which proved to be a significant factor that contributed to the nationalist failure. To complete their plan, many communist agents had already infiltrated the Newly Organized 8th Army prior to the campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cccv40
|
A question about how American right-wing religious rhetoric shifted around the end of the Cold War
|
[
{
"answer": "The soviet union's potential connection to scripture was based on a relatively pragmatic reading of the passages regarding Gog and Magog. These are the two allied forces that are supposed to invade Israel. Gog and Magog have long been thought to be connected with the scythians(and central asia), who would have existed in area largely occupied by the soviet union. Having both the army and the geographic positioning, they simply fit the prophetic bill most closely. But as the USSR broke up and no longer regarding as nearly as an imposing military power, they simply seem to be less and less likely to fit the bill for being gog/magog.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4830974",
"title": "Social issues of the 1920s in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Isolationism, immigration, and communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "America's isolationist philosophy after World War I gave rise to a xenophobic feeling across the nation. This was concentrated in rural areas and especially in the Southern United States and Indiana, where the Ku Klux Klan gained widespread support and sought to persecute immigrants and minorities in the 1920s. At the same time, communism was still a new philosophy in government, and much of the general American public held a hostile view toward it, especially after the 1919 United States anarchist bombings. The beginning of the 1920s saw the height and fall of First Red Scare as exemplified in the trials of Sacco and Vanzetti. This opposition to communism was caused by the bloody terror of the Bolshevik Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047294",
"title": "United We Stand America",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "In the early 1990s, many people were talking about forming a new political party. These discussions centered around populist themes. The eventual result of the movement that followed was \"United We Stand America\", followed by the Reform Party, and in some states the Independence Party. The early history of UWSA revolved around establishment of chapters in all 50 states and citizen activism against the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The organization also supported Ross Perot's fiscally conservative and socially liberal platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37757038",
"title": "History of homosexuality in American film",
"section": "Section::::After Stonewall.:Following decades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the mid-1980s, an organized religious-political movement arose in America to oppose LGBT rights. The political clout of the \"religious right\", as it became known, grew as its role in helping to elect, mostly, Republican Party candidates and move the party further to the political right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "705964",
"title": "Robert Rossen",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Examinations by HUAC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "After the end of World War II in 1945, the rightwing elements who had resisted the US entry into World War II because of their isolationism, continued their attempts to control and punish the left-leaning entertainment professionals who fought the spread of Fascism in Europe during the 1930s while the United States was technically neutral. In 1946, the Republicans gained an overwhelming majority in the Congressional elections. and used this power to re-invigorate committees there that had failed to stop anti-Fascist artists before the war. The Communist victory of China in 1949 and the start of the Korean War in 1950 reinforced the anti-Communist hysteria being whipped up at the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5210960",
"title": "Right-wing terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:United States.:Pre-2001.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "According to American political scientist George Michael, \"right-wing terrorism and violence has a long history in America\". Right-wing violent incidents began to outnumber Marxist incidents in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s. Michael observes the waning of left-wing terrorism accompanying the rise of right-wing terrorism, with a noticeable \"convergence\" of the goals of militant Islam with those of the extreme right. Islamic studies scholar Youssef M. Choueiri classified Islamic fundamentalist movements involving revivalism, reformism, and radicalism as within the scope of \"right-wing politics\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566888",
"title": "Christian terrorism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Start of modern terrorism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Mark Juergensmeyer, a former president of the American Academy of Religion, has argued that there has been a global rise in religious nationalism after the Cold War due to a post-colonial collapse of confidence in Western models of nationalism and the rise of globalization. Juergensmeyer categorizes contemporary Christian terrorists as being a part of \"religious activists from Algeria to Idaho, who have come to hate secular governments with an almost transcendent passion and dream of revolutionary changes that will establish a godly social order in the rubble of what the citizens of most secular societies regard as modern, egalitarian democracies\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9805628",
"title": "Susan Jacoby",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Ideas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The influence of secularism in the Civil Rights Movement in the United States is another important subject for Jacoby. She believes that accepting the importance of secularism in the civil rights movement does not deny the role religion played in it, and while she has admitted that \"the driving force in the early civil rights movement were the black churches of the South\", she has also pointed out that the movement was not intrinsically religious, and that in fact, the white churches of the South were strongly opposed to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3guv9b
|
why does it feel so nice/good to sing along to a song?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's complicated theories behind why this happens but basically we get pleasure out of having an anticipation satisifed, which is why \"catchy\" songs tend to have repetitive lyrics and melodies which you can easily catch on to and remember. Since you know what's coming, you have an anticipation which is then satisfied when you hear the actual part of the song you're anticipating, triggering a pleasurable response. Singing along enhances the effect. Add the factors of \"letting loose\" and if you happen to not be alone sharing something with others and all adds up to the good feeling.\n\nEdit: \"As scores of theorists and philosophers have noted...music is based on repetition. Music works because we remember the tones we have just heard and are relating them to the ones that are just now being played. Those groups of tones—phrases—might come up later in the piece in a variation or transposition that tickles our memory system at the same time as it activates our emotional centers...Repetition, when done skillfully by a master composer, is emotionally satisfying to our brains, and makes the listening experiences as pleasurable as it is.\" From _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7298704",
"title": "Taxi (song)",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Chapin said, \"there's not a single line that tells how the guy or the girl felt. It's a very cinematic technique. But it's also a very uneconomical technique. That's why my songs are so long. I literally put you in that cab and let you experience. It's a more involving form of music than sitting and hearing somebody sing 'I'm lonely'.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13708306",
"title": "Baxter Taylor",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "\"I love good music, and there is a lot of it out there. What I would like to do is record some of those singers and their original songs to help them find an audience. Someone once said, “The song is in the singing.” And it’s even more fun if there are listeners.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10873173",
"title": "Fluorescent Adolescent",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "We were on holiday and had cut ourselves off from everything. We were in a really quiet hotel and didn't watch TV or listen to that much music. So as not to drive each other mad we started messing around with these words like a game, singing them to each other. It's great to think that it came from something we did for fun on holiday. It'll always be a good memory for Alex and I. He doesn't usually write lyrics with other people, though I think he enjoyed it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33241040",
"title": "The Defiled",
"section": "Section::::History.:Line-up changes, Nuclear Blast and \"Daggers\" (2012–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Seeing you singing our words back to us, hearing your stories on how our music has affected you, watching you lose your shit to the heavy bits and seeing the spontaneous outpouring of love when some of you linked arms and made a \"circle of love” at our last London show has moved us in ways that are impossible to articulate, but just know; we love you for it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43228629",
"title": "American Kids",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Chesney heard the tune during a writers' retreat with McAnally, and according to Chesney: \"It was unlike anything I'd ever heard... it just grabs you and holds on, but even more importantly, it feels really good.\" He also said that \"there is so much more to being alive than partying, tailgates and bonfires,\" and that \"American kids are so much more complicated, more fun, more real\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51431170",
"title": "Alaska (Maggie Rogers song)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1672,
"text": "In an interview with Alex Siber of \"Pigeons and Planes\", Rogers said about the song: \"The music, in a lot of ways, reflects this meditative quality I get from hiking and dancing. They're two polar opposite things when you're thinking about them from a distance. With one, you're alone in the middle of nature. The other involves loud music and groups of people. But my experiences with both of them in the last three years have turned them into a mental health thing, a grounding process. I think about them in the same way. They're the most ancient, primal release. When I had been hiking in summers after Alaska, I had been creating a natural sample bank of birds, noises. A good chunk of the rhythm in the song started from me just patting a rhythm on my jeans. That sample is the main rhythm. Me snapping in a room. I wanted to make dance music, or pop music, feel as human as possible.\" She also talked about the artwork for the single, saying \"the artwork is from my time in Alaska—that's me in the red. It's funny, the 24 hours leading up to that photo were miserable. It had been raining for days straight, it was super foggy. We were having trouble navigating. We were in two different groups, separated from our friends. But that morning, everybody found each other and we cooked this big feast of pancakes and macaroni and cheese. Then the sun came up. We were in this glacial basin where there was this pool, essentially, and we hadn't seen any body of water like that. Nothing with that sort of volume. My best friend took that photo of me as we were getting water to cook the food [\"Laughs\"]. It seemed like the only appropriate way to represent the music.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3284136",
"title": "Just a Little While",
"section": "Section::::Background and release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "\"People like Janet's songs because they get to hear what Janet's going through. . . Janet's in a really good space right now. She's in love. The thing is, some people think you can't do good stuff when you're happy. [...] People don't want to hear \"Get out of here!\" and \"You did this to me!\" all day long. Everybody wants to feel good. So we tapped into her happiness\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1010j5
|
why is reddit composed mostly of male, middle class liberals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Reasonable conjecture:\n\nBecause young teenagers tend to be more liberal.\n\nAlso, reddit draws a lot of focus towards technology related issues, which men are on average more interested in.\n\nFinally, middle class americans have more free time to blow on reddit then lower class americans.\n\nAlso, upper class americans are less numerous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off America is not the only place on Earth that Reddit can be accessed. Secondly, I don't think that there are necessarily that many more white, liberal, middle class men on Reddit than other groups, they just have the loudest voice (aka most power). It's like looking at the US congress and wondering why everyone in the US is an old white man. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a very broad generalization based on a very small sampling, but in my personal (and recent) experience, the Republicans that I know who have tried Reddit get bored / annoyed very quickly. They're not interested in \"discussion\" or \"dialog\" or \"the conversation\". Reddit looks like a giant mess to them, and they're more interested in easy answers anyway, ones that they already agree with. They're right, you're wrong, there's no point in talking about it. One of them hangs out of some of the more obscure gaming subreddits, but that's it. I couldn't get one of them to spend any time on here at all, even on /r/Cincinnati which is a town he's ape about. \n\nTL;DR - Repub friends think that all of Reddit needs a TL;DR that agrees with them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a faulty assumpton. Honestly there are a lot more women than you'd expect. \n\n\nAlso, the UK, and most of Europe is fairly active on here. More than I've seen I'm sure. I only notice because they talk funny.\n\n\n(Totally kidding.)\n\n\nAlso, what makes you think they are all middle class? Certainly you could expect a bias towards people who can afford an internet/cell connection, but that hardly tells me their income.\n\nUnless you've done a survey, I'm not sure your assumption is accurate.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We're the only ones who have enough free time at our desk jobs to surf the internet during the day. Lower class people (often conservative) tend to be working physical jobs without internet access and/or the time to use it. Super rich people are too busy making more money to surf reddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52226495",
"title": "Sexism in American political elections",
"section": "Section::::Sexism in politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "“Sexism in the systematic inequitable treatment of girls and women by men and by the society as a whole”. Implications of sexism include girls having lower expectations of their own capabilities and also being subject to ridicule for being assertive. These factors have a direct effect on women who want to run for political positions. Women are less likely to run for political positions due to internalized sexism and a lack of female role models that hold political positions in the US. Cisgender men cannot be subject to negative political sexism seeing that the stereotype promotes males holding political positions. This is supported by the facts that cisgender men hold 59% of elected political positions in the U.S whereas cisgender women hold only 37.6%. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5097395",
"title": "Homophobia",
"section": "Section::::Distribution of attitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "In the United States, attitudes about people who are homosexual may vary on the basis of partisan identification. Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to have negative attitudes about people who are gay and lesbian, according to surveys conducted by the National Election Studies from 2000 through 2004. This disparity is shown in the graph on the right, which is from a book published in 2008 by Joseph Fried. The tendency of Republicans to view gay and lesbian people negatively could be based on homophobia, religious beliefs, or conservatism with respect to the traditional family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13200141",
"title": "Women in government",
"section": "Section::::Mirror representation.:Social and cultural barriers to mirror representation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Generally, girls tend to see politics as a \"male domain\". Newman and White suggest that women who run for political office have been \"socialized toward an interest in and life in politics\" and that \"many female politicians report being born into political families with weak gender-role norms.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "941592",
"title": "Upper middle class",
"section": "Section::::American upper middle class.:Values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Political ideology is not found to be correlated with social class; however, a statistical relationship is seen between the level of one's educational attainment and one's likelihood of subscribing to a particular political ideology. In terms of income, liberals tend to be tied with pro-business conservatives. Most mass affluent households tend to be more right-leaning on fiscal issues but more left-leaning on social issues. The majority, between 50% and 60%, of households with incomes above $50,000 overall, not all of whom are upper middle class, supported the Republican Party in the 2000, 2004, and 2006 elections. Those with postgraduate degrees in education statistically favor the Democratic Party. For example, in 2005, 72% of surveyed full-time faculty members at four-year institutions, the majority of whom would be considered upper middle class, identified themselves as liberal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13200141",
"title": "Women in government",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 209,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 209,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In popular media in the United States, female politicians see some focus on their appearance; more so than their male counterparts. A 2011 feminist journal by Carlin and Winfrey focuses on the portrayal of female politicians in the media. According to the journal, the way media perceives women and men is very distinct in the language they chose to use. The language chosen to talk or describe other people can either hurt or help them in a political campaign. As a result of\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11185",
"title": "Feminism",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:United States of America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Sociological research shows that, in the US, increased educational attainment is associated with greater support for feminist issues. In addition, politically liberal people are more likely to support feminist ideals compared to those who are conservative. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47534418",
"title": "LGBT conservatism in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "LGBT conservatism in the United States refers to a social and political ideology within the LGBT community that largely aligns with the American conservative movement. Although the majority of LGBT people are ideologically liberal and/or supportive of the Democratic Party, a significant proportion of sexual and gender minorities identify as ideologically conservative and/or support the Republican Party. LGBT conservatism is generally more moderate on issues of social conservatism, instead emphasizing values associated with fiscal conservatism, libertarian conservatism, and neoconservatism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7r7a6k
|
if one company buys out another company for a monetary fee, wouldn’t the money go back to the parent company, therefore the parent company essentially gained capital for free since they own the other company? how does that work?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, because when the company is bought it is bought from its owners. You know, the shareholders? They get the money from the buyout.\n\nThe only way it would stay with the company is if the company owned itself which is silly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nope. A company, just like most stuff, have an owner. This is confusing, because when you buy a car from Tesla, the money goes to the company. This is because the company owned the car.\n\nHowever, you buy Tesla the company, the money doesn't go to the company (that will be stupid, like you pointed that out) the money will go to the previous owner of the company, in this case, Elon Musk and a few other owner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To keep it simple;\nWhen you see a \"buyout\" that amount of money is being paid to the original owners of the company, whether divided by the shares if a public company or all to one person if a private company, not the company itself.\n\nIt's essentially the price paid by a new owner to obtain ownership from the old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3313446",
"title": "Capital gains tax in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Rollovers.:Demergers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "When a company spins off part of its business as a new separate company and gives shareholders new shares in that new company, the taxpayer's cost base of the original shares is split between the original and the new holding. The company advises the appropriate proportions and the shareholder would allocate the original cost base between the two entities. The new holding is taken to be acquired at the date of demerger. The cost base of the original shareholding is reduced by the cost base of the new shareholding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2007225",
"title": "Consolidation (business)",
"section": "Section::::Accounting treatment (US GAAP).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "A parent company can acquire another company by purchasing its net assets or by purchasing a majority share of its common stock. Regardless of the method of acquisition; direct costs, costs of issuing securities and indirect costs are treated as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8399656",
"title": "For-profit corporation",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "This kind of a company makes shares of ownership available to the general public. The purchasers of those shares then become the company's shareholders; shareholders have bought a portion of ownership of the corporation by giving away certain amount of money (differentiating from company to company) or assets of a particular value. Such organizations are usually not aided by the government as they are working for private financial gains, unlike a non-profit organization, which exists to serve a mission. The nature of a for-profit corporation is such that it is required to pay applicable taxes and register with the state. Any donation which they receive will also be subject to the tax policies of the concerned country. As these organizations are all corporations and have a separate identity from their owners the owners are not in their personal capacity required to satisfy any debts which the company might owe to anyone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15137812",
"title": "United Kingdom company law",
"section": "Section::::Companies and the general law.:Capital regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 3268,
"text": "The third, and practically most important strategy for creditor protection, was to require that dividends and other returns to shareholders could only be made, generally speaking, if a company had profits. The concept of \"profit\" is defined by law as having assets above the amount that shareholders, who initially bought shares from the company, contributed in return for their shares. For example, a company could launch its business with 1000 shares (for public companies, called an \"IPO\" or initial public offering) each with a nominal value of 1 penny, and an issue price of £1. Shareholders would buy the £1 shares, and if all are sold, £1000 would become the company's \"legal capital\". Profits are whatever the company makes on top of that £1000, though as a company continues to trade, the market price of shares could well be going up to £2 or £10, or indeed fall to 50 pence or some other number. The Companies Act 2006 states in section 830 that dividends, or any other kind of distribution, can only be given out from surplus profits beyond the legal capital. It is generally the decision of the board of directors, affirmed by a shareholder resolution, whether to declare a dividend or perhaps simply retain the earnings and invest them back into the business to grow and expand. The calculation of companies' assets and liabilities, losses and profits, will follow the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles in the UK, but this is not an objective, scientific process: a variety of different accounting methods can be used which can lead to different assessments of when a profit exists. The prohibition on falling below the legal capital applies to \"distributions\" in any form, and so \"disguised\" distributions are also caught. This has been held to include, for example, an unwarranted salary payment to a director's wife when she had not worked, and a transfer of a property within a company group at half its market value. A general principle, however, recently expounded in \"Progress Property Co Ltd v Moorgarth Group Ltd\" is that if a transaction is negotiated in good faith and at arm's length, then it may not be unwound, and this is apparently so even if it means that creditors have been \"ripped off\". If distributions are made without meeting the law's criteria, then a company has a claim to recover the money from any recipients. They are liable as constructive trustees, which probably mirrors the general principles of any action in unjust enrichment. This means that liability is probably strict, subject to a change of position defence, and the rules of tracing will apply if assets wrongfully paid out of the company have been passed on. For example, in \"It’s A Wrap (UK) Ltd v Gula\" the directors of a bankrupt company argued that they had been unaware that dividend payments they paid themselves were unlawful (as there had not in fact been profits) because their tax advisers had said it was okay. The Court of Appeal held that ignorance of the law was not a defence. A contravention existed so long as one ought to have known of the facts that show a dividend would contravene the law. Directors can similarly be liable for breach of duty, and so to restore the money wrongfully paid away, if they failed to take reasonable care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3380384",
"title": "Parent company",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, it is generally held that an organisation holding a 'controlling stake' in a company (a holding of over 51% of the stock) is in effect the de facto parent company of the firm, having overriding material influence over the held company's operations, even if no formal full takeover has been enacted. Once a full takeover or purchase is enacted, the held company is seen to have ceased to operate as an independent entity but to have become a tending subsidiary of the purchasing company, which, in turn, becomes the parent company of the subsidiary. (A holding below 50% could be sufficient to give a parent company material influence if they are the largest individual shareholder or if they are placed in control of the running of the operation by non-operational shareholders.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3313446",
"title": "Capital gains tax in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Specific assets.:Share rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Rights or options issued by the company allowing existing shareholders to buy new shares are treated as being acquired for nil cost at the same time as the shares were acquired. If sold then the proceeds are a capital gain (or not a capital gain if those shares were pre-CGT).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3744262",
"title": "Tax consolidation",
"section": "Section::::Group relief.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Under the UK scheme, a company's losses may be surrendered to a related company if several conditions are met. The companies must be 75% owned companies. For this purpose, a parent company and its subsidiaries qualify if the parent company owns at least 75% of the ordinary share capital of the subsidiary(ies) and have a beneficial interest in at least 75% of any distributions of earnings or upon winding up. Alternative similar rules apply for certain corsortia and branches. Under European Court of Justice rulings incorporated into UK law, the parent company need not be resident in the UK.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23mmq9
|
Can Allergies be inherited? If not, how do they develop?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your immune system is constantly creating new antibodies. It does this basically by throwing spaghetti at the wall and seeing what sticks, except with DNA from a certain region of the genome. Allergic reactions happen when the immune system recognizes a substance (such as peanut proteins or pollen) as dangerous and vehemently mounts a response against it, when the substance really is not dangerous. You can be predisposed to this, or you could develop it by the immune system creating a new antibody against, for example, shellfish protein, and deciding this was a good antibody to have, causing you to swell up in hives the next time you had shrimp. This is a very simplified explanation, of course.\n\nNatural selection has not filtered out severe ones simply because they have not killed a sufficient proportion of people having them before they could reproduce, the same reason other lethal or debilitating diseases are have not been filtered out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54753991",
"title": "Allergies in children",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Allergies in children are those causes, pathophsiology, treatments, management, practices and control of allergies that develop in children. Up to 40 percent of children suffer from allergic rhinitis. And children are more likely to develop allergies if one or both parents have allergies. Allergies differ between adults and children. Part of the reason for this that the respiratory system in children is smaller. The bronchi and bronchioles are narrower so even a slight decrease in diameter of these airways can have serious consequences. In addition, children often 'outgrow' their allergies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2605112",
"title": "Animal allergy",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Allergies are caused by an oversensitive immune system, leading to a misdirected immune response. The immune system normally protects the body against harmful substances such as bacteria and viruses. Allergy occurs when the immune system reacts to substances (allergens) that are generally harmless and in most people do not cause an immune response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54753991",
"title": "Allergies in children",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "A child's allergy is an immune system reaction. The child is reacting to a specific substance, or allergen. The immune system of a child responds to the invading allergen by releasing histamine and other chemicals that typically trigger symptoms in the nose, lungs, throat, sinuses, ears, eyes, skin, or stomach lining. In some children, allergies can also trigger symptoms of asthma—a disease that causes wheezing or difficulty breathing. If a child has allergies and asthma, controlling the allergies is important because the lack of treatment may make the allergies worse. Compounds such as phthalates are associated with asthma in children. Asthma in children is associated with exposure to indoor allergens. in early childhood may prevent the development of asthma, but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction. Use of antibiotics in early life has been linked to the development of asthma. Exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds may be a trigger for asthma; formaldehyde exposure, for example, has a positive association.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14400598",
"title": "Allergic response",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The reason why people get allergies is not known. The allergens are not passed down through generations. It is believed if parents have allergies the child is more likely to be allergic to the same allergens. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679350",
"title": "Food allergy",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "About 50% of children with allergies to milk, egg, soy, peanuts, tree nuts, and wheat will outgrow their allergy by the age of 6. Those who are still allergic by the age of 12 or so have less than an 8% chance of outgrowing the allergy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55313",
"title": "Allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57233472",
"title": "Glossary of medicine",
"section": "Section::::A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "BULLET::::- Allergy – Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a2fowe
|
What does "thinness" or "thickness" of air imply and how does it happen and change?
|
[
{
"answer": "Thick and thin are referring to density, I.e. how much air is contained in a given volume. On planets like earth the atmosphere's density changes because gravity pulls it down. The air high in the atmosphere pushes down on the air lower in the atmosphere, compressing it and increasing its density. So, in places with high altitudes, the air is less dense (thinner) and so it can feel harder to breathe because you have to work harder to get the same amount of oxygen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3143411",
"title": "Thin set (Serre)",
"section": "Section::::Formulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The terminology \"thin\" may be justified by the fact that if \"A\" is a thin subset of the line over Q then the number of points of \"A\" of height at most \"H\" is ≪ \"H\": the number of integral points of height at most \"H\" is formula_1, and this result is best possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996746",
"title": "Thinning",
"section": "Section::::In forestry.:Ecological thinning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Another type of thinning is called variable density thinning. In this type of thinning, the intent is to manage various portions of the stand in different ways to create structural and spatial heterogeneity. The intent is often to increase biodiversity or wildlife habitat. In variable density thinning, some portions of the stand may not be entered. These unentered areas, sometimes called reserves, leave islands, or skips (as they are skipped over) help retain a large range of tree diameters, serve as a future source of competition-related mortality, and may preserve snags, down wood, and understory plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9091963",
"title": "Units of textile measurement",
"section": "Section::::Fabrics.:Air permeability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Air permeability is a measure of the ability of air to pass through a fabric. Air permeability is defined as \"the volume of air in cubic centimeters (cm3) which is passed through in one second through 100cm2 of the fabric at a pressure difference of 10 cm head of water\", also known as the Gurley unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13556812",
"title": "Breathability",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Air permeability is the ability of a fabric to allow air to pass through it. While air permeable fabrics tend to have relatively high moisture vapor transmission, it is not necessary to be air permeable to be breathable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2580900",
"title": "Liquefaction of gases",
"section": "Section::::Liquid air.:Linde's process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Air is liquefied by the Linde process, in which air is alternately compressed, cooled, and expanded, each expansion results in a considerable reduction in temperature. With the lower temperature the molecules move more slowly and occupy less space, so the air changes phase to become liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31205347",
"title": "Shrinkage (fabric)",
"section": "Section::::Types of shrinkage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Shrinkage is a change in dimensions across the length and width of the fabric after washing, usage and when exposed to relaxing of fabrics. Mainly shrinkage is of two types one is minus shrinkage and other is plus shrinkage. Skew (twisting of the vertical grains) is also observed along with shrinkage. Abnormal twisting is also considered as a non-conformity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331680",
"title": "Edge detection",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Edge thinning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Edge thinning is a technique used to remove the unwanted spurious points on the edges in an image. This technique is employed after the image has been filtered for noise (using median, Gaussian filter etc.), the edge operator has been applied (like the ones described above) to detect the edges and after the edges have been smoothed using an appropriate threshold value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d7q56
|
John D. Rockefeller - man of greed or a visionary?
|
[
{
"answer": "I doubt you'll get a meaningful answer. 'Man of greed' and 'visionary' are personal judgements. So what causes some to call Rockefeller a man of greed causes others to call him a visionary. \n\nThat said, I'd seriously reconsider those 'sources' you posted. The first seems to be a site about Linux, the second one is an activist group and the third one... well, it's an objectivist shill site, meaning you shouldn't trust a word it says. (I mean, \"Reason, egoism and capitalism.\"? Really?) Try to look for more academic sources and consider each one: who wrote this? Why did they write this? Is it trustworthy? etc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "186300",
"title": "John D. Rockefeller",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "The Rockefeller wealth, distributed as it was through a system of foundations and trusts, continued to fund family philanthropic, commercial, and, eventually, political aspirations throughout the 20th century. John Jr.'s youngest son David Rockefeller was a leading New York banker, serving for over 20 years as CEO of Chase Manhattan (now part of JPMorgan Chase). Second son, Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, was Republican governor of New York and the 41st Vice President of the United States. Fourth son Winthrop Aldrich Rockefeller served as Republican Governor of Arkansas. Grandchildren Abigail Aldrich \"Abby\" Rockefeller and John Davison Rockefeller III became philanthropists. Grandson Laurance Spelman Rockefeller became a conservationist. Great-grandson John Davison \"Jay\" Rockefeller IV served from 1985 until 2015 as a Democratic Senator from West Virginia after serving as governor of West Virginia, and another Winthrop served as Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas for a decade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186300",
"title": "John D. Rockefeller",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Rockefeller's wealth soared as kerosene and gasoline grew in importance, and he became the richest person in the country, controlling 90% of all oil in the United States at his peak. Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity, and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Furthermore, Rockefeller gained enormous influence over the railroad industry which transported his oil around the country. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States. Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry. His company and business practices came under criticism, particularly in the writings of author Ida Tarbell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2218214",
"title": "Central Philippine University",
"section": "Section::::Notable alumni.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "BULLET::::- John D. Rockefeller – American business magnate and philanthropist who founded the Standard Oil Company (which dominated the oil industry and the first great business trust in the United States), the Rockefeller Foundation, and the one who gave a grant in 1901 to the Northern Baptist Churches to establish Central. He is widely considered as the richest person in US history and the richest person in modern history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "659333",
"title": "David Rockefeller",
"section": "Section::::Wealth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "At the time of his death, \"Forbes\" estimated Rockefeller's net worth was $3.3 billion. Initially, most of his wealth had come to him via the family trusts that his father had set up, which were administered by Room 5600 and the Chase Bank. In turn, most of these trusts were held as shares in the successor companies of Standard Oil, as well as diverse real estate investment partnerships, such as the expansive Embarcadero Center in San Francisco, which he later sold for considerable profit, retaining only an indirect stake. In addition, he was or had been a partner in various properties such as Caneel Bay, a resort development in the Virgin Islands; a cattle ranch in Argentina; and a sheep ranch in Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59357924",
"title": "Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center is a non-fiction book by American writer Daniel Okrent about the conception, planning, and building of Rockefeller Center in Manhattan, New York City. The text was initially published on September 29, 2003 by Viking. In this book, Daniel Okrent provides a detailed story of Rockefeller Center creation—from conception to construction—and the role that John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his associates played in those events. The text also explores such themes as big-time business, art, architecture, politics, and social life, and how they interact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186300",
"title": "John D. Rockefeller",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Rockefeller spent the last 40 years of his life in retirement at his estate in Westchester County, New York, defining the structure of modern philanthropy, along with other key industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie. His fortune was mainly used to create the modern systematic approach of targeted philanthropy through the creation of foundations that had a major effect on medicine, education, and scientific research. His foundations pioneered the development of medical research and were instrumental in the near-eradication of hookworm and yellow fever in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "564564",
"title": "Rockefeller family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "The Rockefeller family () is an American industrial, political, and banking family that owns one of the world's largest fortunes. The fortune was made in the American petroleum industry during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by John D. Rockefeller and his brother William Rockefeller, primarily through Standard Oil. The family has had a long association with, and control of, Chase Manhattan Bank. the Rockefellers were considered one of the most powerful families, if not the most powerful family, in the history of the United States. The Rockefeller family originated in Rhineland in Germany and family members moved to the New World in the early 18th century, while through Eliza Davison, John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller Jr. and their descendants are also of Scotch-Irish ancestry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cu0ra
|
Why did Germany colonize Africa in the late 1800s and what did they gain from it?
|
[
{
"answer": "I agree with czela's point, but I'd like to expand a bit. There were really two types of Imperialism: Old Imperialism and New Imperialism. The Old Imperialism consisted of the exploration of the New World and the search of spices. The motives for this exploration was mostly gold (economic), God (the spread of Christianity), and for king (prestige, ability for a nation to claim land). This imperialism led to the discovery and claiming of North America, the Far East, and parts of South America. \n\nThere were 4 main motives for New Imperialism: Jingo/The Great Game(the idea that a nation was measured by how much land they controlled and the race for colonies), national unity(it's a political unifier for a nation), discovery/adventure(the idea of going to an unknown land to discover things and battle with nature), and the White Man's Burden (the idea that Europe and white men were the best and they needed to spread their knowledge/government/culture with the rest of the world). \n\nEdit: In the New Imperialism, many nations actually lost money. An example in Africa was the race between Britain and France to build the first trans-African railroad, which was a huge economic endeavor that failed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were a wide range of reasons for Germany's colonization of Africa, especially after the Berlin Conference. During the Scramble for Africa, Germany had only recently unified and was still trying to establish itself as a power on the European continent. So while economic factors were certainly at play, I would argue that they were not the most important. Instead, the rising power that was Germany saw Africa as a way to establish itself amongst the other European powers (France, Britain). In colonizing Africa, Germany (as well as other European states) established its own legitimacy. Czela and blackirishboy both argue that prestige was important; it was *especially important* in Germany's case.\n\nAnother reason for colonization that isn't discussed here is balance of power. In fact, this may have been Bismarck's greatest motivation for holding the Berlin Conference, which formally divided the African continent amongst the European powers. Bismarck knew that in order to prevent war from breaking out on the continent, the European powers had to be roughly balanced against each other. As European states grabbed up colonies, the balance of power began to shift. The Berlin Conference was the only way to right that balance in a peaceful manner. As a way of maintaining that balance, Germany took a few colonies but not nearly as much as France or Britain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20448703",
"title": "German colonization of Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "The German colonization of Africa took place during two distinct periods. In the 1680s, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, then leading the broader realm of Brandenburg-Prussia, pursued limited imperial efforts in West Africa. The Brandenburg African Company was chartered in 1682 and established two small settlements on the Gold Coast of what is today Ghana. Five years later, a treaty with the king of Arguin in Mauritania established a protectorate over that island, and Brandenburg occupied an abandoned fort originally constructed thereby Portugal. Brandenburg — after 1701, the Kingdom of Prussia — pursued these colonial efforts until 1721, when Arguin was captured by the French and the Gold Coast settlements were sold to the Dutch Republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "851259",
"title": "Maji Maji Rebellion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "After the Scramble for Africa among the major European powers in the 1880s, Germany had reinforced its hold on several formal African colonies. These were German East Africa (now Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, and part of Mozambique), German Southwest Africa (present-day Namibia), Cameroon, and Togoland (today split between Ghana and Togo). The Germans had a relatively weak hold on German East Africa. However, they did maintain a system of forts throughout the interior of the territory and were able to exert some control over it. Since their hold on the colony was weak, they resorted to using violently repressive tactics to control the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20448703",
"title": "German colonization of Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "Over a century and a half later, the unified German Empire had emerged as a major world power. In 1884, pursuant to the Berlin Conference, colonies were officially established on the African west coast, often in areas already inhabited by German missionaries and merchants. The following year gunboats were dispatched to East Africa to contest the Sultan of Zanzibar's claims of sovereignty over the mainland in what is today Tanzania. Settlements in modern Guinea and Nigeria's Ondo State failed within a year; those in Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania and Togo quickly grew into lucrative colonies. Together these four territories constituted Germany's African presence in the age of New Imperialism. They were invaded and largely occupied by the colonial forces of the Allied Powers during World War I, and in 1919 were transferred from German control by the League of Nations and divided between Belgium, France, Portugal, South Africa and the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16824385",
"title": "Tanganyika (territory)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "In the second half of the 19th century, European explorers and colonialists traveled through the African interior from Zanzibar. In 1885, the German Empire declared its intent to establish a protectorate in the area, named German East Africa (GEA), under the leadership of Carl Peters. When the Sultan of Zanzibar objected, German warships threatened to bombard his palace. Britain and Germany then agreed to divide the mainland into spheres of influence, and the Sultan was forced to acquiesce. The Germans brutally repressed the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1905. The Germans instituted an educational programme for native Africans, including elementary, secondary, and vocational schools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37440011",
"title": "History of eugenics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Germany.:German colonies in Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "German colonies in Africa from 1885 to 1918 included German South-West Africa (present-day Namibia), Kamerun (present-day Cameroon), Togoland (present-day Togo) and German East Africa (present-day Tanzania. Rwanda and Burundi). Genocide was carried out there, against the Herero people of present-day Namibia and later a programme of research in physical anthropology was conducted using their skulls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "979264",
"title": "Herero people",
"section": "Section::::History.:German South West Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "In the late 19th and early 20th century, imperialism and colonialism in Africa peaked, affecting especially the Hereros and the Namas. European powers were seeking trade routes and railways, as well as more colonies. Germany officially claimed their stake in a South African colony in 1884, calling it German South West Africa until it was taken over in 1915. The first German colonists arrived in 1892, and conflict with the indigenous Herero and Nama people began. As in many cases of colonization, the indigenous people were not treated fairly. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23834833",
"title": "List of governors of Tanganyika",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The colony of German East Africa () was founded in the 1880s, after the German explorer Carl Peters signed treaties with native chieftains on neighboring Zanzibar. On 3 March 1885, the government of the German Empire granted an imperial charter to the German East Africa Company, and a protectorate was established. German colonial rule in the region lasted until World War I, when the British occupied the colony during the East African Campaign. The British territory of Tanganyika was established on 20 July 1922, when Britain acquired a mandate to administer the region as a result of Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. On 18 April 1946, the mandate was reorganized as a Trust Territory of the United Nations. Afterwards, the region remained under British administration until it gained independence on 9 December 1961 as Tanganyika.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
107ntk
|
how does the "vote weight" system work--on reddit/res and elsewhere?
|
[
{
"answer": "Vote weight simply tracks the total net points you have given to a certain person. The ability to manually set it to whatever number is a novelty feature. \n\nAlso, I believe the creator of xkcd (Randall Munroe) wrote reddit's ranking algorithm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14562849",
"title": "Weighted voting",
"section": "Section::::The mathematics of weighted voting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "A weighted voting system is characterized by three things — the players, the weights and the quota. The voters are the players (\"P\", \"P\", . . ., \"P\"). \"N\" denotes the total number of players. A player's weight (\"w\") is the number of votes he controls. The quota (\"q\") is the minimum number of votes required to pass a motion. Any integer is a possible choice for the quota as long as it is more than 50% of the total number of votes but is no more than 100% of the total number of votes. Each weighted voting system can be described using the generic form [\"q\" : \"w\", \"w\", . . ., \"w\"]. The weights are always listed in numerical order, starting with the highest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14562849",
"title": "Weighted voting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Weighted voting can exist in a legislative body in which each elected representative has a different voting power (weighted vote) as determined by the total number of citizens who voted for them in the general election. For example, Evaluative Proportional Representation (EPR) in Section 5.5.5 in Proportional Representation asks each voting citizen to grade the suitability for office of as many candidates as they wish to become a member of their state's legislative body. Accordingly, the merit of each candidate is graded as being either Excellent, Very Good, Good, Acceptable, Poor, or Reject. As a result, each elected candidate receives a different weighted vote in the legislature equal to the total number of highest available grades they received from all the voters. In this way, each and every voting citizen is represented proportionately. No citizen's vote is \"wasted\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50913004",
"title": "Proposed second Scottish independence referendum",
"section": "Section::::Opinion polling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Polls vary in how weightings are applied (methods of which are not described by the polling organisations) and in which participants are excluded from the final data (based on how likely they are to vote). There is an inherent ± 3% margin of error based on a sample size of ~1,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3264087",
"title": "Penrose method",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In addition, a minor technical issue is that the theoretical argument for allocation of voting weight is based on the possibility that an individual has a deciding vote in each representative's area. This scenario is only possible when each representative has an odd number of voters in their area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14562849",
"title": "Weighted voting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In sharp contrast, weighted voting exists in an electoral system in which not all voters have the same amount of influence over the outcome of an election. Instead, votes of different voters are given different weight during the election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24485204",
"title": "Negative vote weight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Negative vote weight (also known as \"inverse success value\") refers to an effect that occurs in certain elections where votes can have the opposite effect of what the voter intended. A vote for a party might result in the loss of seats in parliament, or the party might gain extra seats by not receiving votes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25357343",
"title": "Opinion polling for the 2015 United Kingdom general election",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "BULLET::::- Angus Reid Public Opinion collects its data through online internet surveys, and demographically weights its data to be representative of the whole population in terms of age, gender, social class, the region of the country lived in and newspaper readership. Past vote weighting is used, and is calculated separately for respondents from Scotland and respondents from England and Wales, whilst those saying they do not know how they will vote are asked which party they are leaning towards, and any responses to this are used as a full response, whilst those still unsure being discounted from the final calculation of levels of party support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hcy6x
|
how does championship unification in boxing work, and how do championships get separated again?
|
[
{
"answer": "First things first. Boxing matches are not organised by a central governing body or league the way that say tennis tournaments are. Instead they are organised privately between two individual fighters (usually by a promoter) as a commercial arrangement where one fighter pays the other to fight and they both agree to a certain split of profits. You might be thinking then, \"how do they stop rich but not very talented fighters from buying title fights until they win one by luck. \n\nThe answer is, the world governing body for professional boxing of which there are at least five. These bodies sanctioning title fights, which means each governing body sets qualifying rules for boxers to qualify for a shot at their title. This prevents random rich challengers from having a lucky win.\n\nSometimes the holder of say a WBC title will decide that they want to try and win the WBA title as well. This fighter then arranges the right qualifying fights according to WBA rules and eventually is in a position to be granted permission by the WBA to fight the current their champion for the title. Then this fighter needs to convince the current champion to take the fight. If the details can be worked out the fight goes ahead and if the challenger wins, the titles are unified. If the challenger loses, they each go home with their original title (since the WBC hasn't sanctioned so the fight won't resolve that title).\n\nOn occasion both governing bodies may co-sanction, meaning each fighter has met the others qualifying rules and permission has been given for both titles to be on the line. In this case, the winner takes both titles and the loser gets nothing (except a fat pay cheque).\n\nOnce titles are unified, they can be split apart again very easily. Since they are each governed by different bodies, a challenger needs to meet the qualifying criteria of and get the permission of both bodies in order to challenge for both titles at the same time. If a challenger only meets the criteria of one body, then if they win a title fight, the challenger only takes home one title. If the other governing body doesn't give permission for the fight, then their title can't change hands, and it stays with the current champion regardless of the outcome. \n\nIf a unified champion retires while holding titles, each governing body has it's own rules governing how to appoint a new champion, meaning that it is most likely that each title will pass to a different new champion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In boxing, there are 4 major sanctioning bodies that offer World Championship titles. (The WBO, WBA, WBC, and IBF)\n\nSo in each weight class, there are four world championship titles. That means in each weight class up to four separate fighters can each say they are the world champion in that weight class. (There's actually more than 4, explanation below)\n\nFor example, lets take a look at the world champions in the welterweight division.\n\nOrganization |Fighter |\n---------|----------|\nWBA| Keith Thurman | \nWBC| Keith Thurman | \nIBF| Errol Spence\nWBO| Manny Pacquiao\n\nSo basically, Keith Thurman is the welterweight champion of the world. Manny Pacquiao is also the welterweight champion of the world. In addition, Errol Spence is also the welterweight champion of the world. They each have a championship title from a different sanctioning body. (Yeah, it's a bit strange)\n\nA Championship unification occurs when two world champions fight each-other. The winner gets both championship titles: the one they already had, and the one other fight had. In this division, you will notice that Keith Thurman has two championship titles, from the WBA and from the WBC. This is because he unified them. He held the WBA championship title and then fought and defeated Danny Garcia, who held the WBC championship title. Therefore, Thurman now has both of those titles.\n\nLets says that Manny Pacquiao and Keith Thurman agree to fight each-other. That will mean that three championship titles are on the line. Both of Thurman's and Pacquiao's WBO title. The winner will unify all three. \n\nWhen championship titles are unified, there are many ways that they can separated:\n\n*If a boxer retires while holding multiple championship titles, the titles are vacated and each sanctioning body will then have two new boxers fight for the titles. \n\n*Fighters have to pay a sanctioning fee to the each of the organizations. So sometimes, they will voluntarily drop one of their titles and only keep one to avoid the fees.\n\n*Each sanctioning body has their own rules. If a fighter is inactive for a period of time, their title can get stripped. If they reject a mandatory opponent pushed by the sanctioning body, they can also get stripped of the title. \n\nThere are so many other factors that I didn't bring up. It's gets really bizarre and confusing when it comes to boxing titles. For example, there's really 5 titles in each division because one the sanctioning bodies decided to split their titles and offer a \"super\" and \"regular\" version. Also when two championship boxers fight each-other, their titles are not always automatically on the line. Sometimes they'll choose not fight for them for various reasons, like not wanting to pay sanctioning fees. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5745349",
"title": "Battle royal (professional wrestling)",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Battlebowl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "A two-ring variation on a battle royal, the wrestlers start in one ring and try to throw wrestlers into the second ring, after which they can be eliminated by being thrown out of that ring. The last remaining wrestler in the first ring can rest until only one wrestler was left in the second ring, after which they fight in both rings until one is eliminated and a winner is declared, in similar fashion to a double elimination tournament. This was held by World Championship Wrestling at the 1991 Starrcade event, but future Battlebowl matches were contested under normal battle royal rules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16030688",
"title": "List of boxing sextuple champions",
"section": "Section::::Recognition.:Major sanctioning bodies.:\"The Ring\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "There are currently only two ways that a boxer can win \"The Ring\"'s title: defeat the reigning champion; or win a box-off between the magazine's number-one and number-two rated contenders (or, sometimes, number-one and number-three rated). A vacant \"Ring\" championship is filled when the number-one contender in a weight-division battles the number-two contender or the number-three contender (in cases where \"The Ring\" determines that the number-two and number-three contenders are close in abilities and records).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12206918",
"title": "List of boxing quadruple champions",
"section": "Section::::Recognition.:Major sanctioning bodies.:\"The Ring\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "There are currently only two ways that a boxer can win \"The Ring\"'s title: defeat the reigning champion; or win a box-off between the magazine's number-one and number-two rated contenders (or, sometimes, number-one and number-three rated). A vacant \"Ring\" championship is filled when the number-one contender in a weight-division battles the number-two contender or the number-three contender (in cases where \"The Ring\" determines that the number-two and number-three contenders are close in abilities and records).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12262182",
"title": "List of boxing quintuple champions",
"section": "Section::::Recognition.:Major sanctioning bodies.:\"The Ring\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "There are currently only two ways that a boxer can win \"The Ring\"'s title: defeat the reigning champion; or win a box-off between the magazine's number-one and number-two rated contenders (or, sometimes, number-one and number-three rated). A vacant \"Ring\" championship is filled when the number-one contender in a weight-division battles the number-two contender or the number-three contender (in cases where \"The Ring\" determines that the number-two and number-three contenders are close in abilities and records).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24924576",
"title": "List of boxing septuple champions",
"section": "Section::::Recognition.:Major sanctioning bodies.:\"The Ring\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "There are currently only two ways that a boxer can win \"The Ring\"'s title: defeat the reigning champion; or win a box-off between the magazine's number-one and number-two rated contenders (or, sometimes, number-one and number-three rated). A vacant \"Ring\" championship is filled when the number-one contender in a weight-division battles the number-two contender or the number-three contender (in cases where \"The Ring\" determines that the number-two and number-three contenders are close in abilities and records).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52328496",
"title": "King in the Ring",
"section": "Section::::Tournament format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "King in the Ring is a last man standing eight man tournament that is complete in one night. Seven boxing bouts will be contested in one night, each bout being scheduled for three rounds, each round being three minutes with a minute break in between rounds. If after three rounds a fight is declared a draw, an extra round may be required to determine the winner. Judges will not be encouraged to draw fights but will be accepted in the case of close contests. In the event of a draw after a fourth round, the winner will be decided in consultation with the Referee and fight Supervisor. If an injury occurs to a winning boxer that eliminates him from the competition, he is to be replaced by the most deserving or merit worthy losing boxer from the earlier competition or reserve fight winner as decided by the Supervisor. A random draw out of a hat will be conducted to determine which fighters contest each other in four quarter final matches. There is a maximum knockdown rule, where a boxer can not be knocked down more than 3 times in the night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7677749",
"title": "Fight for the Right Tournament",
"section": "Section::::Results.:2006.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The inaugural Fight for the Right Tournament in 2006 consisted of three stages. The first stage of the tournament was a Reverse Battle Royal, with three parts. The first part had all 18 participants start outside the ring and fend off opponents in an attempt to get into the ring. When seven wrestlers have entered, other competitors are eliminated and it becomes a traditional battle royal with over-the-top-rope eliminations. When all but two are eliminated, it becomes a singles match, the winner of which advances directly to the final (third stage) of the tournament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g6acn
|
If global warming continues at its current rate is sea level rise an inevitability? If it is what will the rate be?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, sea level rise isn't an inevitability, in the sense that it will happen some time in the future. It is happening now, and it has been happening quite steadily since the start of the increase in greenhouse gasses released into the atmosphere through anthropogenic behaviours about a century ago.\n\nFrom the [IPCC](_URL_0_) documents on sea level rise we find out that there are two major contributing forces to sea level rise: thermal expansion and the exchange of water reservoirs (i.e. the melting of land-ice like Greenland or Antarctica). \"Global mean sea level change results from two major processes, that alter the volume of water in the global ocean: i) thermal expansion and ii) the exchange of water between oceans and other reservoirs (glaciers and ice caps, ice sheets, other land water reservoirs - including through anthropogenic change in land hydrology, and the atmosphere.\n\n**What were past sea levels like?**\n\n\"Global sea level rose by about 120 m during the several millennia that followed the end of the last ice age (approximately 21,000 years ago), and stabilised between 3,000 and 2,000 years ago. Sea level indicators suggest that global sea level did not change significantly from then until the late 19th century. The instrumental record of modern sea level change shows evidence for onset of sea level rise during the 19th century. Estimates for the 20th century show that global average sea level rose at a rate of about 1.7 mm/yr.\"\n\n**What are current rates of sea level rise?**\n\n\"Satellite observations available since the early 1990s provide more accurate sea level data with nearly global coverage. This decade-long satellite altimetry data set shows that since 1993, sea level has been rising at a rate of around 3 mm yr–1, significantly higher than the average during the previous half century.\"\n\n**What do the climate models predict?**\n\nThe IPCC has 6 models which they input real data into. Because human behaviour modifies the scenario 6 models have been created. The first model assumes we do everything within our power to reduce emissions and mitigate climate change. The last model assumes we do nothing, and in fact increase our emissions. \n\nIn the best case scenario they predict a sea level rise of 0.28m by 2100, in the worst case scenario they predict a sea level rise of 0.43m by 2100. Now we all know humans havn't exactly been following the best scenario, and more recent studies have pointed towards a sea level rise closer to the worst case scenario (or worse then that). So *I* wouldn't bank on a sea level rise lower then ~0.43m by 2100.\n\nNow 0.43m might not seem like much but...using this [site](_URL_1_) or a similar one you can see what 1m change can do to low lying areas like many large costal metropolitan cities (New York) or island nations (South Pacific). Basically they are flooded. Back at the [IPCC](_URL_2_) site you can get more details about how specific areas (rocky shores vs. deltas) or how different economic situations (able to mitigate or not) will be effected by sea level rise.\n\nWhen people say that \"If Greenland and Antarctica melt it will 200+ feet sea level rise\". This is more or less pretty accurate statement, but what they fail to state is the time scale on which this will take place. It won't be over night, more like a few to several centuries. However, there is a \"tipping point\" where if we pass a certain level of warming we won't be able to stop them from melting - like a run away train - it will happen, eventually.\n\n > I'm just wondering if maybe in 40 years it would be a good idea to buy property that isn't near the coast.\n\nDepends... are you buying a house on a low-lying delta floodplain? or are you buying a house on a very high cliff that overlooks the sea? Not all shores will be affected the same way. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9270031",
"title": "IPCC First Assessment Report",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "BULLET::::- under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario, an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century (with an uncertainty range of 3 – 10 cm per decade), mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice. The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030, and 65 cm by the end of the next century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11417651",
"title": "Yuri Izrael",
"section": "Section::::Views on global warming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Izrael agreed with the IPCC predictions for future climate change, stating, \"Global temperatures will likely rise by 1.4-5.8 degrees during the next 100 years. The average increase will be three degrees. I do not think that this threatens mankind. Sea levels, due to rise by 47 cm in the 21st century, will not threaten port cities.\" He also states, \"I think the panic over global warming is totally unjustified. There is no serious threat to the climate,\" and, \"There is no need to dramatize the anthropogenic impact, because the climate has always been subject to change under Nature's influence, even when humanity did not even exist.\" Additionally, he did not believe the 0.6 °C (1.08 °F) rise in temperature observed in the last 100 years is a threat, stating, \"there is no scientifically sound evidence of the negative processes that allegedly begin to take place at such temperatures.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21171721",
"title": "Sea level rise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Projecting future sea level is challenging, due to the complexity of many aspects of the climate system. As climate research into past and present sea levels leads to improved computer models, projections have consistently increased. For example, in 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projected a high end estimate of through 2099, but their 2014 report raised the high-end estimate to about . A number of later studies have concluded that a global sea level rise of this century is \"physically plausible\". A conservative estimate of the long-term projections is that each Celsius degree of temperature rise triggers a sea level rise of approximately 2.3 meters (4.2 ft/degree Fahrenheit) over a period of two millennia: an example of climate inertia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21890764",
"title": "Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Initial press briefings focused on the increases to the estimates for potential sea level rise expected as a result of global warming, with the session led by Stefan Rahmstorf. Eric Rignot, Professor of Earth system science at the University of California, Irvine, said \"As a result of the acceleration of outlet glaciers over large regions, the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica are already contributing more and faster to sea level rise than anticipated. If this trend continues, we are likely to witness sea level rise one metre or more by year 2100.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119174",
"title": "Effects of global warming",
"section": "Section::::Physical impacts.:Oceans.:Sea level rise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Even if emission of greenhouse gases stopped overnight, sea level rise will continue for centuries to come. An assessment of the scientific literature on climate change was published in 2010 by the US National Research Council (US NRC, 2010).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21171721",
"title": "Sea level rise",
"section": "Section::::Projections.:Projections for the 21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "In addition, one 2017 study's scenario, assuming high fossil fuel use for combustion and strong economic growth during this century, projects sea level rise of up to on average — and an extreme scenario with as much as , by 2100. This could mean rapid sea level rise of up to per year by the end of the century. The study also concluded that the Paris climate agreement emissions scenario, if met, would result in a median of sea level rise by 2100.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21171721",
"title": "Sea level rise",
"section": "Section::::Projections.:Projections for the 21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "In its fifth assessment report (2013) the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated how much sea level is likely to rise in the 21st century based on different levels of greenhouse gas emissions. These projections are based on well-known factors which contribute to sea level rise, but exclude other processes which are less well understood. If countries make rapid cuts to emissions (the RCP2.6 scenario), the IPCC deems it likely that the sea level will rise by with a 67% confidence interval. If emissions remain very high, the IPCC projects sea level will rise by . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d1qjf
|
why is it when you take a nap, you get indents and marks from your sheets/body, but when you sleep normally you don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "There would be no difference, other than when you sleep normally you move around a lot so you're not in one position for long enough for your skin to be indented. When you take a nap you tend to move less as you only really enter 1 R.E.M. cycle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21167095",
"title": "Nap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A nap is a short period of sleep, typically taken during daytime hours as an adjunct to the usual nocturnal sleep period. Naps are most often taken as a response to drowsiness during waking hours. A nap is a form of biphasic or polyphasic sleep, where the latter terms also include longer periods of sleep in addition to one single period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22081794",
"title": "Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood",
"section": "Section::::Elimination disorders.:Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The majority of children with enuresis show no other symptoms besides wetting the bed at night. If other symptoms are present, such as blood stains in their underwear or unusual pain, the child is likely to have a more serious medical problem. Children with encopresis are likely to exhibit symptoms such as; loss of appetite, loose or watery stools, abdominal pain, scratching or itching of anal area because of irritation, withdrawal from friends, or secretive attitude associated with bowel movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17603274",
"title": "Nap (textile)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Primarily, nap is the raised (fuzzy) surface on certain kinds of cloth, such as velvet or moleskin. Nap can refer additionally to other surfaces that look like the surface of a napped cloth, such as the surface of a felt or beaver hat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3988131",
"title": "Sodium phosphide",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Many different routes to NaP have been described. Due to its flammability and toxicity, NaP (and related salts) is often prepared and used in situ. White phosphorus is reduced by sodium-potassium alloy:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17603274",
"title": "Nap (textile)",
"section": "Section::::Piled nap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Since the 15th century, the term nap generally refers to a special pile given to the cloth. The term \"pile\" refers to raised fibres that are there on purpose, rather than as a by-product of producing the cloth. In this case, the nap is woven into the cloth, often by weaving loops into the fabric, which can then be cut or left intact. Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a nap or pile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331556",
"title": "Enuresis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "After age 5, wetting at night—often called bedwetting or sleepwetting—is more common than daytime wetting in boys. Experts do not know what causes nighttime incontinence. Young people who experience nighttime wetting tend to be physically and emotionally normal. Most cases probably result from a mix of factors including slower physical development, an overproduction of urine at night, a lack of ability to recognize bladder filling when asleep, and, in some cases, anxiety. For many, there is a strong family history of bedwetting, suggesting an inherited factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1368771",
"title": "Kotatsu",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "It is possible to sleep under a \"kotatsu\", although unless one is quite short, one's body will not be completely covered. This generally is considered acceptable for naps, but not for overnight sleeping for many reasons: one's body is not completely covered, yielding uneven heating; the table is low, so one may touch heating elements accidentally when moving while asleep, risking burns. Traditionally, children are told that they will catch a cold if they sleep under a \"kotatsu\". Pets such as cats frequently sleep under \"kotatsu\", however, and are small enough to fit completely underneath—comparable to cats who sleep on floor heating vents in Western countries (Japanese homes do not generally have floor heating vents).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lr9oc
|
why do(almost) all police cars use the same car/model?
|
[
{
"answer": "buy in bulk for a cheaper rate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Buying a lot of the same model means you get bulk rates as well as make maintenance easier. \n\nAnd for unmarked cars they do often use different models, and sometimes have the police use their personal vehicles. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only a few cars are designed to be turned into police cars. They have to have more powerful engines, brakes, electrical systems, alternators, plus they have to have adjustments you may not even think of.\n\nFor example, my Charger has a really wide center console because standard police equipment like radios are 9\" wide. And the cruise control is on the wheel instead of on the steering column, because the police model has a column mounted shifter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Terms for police cars include area car and patrol car. In some places, a police car may also be informally known as a cop car, a black and white, a cherry top, a gumball machine, a jam sandwich or panda car. Depending on the configuration of the emergency lights and livery, a police car may be considered a marked or unmarked unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25313847",
"title": "Police transport",
"section": "Section::::Ground.:Motorized.:Four-wheels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "A police car is the description for a vehicle used by police, to assist with their duties in patrolling and responding to incidents. Typical uses of a police car include transportation for officers to reach the scene of an incident quickly, to transport criminal suspects, or to patrol an area, while providing a high visibility deterrent to crime. Some police cars are specially adapted for work on busy roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Functional types.:Traffic car.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Traffic police cars, known in the UK as Road Policing Units, are cars designed for the job of enforcing traffic laws, and as such usually have the highest performance of any of the police vehicles, as they must be capable of catching most other vehicles on the road. They may be fitted with special bumpers designed to force vehicles off the road, and may have visual and audible warnings, with special audible warnings which can be heard from a greater distance. In some police forces, the term \"traffic car\" may refer to cars specifically equipped for traffic control in addition to enforcing traffic laws. As such, these cars may differ only slightly from a patrol car, including having radar and laser speed detection equipment, traffic cones, flares, and traffic control signs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25313847",
"title": "Police transport",
"section": "Section::::Ground.:Motorized.:Four-wheels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Commonly known names to describe police cars are (police) cruiser, squad car, panda car, area car and patrol car. Depending on the configuration of the emergency lights, a police car may also be called a marked unit. In some places a police car may also be informally known as a cop car, a black and white, a cherry top, a gumball machine, or a jam sandwich, in Los Angeles, from the early 50s, until the late 70s, the lights were different from most areas, with two forward-facing, stationary red lights, with amber flashing lights facing rearward, inside of black metal housings mounted to the roof of the car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Police cars are usually passenger car models which are upgraded to the specifications required by the purchasing force. Several vehicle manufacturers, such as Ford, General Motors and Dodge, provide a \"police package\" option, which is built to police specifications in the factory. Police forces may add to these modifications by adding their own equipment and making their own modifications after purchasing a vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Functional types.:Multi-purpose car.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Some police forces do not distinguish between patrol, response and traffic cars, and may use one vehicle to fulfill some or all roles even though in some cases this may not be appropriate (such as a police city vehicle in a motorway high speed pursuit chase). These cars are usually a compromise between the different functions with elements added or removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23627",
"title": "Police",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Police vehicles are used for detaining, patrolling and transporting. The average police patrol vehicle is a specially modified, four door sedan (saloon in British English). Police vehicles are usually marked with appropriate logos and are equipped with sirens and flashing light bars to aid in making others aware of police presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rin7h
|
How would a vaccine against a different strain of flu minimize symptoms of the other flu?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's true, the vaccine will still afford some protection. The best way to think of this might be to use an analogy. Imagine a crime is committed by someone named influenza, and the police have a sketch artist come in. Say the sketch is perfect -- now law enforcement everywhere can easily catch the criminal if he shows up someplace. This example might be a good vaccine.\n\nNow imagine, same situation, but the sketch is not all that great. Law enforcement now know to look for a particular type of person, but they aren't as well informed and there's a larger chance of something slipping by them.\n\nA vaccine is basically a \"most wanted\" poster for your body, that tells your immune system what to look for based on particles which are found on the surface of a virus like the flu (these are called an epitope, for example). Other viruses which are closely related to the flu will not have the exact same particles on their surface, but there may be a decent amount of common features shared by the particles found on the surface of each type of the virus. If there are enough similarities, the most wanted poster aka vaccine will still be helpful in recognizing the virus and mounting a defense. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The immune system fights viruses and bacteria by recognizing foreign [antigens](_URL_3_). There are essentially two arms of adaptive immunity: humoral and cellular. The humoral response is the one people are most familiar with, as most people know about antibodies and how they target pathogens that might be a part of an infection.\n\nThe cellular arm on the other hand is responsible for taking out virus-infected cells, among other things. [Cytotoxic T cells](_URL_0_) learn to recognize foreign peptides that are presented by cells, and once they receive a signal from an infected cell (in the form of a viral peptide attached to an [MHC class I molecule](_URL_4_)), the T cell will kill the infected cell.\n\nThe proteins which are known to be highly mutable in influenza, the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), are located on the outside of viral particles and are therefore common targets for neutralizing antibodies. Other viral proteins, such as the viral polymerase proteins PB1, PB2, and PA are [highly conserved](_URL_2_) among different strains of flu. The immune system mounts a response against all viral proteins. While antibodies may be made against viral proteins other than HA and NA, they will be unable to bind them as they're either sequestered within viral particles or within infected cells.\n\nCytotoxic T cells on the other hand, can respond to otherwise sequestered proteins that are presented as fragments on the surface of infected cells. Highly conserved [epitopes](_URL_1_) in flu PB1, PB2, and PA are common targets for these T cells, and so these T cells can effectively react across different strains of influenza, providing some protection as opposed to none at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The CDC recommends the flu vaccine as the best way to protect people against the flu and prevent its spread. The flu vaccine can also reduce the severity of the flu if a person contracts a strain that the vaccine did not contain. It takes about two weeks following vaccination for protective antibodies to form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots or flu jabs, are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses. A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner. Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research. Vaccinating children may protect those around them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3344863",
"title": "Childhood immunizations in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Influenza.:Vaccine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 220,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 220,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The influenza vaccine comes in two forms, the inactivated form which is what is typically thought of as the \"flu shot\", and a live but attenuated (weakened) form that is sprayed into the nostrils. it is recommended to get the flu shot each year since it is remade each year to protect against the viruses that are most likely to cause disease that year. Unfortunately there are a vast array of strains of influenza, so a single vaccine can not prevent all of them. The shot prevents 3 or 4 different influenza viruses and it takes about 2 weeks after the injection for protection to develop. This protection lasts from several months to a year. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "While side effects of the flu vaccine may occur, they are usually minor. The flu vaccine can cause serious side effects, including an allergic reaction, but this is rare. Furthermore, the common side effects and risks are mild and temporary when compared to the risks and severe health effects of the annual influenza epidemic. Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1660995",
"title": "Virus-like particle",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Research suggests that VLP vaccines against influenza virus could provide stronger and longer-lasting protection against flu viruses than conventional vaccines. Production can begin as soon as the virus strain is sequenced and can take as little as 12 weeks, compared to 9 months for traditional vaccines. In early clinical trials, VLP vaccines for influenza appeared to provide complete protection against both the Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 and the 1918 flu pandemic. Novavax and Medicago Inc. have run clinical trials of their VLP flu vaccines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18125422",
"title": "Pandemrix",
"section": "Section::::Constituents.:Use of adjuvant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Professor David Salisbury, Head of Immunisation at the UK Department of Health said the vaccines with adjuvants offer good protection even if the virus changes over time; \"One of the advantages with adjuvanted vaccines is their ability to protect against drifted (mutated) strains. It opens the door for a whole new strategy in dealing with flu.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23224587",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In studies, the vaccine appears both effective and safe, providing a strong protective immune response and having similar safety profile to the normal seasonal influenza vaccine. However, about 30% of people already have some immunity to the virus, with the vaccine conferring greatest benefit on young people, since many older people are already immune through exposure to similar viruses in the past. The vaccine also provides some cross-protection against the 1918 flu pandemic strain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1aim9n
|
How diverse was the Mongol Empire at its peak?
|
[
{
"answer": "Carpine came a little bit early for the diversity that would define the [Pax Mongolica.](_URL_0_) However, within the next 100-200 years the mongol empire was extremely diverse. Kublai khan was heavily influenced by the chinese during his reign, and later many leaders were influenced by islam and arabic architecture. From roughly 1250 to 1350 the mongol empire was extraordinarily diverse. Local cultures were left alone, and artisans from southeast asia and other parts of the empire were brought to the west to \"re-construct\" samarkand by Timur. \n\nThe mongols did everything they could to facilitate trade from one end of the empire to the other, naturally the exchange of cultural beliefs would follow suit. Religious tolerance was enforced, and this played to their benefit. When The mongols attacked Khwarezm, the other muslim leaders would not join the fight, believing it wasn't a \"holy war\", as the mongols had always been tolerant of islam. They also promoted the arts and cultural exchanges in other ways; lawyers, teachers, and artists were exempt from taxation and could freely travel the empire on excellent roads. At the very top of the hierarchy, I don't believe there were many foreigners however. If someone had foreign people in places of great power, it probably would have been kublai khan with the chinese.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30808317",
"title": "Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "This article discusses the political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire. Through invasions and conquests the Mongols established a vast empire that included many political divisions, vassals and tributary states. It was the largest contiguous land empire in history. However, after the death of Möngke Khan, the Toluid Civil War and subsequent wars had led to the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire. By 1294, the empire had fractured into four autonomous khanates, including the Golden Horde in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the middle, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan dynasty in the east based in modern-day Beijing, although the Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Khagan of the empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2091396",
"title": "Mongol invasions and conquests",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The Mongol Empire developed in the course of the 13th century through a series of victorious campaigns throughout Asia, reaching Eastern Europe by the 1240s. In contrast with later \"empires of the sea\" such as the British, the Mongol Empire was a land power,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9251711",
"title": "Nomadic empire",
"section": "Section::::Post-classical history.:Mongol Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million people. The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, and at its height, it encompassed the majority of the territories from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13139823",
"title": "Post-classical history",
"section": "Section::::Eurasia.:Mongol Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The Mongol Empire which existed during the 13th and 14th centuries, was the largest continuous land empire in history. Originating in the steppes of Central Asia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Central Europe to the Sea of Japan, extending northwards into Siberia, eastwards and southwards into the Indian subcontinent, Indochina, and the Iranian plateau, and westwards as far as the Levant and Arabia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158",
"title": "Empire",
"section": "Section::::History of imperialism.:Post-classical period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan expanded the Mongol Empire to be the largest contiguous empire in the world. However, within two generations, the empire was separated into four discrete khanates under Genghis Khan's grandsons. One of them, Kublai Khan, conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty with the imperial capital at Beijing. One family ruled the whole Eurasian land mass from the Pacific to the Adriatic and Baltic Seas. The emergence of the Pax Mongolica had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The Safavid Empire of Iran was also founded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30808317",
"title": "Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Vassals and tributary states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent included all of modern-day Mongolia, China, much or all of Russia, Ukraine, Cilicia, Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, Persia, Iraq, Korea, and Central Asia, parts of Burma, Romania and Pakistan. In the meantime, many countries became vassals or tributary states of the Mongol Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: \"Mongolyn Ezent Güren\" ; Mongolian Cyrillic: Монголын эзэнт гүрэн; ; also in Russian chronicles) existed during the 13th and 14th centuries; it became the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in Mongolia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe to the Sea of Japan, extending northwards into Siberia; eastwards and southwards into the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and the Iranian Plateau; and westwards as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5tblop
|
Why is the major key considered cheerful and the minor key considered sad? Is this a nurtured trait or a natural predisposition?
|
[
{
"answer": "Great question. \nA few things that I'd like to point to which I think might contribute to the discussion.\nThe relative degree of consonance/dissonance is directly associated with the number of cycles that are required before 2 (or more) notes repeat their pattern. e.g. in a unison it is a 1:1 ratio and so the two notes are considered consonant. Whereas the tritone/A4/D5 is an irrational number which when we use the same criteria takes the biggest number of cycles before resolution/repetition of the pattern compared to other intervals. Some other intervals, depending on the tuning system used, are 5:4 or 3:2 which resolve faster than the tritone and so, are described as consonant. You can complete the mathematics for any chord and this holds up to any cultural ordering of consonance/dissonance that I am aware of. \nWhen comparing the major key to the minor key in western music, we have a set of melodic and harmonic structures that are common to both. What is happening here is that these two keys, while both considered consonant have slightly different variations. They are tied together and comparable largely due to the dominant - > tonic (V-I, whatever you want to call it) which gives us a cadence. When you compare the harmonies found in these two keys and the intervals used to create the melodies, the minor key is slightly more dissonant than the major key. Given this is the case, and making some assumptions that brains all process patterns in a similar way (big assumption, i know) I think we have an argument for a natural predisposition due to slower pattern recognition in the minor key. Perhaps the minor key lends itself to slower tempo so as to allow time for melodies/harmonies to process, this may make the association stronger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a lot of unscientific speculation in the answers to this post, and repetition of folk stories of music composition that were discredited by psychoacoustic research in the mid 20th century.\n\n[actual research](_URL_0_) has shown that some characteristics of music (lively vs. calming) tend to generalize between cultures while others (positive vs. negative affect) are unrecognizable outside of their original context.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There has been many instances of non-westerners hearing our music for the first time. Some groups of peoples were quite remote. They felt sadness in slow minor songs immediately. A few studies were done as well. [One scientific article on the matter](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(I'm stealing a bit of a post I made in r/BABYMETAL )I'd like to point out, as a musician and amateur composer, that the supposition that minor keys are 'sad' is overblown. A good example is the fact that Bach's _Tocatta and Fugue,_ Mozart's _Der Holle Rache_ from the Magic Flute and Beethoven's _Ninth Symphony_ are all in D Minor (which, according to SpinalTap is the 'saddest key') sound completely different. The first is not sad at all. The second goes back and forth from sad to not sad by way of 'verse' and 'chorus' and the last is majestic and powerful: three totally different uses of the same key signature.\n\n[Tocatta and Fugue](_URL_1_)\n\n[Der Holle Rache](_URL_0_) as performed by the incomparable Diana Damrau: skip to 2:10 to skip the intro.\n\n[9th Symphony, 4th movement](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as I know there is no definitive answer, only theories. I will attempt to introduce a few theories I have heard of, but this list is not going to be complete. \n\n**Theory 1: It is natural because of the way scales are constructed**\n\nA scale is a way of ordering notes. In western music we mainly use two scales, called major and minor mode. Music theory is used to explain the relation between different tones and chords of a scale. Each tone and chord has a certain [function](_URL_1_). For example the first chord, called tonic, acts as the tonal center. In a major key this center is based upon a major chord and quality. A song in minor will carry a different mood because the relationship between tones is different, since it is centered around a minor chord and quality. \n > The minor scale leads to a new sonic space in which to explore.\n\nMusic impacts our emotions and different scales/modes are going to impact us differently. \n\n**Theory 2: It is natural because of the way our brain and ears work**\n\nIn music there is the concept of tension and resolution. Intervals and therefore chords either lead to more tension or resolve some tension. Just like a well written book a piece of music also has to balance the relationship between tension and resolution. We can translate a tone into a frequency and when we do it with two we can calculate the ratio of them. As it turns out our brain loves hearing certain ratios more than others. We feel these ratios, associate them with the feeling of tension and resolution, and therefore with certain emotions. The difference between major and minor chords is that a major chord uses a major third for its second note, while a minor chord uses a minor third for its second note. This leads to different ratios and therefore to a different feel. A major chord is more pleasing to our ear, since it has less tension. This is why we associate it with being happy or cheerful. A minor chord carries more tension, which leads us to believe it sounds sad. A song in major relies mainly on major chords, so it also sounds more cheerful than a song in minor, which relies mainly on minor chords.\n\n**Theory 3: It is nurtured because of tradition**\n\nBefore there was a device capable of analyzing the frequency of a tone, musicians had to tune by ear. This was done by comparing certain pitches, having absolute hearing is rare. And since that was not an exact science there were a few tuning systems used to determine the interval between two notes. Since these intervalls were so uneven each key would have a certain characteristic. [Here is a page listing how people would describe these characteristics](_URL_4_). You might notice that major keys are desribed in positive, cheerful ways - and minor keys as sad. What does that mean for today? The system we use now is called equal temperament,\n > every pair of adjacent notes is separated by the same interval.\n\nThis means it is possible to play the same song in different keys but also that there should no longer be any characteristics. However I have heard some people argue that there is still a bit of character difference in every key. And if you go to [this website](_URL_0_) and play around with the keys a bit you might notice a difference in character on some songs. And since music heavily relies on tradition it wouldn't be too much of a stretch to think that the descriptions still carried over and became generalized to major = happy minor= sad.\n[See Wikipedia for more information about this](_URL_2_)\n\nEnglish is not my mother tongue so I hope I didn't make too many mistakes.\nI was also able to find some more theories on [Quora](_URL_3_).\n\nSource: I have played guitar for a decade and music was a main subject in my final two years of school.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of our association with major/minor happy/sad [is a result of cultural conditioning ](_URL_0_).\n\nThe associations break down if you've grown up with, say, Eastern music. Traditional Japanese or Bali gamelan. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This requires as much musical theory as it does scientific knowledge. Given that the basics seem to be: \n\nIf you go back to a classic work like *Sensations of Tone* by Herman Helmholtz, you will find discussions of looking at the amount of dissonance in different musical chords, etc. This is discussed there in great detail. \n\nPure tuning vs modern tuning makes a difference in these calculations. but the overall principles remain effective.\n\nDissonance can be defined as a measure of the relative *discernable* complexity of a sound or a collection of sounds. Noise is very complex, but is outside the the practical limit of human hearing to resolve or distinguish differences\n\nEssentially, major chords are less dissonant than minor chords, even though minor chords are now considered consonant. Minor chords show a more complex structure in terms of frequency relationships.\n\nNow we make the jump to human reaction and emotion. \n\nTo the degree that you can differentiate between the quality of sound, you can have different reactions and emotions to the different qualities of sound. \n\nThe reaction to a simpler or \"purer\" sound can be calmer and more pleasant than the reaction to more complex sound. Different people have different tolerances for the amount and variety of complexity they like. It varies, and is also a matter of experience and education.\n\nThis can be played with in many different ways when creating a piece of music. It applies to all sorts of musical textures and sounds. The quality of sound that dominates in a work of music colors the emotions.\n\nThis sound quality of small amounts of dissonance in the minor key can be interpreted as sadness or dissatisfaction of some sort. \n\nDepending on familiarity and education, the quality and variety of emotion experienced differs greatly.\n\nThere is a lot of research on this. \n\n---\nEDIT: Here is an example of a recent research paper on this which examines the matter is far more technical detail that the above introductory discussion.\n\n* [Tonal consonance parameters link microscopic and macroscopic properties of music exposing a hidden order in melody](_URL_0_)\n\n---\nProfessional composers, especially those for movies, etc use a variety of musical principles, tricks, and effects to manipulate emotions with great expertise. This idea of relative simplicity vs complexity is one of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Major keys contain natural physical harmonies with little dissonance. When you analyze the waveforms of a major chord, the separate frequencies sync up nicely.\n\nMinor keys contain more dissonance, meaning that when you analyze the waveforms, the separate frequencies do not cycle together. They are \"out of sync\" on a physical level.\n\nI know a lot of people want to claim that sounds are purely subjective art, but they're not. Sounds are waveforms. If you select frequencies at intervals that coincide, they're going to sound good to your ear.\n\nLayer together waveforms with intervals that do not coincide and your ear will be able to tell that the dissonance makes the waveforms clash with one another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One has to look at different cultures also. Iranian love songs, or Georgian plowing songs, for instance, can been in, what a westerner would consider, dissonant or \"minor\" (non well temperament) keys and will be about happiness and prosperity. Also one should consider that scientifically, well temperament, the basis of most western popular music, is very dissonant when looking at the relationship of notes in a chord. Also there are many other scales. You have scales like Dorian, Mixolydian, Harmonic Minor, Lydian and the like which can definitely convey some more nuanced emotions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you play what we call a single note, you will actually hear a whole series of subtle notes alongside the main one - which we call the fundamental. These notes are called overtones.\n\nThe octave, fourth, fifth and major third are all in the overtones which will be heard upon playing a note. The prominence of each of those is a big factor in defining the timbre of the instrument.\n\nThe minor third, being an undertone, isn't usually heard.\n\nTherefore, when a fundamental and its minor third are played, there is a strong dissonance between the overtone of the major third and the minor third. This dissonance creates a feeling of instability or weakness, which we associate with sadness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not considered that. Jewish \"happy\" music is in what would be considered western minor keys.\n\nMany eastern scales are equivalent of minor scales in the west, many scales are neither major nor minor, and plenty of \"happy\" music use blue notes or minor scales.\n\nYou can also modify feel of scale by tempo changes. A minor scale played fast in the west could easily be more cheerful than a major scale played slowly.\n\nPhysically, minor scales have less sympathetic harmonics than major scales. Dissonance is perceived differently in different musical contexts as well as cultural.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"Hava Negilah\" from Jewish culture is actually sung in a minor key, as are most other Jewish songs and prayers. Seeing as Hava Negilah is sung at weddings and other celebrations, I'd suggest that it's completely cultural. And I think that lots of the tonality used in Asian cultures also defies Major vs. minor. \n\nExample: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In western music major keys were used traditionally for songs of celebration, like happy birthday and london bridge. Through cultural conditioning, we have learned to assosiate these kind of sounds with certain emotions. The same applies for minor keys",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I did a class project on music therapy years ago which has some insight into this:\n\nJust as a side note the purpose of the study was not to dive too far into alternative therapy but to try an examine the mechanisms that it could work by. For example I found that music tempo effects heart rate and other physiological states (now I know the question is about major and minor, but I think its suggestive that the body can respond to music innately)\n\nWhen it comes to major and minor keys these are created around how notes harmonize with each other. The major third sounds more happy largely because a 3rd in terms of wave frequencies they fit together far more cleanly (in fact if my memory serves simply playing a single note creates the 3rd 5th and other octave frequency waves - not as strong as the played note - think of it as all the different sorts of waves that would travel up and down a string when plucked) anyway so the diminished 3rd or the minor is dissonant with all that, sitting less comfortably into the human ear.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "421402",
"title": "C major",
"section": "Section::::Compositions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Many musicians have pointed out that every musical key conjures up specific feelings. This idea is further explored in a radio program called The Signature Series. American popular songwriter Bob Dylan claimed the key of C major to \"be the key of strength, but also the key of regret.\" French composers such as Marc-Antoine Charpentier and Rameau generally thought of C major as a key for happy music, but Hector Berlioz in 1856 described it as \"serious but deaf and dull.\" Ralph Vaughan Williams was impressed by Sibelius's Symphony No. 7 in C major and remarked that only Sibelius could make the key sound fresh. However, C major was a key of great importance in Sibelius's previous symphonies. Claude Debussy, noted for composing music that avoided a particular key center, once said, \"I do not believe in the supremacy of the C major scale.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1952471",
"title": "Also sprach Zarathustra",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "One of the major compositional themes of the piece is the contrast between the keys of B major, representing humanity, and C major, representing the universe. Because B and C are adjacent notes, these keys are tonally dissimilar: B major uses five sharps, while C major has none.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3756633",
"title": "Liederkreis, Op. 39 (Schumann)",
"section": "Section::::\"In der Fremde\".:Setting to music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The A major section modulates to B minor, giving a dark and unexpected ending that transitions back into the home key. When we return to the home key of F minor there is a tonic pedal that helps drive the movement to a close, giving a harmonic grounding as the moving 16th notes continue. With the addition of Neapolitan chords in measures 22 and 24, we as listeners feel the tension and unease that the narrator feels as he returns to his dark, lonely thoughts and continues towards death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519124",
"title": "Low-key lighting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The term \"low key\" is also used in cinematography and photography to refer to any scene with a high lighting ratio, especially if there is a predominance of shadowy areas. It tends to heighten the sense of alienation felt by the viewer, hence is commonly used in film noir and horror genres. It is typically used in dark dramas/ thrillers. Low-key lighting is also associated with German Expressionism and later film noir.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28492527",
"title": "The Third Key",
"section": "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "While \"The Third Key\" is generally considered to fall short of the high standard set by \"Rhythm of a Crime\", it is nevertheless deemed interesting for its genre approach and topic which were novel in Croatian and Yugoslav cinema of the era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4168648",
"title": "List of symphonies by key",
"section": "Section::::C minor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The key of C minor was, like most other minor keys, associated with the literary Sturm und Drang movement during the Classical period. But ever since Ludwig van Beethoven's famous Symphony No. 5, Op. 67, of 1808, C minor imparts a symphony in the key a character of heroic struggle. Early classical symphonies in the key typically ended in C minor but with a picardy third for the very final chord. Following Beethoven's precedent, most C minor symphonies of the Romantic period end in C major. Another option is to end in E-flat major (the relative key), as Mahler does in his Second Symphony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "287693",
"title": "Relative key",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Though modulation from the minor to relative major is common in the Classical and Romantic periods, Donald Tovey criticizes the idea that the keys have much in common, stating that, \"the so-called 'relative major' is one of five equally direct relations to a minor tonic and the 'relative minor' is one of five to a major tonic. The [most closely related] minor mode of C [major] is not...A minor, but C minor.\" (Note that C minor is not a \"minor mode of C major\" in the strict sense that C minor can be found by starting C major on a different note; obviously, they start on the same note. Instead, Tovey simply means that C minor is the most closely related minor mode out of all the modes of all keys.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fjnn9
|
We seem to agree on the metric system, but why not UTC?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because we all like noon to be when the sun is near the top of the sky. Yes we'd all function just as well to call that same event 5 pm, but we like our sun to be at noon, midnight to be the middle of the night, *ante meridiem* to be before noon and *post meridiem* to be after noon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think there's something interesting to be said here about the fetishization of units of measurement, but I can't quite seem to put words to it at the moment.\n\nMaybe it'll come to me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2928737",
"title": "Time in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Civil time and legislation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Australia has kept a version of the UTC atomic time scale since the 1990s, but Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) remained the formal basis for the standard times of all of the states until 2005. In November 2004, the state and territory attorneys-general endorsed a proposal from the Australian National Measurement Institute to adopt UTC as the standard of all Australian standard times, thereby eliminating the effects of slight variations in the rate of rotation of the Earth that are inherent in mean solar time. All states have adopted the UTC standard, starting on 1 September 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1939808",
"title": "DUT1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "UTC is maintained via leap seconds, such that DUT1 remains within the range −0.9 s < DUT1 < +0.9 s. The reason for this correction is partly that the rate of rotation of the Earth is not constant, due to tidal braking and the redistribution of mass within the Earth, including its oceans and atmosphere, and partly because the SI second (as now used for UTC) was already, when adopted, a little shorter than the current value of the second of mean solar time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12701",
"title": "Greenwich Mean Time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "English speakers often use GMT as a synonym for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). For navigation, it is considered equivalent to UT1 (the modern form of mean solar time at 0° longitude); but this meaning can differ from UTC by up to 0.9s. The term GMT should not thus be used for technical purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18472",
"title": "Leap second",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "The UTC time standard, which is widely used for international timekeeping and as the reference for civil time in most countries, uses the international system (SI) definition of the second. The UTC second has been calibrated with atomic clocks to the duration of the Earth's mean day of the astronomical year 1900. Because the rotation of the Earth has since slowed down, the duration of today's mean solar day is longer (by roughly 0.001 seconds) than 24 SI hours ( SI seconds). UTC would step ahead of solar time and need adjustment even if the Earth's rotation remained constant in the future. Therefore, if the UTC day were defined as precisely SI seconds, the UTC time-of-day would slowly drift apart from that of solar-based standards, such as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and its successor UT1. The point on the Earth's equator where the sun culminates at 12:00:00 UTC would wander to the East by some 300 m each year. The leap second compensates for this drift, by occasionally scheduling a UTC day with or (in principle) SI seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241342",
"title": "24-hour clock",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Military time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is designated time zone Z, and thus called \"Zulu time\". (When used as a modern time zone, in practice, GMT and UTC coincide. For other purposes there may be a difference of about a second.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15024",
"title": "ISO 8601",
"section": "Section::::Times.:Time zone designators.:Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The \"Z\" suffix in the ISO 8601 time representation is sometimes referred to as \"Zulu time\" because the same letter is used to designate the Zulu time zone. However the ACP 121 standard that defines the list of military time zones makes no mention of UTC and derives the \"Zulu time\" from the Greenwich Mean Time which was formerly used as the international civil time standard. GMT is no longer precisely defined by the scientific community and can refer to either UTC or UT1 depending on context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30890",
"title": "Time zone",
"section": "Section::::Skewing of zones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "For example, even though the Prime Meridian (0°) passes through Spain and France, they use the mean solar time of 15 degrees east (Central European Time) rather than 0 degrees (Greenwich Mean Time). France previously used GMT, but was switched to CET (Central European Time) during the German occupation of the country during World War II and did not switch back after the war. Similarly, prior to World War II, the Netherlands observed \"Amsterdam Time\", which was twenty minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. They were obliged to follow German time during the war, and kept it thereafter. In the mid 1970s the Netherlands, as with other European states, began observing daylight saving (summer) time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ophb7
|
why do we, humans need to have wars when we can just talk problems over?u
|
[
{
"answer": "You ask me for some ice cream.\n\nI say no.\n\nYou really want the ice cream.\n\nI say no.\n\nI'm the only one with the ice cream.\n\nI say no.\n\nYou try to talk to me nicely about it.\n\nI say no.\n\nYou try to negotiate.\n\nI say no.\n\nYou beg me.\n\nI say no.\n\nYou get fed up and get all your friends to come and force me to share the ice cream.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because talking doesn't help. There are lots of peole driven by power. Putin can't just say \"Hi Ukraine! could you give me crimea thanks\". He has to take it with force. You can't call head of ISIS and say \"Hi guys. Stop killing people. Thanks\". That won't work either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A \"zero-sum game\" is an instance in which, in order for someone to gain something, it must directly correspond to another person losing something.\n\nLife, in general, is a zero sum game.\n\nResources are finite, there is not enough for everyone to have their fill. Influence can not be shared...if it were split, then it wouldn't be very effective influence.\n\nThe idea that people can just \"talk out\" their differences implies that all sides are interested in a solution that is mutually beneficial, this is never the case.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "562666",
"title": "War economy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "War is often used as a last ditch effort to prevent deteriorating economic conditions or currency crises, particularly by expanding services and employment in the military, and by simultaneously depopulating segments of the population to free up resources and restore the economic and social order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39766716",
"title": "Anti-war movement",
"section": "Section::::Anti-war intellectual and scientist-activists and their work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Various people have discussed the philosophical question of whether war is inevitable, and how much it can be avoided, as well as how this can be achieved i.e. what are the necessities of peace. Various people have discussed it from an intellectual and philosophical point of view. Various intellectuals not only have discussed in public but have participated or led anti-war campaigns despite it is different to their main areas of expertise. They went out of their professional comfort zone to warn against or fight against wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7478553",
"title": "Death and culture",
"section": "Section::::Warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Often opposing leaders or governing bodies get other people to fight for them, even if those fighting have no vested interest in the issues fought over. In time it became practical for some people to have warfare as their sole occupation, either as a member of a military force or mercenary. The original cause of war is not always known. Wars may be prosecuted simultaneously in one or more different theatres. Within each theatre, there may be one or more consecutive military campaigns. Individual actions of war within a specific campaign are traditionally called battles, although this terminology is not always applied to contentions in modernity involving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone in the absence of ground troops or naval forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1659790",
"title": "Anthropogenic hazard",
"section": "Section::::Societal hazards.:War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "War is a conflict between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and police action. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and sometimes from disaster planning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59497191",
"title": "The basic principles of War Propaganda",
"section": "Section::::Contents.:1. We don't want war, we are only defending ourselves !\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "According to Morelli, statesmen of all countries themselves have always solemnly assured that they do not want war. Wars are always undesired, only very rarely a war is seen positively by the population. With the emergence of democracy, the consent of the population becomes indispensable, so war must be rejected and everyone must be a pacifist at heart, unlike in the Middle Ages, when the opinion of the population was of little importance. \"Thus, the French government mobilizes the army and announces at the same time that mobilization is not a war, but on the contrary the best way to secure peace.\" \"If all the leaders are inspired by the same will to peace, one wonders why wars break out after all. \"The second principle provides an answer to this question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9448879",
"title": "The 25 Year War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "War involves fighting by the armed forces in overt operations under rules laid down by the Geneva Convention and acceded to by most civilized nations. To place our uniformed military personnel in any other position is gross breach of trust on the part of their government. War must be perceived as legitimate in the eyes of the people and of the warriors entrusted to do the fighting. For these same reasons I have always firmly opposed employing U.S. military personnel in covert operations which the government can credibly deny.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "418332",
"title": "The Once and Future King",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Merlyn instills in Arthur the concept that the only justifiable reason for war is to prevent another from going to war and that contemporary human governments and powerful people exemplify the worst aspects of the rule of Might.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j6pyl
|
What are the main differences between Valence Bonding Theory, VSEPR Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best place to start is probably VSEPR theory. VSEPR theory is basically concerned with the geometry taken by the bonds in a certain molecule as a function of basic electron-electron repulsion; bonds between atoms (which constitute the sharing of an electron pair basically at this stage) want to be as far from one another as possible. They also want maximum distance from lone pairs and so you get the basic shapes of small molecules.\nBUT, VSEPR theory just places electron pairs in \"bonds\" or \"lone pairs\" - it doesn't take into account any real notion of quantum function or in other words, it does not concern itself with the nature of the orbitals that are associated with each atom of the molecule, such as methane having a carbon and 4 hydrogens. \n\nThis is where valence bond theory comes in. After Lewis and Kekule, and with the contributions of quantum theory we knew that electrons were localised discreetly between nuclei in orbitals and it was the orbital interactions (overlaps) which gave rise to chemical bonds. So, atomic orbitals being 1s, 2s 2p x/y/z and molecular orbitals being pi and sigma bonds. Each orbital therefore was calculated to have it's shape ( from electron density calculations, but I'm just an organic chem grad so someone could give a much better explanation about the equations etc) and **using** the same ideas of electron repulsion etc. However, having orbital shapes allows a better grasp of reactivity, geometry and bond energy of molecules. \nLike our methane example the contribution of Pauling took into account hybridisation, the mixing of atomic orbitals to account for carbons four bonds, giving 4 sigma molecular orbitals from their overlap and the tetrahedral geometry being a result of equidistance from the 4 orbitals... And each C-H bond is the same energy\n\n...*but they are not in fact equal*! It turns out that [the ESCA spectrum of methane shows 2 peaks corresponding to the removal of electrons from the 4 C-H bonds](_URL_0_). BUT VB theory predicts these should be equal in energy\n\nThis is because of Molecular Orbital Theory (MO). What this model contributes is that in fact, electrons are NOT localised to just bonds between distinct atoms. The orbitals of all the atoms in the molecule are combined in accordance to the *sum of all the atomic orbitals to each molecular orbital* So, for methane again, we have 4 1s orbitals from methane and the 2s, 2p x/y/z orbitals from carbon. This gives 8 possible MO's (because of the symmetry requirement for orbitals) but crucially, this predicts that one molecular orbital will have NO nodes arising from the 2s and 4 1s all bonding interaction, and 3 MO's which each have 1 node because of the contribution of a p orbital. Giving two different C-H bond energies\n\nAgain, I'm just an organic/biochem grad so I hope this helps",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "VSEPR is a subset of valence bond. It's just a way of figuring out molecular geometries.The fundamental difference is that valence bond theory describes bonds as local structures, while molecular orbital treats them as more diffuse and spread out over the whole molecule.\n\nIn VB theory a bond is described by the two adjacent orbitals that go into making the bond. These orbitals are then populated relative to the atoms involved in the relevant bond(s).\n\nIn MO theory all of the contrribtuing orbitals are considered at once and combined, giving orbitals for the whole molecule, rather than just between two atoms. It basically adds up all of the obitals of the atoms in the molecule to make a new set. These orbitals are then poluated to give the over all electronic structure in the molecule.\n\nIn VB theory you could describe methane as consisting of 4 separate C-H sigma bonds. In MO theory you would have 4 orbitals that contribute to those bonds, but they would be spread out over the whole molecule and not pertain to any specific C-H bond.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "735965",
"title": "Valence bond theory",
"section": "Section::::Modern approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1681,
"text": "Modern valence bond theory now complements molecular orbital theory, which does not adhere to the valence bond idea that electron pairs are localized between two specific atoms in a molecule but that they are distributed in sets of molecular orbitals which can extend over the entire molecule. Molecular orbital theory can predict magnetic and ionization properties in a straightforward manner, while valence bond theory gives similar results but is more complicated. Modern valence bond theory views aromatic properties of molecules as due to spin coupling of the orbitals. This is essentially still the old idea of resonance between Kekulé and Dewar structures. In contrast, molecular orbital theory views aromaticity as delocalization of the -electrons. Valence bond treatments are restricted to relatively small molecules, largely due to the lack of orthogonality between valence bond orbitals and between valence bond structures, while molecular orbitals are orthogonal. On the other hand, valence bond theory provides a much more accurate picture of the reorganization of electronic charge that takes place when bonds are broken and formed during the course of a chemical reaction. In particular, valence bond theory correctly predicts the dissociation of homonuclear diatomic molecules into separate atoms, while simple molecular orbital theory predicts dissociation into a mixture of atoms and ions. For example, the molecular orbital function for dihydrogen is an equal mixture of the covalent and ionic valence bond structures and so predicts incorrectly that the molecule would dissociate into an equal mixture of hydrogen atoms and hydrogen positive and negative ions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735965",
"title": "Valence bond theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "In chemistry, valence bond (VB) theory is one of two basic theories, along with molecular orbital (MO) theory, that were developed to use the methods of quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonding. It focuses on how the atomic orbitals of the dissociated atoms combine to give individual chemical bonds when a molecule is formed. In contrast, molecular orbital theory has orbitals that cover the whole molecule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6246",
"title": "Covalent bond",
"section": "Section::::Quantum mechanical description.:Comparison of VB and MO theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The two approaches are regarded as complementary, and each provides its own insights into the problem of chemical bonding. As valence bond theory builds the molecular wavefunction out of localized bonds, it is more suited for the calculation of bond energies and the understanding of reaction mechanisms. As molecular orbital theory builds the molecular wavefunction out of delocalized orbitals, it is more suited for the calculation of ionization energies and the understanding of spectral absorption bands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735965",
"title": "Valence bond theory",
"section": "Section::::Modern approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Modern valence bond theory replaces the overlapping atomic orbitals by overlapping valence bond orbitals that are expanded over a large number of basis functions, either centered each on one atom to give a classical valence bond picture, or centered on all atoms in the molecule. The resulting energies are more competitive with energies from calculations where electron correlation is introduced based on a Hartree–Fock reference wavefunction. The most recent text is by Shaik and Hiberty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3840994",
"title": "Bent's rule",
"section": "Section::::Formal theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Bent's rule provides an additional level of accuracy to valence bond theory. Valence bond theory proposes that covalent bonds consist of two electrons lying in overlapping, usually hybridised, atomic orbitals from two bonding atoms. The assumption that a covalent bond is a linear combination of atomic orbitals of just the two bonding atoms is an approximation (see molecular orbital theory), but valence bond theory is accurate enough that it has had and continues to have a major impact on how bonding is understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2649181",
"title": "Bent bond",
"section": "Section::::Double and triple bonds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Two different explanations for the nature of double and triple covalent bonds in organic molecules were proposed in the 1930s. Linus Pauling proposed that the double bond results from two equivalent tetrahedral orbitals from each atom, which later came to be called \"banana bonds\" or \"tau bonds\". Erich Hückel proposed a representation of the double bond as a combination of a sigma bond plus a pi bond. The Hückel representation is the better-known one, and it is the one found in most textbooks since the late-20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735965",
"title": "Valence bond theory",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "An important aspect of the valence bond theory is the condition of maximum overlap, which leads to the formation of the strongest possible bonds. This theory is used to explain the covalent bond formation in many molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2c94jw
|
What were major differences between the Federalist Party and the Democratic Republican Party?
|
[
{
"answer": "The key differences were on issues of nationalism and localism. The best way to compare the two parties is to compare their ideological leaders. Alexander Hamilton was a driving force behind the Federalists while Thomas Jefferson was the founder of the old Republican Party (Democratic-Republican, Jeffersonian Republican).\n\nAlexander Hamilton served as Washington's first Secretary of the Treasury (he is on the $10 and the treasury building is on the back of that bill) and he put forward a number of centralizing plans for economics, including a tariff, a national bank, and bounties for industrial production. He wanted to use the power of the newly minted federal government to develop the economic and industrial power of the United States along the lines of the British. \n\nJefferson (First Secretary of State under Washington), on the other hand, was far more in favor of local economics. He supported the yeoman farmers. He wanted America to be run by the states more than the federal government, no tariff as he and his fellows were exporters of raw materials and Europe had more demand for Tobacco and Cotton (a new industry for the USA thanks to the Cotton Gin), and other cash crops than the USA had. He was also more in line with the French over the British. \n\nFrom about 1796 through about 1815 the two parties were dramatically opposed the key issues of economics (plantations or factories), location of political power (national vs local), banking (yes or no), and trade policy (protect our factories or export our goods). \n\nBy the war of 1812 the Federalist party was in shambles. No presidential victory since 1796, only Marshall on the supreme court to have any power, an aborted attempt to break New England off as its own country failed and the party dissolved. The Republican party was unopposed in the election of 1820. \n\nSome good sources to read on these differences would be found by looking up Hamilton's economic plans, the election of 1800 which was a major battle between the two parties for control of the 15 states and the federal government, and the even the war of 1812 which we see the beginning of the end of the Federalist Party.\n\nText sources archive:\n_URL_0_\n\nHamilton's Manufacturing plan: (federalist economic policy)\n_URL_1_\n\nJefferson and Madison's Kentucky resolution: (a reaction to federalist legal policies)\n_URL_2_\n\nI hope these help answer your question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40597",
"title": "Alexander Hamilton",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of the Treasury.:Emergence of political parties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The American two-party system began to emerge as political parties coalesced around competing interests. A Congressional caucus, led by Madison, Jefferson and William Branch Giles, began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves \"Federalists\". The opposition group, now called the Democratic-Republican Party by political scientists, at the time called itself \"Republicans\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24189090",
"title": "1827 United States Senate election in New York",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Although nominally in the same party, the Democratic-Republicans were split into two fiercely opposing factions: the \"Clintonians\" (allies of Governor DeWitt Clinton), and \"Bucktails\" (a combine of the Tammany members from New York City and Clinton's upstate adversaries led by Martin Van Buren). Both factions were divided into supporters of John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson, the Clintonian majority for Adams, the Bucktail majority for Jackson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40522",
"title": "1872 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Nominations.:The opposition fusion nominations.:Democratic Party nomination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The Liberal Republican Party fused with the Democratic Party in all states except for Louisiana and Texas. In states where Republicans were stronger, the Liberal Republicans fielded a majority of the joint slate of candidates for lower offices; while in states where Democrats were stronger, the Democrats fielded the most candidates. In many states, such as Ohio, each party nominated half of a joint slate of candidates. Even initially reluctant Democratic leaders like Thomas F. Bayard came to support Greeley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "742475",
"title": "Liberal Republican Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History of the party.:1872 campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The Liberal Republican Party fused with the Democratic Party in all states except for Louisiana and Texas. In states where Republicans were stronger, the Liberal Republicans fielded a majority of the joint slate of candidates for lower offices; while in states where Democrats were stronger, the Democrats fielded the most candidates. In many states, such as Ohio, each party nominated half of a joint slate of candidates. Even initially reluctant Democratic leaders like Thomas F. Bayard came to support Greeley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130657",
"title": "Red states and blue states",
"section": "Section::::Map interpretation.:Critiques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The Democratic and Republican parties within a particular state may have a platform that departs from that of the national party, sometimes leading that state to favor one party in state and local elections and the other in Presidential elections. This is most evident in the Southern United States, where the state Democratic Party organizations tend to be more conservative than the national party, especially on social issues. Likewise, Republicans have elected a number of statewide officeholders in states that are solidly Democratic at the presidential level, such as New York, Illinois, Hawaii, and Vermont.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2298740",
"title": "Conservatism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Electoral politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In the United States, the Republican Party has been the party of conservatism since the 1890s, although there was a strong Eastern liberal wing. Since 1964, the conservatives largely took control. Meanwhile, the conservative wing of the Democratic Party, based in the South and strongly opposed to Civil Rights, grew weaker. The most dramatic realignment took place within the White South, which moved from 3–1 Democratic to 3–1 Republican between 1960 and 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249433",
"title": "Political parties in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Major parties.:Republican Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Since its founding, the Republican Party has been the more market-oriented of the two American political parties, often favoring policies that aid American business interests. As a party whose power was once based on the voting power of Union Army veterans, this party has traditionally supported more aggressive defense measures and more lavish veteran's benefits. Today, the Republican Party supports an American conservative platform, with further foundations in economic liberalism, fiscal conservatism, and social conservatism. The Republican Party tends to be strongest in the Southern United States and the \"flyover states\", as well as suburban and rural areas in other states. One significant base of support for the Republican Party are Evangelical Christians, who have wielded significant power in the party since the early 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
118vdb
|
If we were to create a bottomless vacuum on Earth and dropped a ball in it, could it ever reach a "terminal velocity?"
|
[
{
"answer": "So just to be clear, you mean you apply a constant force forever on something in a vacuum?\n\nIn this case, it would accelerate forever. It wouldn't ever reach a terminal velocity, except in the sense that as it reaches high relativistic speeds its velocity asymptotically approaches that of light. However, in its rest frame its acceleration wouldn't have changed, so it can't really be said to reach a terminal velocity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Terminal velocity](_URL_0_) is specifically related to drag - it's the speed at which the 'downward' force due to gravity is equal to the 'upward' force you encounter by bumping into all the air particles on your way 'down'. In a vacuum, therefore, there is the fundamental speed limit (*c*, the speed of light), but no equivalent phenomenon to terminal velocity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10279126",
"title": "Aristotelian physics",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Natural motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "Aristotle proposed that the speed at which two identically shaped objects sink or fall is directly proportional to their weights and inversely proportional to the density of the medium through which they move. While describing their terminal velocity, Aristotle must stipulate that there would be no limit at which to compare the speed of atoms falling through a vacuum, (they could move indefinitely fast because there would be no particular place for them to come to rest in the void). Now however it is understood that at any time prior to achieving terminal velocity in a relatively resistance-free medium like air, two such objects are expected to have nearly identical speeds because both are experiencing a force of gravity proportional to their masses and have thus been accelerating at nearly the same rate. This became especially apparent from the eighteenth century when partial vacuum experiments began to be made, but some two hundred years earlier Galileo had already demonstrated that objects of different weights reach the ground in similar times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11247",
"title": "Floorball",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Ball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "A floor ball weighs and its diameter is . It has 26 holes in it, each of which are in diameter. Many of these balls now are made with aerodynamic technology, where the ball has over a thousand small dimples in it that reduce air resistance. There have been several times where a ball has been recorded to have traveled at a speed of approximately .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80825",
"title": "Free fall",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Near the surface of the Earth, an object in free fall in a vacuum will accelerate at approximately 9.8 m/s, independent of its mass. With air resistance acting on an object that has been dropped, the object will eventually reach a terminal velocity, which is around 53 m/s (195 km/h or 122 mph) for a human skydiver. The terminal velocity depends on many factors including mass, drag coefficient, and relative surface area and will only be achieved if the fall is from sufficient altitude. A typical skydiver in a spread-eagle position will reach terminal velocity after about 12 seconds, during which time he will have fallen around 450 m (1,500 ft).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308",
"title": "Aristotle",
"section": "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57681488",
"title": "Stored Energy at Sea",
"section": "Section::::Media coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "The TV station ZDF nano produced a documentary about the field study StEnSea in lake “Bodensee”. Christian Dick was cited that “the ball exactly worked like it was supposed to work”. The most important finding was that an air-connection to the surface is not needed, reducing the technical effort significantly. Project leader Matthias Puchta from Fraunhofer IEE said “by pumping out the water we created a nearly total vacuum. Demonstrating that was very exciting, because nobody was able to do that before by using this technology. We showed it works.” For maintenance and possible technical problems the technology will be located in a cylinder, easy to recover and maintain with a robotic submarine. After all this technology could be “a mosaic of our future energy supply\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455295",
"title": "Sub-orbital spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Speed, range, and altitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "If one's goal is simply to \"reach space\", for example in competing for the Ansari X Prize, horizontal motion is not needed. In this case the lowest required delta-v, to reach 100 km altitude, is about 1.4 km/s. Moving slower, with less free-fall, would require more delta-v.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40892497",
"title": "Space Engineers",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "If the player disables their jetpack within a gravitational field (either on the surface of a planet or a structure/asteroid with a gravity generator), movement is restricted to a plane perpendicular to the direction of the net gravity field(s). Vertical viewing angle is also restricted between −90 and 90 degrees, as in most first-person shooters. Ships and structures are unaffected by gravity generators unless equipped with at least one Artificial Mass block. If the player falls off a structure while within a gravity field, they will fall into space until out of range of the gravity generator, at which point the player's jetpack will automatically enable itself. However, if the player touches their feet to an asteroid or structure with no gravity present, their \"mag-boots\" will enable them to walk across its surface and even around edges; though jumping will disconnect the player from the surface, and they cannot traverse the 90-degree angle between a floor and wall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ccc10
|
What were movies like in Soviet Russia during the Cold War?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you explain your question? Soviet cinema is a broad subject, one that cannot be explained in a single answer. What are you looking for? Major themes? Cold war via cinema? Prominent figures in its development?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends. Some were long and 'heavy' movies about WWII, that show the war as a true horror, other - more heroic. There are also comedies and childrens movies based on folklore. I don't think amerikans and the USA are often depicted. In the 80s some movies appeared that dealed with 'western culture' and how it has become underground in the soviet block-things like The Beatles, long hairs and hippies\n..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They changed dramatically over time. Early on you had a lot of experimental cinema (granted in a period where all cinema was experimental) which relied on montage and didn't really have characters, like Vertov's *Man with a Movie Camera* and Eisenstein's *Battleship Potempkin*. This style is the result, to an extent, of the lack of an established Soviet film industry (lack of funds, resources to make the sort of movies that were being cranked out in hollywood, many of the early Soviet filmmakers worked extensively in newsreals, which were often used to make propaganda films shown on traveling cinema trains). The great early Soviet filmmakers were highly influential on the early development of filmmaking. \n\nAs things settled down after the Civil War, you started to get a lot of films with socialist themes, big silent epics, and the like. As Stalin came into power, the government began to enact far stricter control over the film industry and movies had to espouse \"socialist realism\", everything became extremely didactic, formulaic, and horribly boring.\n\nAfter Stalin died, filmmakers were given a great deal more latitude and there was a flourishing of quality artistic films, including my favorite Soviet Film, *Cranes are Flying*. There were some quality films made by Soviet filmmakers in the 60s and 70s as well. In my experience these films are rather leisurely paced (think wedding scene, *Deer Hunter*). Also, Easterns (i.e. Soviet Westerns) were a pretty popular genre at the time. And, since my class on the history of Russian cinema only covered until 1980, I have no idea what happened after that. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There have been several previous questions about this that may give you more in-depth answers.\n\n* [Did the USSR and other countries have a \"Superman,\" or other related type icons](_URL_2_) gives a little detail on the Soviet Superhero \"The Amphibian Man\"\n\n* [What was television like for communist countries such as the Soviet Union or DDR during the Cold War?](_URL_1_) has a couple of interesting answers, the best ones being personal experiences in Russia and Romania.\n\nBut I only found those because I was looking for this one, and I listed them first because this is one of my favorite answers ever given on this sub and thought you should read them first; good before great, kind of thing. \n\n * [During the Cold War, did the Soviets have their own James Bond character in the media? A hero who fought the capitalist pigs of the West for the good of Mother Russia.](_URL_0_) gives not only an account of Soviet spy movies, but gives a good amount of context fpr the rules of Soviet films in general. It's just a stunningly good piece, simultaneously detailed, open to a wide audience, analytical and empirical. This is an excellent exemplar of how people should answer questions that fit squarely within their expertise: knock it out of the park. The other answers will also probably give you a good sense of the Soviet film industry but the first one...mwuah, magnificent. Keep reading, because /u/Bufus in a response to a comment on his original post, describes Soviet comedies and \"massive epics\", for example. The whole thread is excellent and ends up just being a very robust discussion of Soviet cinema. Seriously though, this is one of those \"must reads\" AskHistorians threads, right up there with whenever /u/heyheymse discusses Romans getting it on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6355878",
"title": "Culture during the Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Cinema.:Cinema as early Cold War propaganda.:USSR Cold War cinema.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Between 1946–54, the Soviet Union mimicked the US adoption of cinema as a weapon. The Central United Film Studios and the Committee on Cinema Affairs were committed to the Cold War battle. Under Stalin's rule, movies could only be made within strict confines. Cinema and government were, as it stood, inextricably linked. Many films were banned for being insufficiently patriotic. Nonetheless, the Soviet Union produced a plethora of movies with the aim to blatantly function as negative propaganda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3265315",
"title": "Cinema of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Cinema.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The Soviet Union cinema comprises movies created by the constituent republics of the Soviet Union. Predominantly produced in the Russian language, the films reflect pre-Soviet elements including the history, language, and culture of the Union. It is different from the Russian cinema, even though the central government in Moscow regulates the movies. Among their republican films, Georgia, Armenia, Ukraine, and Azerbaijan were the most productive. Besides, Moldavia, Belarus, and Lithuania have also been prominent but to a lesser extent. The film industry was completely nationalized for a major part of the history of the country. It was governed by the laws and philosophies advocated by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party that brought a revolutionized perspective of the cinema in the form of ‘social realism’ that contrasted with the view that was in place before the Soviet Union or even after it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10786",
"title": "Cinema of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The cinema of the Soviet Union includes films produced by the constituent republics of the Soviet Union reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, albeit they were all regulated by the central government in Moscow. Most prolific in their republican films, after the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, and, to a lesser degree, Lithuania, Belarus and Moldavia. At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, socialist realism, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23758960",
"title": "House Un-American Activities Committee",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hollywood blacklist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "In 1947, studio executives told the committee that wartime films – such as \"Mission to Moscow\", \"The North Star\", and \"Song of Russia\" – could be considered pro-Soviet propaganda, but claimed that the films were valuable in the context of the Allied war effort, and that they were made (in the case of \"Mission to Moscow\") at the request of White House officials. In response to the House investigations, most studios produced a number of anti-communist and anti-Soviet propaganda films such as \"The Red Menace\" (August 1949), \"The Red Danube\" (October 1949), \"The Woman on Pier 13\" (October 1949), \"Guilty of Treason\" (May 1950, about the ordeal and trial of Cardinal József Mindszenty), \"I Was a Communist for the FBI\" (May 1951, Academy Award nominated for best documentary 1951, also serialized for radio), \"Red Planet Mars\" (May 1952), and John Wayne's \"Big Jim McLain\" (August 1952). Universal-International Pictures was the only major studio that did not produce such a film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16507836",
"title": "Russian science fiction and fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Post-Soviet period.:Movies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Production of science fiction films and fantasy films in modern Russia dropped in comparison to the Soviet cinema, due to high costs of visual effects. Throughout the 1990s, almost no movies in these genres were made. In the 2000s and 2010s, however, Russia once again produced a number of films.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2518541",
"title": "Cinema of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Cinema of the Soviet Union.:Late Soviet cinema (1953-1991).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Most popular Soviet movies of the era were comedies such as \"Carnival Night\" (1956), \"The Irony of Fate\" (1976), \"Kidnapping, Caucasian Style\" (1967), \"Operation Y and Shurik's Other Adventures\" (1965), \"The Twelve Chairs\" (1976), \"Walking the Streets of Moscow\" (1964), \"Gentlemen of Fortune\" (1971).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31638525",
"title": "The Russian Question",
"section": "Section::::Subject.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Keeping its ideological design in mind, \"The Russian Question\" remains a sophisticated and objective, if somewhat critical portrayal of American Cold War political society. Unlike many other Soviet propaganda films, Romm's drama takes on an American perspective, only showing the Soviet Union discussed in the movie for a short combination of shots. The bulk of the film is centered on American culture, society, politics, history, economy and way of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7z999l
|
How are we able to put more space/memory into processors, GPU's, ram, hard drives, etc. as time progresses?
|
[
{
"answer": "We are able to increase processor speed and hard drive space because transistors (the things that hold all the information) are getting smaller. Right now a transistor is about 14 nm and it will only get smaller. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The process which circuits are made is called photolithography. A source of UV light shines on a film and the exposed parts harden. Then the remaining soft film is washed off and some etching fluid is applied. The hard film controls which parts of the silicon wafer is etched, allowing you to get very precise patterns for each circuit.\n\nThe major improvements which have led to increased computing power are: higher wavelengths of UV light, better optical equipment to focus the UV light, advanced in materials technology for the photoresist film, better quality of silicon and so on.\n\nRight now, we are close to hitting the fundamental limit of how small we can make the circuit channels, which are essentially a nanoscopic trench dug into the silicon wafer. I believe the current achievement is a 14-atom distance between trenches, which is really pushing the limits of physics due to quantum tunneling.\n\nRight now there is a shift from denser IC chips to better parallel processing (quad, 8 or 16 core) to continue the growth in computing power, since the limit of circuit density is near and unless some fundamental technology is discovered it will remain as a hard limit to computing power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21803100",
"title": "Micro-Threads (multi core)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1876,
"text": "As microprocessors are becoming faster, mainly because of the cores being added every few months, memory latency gap is becoming wider. Memory latency was few cycles in 1980 and it is reaching nowadays almost 1000 cycles. If the micro-processor has enough cores and hopefully they are not sending requests to the main memory at the same time, there will be partial aggregate hiding of memory latency. Some cores might be executing while others are waiting for memory response. This is not the best situation for multi-core processors. High performance computing experts are striving to keep all cores busy all the time. So, if each core is kept busy all the time, a complete utilization of the whole micro-processor is possible. Creating software based threads won't solve the problem for one obvious reason. Context switching threads to main memory is much expensive operation when compared to memory latency. For example, in Cell Broadband Engine context switching any of the core's thread takes 2000 micro-seconds in best cases. Some software techniques like double or multi-buffering may solve the memory latency problem. However, they can be used in regular algorithms, where the program knows where is the next data chunk to retrieve from memory; in this case it sends request to memory while it is processing previously request data. However, this technique won't work if it the program does not know the next data chunk to retrieve from memory. In other words, it won't work in combinatorial algorithms, such as tree spanning or random list ranking. In addition, multi-buffering assumes that memory latency is constant and can be hidden by statically. However, reality shows that memory latency changes from application to another. It depends on the overall load on microprocessor's shared resources, such as the rate of memory requests shared cores interconnections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177052",
"title": "Immortality",
"section": "Section::::Physical immortality.:Prospects for human biological immortality.:Mind-to-computer uploading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 2135,
"text": "One idea that has been advanced involves uploading an individual's habits and memories via direct mind-computer interface. The individual's memory may be loaded to a computer or to a new organic body. Extropian futurists like Moravec and Kurzweil have proposed that, thanks to exponentially growing computing power, it will someday be possible to upload human consciousness onto a computer system, and exist indefinitely in a virtual environment. This could be accomplished via advanced cybernetics, where computer hardware would initially be installed in the brain to help sort memory or accelerate thought processes. Components would be added gradually until the person's entire brain functions were handled by artificial devices, avoiding sharp transitions that would lead to issues of identity, thus running the risk of the person to be declared dead and thus not be a legitimate owner of his or her property. After this point, the human body could be treated as an optional accessory and the program implementing the person could be transferred to any sufficiently powerful computer. Another possible mechanism for mind upload is to perform a detailed scan of an individual's original, organic brain and simulate the entire structure in a computer. What level of detail such scans and simulations would need to achieve to emulate awareness, and whether the scanning process would destroy the brain, is still to be determined. It is suggested that achieving immortality through this mechanism would require specific consideration to be given to the role of consciousness in the functions of the mind. An uploaded mind would only be a copy of the original mind, and not the conscious mind of the living entity associated in such a transfer. Without a simultaneous upload of consciousness, the original living entity remains mortal, thus not achieving true immortality. Research on neural correlates of consciousness is yet inconclusive on this issue. Whatever the route to mind upload, persons in this state could then be considered essentially immortal, short of loss or traumatic destruction of the machines that maintained them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311193",
"title": "Paging",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The backing store for a virtual memory operating system is typically many orders of magnitude slower than RAM. Additionally, using mechanical storage devices introduces delay, several milliseconds for a hard disk. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce or eliminate swapping, where practical. Some operating systems offer settings to influence the kernel's decisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402125",
"title": "DOS memory management",
"section": "Section::::Expanded memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "As memory prices declined, application programs such as spreadsheets and computer-aided drafting were changed to take advantage of more and more physical memory in the system. Virtual memory in the 8088 and 8086 was not supported by the processor hardware, and disk technology of the time would make it too slow and cumbersome to be practical. Expanded memory was a system that allowed application programs to access more RAM than directly visible to the processor's address space. The process was a form of bank switching. When extra RAM was needed, driver software would temporarily make a piece of expanded memory accessible to the processor; when the data in that piece of memory was updated, another part could be swapped into the processor's address space. For the IBM PC and IBM PC/XT, with only 20 address lines, special-purpose expanded memory cards were made containing perhaps a mebibyte, or more, of expanded memory, with logic on the board to make that memory accessible to the processor in defined parts of the 8088 address space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1282411",
"title": "Orthogonal instruction set",
"section": "Section::::RISC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "During this same period, semiconductor memories were rapidly increasing in size and decreasing in cost. However, they were not improving in speed at the same rate. This meant the time needed to access data from memory was growing in \"relative\" terms in comparison to the speed of the CPUs. This argued for the inclusion of more registers, giving the CPU more temporary values to work with. A larger number of registers meant more bits in the computer word would be needed to encode the register number, which suggested that the instructions themselves be reduced in number to free up room.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228385",
"title": "Clock rate",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Engineers continue to find new ways to design CPUs that settle a little more quickly or use slightly less energy per transition, pushing back those limits, producing new CPUs that can run at slightly higher clock rates. The ultimate limits to energy per transition are explored in reversible computing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10898561",
"title": "TRIPS architecture",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "The introduction of increasingly fast microprocessors and cheap-but-slower dynamic RAM changed this equation dramatically. In modern machines, fetching a value from main memory might take the equivalent of thousands of cycles. One of the key advances in the RISC concept was to include more processor registers than earlier designs, typically several dozen rather than two or three. Instructions that formerly were provided memory locations were eliminated, replaced by ones that worked only on registers. Loading that data into the register was explicit, a separate load action had to be performed, and the results explicitly saved back. One could improve performance by eliminating as many of these memory instructions as possible. This technique quickly reached its limits, and since the 1990s modern CPUs have added increasing amounts of CPU cache to increase local storage, although cache is slower than registers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ypnmp
|
why can i kick a soccer ball farther when it's rolling towards me?
|
[
{
"answer": "Soccer balls deform under stress.\n\nWhen it's moving towards you, there's a certain momentum in that direction, which causes it to deform more when your foot impacts it than it would if it was stationary.\n\nThen when it snaps back to its normal shape, more energy is imparted to the ball causing it to fly off with more force.\n\nBasically, movement towards you lets you add the energy of that movement onto the energy imparted to the ball by your kick (it also means that the ball will equally impart more energy to your foot, but feets are strong and can generally withstand that without trouble - as overall the ball is much less massive than the person kicking the ball)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it this way: if a ball is rolling towards you and it hits your leg (without you moving) it will bounce back, right? And if the ball is not rolling and you kick it, it will fly back. In your situation, it is just the addition of both of these. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2611647",
"title": "Bomb (kick)",
"section": "Section::::Rugby league.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The result is a towering ball which should rotate end on end. The height of the kick makes the ball susceptible to wind which causes the ball to change direction. Also, the ball gathers speed as it falls closer to the ground and this combined with the swirling can also cause the ball to change direction, making it difficult for the opposition to take the ball cleanly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651571",
"title": "Association football tactics and skills",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.:General defensive tactics.:Defending at set pieces.:Free-kicks from short range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Defending \"indirect\" free-kicks provides different difficulties for the defending team. The wall must be prepared to charge down the ball once it has been touched by the free-kick taker, and other defenders must be alert to the attacking team's practised set-plays. Getting the ball over the wall and then to dip into the bottom corner is a superb skill. Xherdan Shaqiri approaches the ball from a 90 degrees angle which is very effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "676669",
"title": "Alleyway (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Ball behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The ball's direction and speed can be controlled by the paddle's velocity and point of contact. Changing direction the moment the ball comes into contact with the paddle, called a \"snap technique\", will bounce the ball upward with increased speed. Moving the paddle quickly in the opposite direction than the ball is headed will result in the ball bouncing in the same horizontal direction as the paddle at a 15° angle. If the player contacts the ball with the body of the paddle before it falls into the pit below, it will bounce back into the playing field. However, if instead, either corner of the paddle collides with the ball at that moment, it will be knocked directly into the pit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10103501",
"title": "Matball",
"section": "Section::::Rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "As in kickball, a ball is put in play when the pitcher rolls it to home base and the kicker kicks it into the designated field of play. The kicker must then run to at least first base. In most cases, when a player steps off a mat, sometimes just with one foot, that player must continue to the next base, though an exception is often made for an incoming runner whose momentum carries them a step or two beyond the base. Outs occur when a pop-fly is caught, the ball beats the runner to first base on the initial kick, a runner is touched by the ball while not on base, or runners do not tag-up after a pop-fly is caught.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12655387",
"title": "Place kick",
"section": "Section::::Rugby league.:Placing the ball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Kickers attempt to position the ball in a way that allows them to kick the ball's \"sweet spot\". Kicking the sweet spot will result in the ball travelling further and is located about a third of the way up the ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "471450",
"title": "Cascade (juggling)",
"section": "Section::::Number of props.:Three-ball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "All balls are caught on the outside of the pattern (on the far left and right) and thrown from closer to the middle of the pattern. The hand moves toward the middle to throw, and back towards the outside to catch the next object. Because the hands must move up and down when throwing and catching, putting this movement together causes the left hand to move in a counterclockwise motion, and the right hand to move in a clockwise motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2111750",
"title": "Direct free kick",
"section": "Section::::Scoring opportunities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "There are various techniques used with direct free kicks. First, the player taking the direct free kick may blast the ball as hard as he can, usually with the laces of the boot. Alternatively, some players try to curl the ball around the keeper or the wall, with the inside or outside the boot. Additionally, certain free-kick specialists will choose to kick the ball with minimal spin, making the ball behave unpredictably in the air (similar to the action of a knuckleball pitch in baseball). The kicker may also attempt to drive the shot under the wall formed by the opposition defenders using the inside of their boot in a passing manner. Free kick takers may also attempt to cross the ball to their centre-backs or strikers to get a header on goal, since they usually are the tallest members of the team, especially if the position of the free kick is close to the wings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e9vsip
|
Were there classical/medieval versions of ambulances?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes and no. \n\nThe idea of an ambulance where a sick or injured person is transported, treated on route and brought to a place of medical care didn't exist for civilians until 1832 when London's Cholera outbreak lead the city to setup horse drawn carriages to transport the ill that served as the first form of the ambulance. \n\nPrior to that, the only form of medical transportation for civilians was the forced removal of those suffering from mental illness or leprosy. These people would be taken almost always against their will to a quarantined place separated from the public, usually a place run by the local monastery. You have to remember, the vast majority of people couldn't afford medical care and even if they did, didn't live close enough to a hospital (if the country had any) where being transported would be more beneficial than just having someone with medical knowledge come to you. Also remember these are the days before sterile rooms and advanced medical equipment. And it also wasn't uncommon for the doctor to also be the local barber. \n\nHowever, in 1487 the Spanish began using horse drawn carts to serve as mobile hospitals to follow their armies. This is the earliest form of care where a person is taken from the place of injury or illness to a place of care and treated en route. But this was strictly for military use only.\n\nSources: \n\nKatherine T. Barkley (1990). The Ambulance. Exposition Press.\n\nCholera Epidemics in Victorian London.” Cholera Epidemics in Victorian London | The Gazette, Authority, 1 Feb. 2016, _URL_0_.\n\n“History of Ambulances.” EMT Resources - for New and Experienced EMTs, _URL_2_, 2016, _URL_1_.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21311092",
"title": "History of the ambulance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times, with the use of carts to transport patients. Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish forces during the siege of Málaga by the Catholic Monarchs against the Emirate of Granada , and civilian variants were put into operation in the 1830s Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self-powered ambulances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146317",
"title": "Ambulance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times, with the use of carts to transport incurable patients by force. Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish, and civilian variants were put into operation during the 1830s. Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self-powered ambulances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146317",
"title": "Ambulance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The term \"ambulance\" comes from the Latin word \"\"ambulare\"\" as meaning \"to walk or move about\" which is a reference to early medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling. The word originally meant a moving hospital, which follows an army in its movements. Ambulances (Ambulancias in Spanish) were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish forces during the siege of Málaga by the Catholic Monarchs against the Emirate of Granada. During the American Civil War vehicles for conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons. Field hospitals were still called ambulances during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and in the Serbo-Turkish war of 1876 even though the wagons were first referred to as ambulances about 1854 during the Crimean War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52975",
"title": "Emergency medical services",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1196,
"text": "The first use of the ambulance as a specialized vehicle, in battle came about with the \"ambulances volantes\" designed by Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842), Napoleon Bonaparte's chief surgeon. Larrey was present at the battle of Spires, between the French and Prussians, and was distressed by the fact that wounded soldiers were not picked up by the numerous ambulances (which Napoleon required to be stationed two and half miles back from the scene of battle) until after hostilities had ceased, and set about developing a new ambulance system. Having decided against using the Norman system of horse litters, he settled on two- or four-wheeled horse-drawn wagons, which were used to transport fallen soldiers from the (active) battlefield \"after\" they had received early treatment in the field. Larrey's projects for 'flying ambulances' were first approved by the Committee of Public Safety in 1794. Larrey subsequently entered Napoleon's service during the Italian campaigns in 1796, where his ambulances were used for the first time at Udine, Padua and Milan, and he adapted his ambulances to the conditions, even developing a litter which could be carried by a camel for a campaign in Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21311092",
"title": "History of the ambulance",
"section": "Section::::Early battlefield treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The first record of ambulances being used for emergency purposes relates to the troops of Isabella I of Castile in 1487. The Spanish army of the time was well treated and attracted volunteers from across the continent; and among their benefits were the first military hospitals (\"ambulancias\"), although injured soldiers were not picked up for treatment until after the cessation of the battle, resulting in many dying on the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24905777",
"title": "Motorcycle ambulance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Motorcycle ambulances were used during World War I by the British, French and Americans. At the time the advantages of light weight, speed, and mobility over larger vehicles was cited as the motive for the use of sidecar rigs in this role. The US version had two stretchers arranged one on top of the other. The French ambulance used a sidecar that held a single patient, who could either lie down or sit up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21311092",
"title": "History of the ambulance",
"section": "Section::::Introduction of motor units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The first mass-production automobile-based ambulance (rather than one-off models) was produced in the United States in 1909 by the James Cunningham, Son & Company of Rochester, New York, a manufacturer of carriages and hearses. This ambulance, named the \"Model 774 Automobile Ambulance\", featured a proprietary , 4-cylinder internal combustion engine. The chassis rode on pneumatic tires, while the body featured electric lights, a suspended cot with two attendant seats, and a side-mounted gong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bd7fn
|
the different parts of web development and the languages/tools that are used for each part.
|
[
{
"answer": "This explanation is a huge oversimplification but this is ELI5 after all... there are basically three levels of code in any code base as follows:\n\n1. Database Tier (MySQL, Oracle): this consists of database tables which contain all the data for your website like user name, address info, etc. This tier also contains all the commands to interact with the database tables like retrieving the data to show on the webpage.\n2. Business Tier (Python/Java): this consists of most of the logic involved in your website. For example, when you submit data on reddit this is where that data is validated before it is stored in the database.\n3. Presentation Tier (Angular/HTML/Jquery): this consists of building the HTML to show you the webpage. By this point all the data has been pulled from the database and validated in the Business Tier and we are ready to show you the results.\n\nAgain, this is a super simplified version of one way to look at a code base and super nerds will say this is old fashioned and blah blah blah. But in the end you have to perform these 3 things no matter what.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of building a website like opening up a restaurant on undeveloped land:\n\n1. buy land. (buy hosting)\n2. register your name in the address book like yellow pages. (register your domain name)\n3. stock up on raw materials (write content)\n4. build your store out of wooden frame, put up walls (HTML)\n5. style your walls with paint and align tables and chairs (CSS)\n6. hire employees (chefs, food servers, cleaners) (write Javascript)\n\n**HTML**\n\nHTML is the frame of your restaurant. Put on your construction worker hat, build a frame, put up walls, and move in the the tables and chairs and other furniture. It's a rough frame to hold your content. Use \"class names\" to name your walls/areas so that you can refer to them later. Ex: < div class=\"curtain\" > < /div > \n\nThink of an HTML \"page\" as a \"room\". Each room is typically styled in a similar way, but a \"lobby room\" will have different stuff than a \"reading room\", or a \"contact-us room\".\n\n\n**CSS**\n\nWithout CSS, you would have a white-walled shop with tables and chairs scattered randomly in inconvenient spots. CSS is like an interior designer who decides on the colors of the walls, how far the tables will be spaced apart (margins, padding, borders), and how to arrange the chairs. How large should the posters be on the walls? what font should the menu and front door signs should be? These are problems you solve in CSS stylesheets which you import into your HTML layouts. You use the \"class names\" you defined in your HTML to tell CSS which things to style how. Ex: .curtain{ background: blue; } to make the curtain blue.\n\n\n**Scripting**\n\nScripting is more dynamic in nature.. think of it like your employees - people who do stuff in your store. There are two types of employees: back-end and front-end. \n\n**Front-end (JS, jQuery)**\n\nFront-end workers are like restaurant food servers (confusion alert: they're not 'web-servers'). They're good at quickly clearing the table, and putting in new stuff, sometimes with flash effects. They're dynamic lads that can re-arrange a table for you so that a big group of customers can sit together, they can show them the menu when you want it, and give them extra information if they ask for it. They basically hide or show stuff based on the customers' immediate needs, without disturbing the \"back-end\" staff like the manager and chef every single time. How much responsibility you give to these guys is up to you - but you usually don't want them handling sensitive data, because mischievous customers can trick them into giving it to them. You can say something like $(\".curtain\").hide(); to hide the curtain if someone asks you to.\n\n**Back-end (Node.js, Ruby on Rails, PHP, Python, etc.)**\n\nThe back-end workers are managers and chefs. These are employees trained in doing things according to procedures, in an isolated environment away from the customers, without much regard for people's feelings. Ex: The chef takes orders, makes the food, silently puts it in the \"done\" bin, and rings a bell for the food-server to bring it to the customer. He never really deals with the customer directly.\n\nOld-school restaurants (usually. those built in PHP) tend also have construction workers who will build new rooms for people to go into if they want things. The proceedure was to not have any front-end workers, but instead to keep asking the user to go a new room for things. \"Oh you want a steak? Okay madam, follow me to a special room we built for you that will have your steak ready for you.\"... walk to a new room... However, with front-end Javascript workers you can tell your visitor \"Oh, you want a steak? Okay wait right here while I fetch it for you.\", then clear off the table, and plop the steak on their table.\n\n\n**Databases (MySQL, Mongo, etc.)**\n\nYour restaurant will have a storage room filled with stuff you will need at some point, but you don't need it all on display at all times. They're organized in neat shelves with labels to help you find stuff. This is called a Database. When the back-end chef needs stuff, he goes into the storage room, finds the appropriate shelves, fetches the needed ingredients (data). Your blog site might store your blog posts in a table. \n\nYou need a database for the same reason you need a storage room - lots of stuff to store, and it needs to be organized. You could of course run a crappy restaurant without a storage room, in which case you can have the raw meat stored in the walls of the place, or have it out in the open for unsuspecting customers to be disgusted by.\n\n**Payments**\n\nOf course you can provide this food for free, and provide advertisements on the walls, or you could sell the food using payment processing systems. A payment processing system can be built using a nice \"front-end\" and \"back-end\" workers that work together to carry out and verify the payment, or you can put them in a room\n\n**Now a little demo (This is fun LOL)**\n\nSo let's say Suzy is hungry and decides your restaurant is a healthy choice. So she looks up your address in a phone book. (DNS lookup). They find your address, and follow the roads to your freshly built store. (IP & HTTP protocol). They open the door and that annoying bell goes off, and Mr. Google Analytics chuckles and adds a tick to his tally of how many people visited your store.\n\nSuzy has been to your place before. You know that because last time she was here, you strategically taped a cookie to her back, along with a secret code that identifies her. You carefully inspect the cryptic code on the cookie, recognize her as Suzy Poozie, a member of your VIP club, and see that she is still logged in. So you tell your big russian VIP lounge guards that she's cool, the nod to confirm.\n\nSuzy requests your store's menu. If you're a good restaurant designer, you present them the menu by having one of your well-trained front-end Javascript workers to show it to her.. maybe throw in some nice tool-tip cards to answer their FAQs on the spot... but if you're old-school, you can just have a door labeled \"Choose what you want to eat.\" that leads to a room with more doors, one for each item you have. Of course, you don't need to actually build all these rooms now.. you'll build them just as she turns the handle.\n\nAs she looks thru the menu, Mr. Google Analytics in his labcoat is carefully studying their fingertip taps, tracking what's taking her 3 whole minutes to make a decision.. so they can later show you in a nice graph.. how often each menu item was glanced or tapped.\n\n\"I'll have the filet mingnon\" says the customer to your front-end worker, who passes their request to your chef, along with a bell to ring when he's done, who's sitting there bugeyed scraping knives together just waiting for an order to come in. Your chef recalls what he needs, goes to the storage room, gets the stuff, makes the meal, (all in a fraction of a second) and rings the \"HTTP 200 OK\" bell, if he takes longer than the acceptable time, the bell will go off on its own with \"HTTP 408 Request Timeout\". But assuming all's good, the front-end worker clears your table, and arranges your table with all the stuff you need to enjoy your meal.\n\nAfter they're done, the front-end worker takes them through the payment process. (hopefully something like Stripe payments that uses AJAX, and not through a long tunnel, over to a different building and then back again like PayPal lol)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "611714",
"title": "Web development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Web development is the work involved in developing a web site for the Internet (World Wide Web) or an intranet (a private network). Web development can range from developing a simple single static page of plain text to complex web-based internet applications (web apps), electronic businesses, and social network services. A more comprehensive list of tasks to which web development commonly refers, may include web engineering, web design, web content development, client liaison, client-side/server-side scripting, web server and network security configuration, and e-commerce development. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44805742",
"title": "Web project",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Programming for a web project may be accomplished using one or more markup languages (such as HTML or XML), scripting languages (JavaScript, Perl, PHP for example) or even more complex programming languages (such as C/C++/C# or Java).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774107",
"title": "Web development tools",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Web development tools allow developers to work with a variety of web technologies, including HTML, CSS, the DOM, JavaScript, and other components that are handled by the web browser. Due to increasing demand from web browsers to do more, popular web browsers have included more features geared for developers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3025578",
"title": "Web content development",
"section": "Section::::Content developers and web developers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "When the World Wide Web began, web developers either developed online content themselves, or modified existing documents and coded them into hypertext markup language (HTML). In time, the field of website development came to encompass many technologies, so it became difficult for website developers to maintain so many different skills. Content developers are specialized website developers who have content generation skills such as graphic design, multimedia development, professional writing, and documentation. They can integrate content into new or existing websites without using information technology skills such as script language programming and database programming. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "611714",
"title": "Web development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Among web professionals, \"web development\" usually refers to the main non-design aspects of building web sites: writing markup and coding. Web development may use content management systems (CMS) to make content changes easier and available with basic technical skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7206282",
"title": "Web application development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Web application development is the process and practice of developing web applications. There is a consensus that the processes involved are extensions of standard software engineering processes. Considering this, along with its unique characteristics, popular frameworks used include the spiral approach and business-oriented approach to application development, among other models that address the requirements for an iterative process. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30310",
"title": "Text editor",
"section": "Section::::Specialised editors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "BULLET::::- World Wide Web authors are offered a variety of HTML editors dedicated to the task of creating web pages. These include: Dreamweaver, KompoZer and E Text Editor. Many offer the option of viewing a work in progress on a built-in HTML rendering engine or standard web browser. Most web development is done in a dynamic programming language such as Ruby or PHP using a source code editor or IDE. The HTML delivered by all but the simplest static web sites is stored as individual template files that are assembled by the software controlling the site and do not compose a complete HTML document.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ea8u3
|
what happens when your body "adjusts" to a high-fiber diet
|
[
{
"answer": "Any dietary change can cause rumbletummy. Your gut flora adapts to dealing with slower digesting food. However, some people have more difficulty than others. I eat lots of bran fiber as well as raw and cooked vegetable fiber... And chicory root (in fiber bars, some yogurts, and fiber cereals) gives me awful rumbly tummy even when I eat it for a week.\n\nBeans have undigestable starches in them that cause gas. Soaking beans overnight and discarding the water helps remove the starches.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Guidelines on fiber intake.:Fiber recommendations.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Fiber is defined by its physiological impact, with many heterogenous types of fibers. Some fibers may primarily impact one of these benefits (i.e., cellulose increases fecal bulking and prevents constipation), but many fibers impact more than one of these benefits (i.e., resistant starch increases bulking, increases colonic fermentation, positively modulates colonic microflora and increases satiety and insulin sensitivity). The beneficial effects of high fiber diets are the summation of the effects of the different types of fiber present in the diet and also other components of such diets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210596",
"title": "Irritable bowel syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Diet.:Fiber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Fiber might be beneficial in those who have a predominance of constipation. In people who have IBS-C, soluble fiber can reduce overall symptoms, but will not reduce pain. The research supporting dietary fiber contains conflicting small studies complicated by the heterogeneity of types of fiber and doses used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Dietary fiber and obesity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "Dietary fiber has many functions in diet, one of which may be to aid in energy intake control and reduced risk for development of obesity. The role of dietary fiber in energy intake regulation and obesity development is related to its unique physical and chemical properties that aid in early signals of satiation and enhanced or prolonged signals of satiety. Early signals of satiation may be induced through cephalic- and gastric-phase responses related to the bulking effects of dietary fiber on energy density and palatability, whereas the viscosity-producing effects of certain fibers may enhance satiety through intestinal-phase events related to modified gastrointestinal function and subsequent delay in fat absorption. In general, fiber-rich diets, whether achieved through fiber supplementation or incorporation of high fiber foods into meals, have a reduced energy density compared with high fat diets. This is related to fiber’s ability to add bulk and weight to the diet. There are also indications that women may be more sensitive to dietary manipulation with fiber than men. The relationship of body weight status and fiber effect on energy intake suggests that obese individuals may be more likely to reduce food intake with dietary fiber inclusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168509",
"title": "Constipation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Constipation can be caused or exacerbated by a low-fiber diet, low liquid intake, or dieting. Dietary fiber helps to decrease colonic transport time, increases stool bulk but simultaneously softens stool. Therefore, diets low in fiber can lead to primary constipation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Activity in the gut.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Dietary fibers can change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and can change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed through bulking and viscosity. Some types of soluble fibers bind to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to re-enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood from the actions of cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of cholesterol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66554",
"title": "Dietary fiber",
"section": "Section::::Types and sources of dietary fiber.:Fiber supplements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Soluble fiber supplements may be beneficial for alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, such as diarrhea or constipation and abdominal discomfort. Prebiotic soluble fiber products, like those containing inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from inflammatory bowel disease, as in Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and \"Clostridium difficile\", due in part to the short-chain fatty acids produced with subsequent anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel. Fiber supplements may be effective in an overall dietary plan for managing irritable bowel syndrome by modification of food choices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26639763",
"title": "Weight management",
"section": "Section::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Increasing fiber intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Dietary fiber has been suggested to aid weight management by inducing satiety, decreasing absorption of macronutrients and promoting secretion of gut hormones. Dietary fiber consists of non-digestible carbohydrates and lignin, which are a structural component in plants. Fiber recommendations range from 10 – 13 grams/1000 calories, with slightly higher recommendations for men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yg4wf
|
- why is microwaving metal objects dangerous?
|
[
{
"answer": "Microwaves can induce electric current in metallic (or any conductive) objects. They are, quite literally, antennas. And while normally antennas receive signals of low power, these are high power signals meant for transferring energy. \n\nThe effect of these currents depends alot on the object's makeup. \"Pure\" metal in a smooth shape tends to disperse the current pretty easily. If, however, the metal is mixed with other things, or has sharp edges, or air gaps, this makes it much harder for all the electric forces to equalize and you can get sparking which becomes a fire hazard. The classic example here is that usually forks cause sparking, but spoons do not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1068262",
"title": "Scrap",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Great potential exists in the scrap metal industry for accidents in which a hazardous material present in scrap causes death, injury, or environmental damage. A classic example is radioactivity in scrap; the Goiânia accident and the Mayapuri radiological accident were incidents involving radioactive materials. Toxic materials such as asbestos, and toxic metals such as beryllium, cadmium, and mercury may pose dangers to personnel, as well as contaminating materials intended for metal smelters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5886985",
"title": "Geomelting",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Inorganics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Inorganic contaminants like heavy metals (toxic metals including mercury, cadmium, and lead) are released into the environment via industrial leaks and automobile waste. If left unattended, these inorganic hazards can deteriorate ecosystems and cause mental/physical illnesses in humans. Regardless of the mixture of metals, geomelting isolates these heavy metals in a glass matrix and prevents them from entering the environment, eliminating the threat posed to the surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "632853",
"title": "Information and communication technologies for development",
"section": "Section::::Organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "A pressing problem is also the misuse of electronic waste in dangerous ways. Burning technology to obtain the metals inside will release toxic fumes into the air. Plastics, chips and circuit boards are destroyed to gather their raw and sellable materials. These practices cost the health of communities, affecting the respiratory and immune system. Presence of harmful chemicals is stuck on soils like lead, mercury, and cadmium. Sadly electronic wastes are profound in developing countries where they are dumped due to large recycling costs. Developing countries are forced to labor on these waste to get money. (Certification of recyclers to e-stewards or R2 Solutions standards is intended to preclude environmental pollution.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9934503",
"title": "Radiation damage",
"section": "Section::::Effects on materials and devices.:Effects on solids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Radiation can have harmful effects on solid materials as it can degrade their properties so that they are no longer mechanically sound. This is of special concern as it can greatly affect their ability to perform in nuclear reactors and is the emphasis of radiation material science, which seeks to mitigate this danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867078",
"title": "Wood's metal",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Wood's metal is toxic because it contains lead and cadmium, and contamination of bare skin is considered harmful. Vapour from cadmium-containing alloys is also known to pose a danger to humans. Cadmium poisoning carries the risk of cancer, anosmia (loss of sense of smell), and damage to the liver, kidneys, nerves, bones, and respiratory system. Field's metal is a non-toxic alternative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31676594",
"title": "Oddy test",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Often, materials for construction and museum contexts (including artefact conservation) are evaluated for safety. However, though materials may be safe for building purposes, they may emit trace amounts of chemicals that can harm art objects over time. Acids, formaldehyde, and other fumes can damage and even destroy delicate artifacts if placed too close.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14752",
"title": "Iridium",
"section": "Section::::Precautions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its lack of reactivity with tissues; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human tissue. Like most metals, finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle, as it is an irritant and may ignite in air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2u0p0k
|
What is it about the American Revolution that allowed it to"work" when there are so many other revolutions (the French and Russian Revolutions come to mind) that end up horribly?
|
[
{
"answer": "To my consideration, the answer lies within the terms. While the Russian and French revolutions were, basically internal affairs, as they wanted to overthrow the government held by actual Russians and French people respectively, the American revolution was actually an independence, as the government that was sought to be overthrown was English. As the source of the problem leaves the country, problems aren't as prone to reappear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speaking broadly the reason many revolutions have failed is because a victorious and popular General uses his popularity, particularly within the military, to consolidate power before the post-revolution State can be brought fully into existence. One of the reasons Trotsky - a charismatic leader, formidable rhetorician, and leader of the red army - was exiled and feared was because the Bolsheviks feared he'd become another Napoleon. So perhaps the principle reason is that George Washington didn't go mad with power and use his popularity become a military dictator. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think geography plays a role as well. The months it took for new British troops to arrive from England (and the challenges with communicating back and forth) severely limited to Britain's ability to respond to the colonist's efforts. \n\nEssentially similar to the \"internal\" discussion above. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to offer an alternate theory to /u/DaMadApe: The American Revolution faced no external threat, as did the French and Russian revolutions. In 1783, following the Peace of Paris, the United States had no immediate external enemies. It did not face the threat of invasion, and thus the government was able to focus on internal problems first and foremost. Thanks to this \"breathing room,\" for lack of a better term, early Americans were allowed the time to settle internal conflicts caused by the Articles of Confederation and the formation of a new government. With external peace, the new United States was able to draft a constitution outlining a new government without interference.\n\nBoth France and Russia faced invasion immediately after the establishment of the revolutionary government. Once the revolutionary governments overthrew the existing order, they faced external problems. In 1792, following the end of the French constitutional assembly, France faced invasion on several fronts. It also faced problems with internal problems — counterrevoluntaries on one end of the scale and radical revolutionaries on the other end of the scale.\n\nThe United States faced these internal problems as well — think the Whiskey Rebellion for one example — but it was able to focus intellectual and physical resources on these internal problems where the French Revolution was distracted in multiple directions. The invasion of France by the First Coalition dissolved what support remained for the monarchy, and the constitutional monarchy collapsed. This permitted the Reign of Terror and all that came afterward. Had the constitutional monarchy been given time to stabilize, it could have lived on, just as the young American government was given time to draft a stronger document and structure that fixed the problems of the Articles of Confederation.\n\nNow, look at Russia. Its circumstances were even more critical than that of France -- it was already invaded by the German army at the time of the February Revolution, which installed a moderate provisional government. The continued attacks of the German army fatally weakened the provisional government. One of the promises that government had made was that it would not send more troops to the front lines. When it did so, support for it began to decline.\n\nAfter the October Revolution and the cease-fire with Germany, Russia was invaded again — this time by the Allies and Japan. As in the latter part of the French Revolution, drastic and bloody measures were taken by the revolutionary government to secure its rear area in order to successfully fight the war against the external enemy. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38878700",
"title": "Revolutions of 1917–1923",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The Revolutions of 1917–1923 were a period of political unrest and revolts around the world inspired by the success of the Russian Revolution and the disorder created by the aftermath of World War I. The uprisings were mainly socialist or anti-colonial in nature and were mostly short-lived, failing to have a long-term impact. Out of all the revolutionary activity of the era, the revolutionary wave of 1917–1923 mainly refers to the unrest caused by World War I in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973",
"title": "American Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of the United States Constitution, establishing a relatively strong federal national government which included an executive, a national judiciary, and a bicameral Congress representing states in the Senate and the population in the House of Representatives. The Revolution also resulted in the migration of around 60,000 Loyalists to other British territories, especially British North America (Canada).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45137597",
"title": "February Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Short-term causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The revolution was provoked by Russian military failures during the First World War, as well as public dissatisfaction with the way the country was run on the home front. The economic challenges faced due to fighting a total war also contributed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511631",
"title": "German Revolution of 1918–19",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The roots of the revolution lay in the German Empire's defeat in the First World War and the social tensions that came to a head shortly thereafter. The first acts of revolution were triggered by the policies of the German Supreme Command of the Army and its lack of coordination with the Naval Command. In the face of defeat, the Naval Command insisted on trying to precipitate a climactic battle with the British Royal Navy by means of its naval order of 24 October 1918. The battle never took place. Instead of obeying their orders to begin preparations to fight the British, German sailors led a revolt in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven on 29 October 1918, followed by the Kiel mutiny in the first days of November. These disturbances spread the spirit of civil unrest across Germany and ultimately led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated his throne and fled the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6637507",
"title": "Ancien Régime",
"section": "Section::::Downfall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Revolution was not due to a single event but to a series of events, that together irreversibly changed the organization of political power, the nature of society, and the exercise of individual freedoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511631",
"title": "German Revolution of 1918–19",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The causes of the revolution were the extreme burdens suffered by the population during the four years of war, the strong impact of the defeat on the German Empire and the social tensions between the general population and the elite of aristocrats and bourgeoisie who held power and had just lost the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25964",
"title": "Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Notable revolutions during later centuries include the creation of the United States through the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the French Revolution (1789–1799), the 1848 European Revolutions, the Russian Revolution in 1917, the Chinese Revolution of the 1940s, and the Cuban Revolution in 1959.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7c3acd
|
how is tv static from the big bang?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's residual energy that is still dissipating. In the grand scheme of the universe our lives are a mere split second, there are things at work that are bigger and take longer then we can comprehend.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the TV static is from the amplifier itself; only ~1% of that is cosmic background radiation. CBR is spread across a pretty wide band, 0.3 GHz to 630 GHz, which broadcast TV is within that band. It's also really quiet, which is why almost all the static is local (part of the TV circuit itself) electrical noise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm guessing your really asking how there could still be left over effects from the big bang. \n\nStatic exists because TV antennas pick up light waves of a certain frequency that overlap with frequency of waves from somewhere out there in space. \n\nIt turns out those waves from out there are actually the big bang happening. \n\n**How could the light from the big bang be just reaching us now?**\n\nWell, light travels fast - but it turns out something travels faster - the expansion of space itself. [inflation](_URL_0_) is the process of more space being created between the stars. \n\nHave you ever asked where the big bang took place? Like, what park of the sky it would be in? Well, it was all of space, so it took place everywhere. Everywhere was just a lot smaller back then. As all of space expanded away from itself, some parts actually did so at *faster* than the speed of light. This means there are parts of space who's light will never reach us and some parts (going a little slower) who's light is only now reaching us. The electromagnetic radiation (light waves) from the dawn of time travel across the universe to come to rest in your antenna and make a gentle hiss and some soothing snow. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2075077",
"title": "John G. Cramer",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Cramer's simulation of the sound of the Big Bang, created using Mathematica, attracted some mainstream press attention in late 2003 and again in 2013. The simulation originated with an \"Alternate View\" article, \"BOOMERanG and the Sound of the Big Bang\" (January 2001). Cramer describes the sound as \"rather like a large jet plane 100 feet off the ground flying over your house in the middle of the night.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8464879",
"title": "The Big Bang (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The Big Bang is a CITV science show broadcast from 15 April 1996 – 8 September 2004 and produced by Yorkshire Television. It is notable for being one of CITV's longest-running science programmes. The aim of the programme was to make science fun and interesting for children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3338992",
"title": "Noise (video)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Noise, in analog video and television, is a random dot pixel pattern of static displayed when no transmission signal is obtained by the antenna receiver of television sets and other display devices. The random pattern superimposed on the picture, visible as a random flicker of \"dots\" or \"snow\", is the result of electronic noise and radiated electromagnetic noise accidentally picked up by the antenna. This effect is most commonly seen with analog TV sets or blank VHS tapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2655280",
"title": "Image noise",
"section": "Section::::Video noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "In video and television, noise refers to the random dot pattern that is superimposed on the picture as a result of electronic noise, the 'snow' that is seen with poor (analog) television reception or on VHS tapes. Interference and static are other forms of noise, in the sense that they are unwanted, though not random, which can affect radio and television signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11995898",
"title": "Boom! (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Boom! is an American reality television series that aired on Spike TV in 2005 and was hosted by Kourtney Klein. It featured a group of demolition experts using explosives to destroy objects such as trailers, houses, boats and cars. Often, the suggestions on what should be blown up were sent in by home viewers via a \"BOOM! Mailbag\". Each episode covered obtaining the materials (such as the item to be destroyed), cleaning, gutting, and rigging the thing with explosives, and then making the final countdown and pushing the detonator, and watching the devastation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "318514",
"title": "Robert Woodrow Wilson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "While working on a new type of antenna at Bell Labs in Holmdel Township, New Jersey, they found a source of noise in the atmosphere that they could not explain. After removing all potential sources of noise, including pigeon droppings on the antenna, the noise was finally identified as CMB, which served as important corroboration of the Big Bang theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3365785",
"title": "Tragedy (Bee Gees song)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "In 1979, NBC aired \"The Bee Gees Special\", which showed how the sound effect for the explosion was created. Barry cupped his hands over a microphone and made an exploding sound with his mouth. Several of these sounds were then mixed together creating one large boom heard on the record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r3nyv
|
Why would some knights during the Middle Ages name their weapons?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would put forward the following - \n\n- Possessions were few and far between in the middle ages; a sword was one of the most valuable things a person could have. As a result, knights wanted to show off their pride for their weapons by naming them.\n\n- The tradition of naming weapons probably arose in the early middle ages, such as in the anglo-saxon and viking cultures. For example, the Viking King Magnus Barelegs had a sword called \"Legbiter\".\n\n- Not only swords were named, but other weapons also, and sometimes armour and shields as well. In such warrior cultures weapons and armor were very prized possessions, and men would form a strong psychological bond with such items. Much like an American Frontiersman who named his rifle, these names represented the life and death relationship warriors had with their arms and armour. \n\n- Later in the middle ages, in the more continental traditions of knighthood in the high and late middle ages, this tradition was not formally practiced, although it is likely that some individual would have given their weapons informal nicknames.\n\nOther examples of named swords I can think of -\n\n- Edward the Confessor had the \"Sword of Mercy\" or \"Curtana\", which forms a part of the French epic you name above and according to legend, once belonged to Ogier the Dane.\n\n- El Cid had a sword named \"Tizona\" which is on display in the Museo de Burgos, in Burgos, Spain.\n\n- Charlemagne's \"Joyeuse\"\"\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13610",
"title": "Heraldry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the various arms attributed to the Nine Worthies and the Knights of the Round Table. These too are now regarded as a fanciful invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27717974",
"title": "Goliardia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "These associations have a structure similar to the knights’ orders of the Middle Ages, though in these academic orders, the sword was represented by the art of dialectic. The Goliardi trace their origin to Peter Abelard (in Latin: Petrus Abaelardus or Abailard), a medieval French scholastic philosopher, theologian, and logician.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8774444",
"title": "Pirates, Vikings and Knights II",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "The knights have access to a heavy knight, an archer and a man at arms. Heavy knights are slow moving but wield a longsword and can use their special ability to do a circular spinning attack. They are also equipped with a shield and a shortsword. By contrast, the archer is a fast moving class armed with both a crossbow and a longbow, and can use their special ability to fire three flaming arrows at once from the longbow. They are also equipped with a shortsword for close combat. The man at arms is equipped with a halberd,a mace with a small shield and a smaller version of the Archer crossbow. His special attack is \"farting\" that makes enemies slow and damage them at the same time.The archer and man at arms are both like a skirmisher,they have less health than other classes but run and attack faster in quick blows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "Section::::Knightly culture in the Middle Ages.:Heraldry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "One of the greatest distinguishing marks of the knightly class was the flying of coloured banners, to display power and to distinguish knights in battle and in tournaments. Knights are generally \"armigerous\" (bearing a coat of arms), and indeed they played an essential role in the development of heraldry. As heavier armour, including enlarged shields and enclosed helmets, developed in the Middle Ages, the need for marks of identification arose, and with coloured shields and surcoats, coat armoury was born. Armourial rolls were created to record the knights of various regions or those who participated in various tournaments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "703444",
"title": "Swordsmanship",
"section": "Section::::European swordsmanship.:Post-classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "As time passed, the \"spatha\" evolved into the arming sword, a weapon with a notable cruciform hilt common among knights in the Medieval Age. Some time after this evolution, the earliest known treatises \"(Fechtbücher\") were written, dealing primarily with arming sword and buckler combat. Among these examples is the I.33, the earliest known \"Fechtbuch\". The German school of swordsmanship can trace itself most closely to Johannes Liechtenauer and his students, who later became the German masters of the 15th century, including Sigmund Ringeck, Hans Talhoffer, Peter von Danzig and Paulus Kal. It is possible that the Italian fencing treatise Flos Duellatorum, written by the Italian swordmaster Fiore dei Liberi around 1410, has ties to the German school. During this period of time, the longsword grew out of the arming sword, eventually resulting in a blade comfortably wielded in both hands at once. Armour technology also evolved, leading to the advent of plate armour, and thus swordsmanship was further pressed to meet the demands of killing a very well protected enemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23468036",
"title": "History of weapons",
"section": "Section::::Early-Modern Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "Medieval weapons were still in service during the Renaissance and Civil war. Some of the medieval weapons that were still in use included Guisarme, the Halberd, the Mace and the partisan. The Halberd was a traditional weapon used by the Swiss, consisting of an axe-blade topped with a spike, with a hook or pick on the back, on top of a long pole. This weapon was mostly used by the foot soldiers against cavalry, Halberds became obsolete when improvised pikes started to be produced in huge numbers. Meanwhile, the Partisan was introduced in England in the 14th century and was used excessively and extensively in Europe and especially in France. Originally the Partisan used to be a spear with small wings added below it. The sword still remained the most popular weapon during Renaissance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. The ideals of chivalry were popularized in medieval literature, particularly the literary cycles known as the Matter of France, relating to the legendary companions of Charlemagne and his men-at-arms, the paladins, and the Matter of Britain, relating to the legend of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xcpg5
|
50 years ago $20 was a lot of money, today it's almost spare change. where does all the extra money come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "The more money printed the less it's worth. Why QE is so controversial. But that is what happens constantly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unfortunately your question doesn't have an easy answer, it can't be narrowed down to one thing in particular. Whereas I'm no expert in economics but it has been a course I've studied at A level and as part of my degree. Maybe somebody else could help us both out with some more expert knowledge.\n\nInflation refers to the general increase in the cost of goods/services and thus the cost of living. Ideally everyone should expect a pay rise every year or 2 in line with this sort of inflation. The bank of England sets the target at around 2% per year. That being said everything should therefore be relative and so as time progreses we wouldn't notice a difference to relative living costs. This isn't the case though as the financial system of earth is affected by global trade, influence from bodies like the WTO and MPC etc etc. It is also influence by local (or national) influencers such as demand for goods, tax, interest rates etc. The exchange of moneys in both these settings will therefore determine how much cash is lurking around your nations economy. The transfer of money between foreign and domestic markets is also determined by interest rate dependant on how well that economy us doing. Sadly I cant offer much on the origins of exchange rates. It's again a fairly complex system.\n\nThe restrictions on cash as you say are in place as we speak (or type). An economy would destroy itself by constantly injecting cash because the currency would be worthless- think about it for a moment. However when there is a shortage of cash and inflation makes the cost of goods harder for the majority to budget on then a process called quantative easing is used to inject multi millions or billions in an attempt to put a few more pennies in everybody's pockets. It's a last resort fix for an economy though. It will almost certainly make your exchange rate weaker so is avoided at all costs.\n\nFinally currency devalues over time thus bigger value notes are more common in your pocket. So lets say £10 today will be worth £9 in 2 years time (just an example, not actual rates of devaluing). Go 20 years down the line it's mow only worth £1 in today's value. So in 20 years £10 today is actually £100 ( work is out by the same method I've done and £100 now in 20 years will be worth £10, if you understand. So yeah its quite complex and a lot of factors affect currency valuation. As I say hopefully somebody can offer a greater explanation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Twenty Dollars is Spare Change? Are you rich? Twenty Dollars can buy you a lot even in today's world",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "477355",
"title": "United States one hundred-dollar bill",
"section": "Section::::Removal of large denomination bills ($500 and up).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "As of June 30, 1969, the U.S. coins and banknotes in circulation of all denominations were worth $50.936 billion of which $4.929 billion was circulating overseas. So the currency and coin circulating within the United States was $230 per capita. Since 1969, the demand for U.S. currency has greatly increased. The total amount of circulating currency and coin passed one trillion dollars in March 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3752631",
"title": "Richard Johnson (actor)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Film stardom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Johnson later recalled in 2000 that \"It comes as a curious shock to me now to realise that I was making around pounds 1m a year in today's money. And I managed to spend it all having a hell of a good time... I knew it wasn't going to last for ever, but I also knew I had to enjoy it while the time was right.'\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1747821",
"title": "Jill Stein",
"section": "Section::::Presidential campaigns.:2016.:2016 presidential election recount fundraising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "In May 2018, the \"Daily Beast\", reported that approximately $1 million of the original $7.3 million had yet to be spent and that there remained uncertainty about what precisely the money had been spent on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177666",
"title": "Reserve currency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "By the end of the 20th century, the United States dollar was considered the world's dominant reserve currency. The world's need for dollars has allowed the United States government as well as Americans to borrow at lower costs, granting them an advantage in excess of $100 billion per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8645415",
"title": "Affluence in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Wealth statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The total value of all U.S. household wealth in 2000 was approximately $44 trillion. Prior to the Late-2000s recession which began in December 2007 its value was at $65.9 trillion. After, it plunged to $48.5 trillion during the first quarter of 2009. The total household net worth rose 1.3% by the fourth quarter of 2009 to $54.2 trillion, indicating the American economy is recovering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "607640",
"title": "Monetary base",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "As of April 2019, the monetary base in the United States was about USD $3,286,668,000,000 (about 3.3 trillion dollars), up from about $832,999,000,000 (about 0.8 trillion dollars) in March 2008; this dramatic more-than-three-fold increase was a response to the financial crisis of 2007–2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295107",
"title": "Missing dollar riddle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The answer to the question, \"Where did the extra dollar come from?” can be found from consecutively adding the bank rest from three different days. This way is correct only if the money owner withdraws every day exact half of the money. Then it will add up. ($25 + $12.50 + $6.25) + $6.25 = $50\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p57ha
|
Since flames burn at different temperatures, are there any flames that are safe to touch?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are borderline for \"safe to touch\", but some materials burn as so-called [\"cool flames\"](_URL_0_) with temperatures in the 200-400 degree C range",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37431",
"title": "Solvent",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "In addition some solvents, such as methanol, can burn with a very hot flame which can be nearly invisible under some lighting conditions. This can delay or prevent the timely recognition of a dangerous fire, until flames spread to other materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4556850",
"title": "Propane torch",
"section": "Section::::Complete and incomplete combustion.:Flame temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "An air-only torch will burn at around 1,995 °C (3,623 °F), less if heat loss to the surroundings is taken into account. Even glass bead-making torches, which are essentially Bunsen burners with an added air pump, can only achieve actual operating temperatures of . Oxygen-fed torches can be much hotter at up to 2,820 °C (5,110 °F), depending on the fuel-oxygen ratio, and whether MAPP or propane gas is used. Actual flame temperatures are generally lower due to incomplete combustion and heat loss to the surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855608",
"title": "Firefighting",
"section": "Section::::Hazards caused by fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Obvious risks associated with the immense heat generated by a fire, even without direct contact with the flames (direct flame impingement), such as conductive heat and radiant heat, can cause serious burns even from great distances. There are a number of comparably serious heat-related risks, such as burns from hot gases (e.g., air), steam, and hot and/or toxic smoke. Prolonged, intense exertion in hot environments also increases firefighters' risk for health-related illnesses, such as rhabdomyolysis. Accordingly, firefighters are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistant clothing such as Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI) and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the body. No PPE, however, can completely protect the user from the effects of all possible fire conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47003147",
"title": "Alcohol burner",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "While they do not produce flames as hot as other types of burners, they are sufficiently hot for performing some chemistries, standard microbiology laboratory procedures, and can be used for flame sterilization of other laboratory equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16460488",
"title": "Butane torch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Consumer air butane torches are often claimed to develop flame temperatures up to approximately . This temperature is high enough to melt many common metals, such as aluminum and copper, and hot enough to vaporize many organic compounds as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4200579",
"title": "Kerosene heater",
"section": "Section::::Safety hazards.:Fire hazard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Hot surfaces on the heater pose a fire and burn risk. The open flame poses an explosion risk in environments where flammable vapors may be present, such as in a garage. Use of improper or contaminated fuel could cause poor performance, a fire or an explosion. There are the usual risks involved with the storage of kerosene and when refilling the heater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233082",
"title": "Burn",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Thermal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "In the United States, fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns. Of house fires that result in death, smoking causes 25% and heating devices cause 22%. Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire. Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks, high temperature tap water in baths or showers, hot cooking oil, or steam. Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and, in the United States and Australia, this population makes up about two-thirds of all burns. Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20–30% of burns in children. Generally, scalds are first- or second-degree burns, but third-degree burns may also result, especially with prolonged contact. Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries. This is a particular risk for adolescent males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hgvou
|
I can't seem to understand what a virtual image is in optics. Secondly, is a rainbow an example of a virtual image?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you look at something, your eyes see and your brain interprets rays of light diverging from individual points of the object. This is called image formation.\n\nWhen you look through a magnifying glass at something, you still see rays of light that *appear to be* emanating from a common point, but those rays of light didn't actually start there. They actually started from the object and bent at the lens, then went to your eye. Because the rays you see don't actually touch each other, the image is called a **virtual image**.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Easy determinant is whether the image can be produced on a screen or not - real images will, virtual images won't. Reals are produced by light rays that actually converge to a point (which is where we perceive that point to be), whereas virtuals only appear to converge at a point, but actually originated from somewhere else entirely.\n\nSo for instance if you look through a magnifying class at an object, and the object is close enough to the lens to be focused on, you will see a magnified image on the object on your retina. The image produced by the magnifying glass is a virtual image - it can't be produced on a screen held up between your eye and the lens, and the object only appears bigger because the lens bends the rays so that they appear to have originated from a point much closer to the lens than they really did (the image formed on your retina is a real image, but that's because your eye has its own lens inside - for the sake of this example, just ignore what's going on inside your eye and think of it as just an observer).\n\nIf on the other hand you move the lens away from the object, at one point everything gets distorted and blurred and starts looking farther away - at this point the lens is generally producing a real image, and could theoretically be visible on a screen (most light sources aren't bright enough to make this perceptible though). Instead of rays diverging and appearing to be from a close point on the far side of the lens, they are converging at a real point on the near side of the lens. The point of blur inbetween is when the object is at the lens' focal distance, resulting in the rays emerging from the lens parallel to each other.\n\nThe best way to understand the difference is probably diagrams, and I guess I could post some from wiki here, but at that point you're probably better off just reading the wiki pages on real and virtual images.\n\nAuthority: I took highschool physics, not a professional Optics guy sorry :/ But I don't think there is very much scope for the advanced theory changing in the above stuff",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "953369",
"title": "Virtual image",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "In optics, a virtual image is an image formed when the outgoing rays from a point on an object always diverge. The image appears to be located at the point of apparent divergence. Because the rays never really converge, a virtual image cannot be projected onto a screen. In diagrams of optical systems, virtual rays are conventionally represented by dotted lines. Virtual images are located by tracing the real rays that emerge from an optical device (lens, mirror, or some combination) backward to a perceived point of origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201460",
"title": "Stereoscopy",
"section": "Section::::Other display methods without viewers.:Autostereoscopy.:Integral imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Integral imaging is a technique for producing 3D displays which are both autostereoscopic and multiscopic, meaning that the 3D image is viewed without the use of special glasses and different aspects are seen when it is viewed from positions that differ either horizontally or vertically. This is achieved by using an array of microlenses (akin to a lenticular lens, but an X–Y or \"fly's eye\" array in which each lenslet typically forms its own image of the scene without assistance from a larger objective lens) or pinholes to capture and display the scene as a 4D light field, producing stereoscopic images that exhibit realistic alterations of parallax and perspective when the viewer moves left, right, up, down, closer, or farther away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17547273",
"title": "Real Spaces",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis and chapter breakdown.:Virtuality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Virtuality concerns the capacity to complete images by seeing three dimensions in two or by perceiving what is absent from what is given. Virtuality raises the problem of illusion, and effigies, narratives, and doubting or skepticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20838732",
"title": "Saving the Appearances: A Study in Idolatry",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:§1: The Rainbow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Barfield argues that \"one\" key difference between a dream or hallucination of, say, a rainbow and the sight of an actual rainbow is that — while they are both appearances or \"representations\" (key words for Barfield) – the dream rainbow is private, whereas the actual rainbow is \"shared\". He is careful to point out, however, that being shared is not the only difference between an actual rainbow and a dream of one. An actual phenomenon is not merely a dream that is shared. Even if one is alone on a desert island, one can learn from the world itself the difference between appearances that are actually there, and appearances that are there only in the manner of hallucinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18320",
"title": "Lens (optics)",
"section": "Section::::Imaging properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "In some cases \"S\" is negative, indicating that the image is formed on the opposite side of the lens from where those rays are being considered. Since the diverging light rays emanating from the lens never come into focus, and those rays are not physically present at the point where they \"appear\" to form an image, this is called a virtual image. Unlike real images, a virtual image cannot be projected on a screen, but appears to an observer looking through the lens as if it were a real object at the location of that virtual image. Likewise, it appears to a subsequent lens as if it were an object at that location, so that second lens could again focus that light into a real image, \"S\" then being measured from the virtual image location behind the first lens to the second lens. This is exactly what the eye does when looking through a magnifying glass. The magnifying glass creates a (magnified) virtual image behind the magnifying glass, but those rays are then re-imaged by the lens of the eye to create a \"real image\" on the retina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1259296",
"title": "Head-mounted display",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "HMDs differ in whether they can display only computer-generated imagery (CGI), or only live imagery from the physical world, or combination. Most HMDs can display only a computer-generated image, sometimes referred to as virtual image. Some HMDs can allow a CGI to be superimposed on real-world view. This is sometimes referred to as augmented reality (AR) or mixed reality (MR). Combining real-world view with CGI can be done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror and viewing the real world directly. This method is often called optical see-through. Combining real-world view with CGI can also be done electronically by accepting video from a camera and mixing it electronically with CGI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645744",
"title": "Dilation (morphology)",
"section": "Section::::Binary dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "A binary image is viewed in mathematical morphology as a subset of a Euclidean space R or the integer grid Z, for some dimension \"d\". Let \"E\" be a Euclidean space or an integer grid, \"A\" a binary image in \"E\", and \"B\" a structuring element regarded as a subset of R.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ny2sl
|
What is the significance of the use of "I am" instead of "I have" when Vishnu says, "I am become death, the destroyer of worlds"?
|
[
{
"answer": "You would probably receive a more thorough and knowledgable answer if you asked this question in /r/linguistics.\n\nHowever, I can tell you that the [present perfect](_URL_1_) construction \"I am become\" is not the result of a direct translation of Sanskrit, but an artifact of early modern English that most likely stems from the [Germanic influence upon the language](_URL_0_). The construction may still be found in modern German.\n\nIn addition to \"I am become death,\" you may find similar constructions repeated in the Bible (\"I am come in my father's name,\" John 5:43 KJV), in Christmas carols (\"Joy to the world, the Lord is come\"), and in much of English literature prior to the 20th century.\n\nAdditionally, this type of present perfect construction survives with verbs other than *come/become*, both in one-off archaic phrases (\"He is risen,\") and in standard English (\"The box of Oreos is gone.\")\n\nedit: added some links.\n\nsupra-edit: not surprised to learn from /u/mambeau that /r/linguistics has already [answered this question](_URL_2_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This [same question](_URL_0_) was actually asked in /r/linguistics two months ago, and got some good responses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oppenheimer was not \"quoting a relatively poor translation\" of the Gita, as some have claimed. In fact, I'm fairly sure he wasn't \"quoting\" any translation really, as he read Sanskrit himself and I am fairly certain he was giving his own, idiosyncratic translation. Last time this came up, /u/restricteddata recommended James A. Hijiya's piece in *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Publication* called \"The 'Gita' of J. Robert Oppenheimer\", which I still haven't read yet. I was asking him about if \"I am become death\" was a deliberate archaicism influenced by Tennyson's poem \"Ulysses\" which includes the line, \"I am become a name\". I wish I could find the original thread because /u/restricteddata's answer was much better than my half remembered version of it. Someone can make sure by actually reading that Hijiya article rather than just saving it, but I'm fairly sure this is an artifact of Oppenheimer's translation not of Sanskrit grammar.\n\nedit: I found the original thread, in [Alex's AMA](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it's just an artifact of translation\n\nit's verse 32 chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.\n\nthere can be many different translations. here's another, in context:\n\n > BG 11.23: O mighty-armed one, all the planets with their demigods are disturbed at seeing Your great form, with its many faces, eyes, arms, thighs, legs, and bellies and Your many terrible teeth; and as they are disturbed, so am I.\n\n > BG 11.24: O all-pervading Viṣṇu, seeing You with Your many radiant colors touching the sky, Your gaping mouths, and Your great glowing eyes, my mind is perturbed by fear. I can no longer maintain my steadiness or equilibrium of mind.\n\n > BG 11.25: O Lord of lords, O refuge of the worlds, please be gracious to me. I cannot keep my balance seeing thus Your blazing deathlike faces and awful teeth. In all directions I am bewildered.\n\n > BG 11.26-27: All the sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra, along with their allied kings, and Bhīṣma, Droṇa, Karṇa — and our chief soldiers also — are rushing into Your fearful mouths. And some I see trapped with heads smashed between Your teeth.\n\n > BG 11.28: As the many waves of the rivers flow into the ocean, so do all these great warriors enter blazing into Your mouths.\n\n > BG 11.29: I see all people rushing full speed into Your mouths, as moths dash to destruction in a blazing fire.\n\n > BG 11.30: O Viṣṇu, I see You devouring all people from all sides with Your flaming mouths. Covering all the universe with Your effulgence, You are manifest with terrible, scorching rays.\n\n > BG 11.31: O Lord of lords, so fierce of form, please tell me who You are. I offer my obeisances unto You; please be gracious to me. You are the primal Lord. I want to know about You, for I do not know what Your mission is.\n\n > BG 11.32: The Supreme Personality of Godhead said: **Time I am, the great destroyer of the worlds, and I have come here to destroy all people.** With the exception of you [the Pāṇḍavas], all the soldiers here on both sides will be slain.\n\n > BG 11.33: Therefore get up. Prepare to fight and win glory. Conquer your enemies and enjoy a flourishing kingdom. They are already put to death by My arrangement, and you, O Savyasācī, can be but an instrument in the fight.\n\n > BG 11.34: Droṇa, Bhīṣma, Jayadratha, Karṇa and the other great warriors have already been destroyed by Me. Therefore, kill them and do not be disturbed. Simply fight, and you will vanquish your enemies in battle.\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quick answer: It's an archaic construction. In English, we used to use the verb 'to be' (instead of 'to have')as the auxiliary for intransitive verbs in the perfect tense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an artistic flourish in Oppenheimer's translation. The original Sanskrit is:\n\n*kālo'smi lokakṣayakṛt pravṛddho*\n\nWhich translates as:\n\nI am Time, grown old – the cause of the destruction of the world.\n\n\"I am become death\" is a condensing of the Time-grown-old bit. So rather than simply indicating a sense of timelessness, it indicates Time itself, and more precisely turning of the ages. In the context of the Gita, this turning of the ages is in fact a moment of mass death. Oppenheimer's quoting of the Gita signals both the onset of the atomic age and the potential for mass death that ushered it in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the quote is actually Krishna and not Vishnu.\n\nI don't know about the specifics of the translation from Sanskrit but I know the context within the Bhagavad Gita.\n\nBasically the Bhagavad Gita is part of a bigger book called the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata is a big adventure story that mainly follows Arjuna as the hero. He goes around and does battles and learns lessons about gods and morality.\n\nBasically in the course of his travels, Arjuna gets into this situation where his position obligates him to fight in a war, because he swore he would. However, due to a cruel twist of fate, his old teacher and brothers are standing with the opposing armies. Arjuna doesn't want to fight them. He knows if he does, he'll kill them, so he starts worrying and feeling awful.\n\nKrishna is driving his chariot. Basically at that point Krishna is incarnated as kind of a warrior and advisor to Arjuna. The two ride out to the no mans land between the armies, and have a talk about karma and life and god. Krishna convinces Arjuna to fight. That discussion is the Bhagavad Gita.\n\nBasically Krishna goes through a big philosophy about how you have too ct without attachment to your actions, and explains to Arjuna that he must do his duty and forget the consequences.\n\nArjuna isn't convinced though, so at the climax, Krishna takes on his god form, which is a massive many headed many armed beast with a huge mouth and into the mouth the whole universe is falling, and Arjuna sees Krishna killing everything and everyone, simply due to the fact that Krishna is god and therefore controls time and decay and so on.\n\nSo Krishna then says \"now I am become death, destroyer of worlds,\" to tell Arjuna, basically \" do your duty, aim the only one that kills. You are just my instrument.\"\n\nSo it's a bit ironic actually that Oppenheimer used this quote, because it's actually a quote in favor of warfare and doing ones duty. In quoting Krishna and not Arjuna he kind of put himself into the place of god, when the whole point of the quote is that Krishna is god and people are people. God kills, god destroys, people just do their duty.\n\nIt would be like someone saying \"I am that I am\" or something. Anyway that's a bit tangential but maybe explains something. Don't get me wrong I still think Oppenheimer is a badass for quoting the Bhagavad Gita, but if he had quoted Arjuna instead it would have been even more badass.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a late, late response, but to me...\n\n\"I am\" implies \"I have always been\". \"I have\" implies \"I have become\". Am I wrong in my logic?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer is to be found in Heraclitus' treatment of becoming. The phrase \"I have\" denotes a time when \"I was not\". But you might think, \"doesn't 'become' also denote a change?\" But when considering how Heraclitus described the world as in a constant state of becoming, then saying \"I am become\" is consistent with an eternal state of being.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "897486",
"title": "God is dead",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "\"God is Dead\" (German: ; also known as the Death of God) is a widely quoted statement by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche used the phrase to express his idea that the Enlightenment had eliminated the possibility of the existence of the Abrahamaic God or of deities in general. However, proponents of the strongest form of the Death of God theology have used the phrase in a literal sense, meaning that the Christian God who existed at one point, has ceased to exist. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6285354",
"title": "Death of God theology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Death of God theology refers to a range of ideas by various theologians and philosophers that try to account for the rise of secularity and abandonment of traditional beliefs in God. They posit that God has either ceased to exist or in some way accounted for such a belief. Although theologians since Friedrich Nietzsche have occasionally used the phrase \"God is dead\" to reflect increasing unbelief in God, the concept rose to prominence in the late 1950s and 1960s, before waning again. The Death of God movement is sometimes technically referred to as theothanatology, deriving from the Greek \"theos\" (God) and \"thanatos\" (death). The main proponents of this radical theology included the Christian theologians Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Van Buren, William Hamilton, John Robinson, Thomas J. J. Altizer, Mark C. Taylor, John D. Caputo, Peter Rollins, and the rabbi Richard L. Rubenstein.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103216",
"title": "Wallace Stevens",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Poetic criticism of old religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Though this dissolving of the self is in one way the end of everything, in another way it is the happy liberation. There are only two entities left now that the gods are dead: man and nature, subject and object. Nature is the physical world, visible, audible, tangible, present to all the senses, and man is consciousness, the nothing which receives nature and transforms it into something unreal...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6285354",
"title": "Death of God theology",
"section": "Section::::Theology.:God's existence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "To what extent God may properly be understood as \"dead\" is highly debated among death of God theologians. In its strongest forms, God is said to have literally died, often as incarnated on the cross or at the moment of creation. Thomas J. J. Altizer remains the clearest proponent of this perspective. Weaker forms of this theological bent often posit this \"death\" as a metaphor or existential recognition of God's existence outside of (or beyond) Being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143832",
"title": "Holocaust theology",
"section": "Section::::Works of important Jewish theologians.:Richard Rubenstein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "No man can really say that God is dead. How can we know that? Nevertheless, I am compelled to say that we live in the time of the \"death of God\". This is more a statement about man and his culture than about God. The death of God is a cultural fact ... When I say we live in the time of the death of God, I mean that the thread uniting God and man, heaven and earth, has been broken ...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897486",
"title": "God is dead",
"section": "Section::::Discussion by Hegel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Although the statement and its meaning are attributed to Nietzsche, Hegel had discussed the concept of the death of God in his \"Phenomenology of Spirit\", where he considers the death of God to \"Not be seen as anything but an easily recognized part of the usual Christian cycle of redemption\". Later on Hegel writes about the great pain of knowing that God is dead \"The pure concept, however, or infinity, as the abyss of nothingness in which all being sinks, must characterize the infinite pain, which previously was only in culture historically and as the feeling on which rests modern religion, the feeling that God Himself is dead, (the feeling which was uttered by Pascal, though only empirically, in his saying: Nature is such that it marks everywhere, both in and outside of man, a lost God), purely as a phase, but also as no more than just a phase, of the highest idea.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1155130",
"title": "Reginald Horace Blyth",
"section": "Section::::Blyth's Zen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"\"...and when we say, \"What is the meaning of life?\" the spiritual life, spontaneously generated up to that moment, is extinguished, the world is a darkness that can be felt. However, the question has been asked; the man is sick, it is too late to recapitulate the laws of health, he needs medicine\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
400w7p
|
how does giving to charity save rich people money?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is just a basic example and not 100% accurate, but it will give you the idea. Lets say I make $1000. Normally I would pay taxes on the whole $1000.\n\nLets say I make $1000 and give $200 to charity. I would now only pay taxes on $800.\n\nIn reality, it doesn't really save you money. Because even if you were paying the maximum amount of taxes on that money, you would still end up taking more money home than if you didn't give to charity.\n\nThe real tax writeoffs are the ones you claim as expenses for your business. For example, you can claim you drove your car for work and get a writeoff for a certain amount based on how many miles you put on the car. Then you have people that cheat the system and go to dinner with their wife and call it a \"business\" expense. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Instead of giving money to uncle sam and getting nothing in return, i can donate it and get influence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38264013",
"title": "Jamsetji Tata",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "\"There is one kind of charity common enough among us... It is that patchwork philanthropy which clothes the ragged, feeds the poor, and heals the sick. I am far from decrying the noble spirit which seeks to help a poor or suffering fellow being... [However] what advances a nation or a community is not so much to prop up its weakest and most helpless members, but to lift up the best and the most gifted, so as to make them of the greatest service to the country.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1171776",
"title": "Morrison & Foerster",
"section": "Section::::Morrison & Foerster Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The Foundation's charitable donations frequently focus on programs serving disadvantaged children and young people or that provide free legal services to low-income people. The foundation also supports fellowship and scholarship programs to encourage diversity in higher education and the legal field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9728362",
"title": "Charity (practice)",
"section": "Section::::Practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Charitable giving is the act of giving money, goods or time to the unfortunate, either directly or by means of a charitable trust or other worthy cause. Charitable giving as a religious act or duty is referred to as almsgiving or alms. The name stems from the most obvious expression of the virtue of charity; giving the recipients of it the means they need to survive. The impoverished, particularly those widowed or orphaned, and the ailing or injured, are generally regarded as the proper recipients of charity. The people who cannot support themselves and lack outside means of support sometimes become \"beggars\", directly soliciting aid from strangers encountered in public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24118302",
"title": "High society (social class)",
"section": "Section::::Recent decades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The wealthy take philanthropy and adapt it into an entire way of life that serves as a vehicle for the social and cultural life of their class. This is reflected in the widespread popularity of educational and cultural causes among donors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1569398",
"title": "Street fundraising",
"section": "Section::::Volunteer fundraisers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Charities have always relied upon individuals to help raise money for them. These people use many methods, such as collecting cash in boxes or tins, sponsored tasks, organising events and collecting from the attendees, or visiting people at their homes and asking for a donation. Volunteers may contribute just a few hours as a one-off action or work regularly for a charity for many years. There are examples of dedicated individuals raising enormous sums for their favourite charity, just in their spare time. However, by nature this is an unreliable way for major charitable organisations to source their funds. If charities were forced to manage on spontaneous donations alone, many would have to scale down their operations considerably and some would not function at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32562272",
"title": "Toby Ord",
"section": "Section::::Giving What We Can.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "In 2009, Ord launched Giving What We Can, an international society whose members have each pledged to donate at least 10% of their income to anti-poverty charities. The organisation is aligned with and part of the effective altruism movement. Giving What We Can seeks not only to encourage people to give more of their money to charity, but also stresses the importance of giving to cost-effective charities, arguing that \"research shows that some are up to 1,000 times as effective as others.\" While it does not collect money or undertake charity work directly, Giving What We Can carries out original research and recommends charities it believes to be particularly efficient. Ord remains director of Giving What We Can, and is closely involved in its day-to-day running.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524635",
"title": "Supererogation",
"section": "Section::::In law and moral philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Whether an act is supererogatory or obligatory can be debated. In many schools of thought, donating money to charity is supererogatory. In other schools of thought that regard some level of charitable donation to be duty (such as with the tithe in Judaism, zakat in Islam, and similar standards in many Christian sects), only exceeding a certain level of donation (e.g. going above the common 2.5%-of-capital-assets standard in zakat) would count as supererogatory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2otqay
|
why do we work so hard against extinction of any species, when 99.9% of species naturally die out?
|
[
{
"answer": "you don't really adapt to having no food. learning how to stop killing bees is probably more worth our time than walking around with cotton swabs pollinating plants by hand\n\nalso \"it was going to happen anyway\" is not a good argument. everyone dies eventually murder is still illegal ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the extinction of an entire species due to our collective irresponsibility weighs on some of our minds. If it's natural so be it, but it's a damn crime for a species to disappear into extinction because of our over-demand for...whatever it may be (food, land etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends. If a species is going extinct naturally, I think we should let it go, maybe a keep a few in captivity or something. However, there are many species that have gone extinct or are going extinct due to human activity, and sometimes, this can have a great affect on the ecosystem.\n\nTake Great White Sharks, for example. They used to thrive off the coast of Massachusetts. Sometime during the 70s or 80s, people became extremely fearful of the sharks, leading to a mass execution of any shark, but especially the Great Whites. After this happened, there were few or no predators to hunt seals in the area. The local seal population exploded, which in turn depleted certain fish populations. The fishermen who depend on catching these same fish for a living began to come back empty handed, and whoever depended on those fishermen, like markets and restaurants, were also affected. Recently, the sharks have come back to the area, are hunting the seals again, and fish populations are returning to normal. This is a situation where, because of human activity, we really messed things up for awhile.\n\nWhen species die out naturally, I would say that most of the time, it happens quite slowly. This would allow some time for other species to fill the extinct one's role. Let's say Great White numbers in North Anerica were naturally decreasing for over a hundred years or more. What should happen is other species would fill the predator over time. As Great White numbers dropped, perhaps other sharks, like Bull, Tiger, or Hammerheads, would move in to fill the void. It's also possible that a completely separate predator, like some type of whale, rather than other sharks, could take over for the Great Whites, Either way, something is there to hunt seals, keeping the ecosystem in a state of equilibrium.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species (such as new predators and food competitors), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human population growth is an essential cause of the extinction crisis. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define \"recent\" extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1765998",
"title": "Wildlife conservation",
"section": "Section::::Species conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "It's estimated that, because of human activities, current species extinction rates are about 1000 times greater than the background extinction rate (the 'normal' extinction rate that occurs without additional influence) . According to the IUCN, out of all species assessed, over 27,000 are at risk of extinction and should be under conservation. Of these, 25% are mammals, 14% are birds, and 40% are amphibians. However, because not all species have been assessed, these numbers could be even higher. A 2019 UN report assessing global biodiversity extrapolated IUCN data to all species and estimated that 1 million species worldwide could face extinction. Yet, because resources are limited, sometimes it's not possible to give all species that need conservation due consideration. Deciding which species to conserve is a function of how close to extinction a species is, whether the species is crucial to the ecosystem it resides in, and how much we care about it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20110668",
"title": "Endangered species",
"section": "Section::::Endangered species in the United States.:Endangered Species Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Currently, 1,556 known species in the world have been identified as near extinction or endangered and are under protection by government law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration the number of species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of such laws as the Endangered Species Act. According to NatureServe's global conservation status, approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled. Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of the United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near extinction. This total is substantially more than the number of species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "There are a variety of causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. \"Just as each species is unique\", write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns, \"so is each extinction ... the causes for each are varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple\". Most simply, any species that cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8629097",
"title": "Common species",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Common species are frequently regarded as being at low risk of extinction simply because they exist in large numbers, and hence their conservation status is often overlooked. While this is broadly logical, there are several cases of once common species being driven to extinction such as the passenger pigeon and the Rocky Mountain locust, which numbered in the billions and trillions respectively before their demise. Moreover, a small proportional decline in a common species results in the loss of a large number of individuals, and the contribution to ecosystem function that those individuals represented. A recent paper argued that because common species shape ecosystems, contribute disproportionately to ecosystem functioning, and can show rapid population declines, conservation should look more closely at how the trade-off between species extinctions and the depletion of populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Human attitudes and interests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "Extinction is an important research topic in the field of zoology, and biology in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the Worldwide Fund for Nature, have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. Governments have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and pollution. While many human-caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in the deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous viruses, and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to poaching or because they were \"undesirable\", or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the American bison, which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by the United States government, to force the removal of Native Americans, many of whom relied on the bison for food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22403915",
"title": "Body size and species richness",
"section": "Section::::Possible mechanisms.:Differential extinction rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "It is known that extinction risk is directly correlated to the size of a species population. Small populations tend to go extinct more frequently than large ones (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). As large species require more daily resources they are forced to have low population densities, thereby lowering the size of the population in a given area and allowing each individual to have access to enough resources to survive. In order to increase the population size and avoid extinction, large organisms are constrained to have large ranges (see Range (biology)). Thus, the extinction of large species with small ranges becomes inevitable (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967; Brown and Maurer, 1989; Brown and Nicoletto, 1991). This results in the amount of space limiting the overall number of large animals that can be present on a continent, while range size (and risk of extinction) prevents large animals from inhabiting only a small area. These constraints undoubtedly have implications for the species richness patterns for both large and small-bodied organisms, however the specifics have yet to be elucidated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vl90s
|
what are the properties of hydrogen/helium that enable physicists to distinguish them from 'metals'?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > Metals are commonly:\n > \n > * Shiny\n > * Good conductor of heat and electricity\n > * High melting point\n > * Malleable (this means that they can be hammered or distorted)\n > * Ductile (this means that they can be drawn into wires)\n > * Usually solid at room temperature. An exception to this is mercury, which is liquid in nature.\n > * Generally have low electronegativities.\n\nMetals are defined according to their position on the periodic table. Every other element (including hydrogen and helium) is non-metal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13255",
"title": "Hydrogen",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Consumption in processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice. These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199079",
"title": "Period 1 element",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Hydrogen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The interactions of hydrogen with various metals are very important in metallurgy, as many metals can suffer hydrogen embrittlement, and in developing safe ways to store it for use as a fuel. Hydrogen is highly soluble in many compounds composed of rare earth metals and transition metals and can be dissolved in both crystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the metal crystal lattice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2216044",
"title": "Nuclear reaction analysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Hydrogen is an element inaccessible to Rutherford backscattering spectrometry since nothing can \"back\"scatter from H (since all atoms are heavier than hydrogen!). But it is often analysed by elastic recoil detection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8524",
"title": "Deuterium",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Contrast properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Hydrogen is an important and major component in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but it barely interacts with X-rays. As hydrogen (and deuterium) interact strongly with neutrons, neutron scattering techniques, together with a modern deuteration facility, fills a niche in many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521992",
"title": "Clifford Shull",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "\"Hydrogen atoms are ubiquitous in all biological materials and in many other inorganic materials,\" he once said, \"but you couldn't see them with other techniques. With neutrons it turned out that that was completely different, and we were very pleased and happy to find that we could learn things about hydrogen-containing structures.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45452439",
"title": "Helium compounds",
"section": "Section::::Discredited or unlikely observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Between 1925 and 1940 in Buenos Aires, Horacio Damianovich studied various metal-helium combinations including beryllium (BeHe), iron (FeHe), palladium (PdHe), platinum (PtHe), bismuth, and uranium. To make these substances, electrical discharges impacted helium into the surface of the metal. Later these were demoted from the status of compounds, to that of alloys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15425838",
"title": "Hydrogen pipeline transport",
"section": "Section::::Piping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Hydrogen has problems with both hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion. Hydrogen has an active electron, and therefore behaves somewhat like a halogen. For this reason, hydrogen pipes have to resist corrosion. The problem is compounded because hydrogen can easily migrate into the crystal structure of most metals. For process metal piping at pressures up to , high-purity stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80 HRB is preferred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20acw9
|
how do we know what the earth looks like on the inside?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the simplest way I can think to explain it, different parts of seismic waves behave differently when they travel travel through different substances (solids, liquids, and different types of each.) Parts of the waves pass through fluids unaffected, parts bounce off, parts are absorbed, parts slow down, and so on. By studying the data gathered from seismic activity like earthquakes and using that knowledge, you can draw a pretty accurate picture of what layers are where. Densities, chemical properties, melting/boiling points, etc. come into play also when the exact composition of each layer is stated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1417149",
"title": "Structure of the Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The internal structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35504712",
"title": "Geographical centre of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The geographical centre of Earth is the geometric centre of all land surfaces on Earth. In a more strict definition, it is the superficial barycenter of the mass distribution produced by treating each continent or island as a region of a thin shell of uniform density and approximating the geoid with a sphere. The centre is inside Earth but can be projected to the closest point on the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1337370",
"title": "Cross section (geometry)",
"section": "Section::::Examples in science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "In geology, the structure of the interior of a planet is often illustrated using a diagram of a cross section of the planet that passes through the planet's center, as in the cross section of Earth at right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12482336",
"title": "Area of Natural and Scientific Interest",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "An Earth Science area is one in which the representative feature was created by geologic processes and consists of the physical elements of a natural landscape, such as the bedrock, landforms, and fossils. These are identified by lithology, paleontology, and geomorphology, then classified \"into geological themes\" according to age, stratigraphy, topography, and other characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567508",
"title": "Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959 film)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "At the time, \"New York Times\" film critic Bosley Crowther said \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\") is \"... really not very striking make-believe, when all is said and done. The earth's interior is somewhat on the order of an elaborate amusement-park tunnel of love. And the attitudes of the people, toward each other and toward another curious man who happens to be exploring down there at the same time, are conventional and just a bit dull\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43936526",
"title": "Solid earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Solid earth refers to \"the earth beneath our feet\" or \"terra firma\", the planet's solid surface and its interior. It contrasts with the Earth's fluid envelopes, the atmosphere and hydrosphere (but includes the ocean basin), as well as the biosphere and interactions with the Sun. It includes the liquid core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2939202",
"title": "Earth's inner core",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. She inferred a radius of 1400 km for the inner core, not very far from the currently accepted value of 1221 km. In 1938, B. Gutenberg and C. Richter analyzed a more extensive set of data and estimated the thickness of the outer core as 1950 km with a steep but continuous 300 km thick transition to the inner core; implying a radius between 1230 and 1530 km for the inner core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q6gp1
|
when not hunting, what do predators do when they meet prey animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Predators don't want a drawn-out stand up fight. A predator is only fighting for its food; the prey will be fighting for survival. Neither animal *wants* to get hurt, but the predator is the one that can afford to break off at any time and try again, so that means it'll be picky about starting one. Therefore if the prey animal is big enough to fight back, the predator is going to be mostly interested in some combination of stealth, surprise, or wearing down its energy with a chase.\n\nThis means that if a predator isn't already \"in\" stealth mode and actively hunting, but just saunters into an area obviously, few of the prey animals in that area will be good targets, because they all already know it's there. Making a move would be a waste of energy when the target is fresh, rested, healthy, and can react immediately. So a lot of the time both sides will appear to be \"ignoring\" each other simply because it isn't worth being the first to burn energy on a sprint. The prey will keep a minimum safe distance and leave at its own pace.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Predators may actively search for prey or sit and wait for it. When prey is detected, the predator assesses whether to attack it. This may involve ambush or pursuit predation, sometimes after stalking the prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible parts like the shell or spines, and eats it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "Section::::Antipredator adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "To counter predation, prey have a great variety of defences. They can try to avoid detection. They can detect predators and warn others of their presence. If detected, they can try to avoid being the target of an attack, for example, by signalling that a chase would be unprofitable or by forming groups. If they become a target, they can try to fend off the attack with defences such as armour, quills, unpalatability or mobbing; and they can escape an attack in progress by startling the predator, shedding body parts such as tails, or simply fleeing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1260420",
"title": "Anti-predator adaptation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Some prey species are capable of fighting back against predators, whether with chemicals, through communal defence, or by ejecting noxious materials. Many animals can escape by fleeing rapidly, outrunning or outmanoeuvring their attacker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1260420",
"title": "Anti-predator adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Escaping.:Flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The normal reaction of a prey animal to an attacking predator is to flee by any available means, whether flying, gliding, falling, swimming, running, jumping, burrowing or rolling, according to the animal's capabilities. Escape paths are often erratic, making it difficult for the predator to predict which way the prey will go next: for example, birds such as snipe, ptarmigan and black-headed gulls evade fast raptors such as peregrine falcons with zigzagging or jinking flight. In the tropical rain forests of Southeast Asia in particular, many vertebrates escape predators by falling and gliding. Among the insects, many moths turn sharply, fall, or perform a powered dive in response to the sonar clicks of bats. Among fish, the stickleback follows a zigzagging path, often doubling back erratically, when chased by a fish-eating merganser duck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1260420",
"title": "Anti-predator adaptation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Alternatively, prey animals may ward off attack, whether by advertising the presence of strong defences in aposematism, by mimicking animals which do possess such defences, by startling the attacker, by signalling to the predator that pursuit is not worthwhile, by distraction, by using defensive structures such as spines, and by living in a group. Members of groups are at reduced risk of predation, despite the increased conspicuousness of a group, through improved vigilance, predator confusion, and the likelihood that the predator will attack some other individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "Section::::Foraging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "To feed, a predator must search for, pursue and kill its prey. These actions form a foraging cycle. The predator must decide where to look for prey based on its geographical distribution; and once it has located prey, it must assess whether to pursue it or to wait for a better choice. If it chooses pursuit, its physical capabilities determine the mode of pursuit (e.g., ambush or chase). Having captured the prey, it may also need to expend energy \"handling\" it (e.g., killing it, removing any shell or spines, and ingesting it).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464447",
"title": "Animal communication",
"section": "Section::::Interspecific communication.:Predator to prey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Typically, predators attempt to reduce communication to prey as this will generally reduce the effectiveness of their hunting. However, some forms of predator to prey communication occur in ways that change the behaviour of the prey and make their capture easier, i.e. deception by the predator. A well-known example is the angler fish, an ambush predator which waits for its prey to come to it. It has a fleshy bioluminescent growth protruding from its forehead which it dangles in front of its jaws. Smaller fish attempt to take the lure, placing themselves in a better position for the angler fish to catch them. Another example of deceptive communication is observed in the genus of jumping spiders (Myrmarachne). These spiders are commonly referred to as “antmimicking spiders” because of the way they wave their front legs in the air to simulate antennae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dakn8k
|
why are data measurement units (mb, mb, gb, tb) not even numbers of bytes? like why is a gigabyte not exactly 1000 megabytes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because computer measurements are based on multiples of 8. (Base 8)\nThis is why you've heard the term 8 bit, 64 bit and so on.\n\nA gigabyte is 1024 megabytes, a megabyte is 1024 bytes and so on.\n\nIt's all in multiples of 8. There have been attempts to metricise this, but they've not really taken off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They can be, which is why manufacturer chicanery lead to using kebibytes (KiB), mebibytes (MiB), gebibytes (GiB), and tebibytes (TiB)\n\nManufacturers were describing their drive sizes in the unformatted size with 1KB = 1000 bytes. As drive sizes get bigger, you get situations like one manufacturer using 1KB = 1024 bytes selling a 1TiB drive has 74GiB more than a manufacturer selling a 1TB drive with 1KB = 1000 bytes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60727",
"title": "Mebibyte",
"section": "Section::::History and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Many operating systems compute file size in mebibytes, but report the number as MB (megabytes). For example, all versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system show a file of 2 bytes as \"1.00 MB\" or \"1,024 KB\" in its file properties dialog and show a file of 10 () bytes as 976 KB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60727",
"title": "Mebibyte",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Despite its official status, the unit \"mebibyte\" is not commonly used even when reporting byte counts calculated in binary multiples, but is often represented as a megabyte. Formally, one megabyte denotes 1000 × 1000 bytes. The discrepancy may cause confusion, since operating systems using the binary method report lower numerical values for storage size than advertised by manufacturers, such as disk drive manufacturers who strictly use decimal units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4077",
"title": "Binary prefix",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The computer industry has historically used the units \"kilobyte\", \"megabyte\", and \"gigabyte\", and the corresponding symbols KB, MB, and GB, in at least two slightly different measurement systems. In citations of main memory (RAM) capacity, \"gigabyte\" customarily means bytes. As this is a power of 1024, and 1024 is a power of two (2), this usage is referred to as a binary measurement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18075548",
"title": "Units of information",
"section": "Section::::Units derived from bit.:Systematic multiples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Terms for large quantities of bits can be formed using the standard range of SI prefixes for powers of 10, e.g., kilo = 10 = 1000 (as in kilobit or kbit), mega- = 10 = (as in megabit or Mbit) and giga = 10 = (as in gigabit or Gbit). These prefixes are more often used for multiples of bytes, as in kilobyte (1 kB = 8000 bit), megabyte (1 MB = ), and gigabyte (1 GB = ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "924298",
"title": "Measuring network throughput",
"section": "Section::::Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "File sizes are typically measured in bytes — kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes being usual, where a byte is eight bits. In modern textbooks one kilobyte is defined as 1,000 byte, one megabyte as 1,000,000 byte, etc., in accordance with the 1998 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard. However, the convention adopted by Windows systems is to define 1 kilobyte is as 1,024 (or 2) bytes, which is equal to 1 kibibyte. Similarly, a file size of \"1 megabyte\" is 1,024 × 1,024 byte, equal to 1 mebibyte), and \"1 gigabyte\" 1,024 × 1,024 × 1,024 byte = 1 gibibyte).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19918",
"title": "Megabyte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "However, in the computer and information technology fields, several other definitions are used that arose for historical reasons of convenience. A common usage has been to designate one megabyte as (2 B), a measurement that conveniently expresses the binary multiples inherent in digital computer memory architectures. However, most standards bodies have deprecated this usage in favor of a set of binary prefixes, in which this quantity is designated by the unit mebibyte (MiB). Less common is a convention that used the megabyte to mean 1000×1024 () bytes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14059031",
"title": "Mac OS X Snow Leopard",
"section": "Section::::New or changed features.:Refinements to the user interface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- Prefixes for bytes are now used in strictly decimal meaning (as opposed to their binary meaning) when describing disk space, such that an indicated file size of 1 MB corresponds to 1 million bytes, as commonly used by hard disk manufacturers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
co5fi1
|
Did he British ever plan a direct naval invasion of Germany in World War I? Were there any defensive fortifications on the German coast?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were a number of plans for amphibious assaults on German islands in the North Sea and even the Baltic coast of Germany, formulated in 1914-15, but these came to nothing as it was chosen to focus on knocking the Ottoman Empire out of the war instead. In 1916-17, planning focused on moves to outflank German lines in Flanders, but these were cancelled due to German coastal defences and the failure of land-based offensives these assaults were to link up with. Finally, in 1918, the RN raided the German-controlled ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge, with the aim of rendering them useless as U-boat bases. For more information on these, see my answers [here](_URL_2_) and [here](_URL_0_). There were also a number of raids made on targets along the German North Sea coast by RNAS (and later RAF) aircraft operating from seaplane and aircraft carriers, which I've covered [here](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "554587",
"title": "HMS New Zealand (1911)",
"section": "Section::::Service history.:First World War.:Raid on Scarborough.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "The German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail. An earlier raid on Yarmouth on 3 November 1914 had been partially successful, but a larger-scale operation was later devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper. The fast battlecruisers would conduct the bombardment, while the rest of the High Seas Fleet stationed itself east of Dogger Bank, so they could cover the battlecruisers' return and destroy any pursuing British vessels. Having broken the German naval codes, the British were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey, although they were not aware of the High Seas Fleet's presence. Admiral Beatty's 1st BCS (now reduced to four ships, including \"New Zealand\") and the 2nd Battle Squadron (consisting of six dreadnoughts) were detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45331674",
"title": "1st Durham Engineers",
"section": "Section::::First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Although the coastal towns of NE England were bombarded by the German Navy on 16 December 1914 (Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby) and by Zeppelins in January and June 1915, it became clear that a fullscale German invasion of Britain was unlikely, while the armies in the field required large numbers of engineers. The Fortress Engineer units therefore began organising field companies for overseas service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2213829",
"title": "The Riddle of the Sands",
"section": "Section::::The invasion plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1206,
"text": "As set out in detail in the book's Epilogue, the German plan constitutes a vast, audacious military deception. While the British would observe the major German ports and the array of German Battleships and detect no signs of an impending invasion, the invasion force would gather unnoticed in the Frisian countryside. German troops - infantry with the lightest type of field guns - would board big sea-going lighters, towed by powerful but shallow-draught tugs, which would proceed to the sea through the Frisian canal network that was unobstrusively widened and extended for years, in preparation for this day. Seven invasion flotillas would emerge - not from any major port, but out of seven contemptible tiny Frisian harbours which are open only on High Tide and only to small vessels; harbours of whose existence the British Admiralty in barely aware, and which were certainly never viewed as having any kind of military value or posing any threat. From there, the invaders quickly dash over a distance of 240 sea miles and land completely unexpected and unopposed at The Wash on the East shore of England. With the beachhead secured, more German ships would follow with munitions and heavy artillery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "541972",
"title": "Lion-class battlecruiser",
"section": "Section::::Service.:World War I.:Raid on Scarborough.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "The German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail. An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November 1914 had been partially successful, but a larger-scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterwards. The fast battlecruisers would conduct the bombardment while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid. The Germans did not know that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey; they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well. Admiral Beatty's 1st BCS, now reduced to four ships, including \"Lion\", as well as the 2nd Battle Squadron with six dreadnoughts, was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324818",
"title": "South Downs Way",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "During the Second World War much of the south coast of England was fortified with pillboxes, tank obstacles and machine gun posts in anticipation of a Nazi invasion, the plan for which was known to the Nazis as Operation Sealion. These objects can be seen closer to the sea and require a diversion. The closest and probably best site is Newhaven Fort, a 5-mile diversion from the path, which is an attraction that houses many World War II artefacts and documents with impressive examples of the huge cannons used in coastal defence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300667",
"title": "HMS Queen Mary",
"section": "Section::::Construction and career.:First World War.:Raid on Scarborough.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "The Imperial German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail. An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November had been partially successful, but a larger-scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterward. The fast battlecruisers were to conduct the bombardment, while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid. But what the Germans did not know was that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey, although they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well. Together with the six dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron, Beatty's 1st BCS – now reduced to four ships, including \"Lion\" – was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank. By this time, \"Queen Mary\" was commanded by Captain C. I. Prowse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53888467",
"title": "1st Kent Artillery Volunteers",
"section": "Section::::World War I.:Kent RGA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The Imperial German Navy only carried out 12 bombardments of British coastal targets during World War I, so most of the extensive coastal defences were never tested. Many of the trained men in these defences were transferred to meet the desperate need for heavy and siege gun units overseas, particularly on the Western Front. Kent was, however, an exception to the inactivity, and the ports of Margate, Broadstairs, Ramsgate and Dover were bombarded in April 1917 (the Second Battle of the Dover Strait), and Dover was shelled again (the last such bombardment of the war) on 16 February 1918. The batteries at Ramsgate and Dover were engaged on these occasions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
327kmq
|
Vonnegut says that the Texas Revolution was based on the idea that Mexico had outlawed slavery, which caused Texas to rebel. Any truth to that?
|
[
{
"answer": "Kind of a perfect storm.The Texans wanted slave ownership legal and church attendance voluntary; the Mexican government forbid slave ownership and had mandatory Catholic church membership. Not a few Texans had \"absquatulated\" from Mississippi and the South, losing their plantations and fleeing their debts when Jackson took down much of the US banking system, so there was an element that would have felt it had no where else to go. And of course General Santa Anna is generally reviled in Mexico today for his ability to make terrible decisions, and many were made in dealing with the Texans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Texans rebelled under the pretext that Mexico's liberal Constitution of 1824, under which they had immigrated to Mexico, had been repealed in 1835 by Santa Anna's dictatorship. However, the specific issues of the end of slavery (alienating those settlers who saw Texas' cotton potential) and the establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as the state church were the driving force for many rebels.\n\nIt's worth noting that Texas wasn't the only entity to secede from Mexico in this period, as both the Yucatan and the Rio Grande republics made short-lived bids for independence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "980415",
"title": "Mexican Texas",
"section": "Section::::Rising tensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1529,
"text": "In 1829, slavery was officially outlawed in Mexico. Austin feared that the edict would cause widespread discontent and tried to suppress publication of it. Rumors of the new law quickly spread throughout the area and the colonists seemed on the brink of revolt. The governor of Coahuila y Tejas, Jose Maria Viesca, wrote to the president to explain the importance of slavery to the Texas economy, and the importance of the Texas economy to the development of the state. Texas was temporarily exempted from the rule. On April 6, 1830, Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante ordered Texas to comply with the emancipation proclamation or face military intervention. To circumvent the law, many Anglo colonists converted their slaves into indentured servants for life. Others simply called their slaves indentured servants without legally changing their status. Slaveholders wishing to enter Mexico would force their slaves to sign contracts claiming that the slaves owed money and would work to pay the debt. The low wages the slave would receive made repayment impossible, and the debt would be inherited, even though no slave would receive wages until age eighteen. This tactic was outlawed by an 1832 state law which prohibited worker contracts from lasting more than ten years. A small number of slaves were imported illegally from the West Indies or Africa. The British consul estimated that in the 1830s approximately 500 slaves had been illegally imported into Texas. By 1836, there were approximately 5,000 slaves in Texas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34700",
"title": "1840s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:North America.:Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "When the war concluded, Mexico relinquished its claim on Texas, as well as other regions in what is now the southwestern United States. Texas' annexation as a state that tolerated slavery had caused tension in the United States among slave states and those that did not allow slavery. The tension was partially defused with the Compromise of 1850, in which Texas ceded some of its territory to the federal government to become non-slave-owning areas but gained El Paso.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "463570",
"title": "Fredonian Rebellion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "The rebellion led Mexican President Guadalupe Victoria to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The Comanche abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that through the rebellion, the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to the region from the US. The new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the Texas Revolution. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was \"premature, but it sparked the powder for later success\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2833502",
"title": "Comanche history",
"section": "Section::::Texas and the United States:1800-1850.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "During the last years of Spanish rule, Texas was in chaos. The Hidalgo Revolt (1810) was followed by an attempt by American and Mexican adventurers to seize Texas (1812–13). American traders along the Red and Arkansas Rivers were trading guns to Comanches for horses, and this new market increased the tempo of Comanche raids in Texas. A Comanche chief, El Sordo, split from his own people in 1810 and gathered a combination of Comanches and Wichita to raid Texas and Mexico for horses. He was arrested during a visit to Béxar in 1811 and imprisoned in Coahuila. A large Comanche war party went to Béxar to demand an explanation, only to be confronted by 600 Spanish soldiers. There was no battle, but relations between Texas and the Comanches were never the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24901485",
"title": "History of El Paso, Texas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The Texas Revolution when Texas revolted from Mexico, which itself had recently become independent from Spain, did not involve paseños as the region was a part of Chihuahua. However, after Texas' annexation by the United States the boundary of the state was claimed to include what would become this important trading center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2050354",
"title": "History of Texas",
"section": "Section::::Spanish Texas: 1690–1821.:Encroachment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Spanish troops reacted harshly, looting the province and executing any Tejanos accused of having Republican tendencies. By 1820 fewer than 2,000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas. The situation did not normalize until 1821, when Agustin de Iturbide launched a drive for Mexican Independence. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired, ending the period of Spanish Texas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21073732",
"title": "Mexican–American War",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Republic of Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "In 1834, General Antonio López de Santa Anna became the centralist dictator of Mexico, abandoning the federal system. He decided to quash the semi-independence of Texas, having succeeded in doing so in Coahuila (in 1824, Mexico had merged Texas and Coahuila into the enormous state of Coahuila y Tejas). Finally, Stephen F. Austin called Texians to arms, and they declared independence from Mexico in 1836. After Santa Anna defeated the Texians in the Battle of the Alamo, he was defeated by the Texian Army commanded by General Sam Houston and captured at the Battle of San Jacinto; he signed a treaty recognizing the independence of Texas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44ubyp
|
How different are brains in "normal" people, and their structure, genetics and other things?
|
[
{
"answer": "This answer to that really depends on the scope that you're looking at. In terms of brain structures and regions (cerebellum, amygdala, etc.), you can safely bet that most healthy people have these structures, the way most healthy people have fingers and a nose. When you zoom in to the actual neural networks and pathways, things get a bit more tricky. The brain is \"plastic\" and can change. Neural networks can be created and broken. Think of someone who is more artistic vs someone who loves numbers - they have the same brain structures, but they're wired differently (from genetics, environment, experience). Brain power can be developed through training.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "structurally they're very similar, at least from a macroscopic point of view. I won't say all, but nearly all brains have the same structure of gyri and sulci (folds in the brain), thus you can orient yourself between lobes of the brain etc based on which fold you are looking at. The size and shape will vary slightly, one some brains it's really easy to identify major landmarks like the central sulcus, on others you have to follow other landmarks to find where the structure you're looking for is. Every brain will have a cerebrum and cerebellum, cranial nerves, the same blood vessels that take the same path, the same nerves that take the same path, etc. It's really a beautiful system. \n\nThere is some variation, in that respect my experience is only anecdotal. I study brain cancer, one of my professors had an angiogram done (maps blood vessels in the brain) and found he was missing an anterior communicating artery. That doesn't affect blood flow to the brain because the arteries of the brain form a circle that distributes blood flow from the carotid arteries, but it makes him much more susceptible to death from a stroke were he to have one. \n\nSynapses and brain connections are fluid, you can make a synapse stronger by making it fire more often, and you have glial cells that can help neurons migrate. There was a study in the last decade that showed that stress in rats caused a decrease in size and number of branches in neurons in the cerebellum over the course of only 10 days. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1207167",
"title": "Epilepsia partialis continua",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Genetic background determines such features as height, eye color, and potential to develop certain diseases like diabetes, but it also determines all the chemicals and structures that make up the brain, therefore playing a role in Epilepsia partialis continua. The chemicals and structures that make up the brain have similarities across different people, but they vary in certain enzymes and receptors. These variations are not usually enough to cause a problem, but occasionally they do. For example, if a person has a mutation in a gene that creates the sodium channel (a part of the neuron required for firing) it makes it easier for neuronal firing to get out of control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35049423",
"title": "Epidemiology of representations",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology of representations, cognitive science and domain specificity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Since the human brain is organized into areas that focus on the processing of distinct sensory input and output and also interact with one another, humans are assumed to learn and perform best in processing those patterns of information for which their neurophysiological system has been evolved. Mental representations manifest, for example, in human long-term memory (Figure 1). Other evidence for massive modularity is that human cognitive performance for respective domains correlates with the degree of damage to the corresponding cortical areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16943169",
"title": "Brain asymmetry",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Brain asymmetry is not unique to humans. In addition to studies on human patients with various diseases of the brain, much of what is understood today about asymmetries and lateralization of function has been learned through both invertebrate and vertebrate animal models, including zebrafish, pigeons, rats, and many others. For example, more recent studies revealing sexual dimorphism in brain asymmetries in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus of rats show that sex differences emerging from hormonal signaling can be an important influence on brain structure and function. Work with zebrafish has been especially informative because this species provides the best model for directly linking asymmetric gene expression with asymmetric morphology, and for behavioral analyses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3627193",
"title": "Albert Einstein's brain",
"section": "Section::::Scientific studies.:Glial cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Scientists are currently interested in the possibility that physical differences in brain structure could determine different abilities. One part of the operculum called Broca's area plays an important role in speech production. To compensate, the inferior parietal lobe was 15 percent wider than normal. The inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition, and imagery of movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490620",
"title": "Human brain",
"section": "Section::::Comparative anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The human brain has many properties that are common to all vertebrate brains. Many of its features are common to all mammalian brains, most notably a six-layered cerebral cortex and a set of associated structures, including the hippocampus and amygdala. The cortex is proportionally larger in humans than in many other mammals. Humans have more association cortex, sensory and motor parts than smaller mammals such as the rat and the cat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26915",
"title": "Linguistic relativity",
"section": "Section::::Other domains.:Science and philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "A major question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly innate or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and hence subject to cultural and social processes such as language. The innate view holds that humans share the same set of basic faculties, and that variability due to cultural differences is less important and that the human mind is a mostly biological construction, so that all humans sharing the same neurological configuration can be expected to have similar cognitive patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45580833",
"title": "Geometric morphometrics in anthropology",
"section": "Section::::Some applications in anthropology.:Human evolution.:The human brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1365,
"text": "The human brain is unique from other species based on the size of the visual cortex, temporal lobe, and parietal cortex, and increased gyrification (folds of the brain). There have been many questions as to why these changes occurred and how they contributed to cognition and behavior, which are important questions in human evolution. Geometric morphometrics has been used to explore some of these questions using virtual endocasts (casts of the inside of the cranium) to gather information since brain tissue does not preserve in the fossil record. Geometric morphometrics can reveal small shape differences between brains such as differences between modern humans and Neanderthals whose brains were similar in size. Neubauer and colleagues looked at the endocasts of chimpanzees and modern humans to observe brain growth using 3D landmarks and semilandmarks. They found that there is an early “globularization phase” in human brain development that shows expansion of the parietal and cerebellar areas, which does not occur in chimpanzees. Gunz and colleagues extended the study further and found that the “globularization phase” does not occur in Neanderthals and instead Neanderthal brain growth is more similar to chimpanzees. This difference could point to some important changes in the human brain that led to different organization and cognitive functions\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i3shr
|
Historical context of the film Lincoln (2012)
|
[
{
"answer": "Don't consider this a full and proper answer, but it seems relevant to point out that the movie in question was largely based on a book about Lincoln's cabinet and political work during the Civil War, also touching on his election and position within the Republican Party. Check out Doris Kearns Goodwin's *Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln* if you're interested in further reading.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38284958",
"title": "List of accolades received by Lincoln (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "\"Lincoln\" is a 2012 American historical drama film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg, starring Daniel Day-Lewis as United States President Abraham Lincoln and Sally Field as Mary Todd Lincoln. The film is based in part on Doris Kearns Goodwin's biography of Lincoln, \"\", and covers the final four months of Lincoln's life, focusing on the President's efforts in January 1865 to have the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution passed by the United States House of Representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044568",
"title": "Abraham Lincoln (1930 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The first act of the film covers Lincoln's early life as a storekeeper and rail-splitter in New Salem and his early romance with Ann Rutledge, and his early years as a lawyer and his courtship and marriage to Mary Todd in Springfield. The majority of the film deals with Lincoln's presidency during the American Civil War and culminates with Lee's surrender and Lincoln's assassination at Ford's Theatre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31724592",
"title": "Lincoln (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Lincoln is a 2012 historical drama film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg, starring Daniel Day-Lewis as U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. The film also features Sally Field, David Strathairn, Joseph Gordon-Levitt, James Spader, Hal Holbrook, and Tommy Lee Jones in supporting performances. The screenplay by Tony Kushner was loosely based on Doris Kearns Goodwin's biography \"Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln\", and covers the final four months of Lincoln's life, focusing on his efforts in January 1865 to have the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution passed by the United States House of Representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7867425",
"title": "List of films based on actual events",
"section": "Section::::2010s.:2012.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 838,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 838,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Lincoln\" (2012) – American epic historical drama film based on the final four months of President Lincoln's life and his efforts in January 1865 to have the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution passed by the U.S. House of Representatives\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41519760",
"title": "The Better Angels (film)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis and background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "This film serves as a story of Abraham Lincoln's childhood, his upbringing in Indiana, and the hardships and tragedies that made him the man he was. Lincoln lived more than thirteen years in Indiana, but the film focuses on his life from ages eight to eleven or twelve (years 1817 to 1821), and explores Lincoln's relationships between Lincoln and his birth mother and his stepmother. Lincoln historian and scholar William Bartelt served as a historical consultant for the film with Bartelt's book \"There I Grew Up\" providing substantial inspiration to the filmmakers. The title of the film, \"The Better Angels,\" is borrowed from the final words of Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address, \"the better angels of our nature.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35216788",
"title": "Abraham Lincoln (play)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "A rare depiction of events in the life of a U.S. President by a British playwright, \"Abraham Lincoln\" was a great success in its day. The play covers events in Lincoln's Presidency from his election in 1860 to his assassination, but omits most of the events in his private life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31724592",
"title": "Lincoln (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "\"Lincoln\" was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu-ray, DVD, and digital download in North America on March 26, 2013. The film debuted at No. 1 in Blu-ray and DVD sales in its first week of release. Disney Educational Productions donated DVD copies of the film and a teaching guide titled \"Stand Tall: Live Like Lincoln\" to more than 37,100 secondary schools in the United States, after Spielberg received letters from educators requesting to incorporate the film into their curriculum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
77hep9
|
Isn't classical conditioning of animals basic "If this then that" reasoning? Doesn't this mean that cats/dogs could think?
|
[
{
"answer": "Of course cats and dogs can think.\n\nClassical conditioning is more of an association than logical If/Then reasoning, since it's very easy to create associations which 'break the logic' e.g. salivating when a bell is rung.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Classical conditioning does't require reasoning its an automatic stimulus reflex response.\n\nSauce: _URL_0_\n\nIf this then that reasoning is called rule-based behaviour and there is scant evidence that animals use this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4087321",
"title": "Latent learning",
"section": "Section::::Latent Learning vs Other Types of Learning.:Latent Learning vs Classical Conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Classical conditioning is when an animal eventually subconsciously anticipates a biological stimulus such as food when they experience a seemingly random stimulus, due to a repeated experience of their association. One significant example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov's experiment in which dogs showed a conditioned response to a bell the experimenters had purposely tried to associate with feeding time. After the dogs had been conditioned, the dogs no longer only salivated for the food, which was a biological need and therefore an unconditioned stimulus. The dogs began to salivate at the sound of a bell, the bell being a conditioned stimulus and the salivating now being a conditioned response to it. They salivated at the sound of a bell because they were anticipating food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22921",
"title": "Psychology",
"section": "Section::::Research methods.:Animal studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. There are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27988760",
"title": "Heuristics in judgment and decision-making",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Heuristics are simple strategies to form judgments and make decisions by focusing on the most relevant aspects of a complex problem. As far as we know, animals have always relied on heuristics to solve adaptive problems, and so have humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188540",
"title": "Classical conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Classical conditioning was first studied in detail by Ivan Pavlov through experiments with dogs and published in 1897. It began when the Russian physiologist observed - while he was studying digestion - that the dogs serving as his subjects drooled at him when they were being served meat. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145672",
"title": "Manx cat",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.:Tail (or lack thereof).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Manx (and other tail-suppressed breeds) do not exhibit problems with balance, Balance is controlled primarily by the inner ear. In cats, dogs and other large-bodied mammals, balance involves but is not dependent upon the tail (contrast rats, for whom the tail is a quite significant portion of their body mass).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42446",
"title": "Reason",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason, e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw. The field of automated reasoning studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally. Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20638729",
"title": "Causal reasoning",
"section": "Section::::Causal reasoning in non-human animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Causal reasoning is not unique to humans; animals are often able to use causal information as cues for survival. Rats are able to generalize causal cues to gain food rewards. Animals such as rats can learn the mechanisms required for a reward by reasoning about what could elicit a reward (Sawa, 2009).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ngjrj
|
Were people in Europe honestly religiously motivated to go to war or were religious tensions used more similarly to what we would call a "casus belli", by ambitious rulers?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would contend that there were elements of both sides of the argument in warfare in pre-modern Europe. On the one hand there was a level of belief extant in that period that is almost unimaginable to a modern person. This served as the basis for the mass appeal for events like the crusades and the wars of religion. Moreover events such as the relative ferocity of the wars of religion are hard to reconcile without recourse to religion as a causative factor.\n\nOn the other hand you have an entirely valid point. Many rulers cynically used religion as one leaver to control both their own populaces and justify their expansion. A good example of this would be the actions of the French kings regarding the Avignon papacy. By `protecting`the Popes in their kingdoms the Kings of France extracted many favors and advantages at a low cost. And their opposition to the eventual return to Rome of the papacy points to a motive other then the purely religious.\n\nHowever at the end of the day we should be aware of our biases. Even the most religious modern historian has a hard time getting into the mindset of the absolute belief that many in the period experienced. This makes it very easy to dismiss the religious aspect of the period. However equally we should not romanticise the past, the Kings and other powerful people of the period were not any stupider then our current leaders. They were able to make decision that were based on self interest even in religious matters. But my readings indicate to me that as a significant factor in these decision was religion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "725516",
"title": "Religious war",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "According to Jeffrey Burton Russell, numerous cases of supposed acts of religious wars such as the Thirty Years' War, the French Wars of Religion, the Sri Lankan Civil War, 9/11 and other terrorist attacks, the Bosnian War, and the Rwandan Civil War were all primarily motivated by social, political, and economic issues rather than religion. For example, in the Thirty Years' War the dominant participant on the \"Protestant\" side for much of the conflict was France, led by Cardinal Richelieu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14747617",
"title": "European wars of religion",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and discussions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "The religious nature of the wars has also been debated, and contrasted with other factors at play, such as national, dynastic (e.g. they could often simultaneously be characterised as wars of succession), and financial interests. Scholars have pointed out that some European wars of this period had no religious elements at all, such as the Italian Wars (1494–1559, only involving Catholics) and the Northern Seven Years' War (1563–1570, only involving Lutherans). Others emphasise the fact that cross-religious alliances existed, such as the Lutheran duke Maurice of Saxony assisting the Catholic emperor Charles V in the first Schmalkaldic War in 1547 in order to become the Saxon elector instead of John Frederick, his Lutheran cousin, while the Catholic king Henry II of France supported the Lutheran cause in the Second Schmalkaldic War in 1552 to secure French bases in modern-day Lorraine. The \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" maintains that \"[the] wars of religion of this period [were] fought mainly for confessional security and political gain\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14747617",
"title": "European wars of religion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "The European wars of religion were a series of religious wars which were waged in Europe in the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. The wars, which were fought after the Protestant Reformation began in 1517, disrupted the religious and political order in the Catholic countries of Europe. However, religion was not the only cause of the wars, which also included revolts, territorial ambitions, and Great Power conflicts. For example, by the end of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), Catholic France was allied with the Protestant forces against the Catholic Habsburg monarchy. The wars were largely ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), establishing a new political order that is now known as Westphalian sovereignty. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7047980",
"title": "Robert Boyd (university principal)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "This was a period of intense conflict over religion; the 1562-1598 French Wars of Religion caused around three million deaths from war and disease, surpassed only by those of the 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War, one of the most destructive conflicts in recorded history, with an estimated eight million, mostly inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire. In Britain, similar arguments over religious practices would ultimately lead to the 1638-1652 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14747617",
"title": "European wars of religion",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and discussions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Although most of the wars ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, religious conflicts continued to be fought in Europe until at least the 1710s. These included the Savoyard–Waldensian wars (1655–1690), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697, including the Glorious Revolution and the Williamite War in Ireland), and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). Whether these should be included in the European wars of religion depends on how one defines a 'war of religion', and whether these wars can be considered 'European' (i.e. international rather than domestic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6704",
"title": "Christendom",
"section": "Section::::History.:Reformation and Early Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The European wars of religion are usually taken to have ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), or arguably, including the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession in this period, with the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. In the 18th century, the focus shifts away from religious conflicts, either between Christian factions or against the external threat of Islamic factions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3822830",
"title": "Christianity and politics",
"section": "Section::::Early Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "In Western Europe, after the collapse of Roman rule, yet more issues arose. Sensing war as an aspect of politics, the Catholic Church expressed periodic unease with the fact that, in the absence of central imperial rule, Christian princes made war against each other. Church councils attempted to limit the volume and permitted times of warfare from 989 onwards by proclaiming the \"Truce of God\", which sought to set limits upon the times and places where warfare could be conducted, and to protect Christian non-combatants from the hazards of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8eut4h
|
what is happening to our brain when we go to speak and the start of the words get switched?
|
[
{
"answer": "My dad used to say that you are sixing up your myllables! I was 5 when he first told me that so it fits in this sub (kinda, sorry I'm not helpful). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The basic idea is that your brain has to go through a bunch of steps to put together sounds and words into a sentence, and sometimes it messes up a step. Linguists call these slips of the tongue \"speech errors.\" Linguists study them to figure out how our brains store and combine all the parts of a sentence.\n\nWe know that people make speech errors regularly, every day. We also know people are more likely to make speech errors when they're tired, nervous, or drunk. But we actually don't know exactly what happens when you make a slip of the tongue, because we still don't know the details of how our brains store or combine words in the first place. \n\n\n\nSource: undergrad in linguistics and cognitive science\n\nReferences: _URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33158074",
"title": "Lemma (psycholinguistics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "When a person produces a word, they are essentially turning their thoughts into sounds, a process known as lexicalisation. In many psycholinguistic models this is considered to be at least a two-stage process. The first stage deals with semantics and syntax; the result of the first stage is an abstract notion of a word that represents a meaning and contains information about how the word can be used in a sentence. It does not, however, contain information about how the word is pronounced. The second stage deals with the phonology of the word; it attaches information about the sounds that will have to be uttered. The result of the first stage is the lemma in this model; the result of the second stage is referred to as the lexeme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14241792",
"title": "TRACE (psycholinguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Key findings.:Lexical basis of segmentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Speakers usually don't leave pauses in between words when speaking, yet listeners seem to have no difficulty hearing speech as a sequence of words. This is known as the segmentation problem, and is one of the oldest problems in the psychology of language. TRACE proposed the following solution, backed up by simulations. When words become activated and recognized, this reveals the location of word boundaries. Stronger word activation leads to greater confidence about word boundaries, which informs the hearer of where to expect the next word to begin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2302106",
"title": "Speech delay",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "At times, speech delay and impairment is caused by a physical disruption in the mouth such as a deformed frenulum, lips, or palate. If the motion or ability to form words and appropriate sounds is disrupted, the child may be slow to pick up words and lack the ability to shape their mouth and tongue in the formation of words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14241792",
"title": "TRACE (psycholinguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Key findings.:Time-course of word recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "It is generally accepted in psycholinguistics that (1) when the beginning of a word is heard, a set of words that share the same initial sound become activated in memory, (2) the words that are activated compete with each other while more and more of the word is heard, (3) at some point, due to both the auditory input and the lexical competition, one word is recognized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261070",
"title": "Total physical response",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and the nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language, either the first or the second in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronise language with the individual's body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51996406",
"title": "The Interpretive Theory of Translation",
"section": "Section::::Basic Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "ITT adds one further element, deverbalization, to comprehension and reformulation, the two translation stages usually described: Most of the sounds or graphic signs disappear as soon as comprehension sets in. We all experience deverbalization in everyday communication: we keep in mind facts, notions, events conveyed by words, but we do not retain these words in our memory. The ITT found support for this postulate in neuropsychology, which suggests that language and thought are located in different areas in the brain. Anticipation of sense, which often occurs in oral communication and oral translation, is one more proof that, in context and situation, a full verbal support is not always necessary for comprehension to take place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21442872",
"title": "Maestro I",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.:Psychological phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "A delay in a dialogue operation causes an involuntary break in the thinking process and thus in the programmer's work. Fred Brooks calls this phenomenon in the landmark paper No Silver Bullet. This is caused by the way short-term memory functions in the brain. Atkinson & Shiffrin proposed a model in 1968 that stipulates that information entering short-term memory fades away in 18–20 seconds if it is no longer attended to. Another important factor is the recency effect which causes a person to remember the last few things better than the things in the middle or the beginning of a time period. Thus, when delays occur in the work, the programmer tends to lose the thread of his or her thoughts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q5h8t
|
the tree of life
|
[
{
"answer": "The Tree of Life is primarily about sublime experience more than it is about deep story.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSublime is a philosophical concept about the sensation of being incapable of taking in the entire power and magnitude of something, especially something natural. Looking at the night sky and imagine all the stars, looking out at the vastness of the ocean, standing at the foot of an enormous mountain.\n\nTree of Life's \"story,\" is more about Mallick resolving his thoughts on his childhood, but the point of Tree of Life (for audiences) isn't the story. Tree of Life is about pushing sublimity, the overwhelming power and beauty of imagery. I'm sorry you didn't enjoy it, but for many people (the Academy included), looking at the Tree of Life is the cinematic equivalent of taking in the Sistine Chapel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a very interesting analysis of *ToL* alongside *2001: A Space Odyssey* in [this By Way of Beauty post](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the movie, from what I gathered, is trying to tell a story that combines the life of one boy and his family in Waco, Texas and the bigger story of creation, life and death. It uses biblical metaphors and allusions as well as the sublime.\n\nFor a typical viewer, Mallick's style seems disjointed, stretched-out and boring. However, his style is not for everyone, and it's more of a transcendent experience rather than a rational step-by-step story. What he seems to be trying to accomplish throughout the movie is overwhelm the viewer in imagery, allowing them to emotionally reflect in each of those moments. The movie strips away dialogue and replaces it with the narrative inner thoughts of characters as a means of creating that personal and meaningful connection, as if this is not only the story of one little boy, but the thoughts of all of mankind.\n\nThe story itself is split up into separate parts that all have an overarching theme Creation, Life and Death. Death appears at the beginning and then end of the movie with news of the brother's death and Sean Penn's ethereal travels in the barren afterlife. Creation is portrayed starting with the beginning of the universe and then life itself on earth followed by the birth of Jack. Life, which becomes the focus of the story reflects on the trials and tribulations, the moments of happiness and sadness and the overall experience that Jack, the main character, has.\n\nLife, as one can interpret it throughout the movie, is all that we really have, and it’s those moments that define what we become as individuals and as a society. The segment of life is portrayed in the movie through the endless days throughout Jack’s childhood. His life is engaged in a dualistic struggle between his father and mother. This juxtaposition of his caring and gentle mother and his more strict and rough father becomes an iconic archetype battle. The father seems to represent the more dogmatic Old Testament God, with bouts of rage, uncompromising rules, and a generally cold relationship with his sons. He espouses the philosophical concepts associated with Hobbes, that man is a wretch in nature, and they need a form of strict authority to keep them in place. The mother, represents a more caring, Chist/Mary-like figure who is nurturing, understanding, playful. She is the embodiment of philosophies of Rousseau and Locke who believe that man in nature is generally good, and can live in harmony. In the end this push and pull for the boys becomes who they are in life. Jack attempts to break away from the rigid rules of his father by doing sadistic things, sneaking into people’s houses and generally making the choices that would go against the unbending will of his father. But at the same time, these choices aren’t the ones that his mother tried to instill in him, but rather reveal a more dark version of mankind, whose choices reflect a human being without rules and outside the realm of good grace. Eventually Jack’s character learns to follow the rules his father has implemented and becomes sucked up into the rigid corporate world but he still clings to the memories of his mother/nature.\n\nThe movie is definitely not for everyone, and as much as I might appreciate it, I don’t think it’s one of Mallick’s best films. I can understand not everyone liking it, but it does has some interesting themes and generally it reflects a higher level of cinema than Transformers. I guess the issue becomes, do you agree with Mallick’s interpretation of Life and Death? Are the themes he tries to explore poignant or kind of hashed out?\n\n**TLDR:** The movie is a tale of Creation, Life and Death, and it is told through the larger scope of all mankind, but similarly through the personal experiences of one boy. \n\n**edit** Sorry I didn't explain it like you were five, but I tried to simply explain what I got out of the movie.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like youre five: Movies are something that artists can use to tell stories or express themselves. They are like paintings or music. When you paint a picture of your house and family you try to make everyone look like themselves so when other people look at your painting, they will recognize your house and family. \n\nSome painters make paintings that arent of certain people or places but are of feelings, or ideas. Can you imagine what a painting of sadness might look like? Or frustration? Or thankfulness? Well, some movies try to do the same thing. They dont want to show a straightforward a story, instead they want show you a feeling. Like a swirl of oily paint and some sound effects to show you how amazingly big and empty the universe can feel. \n\nThe Tree of Life is one of these movies and it specifically deals with the idea of the beginning of life and how the universe went from a lifeless soup to family of complex creatures who get mad and upset and feel love and loss. It is amazing and awe inspiring to think about. And since the movie isnt too specific in its storytelling, you are able to kinda put yourself into the movie and it makes the feelings stronger. The movie isnt about Brad Pitt's family, really. The movie is about *your* family and everyone's family and how incredible it is that there even are families and how intense it can be to be alive. \n\nWhen watching a movie like this it is important to not expect too many details or explanation like you would get with most other movies. These movies are different. So just relax and ask yourself what you are feeling while you watch it. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3586000",
"title": "Tree of life (Kabbalah)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The tree of life is a diagram used in various mystical traditions. It usually consists of 10 nodes symbolizing different archetypes and 22 lines connecting the nodes. The nodes are often arranged into three columns to represent that they belong to a common category.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8383637",
"title": "Tree of life (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The tree of life or universal tree of life is a metaphor, model and research tool used to explore the evolution of life and describe the relationships between organisms, both living and extinct, as described in a famous passage in Charles Darwin's \"On the Origin of Species\" (1859).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4868561",
"title": "Tree of Life (Disney)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The Tree of Life is a sculpture of a baobab tree at Disney's Animal Kingdom, Walt Disney World Resort. It debuted when the attraction opened on April 22, 1998. Inspired by the tree of the same name, the Tree of Life features 325 carvings of existing and extinct animal species on its trunk and surrounding roots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16074507",
"title": "The Tree of Life (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The Tree of Life is a 2011 American experimental epic drama film written and directed by Terrence Malick and featuring a cast of Brad Pitt, Sean Penn, Hunter McCracken, Laramie Eppler, Jessica Chastain, and Tye Sheridan in his debut feature film role. The film chronicles the origins and meaning of life by way of a middle-aged man's childhood memories of his family living in 1950s Texas, interspersed with imagery of the origins of the known universe and the inception of life on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320271",
"title": "Tree of Life (Kester)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The Tree of Life is a sculpture created by four artists in Mozambique. It was commissioned and then installed in the British Museum in 2005. It was built from the surrender of 600,000 weapons that were converted into art following an initiative started by Bishop Dinis Sengulane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47926198",
"title": "Open Tree of Life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The Open Tree of Life is an online phylogenetic tree of life – a collaborative effort, funded by the National Science Foundation. The first draft, including 2.3 million species, was released in September 2015. The Interactive graph allows the user to zoom in to taxonomic classifications, phylogenetic trees, and information about a node. Clicking on a species will return its source and reference taxonomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58085649",
"title": "Tree of Life (sculpture)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "\"Tree of Life\" is an abstract metal sculpture depicting of tree with stylized branches and leaves. It is made of nickel silver and stainless steel, enameled blue and green, and measures approximately x x . The Smithsonian Institution categorizes the sculpture as an allegorical representation of life, and says the tree is a \"Christian symbol of growth, fruitfulness, spiritual evolution and diversity among unity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44cqhk
|
When Book 10 of the Iliad was written?
|
[
{
"answer": "The so-called Doloneia has been debated for some time, since antiquity in fact. There isn't really a consensus, though most scholars consider it an interpolation. The tradition that the Doloneia is an interpolation goes back to a Homeric scholiast in antiquity, who attributed the Doloneia to Pisistratus. More likely, if the scholiast is right, the Doloneia was part of an alternate version of the *Iliad* (there were many such versions surviving well into antiquity, even after the relative standardization of the text by the Alexandrian scholars) that was added by Pisistratus, possibly as part of the so-called Pisistratean Recension (if it existed). Certainly the passage is suspect, as it lacks certain distinctive features of the rest of the poem besides not really making sense, but it's been pointed out that the Homeric Poems were the result of a centuries-old oral poetic tradition, and that anomalies shouldn't be unexpected. Many such anomalies were culled from the text by the Alexandrian scholars as interpolations, some of them quite long, and there are lots of passages in Homer that certainly look like interpolations but may well be genuine products of the oral tradition (I dunno, I'm not really a Homeric scholar, they get all tied up in knots about this sort of thing). But the Doloneia is unusually long and if it is an interpolation it probably represents a fairly early one, probably inserted from another part of the epic cycle--the Doloneia appears to be linked to an epic tradition surrounding Rhesus, who is of course murdered in his sleep in the passage, that we know existed\n\n > So my theory is it was written in the 5th to 4th century B.C. The reason behind this is the character Dolan. In my opinion a character like him would have been very popular to add due to the traitor at Thermopylae, Ephialtes of Trachis, in 480 B.C.\n\nI'm not so sure about this. I've never heard any connection supposed between Ephialtes and Dolon, they seem to me to have very little to do with each other. I mean, Dolon exists literally to be killed--the New Pauly suggests that maybe he was an invention of the author of the Doloneia, who created a character to link a tradition about a night expedition by Diomedes and Odysseus with the death of Rhesus. His name is certainly suspect (Δόλων isn't really a name, its a derived form from δόλος, \"craft, cunning\") and his lack of any personality or importance despite taking up so much of the book is more than a bit odd if the character existed in the epic cycle before his inclusion in Homer. Ephialtes is certainly too late to be an influence on the Doloneia, as it appears to have been named very early, attributed to Pisistratus by the scholiasts and possibly known to Herodotus. It lacks features common to the rest of the poem, but its language still appears to be close enough to Homer's that it's probably at least in some way derived from some part of the epic cycle. The New Pauly's explanation of the passage as an interpolation of Rhesus' part of the epic cycle into Homer is as convincing I think as any, but there are *lots* of alternate suggestions out there and there's still not even a consensus on whether it's an interpolation or not",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19381951",
"title": "Iliad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The \"Iliad\" is paired with something of a sequel, the \"Odyssey\", also attributed to Homer. Along with the \"Odyssey\", the \"Iliad\" is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC. In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the \"Iliad\" contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. According to Michael N. Nagler, the \"Iliad\" is a more complicated epic poem than the \"Odyssey\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213884",
"title": "Quintus Smyrnaeus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "His epic in fourteen books, known as the \"Posthomerica\", covers the period between the end of Homer's \"Iliad\" and the end of the Trojan War. Its primary importance is as the earliest surviving work to cover this period, the archaic works in the Epic Cycle, which he knew and drew upon, having been lost. His materials are borrowed from the cyclic poems from which Virgil (with whose works he was probably acquainted) also drew, in particular the \"Aethiopis\" (\"Coming of Memnon\") and the \"Iliupersis\" (\"Destruction of Troy\") of Arctinus of Miletus and the \"Ilias Mikra\" (\"Little Iliad\") of Lesches. His work is closely modelled on Homer, though Quintus is universally acknowledged to be inferior to Homer as a poet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5228701",
"title": "Posthomerica",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Books five through twelve, covering the same ground as the \"Little Iliad\" of Lesches, span from the contest between Ajax and Odysseus for the arms of Achilles, the death of Ajax of suicide after his loss, the exploits of Neoptolemus, Eurypylus and Deiphobus, the deaths of Paris and Oenone, to the building of the wooden horse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32836508",
"title": "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 (P. Oxy. 21) is a fragment of the second book of the \"Iliad\" (Β, 745-764), written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the first or second century. It is housed in the University of Chicago Oriental Institute. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188861",
"title": "Samuel Clarke",
"section": "Section::::Translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "In 1729 he published the first twelve books of Homer's \"Iliad\". This edition, dedicated to William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, was praised by Bishop Hoadly. Three years after his death appeared also the last twelve books of the \"Iliad\", published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of these books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised and annotated by his father.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32836293",
"title": "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 (P. Oxy. 20) consists of twelve fragments of the second book of the \"Iliad\" (Β, 730-828), written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the second century. It is housed in the British Library (Department of Manuscripts). The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2083990",
"title": "Little Iliad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The Little Iliad (Greek: , \"Ilias mikra\"; ) is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. It was one of the Epic Cycle, that is, the \"Trojan\" cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic verse. The story of the \"Little Iliad\" comes chronologically after that of the \"Aethiopis\", and is followed by that of the \"Iliou persis\" (\"Sack of Troy\"). The \"Little Iliad\" was variously attributed by ancient writers to Lesches of Pyrrha (7th century BCE), Cinaethon of Sparta (8th century BCE), Diodorus of Erythrae, Thestorides of Phocaea, or Homer himself (8th century BCE) (see Cyclic poets). The poem comprised four books of verse in dactylic hexameter, the heroic meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yr8pu
|
What do former-soviet nations teach about WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "I teach in a Post-Soviet school currently (English, but I majored in History), and I have spoken with the history teachers about the curriculum. Each state speaks highly of its own contributions to the conflict. Georgia speaks of its industrial contributions and soldier commitments. Even the smallest of the villages have monuments with the names of the dead. \n\nBeyond that, they hit the highlights with the highest emphasis placed on the Eastern Front. Vassily Zaitsev is a very popular story and is often just referred to as \"The Sniper\". \n\nOn a more radical and national-political scene (speaking in the Georgian context) there is a * Museum of Soviet Occupation* and I believe it gives mention to the cost of Georgian lives for the greater conflict, perhaps even referencing that it was a \"Russian\" campaign. If I am ever there again, I will check and update. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I was attending Soviet public school in the 80s, the Pacific theater wasn't mentioned beyond Soviet involvement. The Western Front was looked upon as 'too little too late' and Lend Lease wasn't mentioned all. Keep in mind that this is at the elementary/middle school level, and WW2 was a topic from kindergarten on. \n\nI would assume that the same continues in the Russian Federation. I would be very curious to lean about how the topic is presented in the various former republics, especially the Baltic States that don't have the most favorable opinion of Russia. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really a former Soviet nation, but I thought Polish perspective on this might be interesting.\n\nWe are being taught in detail about Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (look it up, it's fascinating) and how Hitler and Stalin were allies and how Poland was invaded from both sides - it's always called an \"invasion\", even though Soviet forces crossed the border under the pretext of protecting their own people. \n\nIt's also said that Poland was betrayed by their allies - France and Great Britain and that their reluctance to declare war on Germany and act accordingly was the main cause of our defeat and German occupation. \n\nThere is also a very clear opinion on conferences of the \"Big Three\" (Yalta, Tehran, Potsdam) - that both Roosevelt and Churchill (the second one to a lesser extent) sold Poland to Stalin for his involvement in the war, acting behind the back of our government in exile in London. \n\nThe conlusion is that even though in theory Poland was on the side of victors, we were the ones to lose the war, being turned into satellite country of USSR for the next fifty years, all thanks to Western countries. \n\nSource: Finished Polish high school two years ago while taking extended level history. If you have any further questions, I will gladly answer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6992045",
"title": "1945 (Gingrich and Forstchen novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "1945 is an alternate history written by Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen in 1995, describing the period immediately after World War II wherein the United States had fought only against Japan, allowing Nazi Germany to force a truce with the Soviet Union, after which the two victors confront each other in a cold war which swiftly turns hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2867129",
"title": "List of Japanese World War II military specialists on the USSR",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "List of Japanese World War II experts in Russian/Soviet topics from the 1920s until the end of World War II. The experts listed here acquired their knowledge during the Russo-Japanese War, 1918-27 Siberian intervention, and diplomatic attachés to the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1203",
"title": "Alternate history",
"section": "Section::::History of literature.:Contemporary alternate history in popular literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focuses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis and/or Axis Powers conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a \"Fortress America\" exists under siege; while in others, there is a Nazi/Japanese Cold War comparable to the US/Soviet equivalent in 'our' timeline. \"Fatherland\" (1992), by Robert Harris, is set in Europe following the Nazi victory. The novel Dominion by C.J. Sansom (2012) is similar in concept but is set in England, with Churchill the leader of an anti-German Resistance and other historic persons in various fictional roles. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22072001",
"title": "Yuri Bezmenov",
"section": "Section::::Early life and student years (1939–1963).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "As a Soviet student, he was also required to take compulsory military training in which he was taught how to play \"strategic war games\" using the maps of foreign countries, as well as how to interrogate prisoners of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865825",
"title": "Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Few questions concerning the origins of the Second World War are more controversial and ideologically loaded than the issue of the policies of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin towards Nazi Germany between the Nazi seizure of power and the German invasion of the USSR on June 22, 1941. A variety of competing and contradictory theses exist, including: that the Soviet leadership actively sought another great war in Europe to further weaken the capitalist nations; that the USSR pursued a purely defensive policy; or that the USSR tried to avoid becoming entangled in a war, both because Soviet leaders did not feel that they had the military capabilities to conduct strategic operations at that time, and to avoid, in paraphrasing Stalin's words to the 18th Party Congress on March 10, 1939, \"pulling other nations' (the UK and France's) chestnuts out of the fire.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3757485",
"title": "Hotsumi Ozaki",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Ozaki learned that Japan wanted to avoid a war with the Soviet Union, and let Sorge know of it. This information proved to be of uttermost importance for the whole history of the Second World War: after Sorge relayed it to Soviet command, Moscow transferred 18 divisions, 1,700 tanks, and over 1,500 aircraft from Siberia and the Far East to the Western Front against the Nazi Germany during the most dangerous months of the Battle for Moscow, one of the turning points of the whole war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20274524",
"title": "David Reynolds (historian)",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1994: \"Allies at War: the Soviet, American and British Experience 1939–1945\" (Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute Series on Diplomatic and Economic History). (Co-edited with Warren F. Kimball and A. O. Chubarian). Palgrave Macmillan\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tsyjt
|
Why was there such a gap between the earliest stone tools and the earliest metal tools?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they were probably more focused on survival day to day then innovation. Only as agricultural skills flourished and led to a more sedentary lifestyle would people have the free time to be creative and figure out how to manipulate metals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Having fire\" and begin able to smelt metal are not at all the same thing. First off you have to recognize the ores that contain metal. You also have to get the fire pretty hot (hotter than a campfire will get if you want to smelt copper, so you probably need to have a knowledge of pottery so you could make a clay kiln of some sort) and pretty consistent. You also have to be able to do the final step in an air-starved environment because you're trying to strip oxygen out of the mineral to get your metal. That's a lot of stuff to figure out from nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "803661",
"title": "History of technology",
"section": "Section::::By period and geography.:Prehistory.:Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The earliest stone tools were irrelevant, being little more than a fractured rock. In the Acheulian era, beginning approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working these stone into specific shapes, such as hand axes emerged. This early Stone Age is described as the Lower Paleolithic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "Section::::Use of tools.:Stone tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 Million years ago, when hominins in Eastern Africa used so-called core tools, choppers made out of round cores that had been split by simple strikes. This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age), until 50,000–30,000 years ago, and the Upper Paleolithic, (Late Stone Age), 50,000–10,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29219",
"title": "Stone Age",
"section": "Section::::Stone Age in archaeology.:Beginning of the Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "The oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to the discovery of these \"Lomekwian\" tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at several sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo-Awash River, which serve to date them. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, which would have been from 2.9 to 2.7 mya. The oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2.6–2.55 mya. One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, where previous to their discovery tools were thought to have evolved only in the Pleistocene. Excavators at the locality point out that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90815",
"title": "Military technology",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The first use of stone tools may have begun during the Paleolithic Period. The earliest stone tools are from the site of Lomekwi, Turkana, dating from 3.3 million years ago. Stone tools diversified through the Pleistocene Period, which ended ~12,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25510191",
"title": "Prehistory of the Valencian Community",
"section": "Section::::Paleolithic.:Middle Paleolithic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Aside from cave paintings, Mousterian tools were also found. These stone tools varied little during the Middle and Lower Paleolithic; scientists believe they didn't change for 200,000 years. Nevertheless, the Neanderthals also used organic materials like wood to make lances; wooden lances have been found, infrequently, at archeological sites. However, such tools could have played an important role in the survival of these groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "803661",
"title": "History of technology",
"section": "Section::::By period and geography.:Prehistory.:Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the Neolithic period. During this period, polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite, and greenstone, largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunneling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared. These stone axes were used alongside a continued use of stone tools such as a range of projectiles, knives, and scrapers, as well as tools, made organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22860",
"title": "Paleolithic",
"section": "Section::::Human way of life.:Technology.:Tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The earliest Paleolithic stone tool industry, the Oldowan, began around 2.6 million years ago. It contained tools such as choppers, burins, and stitching awls. It was completely replaced around 250,000 years ago by the more complex Acheulean industry, which was first conceived by \"Homo ergaster\" around 1.8–1.65 million years ago. The Acheulean implements completely vanish from the archaeological record around 100,000 years ago and were replaced by more complex Middle Paleolithic tool kits such as the Mousterian and the Aterian industries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rr3m1
|
Zhuge Liang: Fact vs. Fiction
|
[
{
"answer": "Pretty much everything about Zhuge Liang popularized in *Romance of the Three Kingdoms* is false. Some notable examples:\n\n**Borrowing Arrows with Straw Boats:**\n\nThe *Sanguozhi* does not mention this at all, which means it is probably pure fiction. The SGZ does quote *Weilue* about a similar incident. During the Battle of Ruxu, Sun Quan sent a ship to observe Cao Cao's positions. Wei archers fired on the ship, which caused it to list. Sun Quan ordered the ship to turn around so that the Wei arrows would hit the other side and restore balance. Sun Quan then sailed back to his camp.\n\nFrom the *Weilue*:\n\n > [Sun] Quan boarded a large ship to inspect [Wei] camps, our lord [Cao Cao] ordered archers to fire, the arrows lodged into the ship, and the weight caused the ship to list. Quan ordered the ship to turn around so that the arrows would strike the other side. Once the ship was balanced, he returned to camp.\n\n**Praying for Eastern Wind:**\n\nYeah, this never happened. In fact, the entire Battle of Red Cliff was fought primarily by Wu forces. Liu Bei at the time was simply a beggar prince with very little land, resources, and men. Major credit for the battle belongs to Zhou Yu, not Zhuge Liang.\n\n**Fire Ships:**\n\nThe idea did not come from Zhuge Liang, it came from Wu general Huang Gai. Even then, this tactic was already well known by that time.\n\n**Guan Yu letting Cao Cao escape:**\n\nROTK had Zhuge Liang order Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to lay ambushes in strategic places and Guan Yu allowed Cao Cao to escape at Huarong Trail. This was not recorded in the SGZ and is entirely fictional. Liu Bei did plan on ambushing Cao Cao, but by the time he arrived, Cao Cao was long gone.\n\n**Zhou Yu's death:**\n\nZhuge Liang did not troll Zhou Yu to death with his wisdom and stratagems. The SGZ simply states that Zhou Yu died of illness.\n\n**Capturing Meng Huo Seven Times:**\n\nPei Songzhi's annotation of the SGZ only contains a single line about this, with no details. Therefore, it is likely that this is fiction. The rebellion itself was glossed over in historical texts, as it was not considered that important. \n\n**Inventing Things:**\n\nZhuge Liang did not invent the repeating crossbow or the ox wheelbarrow, but merely improved upon already existing designs. He also did not invent the flamethrower/cannon. That part is fiction.\n\n**Empty Fort Strategy:**\n\nPei Songzhi's annotation of the SGZ points out that Zhuge Liang's use of the Empty Fort Strategy against Sima Yi is entirely fictional, as Sima Yi was probably not even in the area during that time. There are also other inconsistencies with the story, such as why didn't Sima Yi send scouts or why he didn't surround the city when he clearly had the numerical advantage. The Empty Fort Strategy was actually first used by Cao Cao against Lv Bu. Zhao Yun also made notable use of this strategy, as described in Pei Songzhi's annotation of the SGZ:\n\n > In the twenty-fourth year of Jian'an (219 AD), Zhao Yun went with Liu Bei to attack Hanzhong. After the Shu army had killed Xiahou Yuan, Cao Cao gathered a large army to Hanzhong in response. There was an incident whereby the Cao army was transporting a large supply of grain to the bottom of the Northern Mountain. Huang Zhong saw that as an opportunity to intercept the food supply and he led his followers as well as Zhao Yun’s to attack the food supply chain. When Huang Zhong failed to return by the scheduled time, Zhao Yun brought along some light cavalry to assist Huang Zhong. After a short period of journeying, they met up with Cao Cao’s main force. Zhao Yun fought with Cao Cao’s vanguard but the latter’s troops were quickly reinforced in large amounts, forcing Zhao Yun to beat a retreat. The Cao army had Zhao Yun’s troops surrounded and by the time Zhao Yun managed to break out of the enemies’ lines, he realized that his subordinate Zhang Zhu was injured. Zhao Yun charged back into the enemies’ midst to rescue Zhang Zhu before they retreated back to their camp. At that time, the governor of Mianyang county Zhang Yi was helping to defend the camp. When he saw the size of the Cao army coming, he shut the gates and refused to defend. Zhao Yun realized of the immensity of the enemy’s troops and found it impossible to defend the camp. Thus he ordered for the gates to be opened, the flags taken down and the beating of drums ceased. When the Cao army arrived at the camp, they suspected of a possible ambush and retreated hastily. Zhao Yun then ordered for the drums to be beaten and also arrows be shot. The Cao army was taken by surprise by the sudden noise and was put to disarray and stampeding and many were drowned in the River Han nearby. The next day, Liu Bei came to Zhao Yun’s camp to inspect the outcome of the battle and could not help but praise Zhao Yun for his bravery.\n\n**Predicting his own death:**\n\nDidn't happen.\n\nZhuge Liang was a very capable political leader and administrator - Shu lacked the manpower and the resources of Wei and Wu and Zhuge Liang did the best with what he had. As Prime Minister, he employed capable officials and generals and knew how to delegate tasks. As a military leader, however, he was subpar. He was overly cautious and refused to take even the slightest risk, which was why Wei Yan grew disillusioned with him, and it led to the failure of all his Northern Expeditions, as his cautiousness gave time for his opponents to prepare their defenses. Sima Yi only had to stay in his camps and hold a defensive position and wait until Zhuge Liang ran out of supplies.\n\nMany of the stratagems were falsely attributed to Zhuge Liang in ROTK because Luo Guanzhong idolized him and made him into the greatest strategist who ever lived. As *Romance* popularized and spread, so too did tales of Zhuge Liang's exploits, until it became deeply embedded in modern pop culture. You should really read his biography in the SGZ. He is a great individual, skilled in organization and administration, but far too overrated. The best battle commander in the Three Kingdoms should really be Cao Cao.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38251694",
"title": "Zhuge Liang (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Zhuge Liang is a Chinese television series based on the life of Zhuge Liang, a chancellor (or prime minister) of the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period. The plot is based on stories about Zhuge Liang in the 14th-century historical novel \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\". The series starred Li Fazeng as the title character and was first aired on Hubei TV in mainland China in 1985.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33231218",
"title": "List of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::Television.:Live action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Legendary Prime Minister – Zhuge Liang\" is a 1985 Hong Kong television series produced by ATV. It is based on the life of Zhuge Liang and features a fictional romance between Zhuge Liang and Xiao Qiao.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38251448",
"title": "The Legendary Prime Minister – Zhuge Liang",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "The Legendary Prime Minister – Zhuge Liang is a Hong Kong television series based on the life of Zhuge Liang (Cantonese: Chu-kot Leung), a chancellor (or prime minister) of the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period. Starring Adam Cheng as the title character, the series not only incorporates stories about Zhuge Liang from the 14th-century historical novel \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\", but also includes some elements of wuxia and a fictional romance between Zhuge Liang and Xiaoqiao (Cantonese: Siu-kiu). The series was produced by ATV and first started airing in Hong Kong on 9 December 1985.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267666",
"title": "Zhuge Liang",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Literary works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Some books popularly attributed to Zhuge Liang can be found today. For example, the \"Thirty-Six Stratagems\", and \"Mastering the Art of War\" (not to be confused with Sun Tzu's \"The Art of War\") are two commonly available works attributed to Zhuge Liang. Supposedly, his mastery of infantry and cavalry formation tactics, based on the Taoist classic \"I Ching\", were unrivalled. His memorial, the \"Chu Shi Biao\", written prior to the Northern Expeditions, provided a salutary reflection of his unwavering loyalty to the state of Shu. The memorial moved some readers to tears. In addition, he wrote \"Admonition to His Son\" () in which he reflected on his humbleness and frugality in pursuit of a meaningful life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41205234",
"title": "Liang Xiaosheng",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Liang started to publish novels in 1979. His most well-known works are \"The Floating City\" (), \"A Red Guard's Confessions\" (), \"From Fudan University to Beijing Film Academy\" (), \"The City of Snow\" (), and \"The Depressed Chinese\" ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5929347",
"title": "Sangokushi Kōmeiden",
"section": "Section::::Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "This release loosely describes the events of Zhuge Liang's life as depicted in Luo Guanzhong's historical dramatic novel \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\". As Zhuge Liang, the player must assist Liu Bei in procuring the territories of Jingzhou and Yizhou and establishing the Shu Han kingdom. In addition, the player must organise Zhuge's Southern Campaign against the Nanman peoples and carry out the Northern Expeditions against the opposing kingdom of Cao Wei.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267666",
"title": "Zhuge Liang",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Literary works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Zhuge Liang is also the subject of many Chinese literary works. A poem by Du Fu, a prolific Tang dynasty poet, was written in memory of Zhuge Liang whose legacy of unwavering dedication seems to have been forgotten in Du Fu's generation (judging by the description of Zhuge Liang' unkept temple). Some historians believe that Du Fu had compared himself with Zhuge Liang in the poem. The full text is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n87hb
|
why do we tear up when we rip out nose hair or rip off a inner nose scab?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably because there are lots of nerve endings in the mucosal lining. And it hurts like a bitch. The worst is when you get a zit in there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "220802",
"title": "Cutting off the nose to spite the face",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "\"Cutting off the nose to spite the face\" is an expression to describe a needlessly self-destructive over-reaction to a problem: \"Don't cut off your nose to spite your face\" is a warning against acting out of pique, or against pursuing revenge in a way that would damage oneself more than the object of one's anger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1707081",
"title": "Æbbe the Younger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "She is best known for an act of self-mutilation to avoid rape by Viking invaders: according to a ninth-century chronicle, she took a razor and cut off her nose in front of the nuns, who followed her example. Their appearance so disgusted the invaders that the women were saved from rape but not from death, as the Danes soon returned and set fire to the convent, killing Æbbe and her entire community. It has been suggested that this is the origin of the saying \"cutting off the nose to spite the face\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51258",
"title": "Onion",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Eye irritation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Freshly cut onions often cause a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby, and often uncontrollable tears. This is caused by the release of a volatile liquid, \"syn\"-propanethial-S-oxide and its aerosol, which stimulates nerves in the eye. This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a defence mechanism: chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called alliinases. These break down amino acid sulfoxides and generate sulfenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme, the lacrimatory factor synthase, producing the \"syn\"-propanethial-S-oxide. This gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes, where it activates sensory neurons. Lacrimal glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220802",
"title": "Cutting off the nose to spite the face",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "It was not uncommon in the Middle Ages for a person to cut off the nose of another for various reasons, including punishment from the state, or as an act of revenge. Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker notes that the phrase may have originated from this practice, as at this time \"cutting off someone's nose was the prototypical act of spite.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20672504",
"title": "Scarring hair loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "It can be caused by a diverse group of rare disorders that destroy the hair follicle, replace it with scar tissue, and cause permanent hair loss. A variety of distributions are possible. In some cases, hair loss is gradual, without symptoms, and is unnoticed for long periods. In other cases, hair loss is associated with severe itching, burning and pain and is rapidly progressive. The inflammation that destroys the follicle is below the skin surface and there is usually no \"scar\" seen on the scalp. Affected areas of the scalp may show little signs of inflammation, or have redness, scaling, increased or decreased pigmentation, pustules, or draining sinuses. Scarring hair loss occurs in otherwise healthy men and women of all ages and is seen worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7793376",
"title": "Parry–Romberg syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Skin and connective tissues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The process may eventually extend to involve tissues between the nose and the upper corner of the lip, the upper jaw, the angle of the mouth, the area around the eye and brow, the ear, and/or the neck. The syndrome often begins with a circumscribed patch of scleroderma in the frontal region of the scalp which is associated with a loss of hair and the appearance of a depressed linear scar extending down through the midface on the affected side. This scar is referred to as a \"coup de sabre\" lesion because it resembles the scar of a wound made by a sabre, and is indistinguishable from the scar observed in frontal linear scleroderma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48925128",
"title": "Nose-blowing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Nose-blowing is the act of expelling nasal mucus by exhaling forcefully through the nose. This is usually done into a facial tissue or handkerchief, facial tissues being more hygienic as they are disposed of after each use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bgczvz
|
So another earthquake hit the PH today. Just 1 day apart, but from different places. Is there a connection between the 2? Should we be worried here in the PH for another big one?
|
[
{
"answer": "For reference, the first large event was this [one](_URL_4_) occurring on 4/22 in the northern part of the country. The more recent event occurring on 4/23 was this [one](_URL_2_) in the more central/southern portion of the country.\n\nLocal geologists / seismologists have indicated that these two earthquakes occurred on different fault systems, and given the distance between these two earthquakes (relative to their magnitude) it is not possible that they are related as either foreshocks or aftershocks (i.e. they are far enough part that [coulomb stress transfer](_URL_0_) between the source faults is basically impossible). They're within the time range that one could potentially argue for [dynamic triggering](_URL_1_) of the latter earthquake by the first, but this is a proposition that would require a lot of investigation before anyone would make this claim (and it's probably unlikely, as in most cases the original triggering earthquake is significantly larger than the original 6.1 magnitude event). In short, there's probably no direct connection between them.\n\nSo what's the most likely explanation for these two events happening in close spatial and temporal proximity? Random chance superimposed on the fact that the [region is generally characterized by a lot of seismicity](_URL_3_), so the presence of strong earthquakes is in no way surprising. There are [~150 earthquakes of between 6.0 - 6.9](_URL_5_) per year globally, so that two of them might happen in a seismically active area, a few days apart, isn't really that unlikely. As to whether you should be worried about a larger earthquake in the region? No more than you would on any other day, i.e. as stated before, the region has a high seismic risk in general, so there's always a measurable risk of a large event. People can certainly expect aftershocks from both events, but these will be smaller than the original events.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40035936",
"title": "2013 Dingxi earthquakes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "On 22 July 2013, a series of earthquakes occurred in Dingxi, Gansu. The first quake struck at 07:45 China Standard Time with the epicenter located at the border of Min County and Zhang County. The magnitude of the initial earthquake was placed at M 6.6 by the China Earthquake Data Center with a focal depth of . It was measured at M 5.9 by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and M 6.0 by the European Alert System. Another strong quake occurred about one hour later, measured at 5.6 magnitude by the USGS. As of 18:00 CST (10:00 UTC), 22 July 2013, 422 aftershocks had been recorded. The earthquakes were also felt in the nearby cities of Tianshui and Lanzhou in Gansu, as well as Xi'an, Baoji, and Xianyang in neighbouring Shaanxi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64460",
"title": "San Andreas Fault",
"section": "Section::::Study.:The next \"Big One\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1315,
"text": "This study also found that the risk of a large earthquake may be increasing more rapidly than scientists had previously believed. Moreover, the risk is currently concentrated on the southern section of the fault, i.e. the region around Los Angeles, because massive earthquakes have occurred relatively recently on the central (1857) and northern (1906) segments of the fault, while the southern section has not seen any similar rupture for at least 300 years. According to this study, a massive earthquake on that southern section of the San Andreas fault would result in major damage to the Palm Springs–Indio metropolitan area and other cities in San Bernardino, Riverside and Imperial counties in California, and Mexicali Municipality in Baja California. It would be strongly felt (and potentially cause significant damage) throughout much of Southern California, including densely populated areas of Los Angeles County, Ventura County, Orange County, San Diego County, Ensenada Municipality and Tijuana Municipality, Baja California, San Luis Rio Colorado in Sonora and Yuma, Arizona. Older buildings would be especially prone to damage or collapse, as would buildings built on unconsolidated gravel or in coastal areas where water tables are high (and thus subject to soil liquefaction). The paper concluded :\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46514718",
"title": "April 2015 Nepal earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:12 May 2015 earthquake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "A second major earthquake occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (M) of 7.3M 18 km (11 mi) southeast of Kodari. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest. It struck at the depth of 18.5 km (11.5 miles). This earthquake occurred along the same fault as the original magnitude 7.8 earthquake of 25 April but further to the east. As such, it is considered to be an aftershock of 25 April quake. Tremors were also felt in northern parts of India including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and other North-Indian States. At least 153 died in Nepal as a result of the aftershock and about 2,500 were injured. 62 others died in India, two in Bangladesh, and one in China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26418017",
"title": "2010 Kaohsiung earthquake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The 2010 Kaohsiung earthquake, measuring 6.3 , occurred on March 4 at 8:20 a.m. local time. The epicenter was located in the mountainous area of Kaohsiung County (now part of Kaohsiung City) of the southwestern Taiwan. It was the most powerful earthquake in Kaohsiung since 1900. The earthquake did not cause any deaths, but 96 people were injured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27805414",
"title": "1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Stress triggering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The earthquake was the largest event to occur on along the DST during the 20th century and was felt up to away. The period of aftershocks carried on for over a year with many exceeding magnitude 5. Within several hours of the mainshock a number of small earthquakes occurred along the DST north of the epicenter. Analysis of these earthquakes suggest that they may have been remotely triggered by the Gulf of Aqaba mainshock. Much attention has been given to remotely triggered earthquakes since the 1992 Landers earthquake in southern California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48669793",
"title": "1303 Hongdong earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Damage and casualties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The 1303 Hongdong earthquake, though currently the last to have occurred on its fault system, marked the start of a centuries-long episode of heightened earthquake activity throughout China, the first of several to occur up to the end of the twentieth century. It was also the first of many examples of earthquakes that demonstrated the tendency of earthquakes in China to strike near loess plateaus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35593147",
"title": "1996 Baotou earthquake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The earthquake was located close to the western suburbs of Baotou, and it was considered a typical urban earthquake. A landslide in Hademen Gold Mine (哈德门金矿) caused 6 deaths. There was damage to electricity infrastructure. Liquefaction was reported in the low swamps along both sides of the Yellow River. Anomalies in gas radon and water mercury were observed before the earthquake. However, many of the anomalies were observed in Linhe, Baynnur, but the earthquake occurred near western Baotou. Besides in Inner Monglia, the earthquake could be felt in Beijing, Shaanxi, and Shanxi of China as well as in Mongolia. There was a large historical earthquake in 849 around the Hetao region, and some researchers located it in eastern Baotou.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bstjpx
|
why are vietnam veterans praised so much in america?
|
[
{
"answer": "1. A lot of people were drafted. They did not choose to go.\n\n2. People already in the military also did not have a choice.\n\nMost of them were in one of those two categories. So if they had no choice and went through hell for their country (whether or not the war was justified is a separate story) why shouldn’t they be praised? \n\nI’m saying all this as a non-American so I have no patriotic bias here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mainly , and this is my opinion/take on it, because a majority (FC?) of the military was drafted and there were *lots* of protests against the Vietnam war and how we shouldn’t have been there. It was a horribly gruesome war, and the veterans of it deserve the praise because of what they were forced to endure meaninglessly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are praised because they were forced to do the wrong things, while the public had no idea. Then they came back and got shit on because of what the government had them doing. Basically this praise is a response to the initial public reaction, i.e them getting thrown under the bus. I hope no one thinks vietnam was a good idea, but i think you should respect the people that were forced to go there and fight for basically no reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32594",
"title": "Vietnam veteran",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "There are persistent stereotypes about Vietnam veterans as psychologically devastated, bitter, homeless, drug-addicted people, who had a hard time readjusting to society, primarily because of the uniquely divisive nature of the Vietnam War in the context of US history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2899234",
"title": "Vietnam Veterans Against the War",
"section": "Section::::Post-Vietnam War activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Mainstream veterans groups had tended to be suspicious of Vietnam veterans who protested against the war, regarding them as \"crybabies and losers\" in general. They particularly thought the VVAW members were unpatriotic and anti-American. Vietnam Veterans of America was not founded until 1978 by VVAW member Robert Muller. In 1990 the American Legion and VVA joined the cause of Vietnam veterans, filing suit against the government for having failed to conduct the study ordered by Congress in 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32594",
"title": "Vietnam veteran",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The Vietnam veteran has been depicted in fiction and film of variable quality. A major theme is the difficulties of soldiers readjusting from combat to civilian life. This theme had occasionally been explored in the context of World War Two in such films as \"The Best Years of Our Lives\" (1946) and \"The Men\" (1950). However, films featuring Vietnam veterans constitute a much larger genre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "966377",
"title": "Bobby Muller",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Muller is president of Veterans for America (formerly known as the Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation). Veterans for America is uniting the new generation of veterans with those from past wars to address the needs of veterans, service members and their families and their larger concerns about the impact of war. It is an advocacy and humanitarian organization. Veterans for America is committed to advancing policy and elevating public discourse on the causes, conduct and consequences of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60594126",
"title": "Ted Sampley",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:\"The Three Soldiers\" copyright infringement lawsuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Scruggs had also angered the veterans at the booths by saying that they perpetuated stereotypes of Vietnam veterans as disgruntled and alienated from society. He noted that he himself, like many other veterans, had gone onto a professional career, in his case in law, after his return from Vietnam and efforts to build the memorial. \"I suppose some of them are down there having a good time\", he said in 2001. \"It's better than working at Wal-Mart.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43931503",
"title": "Homecoming: When the Soldiers Returned from Vietnam",
"section": "Section::::Genesis of the book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "One of the contentious issues of the Vietnam War and its aftermath was the American public's response to its returning military veterans. Even as the citizenry's opposition to the war mounted, tales began to spread of returning veterans being mistreated. The archetypical story became one of antiwar hippie protesters spitting upon returning veterans in an airport. Twelve years after the Vietnam War ended, on 20 July 1987, syndicated columnist Bob Greene of the \"Chicago Tribune\" proposed testing the truth of what he considered an urban legend. The headline of his column, syndicated in 200 papers, asked: \"\"If You're A Veteran, Were You Spat Upon?\"\" As he wrote in the text:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7391835",
"title": "Veterans for Common Sense",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "In 2006, Veterans for Common Sense merged for a period with Veterans for America, an organization partnered with the Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation; however, the two organizations separated again in 2007. Veterans for America continued VCS's focus on national security issues, with the added element of active humanitarian relief, mine mapping and other programs that address the consequences of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fwvcbi
|
how come peripheral vision is blurrier or less clear than whatever you're directly focusing on?
|
[
{
"answer": "The brain can only handle so much information at once. In fact, only a tiny area of vision is ever clear, if you look at the middle of your phone keyboard the letters on the side already are not clear. But you know what's there because it's held in very short term memory.\n\nFun fact, your peripheral vision is also black and white because color sensitive cells in your eye are only right in the middle. But your brain knows what color most things are so it fills it in with \"fake\" color.\n\nEdit: your brain also only NEEDS a small amount of information at one time. It's so good at filling in gaps that between the brain and how quickly eyes move there's really no evolutionary need for your entire field of vision to be crystal clear\n\nEdit 2: another fun fact. Because your peripheral vision does not have color receptors, it can have more brightness receptors. Your peripheral vision is brighter than your straight ahead vision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305122",
"title": "Peripheral vision",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Peripheral vision is weak in humans, especially at distinguishing detail, color, and shape. This is because the density of receptor and ganglion cells in the retina is greater at the center and lowest at the edges, and, moreover, the representation in the visual cortex is much smaller than that of the fovea (see visual system for an explanation of these concepts). The distribution of receptor cells across the retina is different between the two main types, rod cells and cone cells. Rod cells are unable to distinguish color and peak in density in the near periphery (at 18° eccentricity), while cone cell density is highest in the very center, the fovea, and from there declines rapidly (by an inverse linear function).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1157448",
"title": "Accommodation reflex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "A near object (for example, a computer screen) appears large in the field of vision, and the eye receives light from wide angles. When moving focus from a distant to a near object, the eyes converge. The ciliary muscle constricts making the lens thicker, shortening its focal length. The pupil constricts in order to prevent strongly diverging light rays hitting the periphery of the cornea and the lens from entering the eye and creating a blurred image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305122",
"title": "Peripheral vision",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The distinctions between foveal (sometimes also called central) and peripheral vision are reflected in subtle physiological and anatomical differences in the visual cortex. Different visual areas contribute to the processing of visual information coming from different parts of the visual field, and a complex of visual areas located along the banks of the interhemispheric fissure (a deep groove that separates the two brain hemispheres) has been linked to peripheral vision. It has been suggested that these areas are important for fast reactions to visual stimuli in the periphery, and monitoring body position relative to gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276115",
"title": "Jumping spider",
"section": "Section::::Vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The principal, anterior median, eyes have high resolution (11 min visual angle), but the field of vision is narrow, from 2 to 5°. The central region of the retina, where acuity is highest, is no more than six or seven receptor rows wide. However, the eye can scan objects off the direct axis of vision. As the lens is attached to the carapace, the eye's scanning movements are restricted to its retina through a complicated pattern of translations and rotations. This dynamic adjustment is a means of compensation for the narrowness of the static field of vision. It is analogous to the way most primates move their eyes to focus images of interest onto the \"fovea centralis\". Such movements within the jumping spider's eyes are visible from outside when the attention of the spider is directed to various targets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404646",
"title": "Far-sightedness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Far-sightedness, also known as hyperopia, is a condition of the eye in which light is focused behind, instead of on, the retina. This results in close objects appearing blurry, while far objects may appear normal. As the condition worsens, objects at all distances may be blurry. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. People may also experience accommodative dysfunction, binocular dysfunction, amblyopia, and strabismus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17141106",
"title": "Eye testing using speckle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "If the observer is near-sighted, the image of the surface is formed in front of the retina. Since the speckle pattern is perceived by the brain to be on the retina, the effect is of parallax; the speckle pattern appears to be nearer to the eye than the surface and hence moves in the same direction as the surface, but faster than the surface. If the observer is far-sighted, the speckles appear to move in the opposite direction as the surface, since in this case the surface image is focused behind the retina. The apparent speed of motion of the speckles increases with the magnitude of the defect of the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1070221",
"title": "Human eye",
"section": "Section::::Vision.:Optokinetic reflex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The Optokinetic reflex (or optokinetic nystagmus) stabilizes the image on the retina through visual feedback. It is induced when the entire visual scene drifts across the retina, eliciting eye rotation in the same direction and at a velocity that minimizes the motion of the image on the retina. When the gaze direction deviates too far from the forward heading, a compensatory saccade is induced to reset the gaze to the centre of the visual field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1danlu
|
How often do cancer cells divide?
|
[
{
"answer": "The doubling time of cancers cells depends on the characteristics of that cancer, like what it has mutated, deleted, ect. Below I have linked a website that lists different types of Lymphomas and blood cancers. The different Cell lines are on the left, and a simple google search looking for each of their doubling times will give you your answer! Good Luck\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29847460",
"title": "Cancer cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Cancer cells are cells that divide relentlessly, forming solid tumors or flooding the blood with abnormal cells. Cell division is a normal process used by the body for growth and repair. A parent cell divides to form two daughter cells, and these daughter cells are used to build new tissue, or to replace cells that have died because of aging or damage. Healthy cells stop dividing when there is no longer a need for more daughter cells, but cancer cells continue to produce copies. They are also able to spread from one part of the body to another in a process known as metastasis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64972",
"title": "Angiogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Application in medicine.:Tumor angiogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Cancer cells are cells that have lost their ability to divide in a controlled fashion. A malignant tumor consists of a population of rapidly dividing and growing cancer cells that progressively accrues mutations. However, tumors need a dedicated blood supply to provide the oxygen and other essential nutrients they require in order to grow beyond a certain size (generally 1–2 mm).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7252",
"title": "Cell cycle",
"section": "Section::::Role in tumor formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation. As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12266",
"title": "Genetics",
"section": "Section::::Genetic change.:Medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1316,
"text": "Normally, a cell divides only in response to signals called growth factors and stops growing once in contact with surrounding cells and in response to growth-inhibitory signals. It usually then divides a limited number of times and dies, staying within the epithelium where it is unable to migrate to other organs. To become a cancer cell, a cell has to accumulate mutations in a number of genes (three to seven). A cancer cell can divide without growth factor and ignores inhibitory signals. Also, it is immortal and can grow indefinitely, even after it makes contact with neighboring cells. It may escape from the epithelium and ultimately from the primary tumor. Then, the escaped cell can cross the endothelium of a blood vessel and get transported by the bloodstream to colonize a new organ, forming deadly metastasis. Although there are some genetic predispositions in a small fraction of cancers, the major fraction is due to a set of new genetic mutations that originally appear and accumulate in one or a small number of cells that will divide to form the tumor and are not transmitted to the progeny (somatic mutations). The most frequent mutations are a loss of function of p53 protein, a tumor suppressor, or in the p53 pathway, and gain of function mutations in the Ras proteins, or in other oncogenes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17259468",
"title": "Clone (cell biology)",
"section": "Section::::Basis of clonal proliferation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Most other cells cannot divide indefinitely as after a few cycles of cell division the cells stop expressing an enzyme telomerase. The genetic material, in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), continues to shorten with each cell division, and cells eventually stop dividing when they sense that their DNA is critically shortened. However, this enzyme in \"youthful\" cells replaces these lost bits (nucleotides) of DNA, thus making almost unlimited cycles of cell division possible. It is believed that the above-mentioned tissues have a constitutional elevated expression of telomerase. When ultimately many cells are produced by a single cell, \"clonal expansion\" is said to have taken place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10922914",
"title": "H1299",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "As with other immortalized cell lines, H1299 cells can divide indefinitely. These cells have a homozygous partial deletion of the TP53 gene and as a result, do not express the tumor suppressor p53 protein which in part accounts for their proliferative propensity. These cells have also been reported to secrete the peptide hormone neuromedin B (NMB), but not gastrin releasing peptide (GRP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31321569",
"title": "The Hallmarks of Cancer",
"section": "Section::::List of hallmarks.:Limitless replicative potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Cells of the body don't normally have the ability to divide indefinitely. They have a limited number of divisions before the cells become unable to divide (senescence), or die (crisis). The cause of these barriers is primarily due to the DNA at the end of chromosomes, known as telomeres. Telomeric DNA shortens with every cell division, until it becomes so short it activates senescence, so the cell stops dividing. Cancer cells bypass this barrier by manipulating enzymes that increase the length of telomeres. Thus, they can divide indefinitely, without initiating senescence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
283wh2
|
Why haven't we sent any more probes to Uranus and Neptune since Voyager 2?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of the reason is the funding.\n\nAnother big reason is that the Voyager crafts had gravitational assists; basically, the planets' orbits were aligned in such a way that their gravity \"slingshotted\" the Voyager crafts forward. This meant that they didn't need as much fuel as a direct fuel-powered mission. Without any gravitational assists, it will be much harder to reach that far in the solar system. Picture: _URL_0_\n\nThe good news is that we can use more gravitational assists in the future to achieve similar results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Getting there is slow and expensive. The only reason Voyager 2 visited the planets is because in the late 70s, the outer planets were aligned so that every time the probe flew by a planet, it could use the planet it was flying by as a slingshot to reach the next planet out with relatively little fuel expenditure. Unfortunately, this alignment happens only ~170 years, so we can't do that again today.\n\nSo why does Pluto get a flyby and not another to Uranus and Neptune? Flyby missions are good for recon, but they quickly serve diminishing returns. Pluto is an unvisited target, while we've already learned a lot about Uranus and Neptune just from the Voyager flyby.\n\nFor better science returns, we're much more suited to perform a long-term mission. There you run into a problem of time. For example, Cassini, a spacecraft now orbiting Saturn, was launched in 1997, and didn't arrive there until 2004. Part of that journey was because it was too heavy to launch directly to Saturn, and it had to spend a year pinballing around the inner Solar System and slingshotting by Jupiter to get there. Still, Uranus is twice as far out as Saturn, so it would take more than twice as long to get there as Cassini if it followed the same mission profile. \n\nIt doesn't help that people rarely want to be attached to a mission that doesn't *start* to see returns until 15 or 20 years after launch. It's still an iffy proposition as to whether the spacecraft will even be healthy for that long.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32782",
"title": "Voyager 2",
"section": "Section::::Launch and trajectory.:Encounter with Saturn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "After the fly-by of Saturn, the camera platform of \"Voyager 2\" locked up briefly, putting plans to officially extend the mission to Uranus and Neptune in jeopardy. The mission's engineers were able to fix the problem (caused by an overuse that temporarily depleted its lubricant), and the \"Voyager 2\" probe was given the go-ahead to explore the Uranian system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Early mission proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The two Voyager missions had the success criteria of just one of them reaching Saturn, which they far exceeded. After \"Voyager 2\" successfully returned data from Neptune in 1989, planetary scientists looked to Pluto as the destination for a subsequent mission. In 1992, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) proposed the Pluto Fast Flyby mission. This became known as the Pluto Express, and eventually the Pluto-Kuiper Express. This project got delayed, and in 2000 the mission was cancelled, with NASA giving the reason of cost overruns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10204411",
"title": "Space probe",
"section": "Section::::Some notable probes.:Voyager 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Voyager 2 was launched by NASA on August 20, 1977. The probe's primary mission was to visit the ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, which it completed on October 2, 1989. It is currently the only probe to have visited the ice giants. It is the fourth of five spacecraft to have left the solar system. It has been operational for 41 years and 2 months as of October 20, 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15111",
"title": "Interplanetary spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Current achievements in interplanetary travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Remotely guided space probes have flown by all of the planets of the Solar System from Mercury to Neptune, with the New Horizons probe having flown by the dwarf planet Pluto and the Dawn spacecraft currently orbiting the dwarf planet Ceres. The most distant spacecrafts, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have left the Solar System as of while Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons are on course to leave it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28343916",
"title": "Exploration of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Early mission proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "One of many possibilities for the \"Voyager 1\" spacecraft after its flyby of Saturn in 1980 was to use Saturn as a slingshot towards Pluto for a flyby as early as March 1986. However, scientists decided that a flyby of Titan during the Saturn encounter would be a more important scientific objective. A subsequent flyby of Pluto was impossible, because the close approach of Titan meant it was also on a trajectory that slingshotted it upwards out of the ecliptic. Because no mission to Pluto was planned by any space agency at the time, it would be left unexplored by interplanetary spacecraft for years to come. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34557",
"title": "1980s",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "American interplanetary probes continued in the 1980s, the Voyager duo being the most known. After making a flyby of Jupiter in 1979, they went near Saturn in 1980–1981. Voyager 2 reached Uranus in 1986 (just a few days before the \"Challenger\" disaster), and Neptune in 1989 before the probes exited the solar system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2779944",
"title": "December 1964",
"section": "Section::::December 16, 1964 (Wednesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "BULLET::::- NASA Deputy Administrator Robert C. Seamans, Jr. authorized the Voyager program for exploration of the planets of the outer solar system. With the go-ahead given, aerospace engineer Gary Flandro calculated that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune could all be reached over a series of years in a single \"Grand Tour program\" mission; by 1980, the four planets would be on the same side of the solar system and, Flandro would determine, \"Such an opportunity would not present itself again for another 176 years.\" \"Voyager 2\" would be ready for launch on August 20, 1977 and would reach Jupiter on April 25, 1979; Saturn on June 5, 1981; Uranus on November 4, 1985; and Neptune on June 5, 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a664dd
|
what causes a car's head gasket to blow and why do certain car brands seem to have a bigger issue with this than other brands?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alot of factors going into a head gasket blowing but the most prevent is design, especially the motor design, how much HP, amount of stress on motor and so on. The reason so many subaru's blow head gaskets is the design of the \"boxer engine\" where the pistons go outward putting more stress. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For manufacturing reasons, the cylinder head is fabricated as a separate piece of metal than the cylinder body. These two pieces of metal are bolted together, to enable maintenance, at a point where there are very high combustion gas pressures. These high pressures are essential to generate power with the engine, so the assembly must contain them. Neither metal has infinite stiffness and there are only a few bolts holding the head to the cylinder. This combination could easily allow combustion gas pressures to separate the two pieces of metal at the seam and allow gas to leak out - causing mischief. To resist this a compressible gasket is installed between the two pieces of metal and compressed by the bolts. The compression forces the gasket to conform to the gap between the two metal objects elastically, so that further pressure from combustion gas further compresses the gasket making the seal tighter rather than letting gas out. It's a great design, everybody uses it.\n\nSome manufacturers produce parts with higher precision than others. Larger gaps allow the combustion gas to apply more pressure, allowing the gas force to exceed the strength of the gasket material. \n\nSome manufacturers make engines with larger displacement than others. This encourages performance boosting behaviors which also can lead to pressures that exceed the gasket material strength.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "709339",
"title": "Holden Camira",
"section": "Section::::Common problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "BULLET::::- The cylinder head was prone to warping, especially when the car was driven frequently. This problem was more pronounced in the later fuel injected models, due to increased engine temperatures and greater stress on that component.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142564",
"title": "Citroën SM",
"section": "Section::::Demise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "While the oil shock certainly affected sales, many far more profligate cars were introduced at the same time the SM ceased production, including the hydropneumatically suspended Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9. Peugeot even introduced a V6 powered car of similar displacement and fuel consumption in 1975, the 604. In the U.S. (the main export market for the SM), the SM was actually an economical vehicle relative to its competitors. However, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) imposed new automotive design regulations in 1974, effectively banning the Citroën from the U.S. market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4628528",
"title": "Car of Tomorrow",
"section": "Section::::Debut.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Another major problem has been that the safety foam used in the side of the car has caught fire, engulfing the driver's cockpit with smoke. NASCAR decided to make modifications before the April 21 Subway Fresh Fit 500 in Avondale, Arizona. An additional side effect of the foam occurred during side-impacts, as Brian Vickers experienced at Watkins Glen, when the foam would be sheared out of the car leaving debris on the racetrack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23639",
"title": "Gasoline",
"section": "Section::::History.:United States, 1918–1929.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The automobile industry reacted to the increase in thermally cracked gasoline with alarm. Thermal cracking produced large amounts of both mono- and diolefins (unsaturated hydrocarbons), which increased the risk of gumming. Also the volatility was decreasing to the point that fuel did not vaporize and was sticking to spark plugs and fouling them, creating hard starting and rough running in winter and sticking to cylinder walls, bypassing the pistons and rings and going into the crankcase oil. One journal stated, \"...on a multi-cylinder engine in a high-priced car we are diluting the oil in the crankcase as much as 40 percent in a 200-mile run, as the analysis of the oil in the oil-pan shows.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10210397",
"title": "Miller Reese Hutchison",
"section": "Section::::Hearing aids.:Other inventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Another danger caused by the increased number of automobiles was carbon monoxide (CO). Motorists would sometimes pass out or die in high-traffic tunnels, for example, from the odorless gas. In 1924 he announced an additive to gasoline that would allow cleaner combustion with fewer harmful fumes. The additive was marketed as Hutch-Olene, but never caught on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1617053",
"title": "Energy Tax Act",
"section": "Section::::Gas Guzzler Tax.:Market impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Critics of the Gas Guzzler Tax contend that the increased fuel economy of the US passenger car fleet observed since 1978 must be considered in the context of the increased market share of mid-size and full-size SUVs. Many consumers' stated reasons for SUV purchase (comfort, interior room, and a perception of safety based on the vehicle's size) also apply to the now-obsolete American full-size car as produced from the 1920s through the 70s; critics contend that the dominance of the modern SUV is a direct result of the Gas Guzzler Tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602419",
"title": "Citroën LNA",
"section": "Section::::Citroën LN (1976–1978).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "There was evidence of defensiveness at the press launch, possibly because a car that looked like a Peugeot, but was assembled at a Citroën plant and fitted with a Citroën engine, sharply refuted assurances that the two marques would retain their individuality. Those assurances had been provided by the same press departments just a few months earlier, when Citroën had again run out of money and Peugeot had taken control. When pressed, Citroën explained that the LN project had been rushed through because of \"the need to supply customers and the [dealership] network with a model to strengthen Citroën's position at the lower end of the market\" which was hardly a ringing endorsement of a range which at the time included the Ami and the Dyane as well as the venerable 2CV which would continue in production long after any of the others. Citroën made it clear that this would not happen again. They stayed true to this until the 1996 Citroën Saxo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f7oi2z
|
the accounting equation (assets = liabilities + equity)
|
[
{
"answer": "Things in your possession - Things that you borrowed = Things that belong to you.\n\nThe \"Things in your possession\" are your assets. They are the things you can use to do fun stuff.\n\nThe \"Things that you borrowed\" are your liabilities. You can use them to do fun stuff, but they need to be returned eventually. Further, if you break or lose these things while doing your fun stuff, you'll need to either replace them with your own stuff or borrow someone else's stuff to replace them, which will eventually need to be returned, and so on. If you borrow too much without giving back or you get a reputation for losing/breaking stuff, people will stop lending you their things and you won't be able to do as much fun stuff.\n\nThe \"Things that belong to you\" are your equity. You can always use your own things to do fun stuff, and you don't need to give them back when you're done because they belong to you. If you lose or break them, it's not quite as bad since no one will come knocking on your door asking when they can have them back.\n\nThus,\n\nAssets - Liabilities = Equity,\n\nor rearranged,\n\nAssets = Liabilities + Equity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "68804",
"title": "Equity (finance)",
"section": "Section::::Accounting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "In financial accounting, owner's equity consists of the net assets of an entity. Net assets is the difference between the total assets and total liabilities. Equity appears on the balance sheet (also known as the statement of financial position), one of the four primary financial statements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560498",
"title": "Chart of accounts",
"section": "Section::::Types of accounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Equity accounts represent the residual equity of an entity (the value of assets after deducting the value of all liabilities). Equity accounts include common stock, paid-in capital, and retained earnings. The type and captions used for equity accounts are dependent on the type of entity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15515453",
"title": "Equity ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The equity ratio is a financial ratio indicating the relative proportion of equity used to finance a company's assets. The two components are often taken from the firm's balance sheet or statement of financial position (so-called book value), but the ratio may also be calculated using market values for both, if the company's equities are publicly traded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13345577",
"title": "Equity method",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Equity method in accounting is the process of treating investments in associate companies. Equity accounting is usually applied where an investor entity holds 20–50% of the voting stock of the associate company. The investor records such investments as an asset on its balance sheet. The investor's proportional share of the associate company's net income increases the investment (and a net loss decreases the investment), and proportional payments of dividends decrease it. In the investor’s income statement, the proportional share of the investor’s net income or net loss is reported as a single-line item.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273279",
"title": "Debits and credits",
"section": "Section::::Commercial understanding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The Equity section of the balance sheet typically shows the value of any outstanding shares that have been issued by the company as well as its earnings. All Income and expense accounts are summarize in the Equity Section in one line on the balance sheet called Retained Earnings. This account, in general, reflects the cumulative profit (retained earnings) or loss (retained deficit) of the company. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1377439",
"title": "Debt-to-equity ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The debt-to-equity ratio (D/E) is a financial ratio indicating the relative proportion of shareholders' equity and debt used to finance a company's assets. Closely related to leveraging, the ratio is also known as risk, gearing or leverage. The two components are often taken from the firm's balance sheet or statement of financial position (so-called book value), but the ratio may also be calculated using market values for both, if the company's debt and equity are publicly traded, or using a combination of book value for debt and market value for equity financially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1377439",
"title": "Debt-to-equity ratio",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Financial economists and academic papers will usually refer to all liabilities as debt, and the statement that equity plus liabilities equals assets is therefore an accounting identity (it is, by definition, true). Other definitions of debt to equity may not respect this accounting identity, and should be carefully compared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27m5zk
|
How did the natives of Indonesia and the Pacific Islands treat punctures, scraps, infections, and other injuries that might occur while hunting or foraging?
|
[
{
"answer": "Speaking of cuts, and of Pacific Islands off the coast of British Columbia, apparently through cleaning, and regularly applying of spruce pitch to the wound, and replacing it regularly. I'm curious about practices in further south though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17428541",
"title": "Horror in the East",
"section": "Section::::Part Two – Death before Surrender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Japanese savages fighting the Australians in New Guinea committed cannibalism. Japanese forces were sent to New Guinea in 1942 but without sufficient preparation – they were simply abandoned. In late 1943, forbidden to surrender and cut off from their supplies, they began to starve – some resorted to cannibalism of their own and enemy dead. According to Professor Yuki Tanaka: \"The cannibalism was organised group practice, rather than individually practised.\" A Japanese major-general wrote an order prohibiting the eating of human flesh but this meant flesh \"\"excluding enemy flesh\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315315",
"title": "Stonecutters Island",
"section": "Section::::History.:During World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The Japanese (during the WW2 occupation) used the unique isolation of the island to house a snake farm. The snakes were milked of their venom to provide antidotes for their soldiers bitten on active duty in the Pacific theatre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1687186",
"title": "Inland taipan",
"section": "Section::::Venom.:Snakebite victims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Almost all positively identified inland taipan bite victims have been herpetologists handling the snakes for study or snake handlers, such as people who catch snakes to extract their venom, or keepers in wildlife parks. All were treated successfully with antivenom. No recorded incidents have been fatal since the advent of the monovalent (specific) antivenom therapy, though it can take weeks to recover from such a severe bite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12504312",
"title": "Cyclura rileyi",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "While the island's natives often used iguanas as food and funerary offerings in pre-colonial times, man's largest-scale devastation to these animals was as a result of clear-cutting forests to create plantations as well as the introduction of non-native species. Introduced black rats, raccoons, feral dogs, mongoose, hogs, and cats have taken their toll on the population by direct predation, as have the larvae of a moth (\"Cactoblastis cactorum\"), introduced decades ago to the Caribbean, which are rapidly devastating prickly-pear cacti, an important food source for the iguanas. The Guana Cay population has been reduced to less than 24 individual animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651019",
"title": "Balinese Hinduism",
"section": "Section::::Dietary law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Under no circumstances may Balinese Hindus consume the flesh of human, tiger, monkey, dog, crocodile, mice, snake, frog, certain poisonous fish, leech, stinging insect, crow, eagle, owl, and any other bird of prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30745679",
"title": "Japanese occupation of Nauru",
"section": "Section::::Occupation.:1943–1944: American offensive, murders, deportations, and isolation.:Population movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1179,
"text": "Following this departure, the Japanese committed what is considered their worst war crime on Nauru: the massacre of 39 lepers, who lived in a colony built by the Australians in Meneng. Before the arrival of the Japanese, the lepers had been able to receive visits from their families, and in certain instances, have their children live with them. The occupiers, fearful of contagion, isolated them completely as soon as they landed, and included their families in the first boat to Truk. On 11 July 1943, the — having been told they were to be transferred to a colony on Ponape — were placed aboard a fishing boat, which was then towed out to sea by the Japanese picket-boat \"Shinshu Maru\". Once the boats were out of sight of Nauru the towrope was cut and sailors aboard the \"Shinshu Maru\" began firing on the fishing boat with the ship's 50 mm cannon and 7.7 mm machine gun. The Nauruans were finished off with rifle fire, and the boat capsized and sank. Lt. Nakayama, the \"de facto\" commander who had ordered the massacre, would later tell the new garrison commander, Captain Soeda, that the lepers and their boat had been lost in a typhoon while being taken to Jaluit atoll.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31998621",
"title": "Taíno",
"section": "Section::::Food and agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Taíno staples included vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. There were no large animals native to the Caribbean, but they captured and ate small animals, such as hutias and other mammals, earthworms, lizards, turtles, and birds. Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, trapped in weirs, or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed with domesticated birds, and iguanas were taken from trees and other vegetation. The Taíno stored live animals until they were ready to be consumed: fish and turtles were stored in weirs, hutias and dogs were stored in corrals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
favv2y
|
how do guitar pickups get the strings sound?
|
[
{
"answer": "Magnets.\n\nDo people ever google something before just vomiting their thoughts here?\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Inside the pickups are magnets wrapped in coils of wire with an electric charge running through them. Those magnets are what \"pickup\" the vibrations",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Magnets.\n\nIt works in the same way that moving a metallic object (the strings) near a magnetic coil (the pickups) generates power fluctuations (frequencies) in the copper coil wound around each magnet in the pickup. These can then be passed onto the amplifier and played through a speaker.\n\nSpeakers/amplifiers work in the reverse way, using electronic frequencies to make a magnet move on a diaphragm and generate pressure waves in the air that you perceive as sound.\n\nEssentially the pickup translates the vibrations of the string into electronic frequencies that the amp translates back into vibration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11846",
"title": "Guitar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that usually has six strings. It is typically played with both hands by strumming or plucking the strings with either a guitar pick or the finger(s)/fingernails of one hand, while simultaneously fretting (pressing the strings against the frets) with the fingers of the other hand. The sound of the vibrating strings is projected either acoustically, by means of the hollow chamber of the guitar (for an acoustic guitar), or through an electrical amplifier and a speaker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34499138",
"title": "Jackson Guldan Co.",
"section": "Section::::Adjustomatic Acoustic Guitars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Most acoustic guitars on the second-hand market are the Adjustomatic brand, noted by the fact that the guitar comes apart in two pieces - the neck and the body, through the clever and simple use of a long screw that holds the neck to the body. A threaded bolt turns against a small piece of 90-degree angle iron to allow the musician to easily adjust the string action, that is, the closeness of the strings to the fretboard on the neck. The guitar can be disassembled, reassembled and string action set with the use of a simple screwdriver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4320023",
"title": "Finger vibrato",
"section": "Section::::Guitar.:Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "When a string is bent, the sound it creates is much smoother than would be otherwise, even using other legato techniques such as hammer-ons, pull-offs, or finger slides. String bending on the guitar was first used in blues to mimic the smooth sound of a slide guitar. It has since become an integral part of playing lead guitar. Some masters of string bending on guitar include David Gilmour, Tony Iommi, Brian May, T-Bone Walker, B. B. King, and Eric Clapton, as well as many other blues, country, and jazz-influenced guitarists. To facilitate his extensive string bending, Clapton used to substitute an unwound banjo string for the third string on his guitar. At that time, no set of light-gauge strings with an unwound third string was available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6231032",
"title": "Acoustic guitar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Guitar strings may be plucked individually with a pick or fingertip, or strummed to play chords. Plucking a string causes it to vibrate at a fundamental pitch determined by the string's length, mass, and tension. (Overtones are also present, closely related to harmonics of the fundamental pitch.) The string causes the soundboard and the air enclosed by the sound box to vibrate. As these have their own resonances, they amplify some overtones more strongly than others, affecting the timbre of the resulting sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17639321",
"title": "Springtime (guitar)",
"section": "Section::::Technical information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The string set up of the guitar is 1 bass string, 3 wound guitar strings for the chords and a cluster of 3 unwound strings tuned off-key unison, causing a rapid vibrating tone. Each group of strings has its own individual output for three amplifiers to preserve tonal interference. The sound simulates three musicians at once; a bass player, a rhythm guitarist and a solo guitarist or a Greek electric bouzouki. The instrument also is fitted with a so-called tailed bridge (as on a Fender Jaguar) to increase overtone possibilities. The electronics contain switches to change the 3-way system to stereo or mono if fewer amplifiers are available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16970450",
"title": "3rd bridge",
"section": "Section::::Physical explanation and examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "On a standard guitar, the string is held above the soundboard by two nodes: the \"nut\" (near the headstock) and the \"bridge\" (near the player's right hand on a standard guitar). A player sounding a note on a standard guitar vibrates a single portion of the string (between the nut and the bridge or between their fretting finger and the bridge).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11846",
"title": "Guitar",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Components.:Body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In acoustic guitars, string vibration is transmitted through the bridge and saddle to the body via sound board. The sound board is typically made of tone woods such as spruce or cedar. Timbers for tone woods are chosen for both strength and ability to transfer mechanical energy from the strings to the air within the guitar body. Sound is further shaped by the characteristics of the guitar body's resonant cavity. In expensive instruments, the entire body is made of wood. In inexpensive instruments, the back may be made of plastic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g26fb
|
Could all of earth's life survive if the atmosphere was only oxygen and carbon dioxide?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, nitrogen has an important role to play in the ecosystem, too. There are soil bacteria that convert N2 into ammonia that is taken up by pretty much everything that lives in the soil and anything that is further down the food chain. The ultimate source of virtually every atom of nitrogen in your body is the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apart from what /u/uberhobo mentioned, an atmosphere with only carbon dioxide and oxygen would be a *really* bad idea! \n\nCarbon dioxide is normally not present in our atmosphere in significant concentrations. A human breathing about 4-5% carbon dioxide (with the rest being our normal atmosphere) for a few hours will experience mild respiratory discomfort, and at 6% CO2 for as little as half an hour, humans will start to show signs of mental confusion. \n\nExposure to 1-1.5% CO2 for years seems to be no problem for humans. That leaves us with 98.5-99% oxygen. A forest fire in such an atmosphere wouldn't only be virtually unstoppable, but in such an oxygen rich environment pretty much everything burns. For example, diamond burns good in an oxygen-rich atmosphere. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1032013",
"title": "Darwin (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1133,
"text": "The presence of oxygen alone, however, is not conclusive evidence for life. Jupiter's moon Europa, for example, has a tenuous oxygen atmosphere thought to be produced by radiolysis of water molecules. Numerical simulations have shown that under proper conditions it is possible to build up an oxygen atmosphere via photolysis of carbon dioxide. Photolysis of water vapor and carbon dioxide produces hydroxyl ions and atomic oxygen, respectively, and these in turn produce oxygen in small concentrations, with hydrogen escaping into space. When O is produced by HO photolysis at high altitude, hydrogenous compounds like H, OH and HO are produced which attack very efficiently O and prevent its accumulation. The only known way to have a significant amount of O in the atmosphere is that O be produced at low altitude, e.g. by biological photosynthesis, and that little HO gets to high altitudes where UV is present. For terrestrial planets, the simultaneous presence of O, HO and CO in the atmosphere appears to be a reliable biosignature, and the Darwin spacecraft would have been capable of detecting these atmospheric components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47695176",
"title": "Superhabitable planet",
"section": "Section::::General characteristics.:Atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "There are no solid arguments to explain if Earth's atmosphere has the optimal composition to host life. On Earth, during the period when coal was first formed, atmospheric oxygen () levels were up to 35%, and coincided with the periods of greatest biodiversity. So, assuming that the presence of a significant amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is essential for exoplanets to develop complex life forms, the percentage of oxygen relative to the total atmosphere appears to limit the maximum size of the planet for optimum superhabitability and ample biodiversity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17554500",
"title": "Biophysical environment",
"section": "Section::::Life-environment interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "All life that has survived must have adapted to conditions of its environment. Temperature, light, humidity, soil nutrients, etc., all influence any species, within any environment. However life in turn modifies, in various forms, its conditions. Some long term modifications along the history of our planet have been significant, such as the incorporation of oxygen to the atmosphere. This process consisted in the breakdown of carbon dioxide by anaerobic microorganisms that used the carbon in their metabolism and released the oxygen to the atmosphere. This led to the existence of oxygen-based plant and animal life, the great oxygenation event. Other interactions are more immediate and simple, such as the smoothing effect that forests have on the temperature cycle, compared to neighboring unforested areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9813",
"title": "Extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Most widely supported explanations.:Future biosphere extinction/sterilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. Eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. When the Sun becomes 10% brighter in about a billion years, Earth will suffer a moist greenhouse effect resulting in its oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core cools due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down. In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of ~420 K (147 °C, 296 °F) in 2.8 billion years, causing the last remaining life on Earth to die out. This is the most extreme instance of a climate-caused extinction event. Since this will only happen late in the Sun's life, such will cause the final mass extinction in Earth's history (albeit a very long extinction event).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169889",
"title": "Paleoproterozoic",
"section": "Section::::Paleoatmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Before the enormous increase in atmospheric oxygen, almost all existing lifeforms were anaerobic, i.e., their metabolism was based upon a form of cellular respiration that did not require oxygen. Indeed, free oxygen in large amounts is toxic to most anaerobic organisms. Consequently, the majority of the anaerobic lifeforms on Earth died when the atmospheric free-oxygen levels soared. The only lifeforms that survived were either those resistant to the oxidizing and poisonous effects of oxygen, or those sequestered in oxygen-free environments. The sudden increase of atmospheric free oxygen and the ensuing extinction of the vulnerable lifeforms (an event called, among numerous other similarly suggestive titles, the Oxygen Holocaust or Oxygen Catastrophe) is widely considered to be the first of the most significant mass extinctions in the history of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11251601",
"title": "Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere",
"section": "Section::::Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle.:Atmospheric carbon dioxide and photosynthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1367,
"text": "Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential to life and to most of the planetary biosphere. Over the course of Earth's geologic history concentrations have played a role in biological evolution. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. In recent geologic times, low concentrations below 600 parts per million might have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago over plants that use the less efficient C3 metabolic pathway. At current atmospheric pressures photosynthesis shuts down when atmospheric concentrations fall below 150 ppm and 200 ppm although some microbes can extract carbon from the air at much lower concentrations. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39863531",
"title": "Habitability of red dwarf systems",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Variability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Another way that life could initially protect itself from radiation, would be remaining underwater until the star had passed through its early flare stage, assuming the planet could retain enough of an atmosphere to sustain liquid oceans. The scientists who wrote the television programme \"Aurelia\" believed that life could survive on land despite a red dwarf flaring. Once life reached onto land, the low amount of UV produced by a quiescent red dwarf means that life could thrive without an ozone layer, and thus never need to produce oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1eroh7
|
bayes' theorem in probability
|
[
{
"answer": "To understand Baye's theorem, we must first understand the concepts of conditional probabilities and probabilities. A probability is the chance of an event happening, often denoted P(A), where A is the event, i.e. P(A)=1/6 where A is rolling 1 on a six-sided die. A conditional probability is the chance of an event occurring given that another event has occurred. This is denoted P(A|B), the probability of event A, given that event B has occurred.\n\nBaye's theorem gives us a method to relate probabilities and conditional probabilities. This can be combined with other theorems (such as the law of total probability, which provides a method to generate probabilities from conditional probabilities), to allow for a more complete analysis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "798571",
"title": "Rule of succession",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Bayes' theorem says that to find the conditional probability distribution of \"p\" given the data \"X\", \"i\" = 1, ..., \"n\", one multiplies the \"prior\" (i.e., marginal) probability measure assigned to \"p\" by the likelihood function\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472877",
"title": "Prior probability",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Bayes' theorem calculates the renormalized pointwise product of the prior and the likelihood function, to produce the \"posterior probability distribution\", which is the conditional distribution of the uncertain quantity given the data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49089",
"title": "Cox's theorem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Cox's theorem, named after the physicist Richard Threlkeld Cox, is a derivation of the laws of probability theory from a certain set of postulates. This derivation justifies the so-called \"logical\" interpretation of probability, as the laws of probability derived by Cox's theorem are applicable to any proposition. Logical (a.k.a. objective Bayesian) probability is a type of Bayesian probability. Other forms of Bayesianism, such as the subjective interpretation, are given other justifications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35597124",
"title": "Bayesian inference in marketing",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "Bayes’ theorem is fundamental to Bayesian inference. It is a subset of statistics, providing a mathematical framework for forming inferences through the concept of probability, in which evidence about the true state of the world is expressed in terms of degrees of belief through subjectively assessed numerical probabilities. Such a probability is known as a Bayesian probability. The fundamental ideas and concepts behind Bayes' theorem, and its use within Bayesian inference, have been developed and added to over the past centuries by Thomas Bayes, Richard Price and Pierre Simon Laplace as well as numerous other mathematicians, statisticians and scientists. Bayesian inference has experienced spikes in popularity as it has been seen as vague and controversial by rival frequentist statisticians. In the past few decades Bayesian inference has become widespread in many scientific and social science fields such as marketing. Bayesian inference allows for decision making and market research evaluation under uncertainty and limited data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49569",
"title": "Bayes' theorem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "Bayes' theorem is named after Reverend Thomas Bayes (; 1701?–1761), who first used conditional probability to provide an algorithm (his Proposition 9) that uses evidence to calculate limits on an unknown parameter, published as \"An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances\" (1763). In what he called a scholium, Bayes extended his algorithm to any unknown prior cause. Independently of Bayes, Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1774, and later in his 1812 \"Théorie analytique des probabilités\" used conditional probability to formulate the relation of an updated posterior probability from a prior probability, given evidence. Sir Harold Jeffreys put Bayes's algorithm and Laplace's formulation on an axiomatic basis. Jeffreys wrote that Bayes' theorem \"is to the theory of probability what the Pythagorean theorem is to geometry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42579971",
"title": "Inductive probability",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Bayes's theorem is named after Rev. Thomas Bayes 1701–1761. Bayesian inference broadened the application of probability to many situations where a population was not well defined. But Bayes' theorem always depended on prior probabilities, to generate new probabilities. It was unclear where these prior probabilities should come from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4294354",
"title": "Richard Jeffrey",
"section": "Section::::Radical probabilism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "In frequentist statistics, Bayes' theorem provides a useful rule for updating a probability when new frequency data becomes available. In Bayesian statistics, the theorem itself plays a more limited role. Bayes' theorem connects probabilities that are held simultaneously. It does not tell the learner how to update probabilities when new evidence becomes available over time. This subtlety was first pointed out in terms by Ian Hacking in 1967.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
558tsb
|
When did Europeans start bathing with soap rather than oil and a scraper?
|
[
{
"answer": "The differences between soap and olive oil is actually smaller than you think. \nRancid olive oil contains lots of free fatty acids, which have emulsive properties similiar to soap. \n \nFurthermore, traditional soap is made from olive oil, and/or other triacylglycerides. If a base is added to olive oil it transforms into soap, through a process conveniently called saponification. Usually the base was ash. This process is relatively simple and was known to the Babylonian and Romans. You can buy this type of soap at any natural grocery store today, branded as glycerine or castille soap. However ancient soap was not as luxurious as these. Modern industrial techniques were needed to make it clear and pure. Roman Soap was probably more of a thick gloppy mess. \n\nSince the mid 1800s soap quality has improve immensely, but its still fundamentally the same stuff the Romans, Carolingian, and Founding Fathers used. \n\nNote: I am not a historian. I am a lipid chemist. I hope I didn't break any rules.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hygiene in medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Contrary to popular belief and although the Early Christian leaders, such as Boniface I, condemned bathing as unspiritual, bathing and sanitation were not lost in Europe with the collapse of the Roman Empire. Soapmaking first became an established trade during the so-called \"Dark Ages\". The Romans used scented oils (mostly from Egypt), among other alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32516987",
"title": "Christian culture",
"section": "Section::::Cleanliness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Contrary to popular belief bathing and sanitation were not lost in Europe with the collapse of the Roman Empire. Soapmaking first became an established trade during the so-called \"Dark Ages\". The Romans used scented oils (mostly from Egypt), among other alternatives. By the mid-19th century, the English urbanised middle classes had formed an ideology of cleanliness that ranked alongside typical Victorian concepts, such as Christianity, respectability and social progress. The Salvation Army has adopted movement of the deployment of the personal hygiene, and by providing personal hygiene products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2718064",
"title": "Posser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Clothes washing in the early nineteenth rarely used soap, bucking with lye instead. It was a communal event, and infrequent. It involved clothes boards and bats. By the end of the nineteenth century, the tradition of a weekly washing day had been established. Soap was available in the forms of flakes and powder. The posser was not so much used to hammer the dirt out of the clothes, as to agitate the water which would be forced under pressure through the holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52085224",
"title": "Spice use in Antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Products and uses.:Perfumes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Greek inclination towards bathing which started in the 1st millennium BCE spread the use of oils and perfumed oils. Many Greek cities and scholars fought against the use of perfumed oils making them illegal for men to purchase. Baths continued to gain popularity when in the 1st century BCE, following the fall of the Greek city states to Roman Rule, the Romans began building public bathhouses. Use of cinnamon by soaking cinnamon leaves produced a product that sweetened the breath and scented clothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75649",
"title": "Sauna",
"section": "Section::::Around the world.:Europe.:France, the United Kingdom and Mediterranean Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In Portugal, the steam baths were commonly used by the Castrejos people, prior to the arrival of the Romans in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. The historian Strabo spoke of Lusitans traditions that consisted of having steam bath sessions followed by cold water baths. Pedra Formosa is the original name given to the central piece of the steam bath in pre-Roman times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15324793",
"title": "Oil cleansing method",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The modern OCM method claims to be derived from ancient bathing practices. It differs from these practices in it's focus solely on oil, and the ancients would also use water. Modern soap was not produced industrially until the 19th century. In the ancient world people would use olive oil as part of their bathing. They may have combined the oil with ash, and we know they used a scraping implement called a strigil. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13380523",
"title": "Bathhouse Row",
"section": "Section::::History.:Emergence of formal bathing and health benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The first bathhouses were log and wood-frame structures built from 1830 through the 1850s and were used well into the late 19th century. By the mid-19th century the bathing industry in the United States, following elegant European precedents, was establishing more complex bathing rituals. This was influenced by the mid-19th-century promotion of the field of hydrotherapy as a popular medical tool. Newer bathhouses gradually showed influences of Spanish Renaissance architecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bpaht
|
Do any animals besides mammals and bees make food for their young?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bees don't actually make honey for their young, they make it for adult bee consumption during the winter. They do produce substances to feed to larvae, including royal jelly, in glands inside their heads.\n\nOtherwise, good question! Some birds perform premastication, chewing up food and regurgitating it for babies. Not sure if this is what you have in mind though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7277736",
"title": "Knight anole",
"section": "Section::::Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "When young, its diet consists mainly of insects. As an adult, it mostly eats invertebrates (notably insects and snails), but regularly take fruits and can function as a seed dispersers. They may also take small vertebrates prey such as small birds and reptiles (including other anoles), but studies indicate that they do this less frequently than several other anole species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205716",
"title": "Secretarybird",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Young are fed liquefied and regurgitated insects directly by the male or female parent and are eventually weaned to small mammals and reptile fragments regurgitated onto the nest itself. The above foodstuffs are originally stored in the crop of the adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378958",
"title": "Bee brood",
"section": "Section::::As food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Bee brood is harvested by beekeepers in many countries. In particular, the pupae are the highest in protein when compared to the eggs and larvae, and have protein content equivalent to that of beef or poultry. Brood is rich in carbohydrates, dietary minerals, B vitamins, vitamin C, vitamin D, saturated fat, monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198055",
"title": "Common crane",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Animal foods become more important during the summer breeding season and may be the primary food source at that time of year, especially while regurgitating to young. Their animal foods are insects, especially dragonflies, and also snails, earthworms, crabs, spiders, millipedes, woodlice, amphibians, rodents, and small birds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22834905",
"title": "Catharsius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "They mostly live in grasslands and pastures, occasionally in forests, where they eat large mammals’ dung, using it to make pedotrophic nests in which their offspring develop. A few species shifted from coprophagy to necrophagy, and use small vertebrates carcasses as food for both adults and larvae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207906",
"title": "Tinamou",
"section": "Section::::Feeding.:Foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Most species eat a mixture of plant and animal products, though some are mainly herbivorous and others predominantly insectivorous or carnivorous. Diet may also vary seasonally; red-winged tinamous eat mostly animal food in the summer and plant matter in the winter. Chicks eat more insects than their parents, probably for their growth needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1086244",
"title": "Waxworm",
"section": "Section::::Waxworms as a food source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "These larvae are grown extensively for use as food for humans, as well as live food for terrarium pets and some pet birds, mostly due to their high fat content, their ease of breeding, and their ability to survive for weeks at low temperatures. Most commonly, they are used to feed reptiles such as bearded dragons (species in the genus \"Pogona\"), the neon tree dragon (\"Japalura splendida)\", geckos, brown anole (\"Anolis sagrei\"), turtles such as the three-toed box turtle (\"Terrapene carolina triunguis\"), and chameleons. They can also be fed to amphibians such as \"Ceratophrys\" frogs, newts such as the Strauch's spotted newt (\"Neurergus strauchii\"), and salamanders such as axolotls. Small mammals such as the domesticated hedgehog can also be fed with waxworms, while birds such as the greater honeyguide can also appreciate the food. They can also be used as food for captive predatory insects reared in terrarium, such as assassin bugs in the genus \"Platymeris\", and are also occasionally used to feed certain kinds of fish in the wild, such as bluegills (\"Lepomis macrochirus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tm5wl
|
Does anyone have primary sources on the Seleucid government?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sure! Check what Livy has to say on the subject, he'll be able to tell you about the later Seleucids from the Roman perspective. Also Polybius should be an invaluable source to you. Check Plutarc'hs Lives as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're having a hard time finding any because Seleucid administration is actually not so easy to study.\n\nWe have lots of information about the Seleucid Kings/Emperors, we know they utilised a satrapal system like Persia, and we know the results of some of their actions. But in terms of civil service, administrative practice, that kind of nitty gritty, we actually know more about the Assyrian Empire in that respect than the Seleucids.\n\nWhy? Because the Assyrians wrote everything down on clay tablets, not papyrus. That's just downright unlucky. That's not to say there are no sources on the Seleucid government however. If you want Roman sources, kevink123 has given you some help. If you want to understand the Macedonian origins of part of Seleucid Kingship then I recommend reading Diodoros Siculus as well. \n\nThis is a book I seem to shill at every opportunity, but I absolutely think you need to read *From Samarkhand to Sardis* by Susan-Sherwin White and Amelie Kuhrt. It is the most extensive book written on the Seleucids, is from 1994 so is relatively recent, and should help you answer your question. Furthermore, their bibliography and references will in turn help you find more resources, especially primary sources.\n\n*The House of Seleucus* by Edywn R. Bevan should also help you.\n\nBoth of these books should be available on Google Books.\n\nIf you're familiar with Alexander the Great then good. If not, I recommend on reading up on that at least a little because he's vital to understanding much of the development of Hellenistic Asia in general.\n\nI also cannot insist enough that you should try to learn a little about the Achaemenid Persian state too, because the biggest mistake that Greek historians used to make was to write about the Persian Empire without knowing anything about the current state of scholarship on Persia. This meant that in the 1970s you'd get people writing about Alexander and the Greeks as though the Persians were like something from 300. So, even a little introduction from a book on Achaemenid Persia will help you avoid that, and I'd recommend *From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire* by Pierre Briant. I warn you now though, Briant has an incredibly positive view of the Achaemenid Empire. That may be preferable to seeing them as an cackling evil Empire, but it colours his work a lot and therefore you should take some of his glowing reviews of the Achaemenids with a pinch of salt.\n\nDistrust any source written about the Seleucids in modern scholarship written before the 1980s at least, since I'm sure you will end up reading some by necessity. Especially mistrust the source a little if they decide that the Seleucids were a failure of an Empire. Also mistrust sources written about Alexander the Great before the 1970s at least and preferably before the 1980s, they tend to have no real links to archaeological sources that actually help the study of Alexander quite a lot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "103030",
"title": "Medes",
"section": "Section::::History.:Median dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "In Herodotus (book 1, chapters 95–130), Deioces is introduced as the founder of a centralised Median state. He had been known to the Median people as \"a just and incorruptible man\" and when asked by the Median people to solve their possible disputes he agreed and put forward the condition that they make him \"king\" and build a great city at Ecbatana as the capital of the Median state. Judging from the contemporary sources of the region and disregarding the account of Herodotus puts the formation of a unified Median state during the reign of Cyaxares or later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "565602",
"title": "Mycenaean Greece",
"section": "Section::::Political organization.:Palatial states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean state. On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a \"Great King\". Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible. If some kind of united political entity existed, the dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12441786",
"title": "Great Rhetra",
"section": "Section::::Genesis of the constitution.:Herodotus' version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The associated kings offer a rough date for the genesis of the Great Rhetra. Herodotus says the Rhetra predated the reigns of Agasicles and Leon, who acceded to their thrones about 590 BC. Labotas on the other hand began his reign in 870, implying an early 9th century date of the rhetra. If there was an oracle, the question of what writing system, if any, was the vehicle of the oracles is moot. Linear B was gone and the alphabet had not yet arrived in Greece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508563",
"title": "Achaean League",
"section": "Section::::Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The office of \"Hegemon\" (leader) was given to various Antigonid and Ptolemaic kings at various points in Achaean history. Ostensibly, the \"hegemon\" had ultimate command on land and sea, but in fact the office seems to have been an honorary position which obliged the holder contribute money to the League and support the League's military ventures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "503271",
"title": "King of Tyre",
"section": "Section::::Kings of the Sidonians (with Tyre as capital), 990–785 BC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The dates for the reconstruction of the Tyrian king list from Hiram I through Pygmalion are established in three places by three independent sources: a Biblical synchronism (Hiram's assistance to Solomon in building the Temple, from 967 BC onwards), an Assyrian record (tribute of Baal-Eser II/Balazeros II to Shalmaneser III in 841 BC), and a Roman historian (Pompeius Trogus, who placed the founding of Carthage or Dido's flight from her brother Pygmalion in the latter's seventh year of reign, in 825 BC, 72 years before the founding of Rome).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147272",
"title": "Bardiya",
"section": "Section::::Traditional view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The traditional view is based on several ancient sources, including the Behistun inscription as well as Herodotus, in Ctesias, and Justin, although there are minor differences among them. The three oldest surviving sources agree that Gaumata/Pseudo-Smerdis/Sphendadates was overthrown by Darius and others in a coup d'état, and that Darius then ascended the throne. Most sources (including Darius himself, Herodotus and Ctesias) have Darius as part of a group of seven conspirators. In Greek and Latin sources, Darius subsequently gained kingship by cheating in a contest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4793883",
"title": "Synedrion",
"section": "Section::::Synedrion in Judea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Josephus describes an aristocratic council called \"gerousia\" or senate of \"elders\" repeatedly in his history of the Jews, both under the Greeks from the time of Antiochus the Great (Josephus, \"Antiquities\" 12:3) and under the Hasmonean high priests and princes. Josephus uses συνέδριον for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius (57 BC), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Israel and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a \"synedrion\" was placed. In 57–55 BC, Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, split the former Hasmonean Kingdom into Galilee, Samaria & Judea with 5 districts of \"synedrion\" (councils of law). The original aristocratic constitution of the senate began to be modified under the later Hasmoneans by the inevitable introduction of representatives of the rising party of the Pharisees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gu0yg
|
Why was the latin word for left-hand "sinister"? Did they prefer the right hand over the left and for what reasons?
|
[
{
"answer": "The etymology is not quite certain, but there's a pretty decent chance it comes from the word *sinus*, which is the word for any kind of fold. In this case it *could perhaps* be because it's the hand that holds up the *sinus* of a toga.\n\nHowever, I don't have access to the most up-to-date etymological dictionary, De Vaan's one, where I am: that *may* have new information",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[It meant left before it meant evil.](_URL_2_) \n\nIt might have originally meant the slower or weaker hand, but it also could be a euphemism meaning the more favorable hand. If the latter was the case, it would mean that the left hand already had a negative connotation (else why have a euphemism?)\n\nThe word took on sense of foreboding from the interpretation of omens from the left hand side, a practice I don't know enough about to comment on. \n\nHowever, I'm hesitant to say that the bad associations of the word inhere entirely in its use in augury. Words for left and right often have negative and positive meanings, respectively, e.g. \"gauche,\" \"adroit,\" and whatever word was too taboo to say so as to require the euphemism \"sinister,\" if thst etymology is correct. Furthermore, the English words [\"right\"](_URL_0_) and [\"left\"](_URL_1_) meant meant proper a d weak, respectively, and \"left\" replaced Old English \"winestra,\" a euphemism for the left because the left was seen as bad. \n\nTl;dr: Right supremacists have been around a long time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::In culture.:Negative appeal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Moreover, apart from inconvenience, left-handed people have historically been considered unlucky or even malicious for their difference by the right-handed majority. In many European languages, including English, the word for the direction \"right\" also means \"correct\" or \"proper\". Throughout history, being left-handed was considered negative. The Latin adjective \"sinister\" means \"left\" as well as \"unlucky\", and this double meaning survives in European derivatives of Latin, including the English words \"sinister\" (meaning both 'evil' and 'on the bearer's left on a coat of arms') and \"ambisinister\" meaning 'awkward or clumsy with both or either hand'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956882",
"title": "Sinestro",
"section": "Section::::Physical appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Additionally, due to the fact that his name is derived from the Latin word \"sinestra\", meaning \"sinister\" or also \"left\" and \"left handed\", and commonly associated to wickedness, Sinestro has been often depicted in the comic books as left handed. This trait has also been faithfully portrayed in other media, such as the animated film \"\" and the live-action film \"Green Lantern\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "340471",
"title": "Roman salute",
"section": "Section::::Early Roman sources and images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "The right hand (Lat. \"dextera\", \"dextra\"; Gr. δεξιά - \"dexia\") was commonly used in antiquity as a symbol of pledging trust, friendship or loyalty. For example, Cicero reported that Octavian pledged an oath to Julius Caesar while outstretching his right hand: \"Although that youth [the young Caesar Octavian] is powerful and has told Antony off nicely: yet, after all, we must wait to see the end.\" But what a speech! He swore his oath with the words: \"so may I achieve the honours of my father!\", and at the same time he stretched out his right hand in the direction of his statue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30533724",
"title": "Bias against left-handed people",
"section": "Section::::Favorable perceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "In early Roman times, the left side retained a positive connotation, as the Augures proceeded from the eastern side. The negative meaning was subsequently borrowed into Latin from Greek, and ever since in all Roman languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3438628",
"title": "List of Spanish words of Basque origin",
"section": "Section::::List.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- izquierdo, -a \"left\" (cf. Basque \"ezkerda\" \"the left (one, side)\", fr \"ezker\" \"left\"; also Portuguese \"esquerdo\", Catalan \"esquerre\"). Ousted Old Spanish \"siniestro\" (also Old Portuguese \"sẽestro\"), from Latin \"sinister\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241533",
"title": "Iguvine Tablets",
"section": "Section::::Augury.:Augural terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "\"dersua\" VIa 1: \"dextera\", right hand, prosperous. The right hand was apparently seen as auspicious in Umbria as in Greece. Newman (Appendix II) cites the position of the augur in the inauguration of Numa, in which he faced east while Numa faced south. Right and left have both an auspicious and inauspicious meaning in Latin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30533724",
"title": "Bias against left-handed people",
"section": "Section::::Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "In Hebrew, as well as in other ancient Semitic and Mesopotamian languages, the term \"left\" was a symbol of power or custody. There were also examples of left-handed assassins in the Old Testament (Ehud killing the Moabite king). The left hand symbolized the power to shame society, and was used as a metaphor for misfortune, natural evil, or punishment from the gods. This metaphor survived ancient culture and was integrated into mainstream Christianity by early Catholic theologians, such as Ambrose of Milan, to modern Protestant theologians, such as Karl Barth, to attribute natural evil to God in explaining God's omnipotence over the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f8hmzb
|
Why do scholars always imagine recorded troop sizes to be larger than reality?
|
[
{
"answer": "More input is always welcome; for the meantime, you'll be greatly interested in these two answers from previous threads:\n\n* On the matter of Herodotos versus numbers, in this thread u/Iphikrates [breaks down just how Herodotos got his numbers](_URL_0_).\n* As for how modern scholars can be confident in lower numbers than the ancient sources provide, u/FlavivsAetivs here [expounds on the difficulties of fielding large armies](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16635987",
"title": "East Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Army Size.:Numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The discrepancy in army size estimates is mainly due to uncertainty about the size of \"limitanei\" regiments, as can be seen by the wide range of estimates in the table below. Jones suggests \"limitanei\" regiments had a similar size to Principate auxilia regiments, averaging 500 men each. More recent work, which includes new archaeological evidence, tends to the view that units were much smaller, perhaps averaging 250.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "660679",
"title": "Notitia Dignitatum",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "BULLET::::4. The \"Notitia\" does not record the number of personnel. Given that and the paucity of other evidence of unit sizes at that time, the size of individual units and the various commands cannot be ascertained. In turn, this makes it impossible to assess accurately the total size of the army. Depending on the strength of units, the late AD 4th century army may, at one extreme, have equaled the size of the AD 2nd century force, i. e. over 400,000 men; and at the other extreme, it may have been far smaller. For example, the forces deployed in Britain circa AD 400 may have been merely 18,000 against circa 55,000 in the AD 2nd century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531824",
"title": "Late Roman army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Scholarly estimates of the size of the 4th-century army diverge widely, ranging from ca. 400,000 to over one million effectives (i.e. from roughly the same size as the 2nd-century army to 2 or 3 times larger). This is due to fragmentary evidence, unlike the much better-documented 2nd-century army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16635987",
"title": "East Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Army Size.:Numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The size of the Eastern army in 395 is controversial because the size of individual regiments is not known with any certainty. Plausible estimates of the size of the whole 4th-century army (excluding fleets) range from c. 400,000 to c. 600,000. This would place the Eastern army in the rough range 200,000 to 300,000, since the army of each division of the empire was roughly equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14531824",
"title": "Late Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Army size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Because of fairly detailed evidence, there is broad scholarly consensus among modern scholars regarding the size of the Roman Army in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. However, this consensus breaks down regarding the size of the Army in the 4th century. Lack of evidence about unit-strengths has resulted in widely divergent estimates of the Late Army's strength, ranging from c. 400,000 (much the same as in the 2nd century) to well in excess of one million. However, mainstream scholarship is divided between a \"low count\" of c. 400,000 and a higher count of c. 600,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2529634",
"title": "Ancient Macedonian army",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Nicholas Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC. However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity (and could have been possibly lower or even higher than the numbers stated).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753281",
"title": "Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Late Roman army/East Roman army (284–641).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 1072,
"text": "The size of the 4th-century army is controversial. More dated scholars (e.g. A.H.M. Jones, writing in the 1960s) estimated the late army as much larger than the Principate army, half the size again or even as much as twice the size. With the benefit of archaeological discoveries of recent decades, many contemporary historians view the late army as no larger than its predecessor: under Diocletian c. 390,000 (the same as under Hadrian almost two centuries earlier) and under Constantine no greater, and probably somewhat smaller, than the Principate peak of c. 440,000. The main change in structure was the establishment of large armies that accompanied the emperors (\"comitatus praesentales\") and were generally based away from the frontiers. Their primary function was to deter usurpations. The legions were split up into smaller units comparable in size to the auxiliary regiments of the Principate. In parallel, legionary armour and equipment were abandoned in favour of auxiliary equipment. Infantry adopted the more protective equipment of the Principate cavalry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8pejtq
|
European colonists often referred to Native Americans by grouping them into categories like "Cherokee" or "Choctaw" on an ethnolinguistic basis. How relevant were such distinctions to the indigenous groups themselves?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the most difficult things that students of prehistoric and protohistoric cultures in the western portions of North America have to confront is the relationship of political entities to linguistic or other classifications. In most of California, and all of the NW coast south of the Tlingit and Haida areas, there was no political organization above household. Rich men had more influence. There may have been a shaman or doctor that had influence over a larger population but it was not formal. In addition, there may also have been religious leaders, often called dance leaders, that had influence that extended beyond the household. But the concept of tribe itself has virtually no utility. \n\nEarly anthropologists recognized that tribes were a construct invented by anthropologists to compare and contrast cultural traits (see P. E. Goddard *Life and Culture of the Hupa* 1903), but investigations at the scale of extended family just were not feasible. They therefore focused on the larger ethnolinguistic unit - using groups of people with homogeneous or mostly homogenous languages. This was in part because of the linguistic training of early anthropologists, but mostly because it was a seemingly reasonable way to divide populations up.\n\nThe problem is perhaps most clearly exemplified by the far Northwestern California and far Southwestern Oregon groups. This is an area where virtually each river drainage was occupied by a different language group from very different language families yet the cultures were virtually identical. Compare, for example NW California where the Tolowa (Athabascan) are bounded to the south by the Yurok (~~Algonkian~~ Algic), to the east by Karuk (Hokan), to the Southeast by other Athabaskans (Hupa, and its subtribes or tribelets, the Chilula, Whilkut, and Tsnungwe), but these Athabaskans were unintelligible to the Tolowa. Further south are other Athabaskan groups that were not intelligible to any of the others and a variety of other ethnolinguistic groups. All these groups shared many dances, regalia, mythologies and other traits.\n\nThis area has been the site of extensive ethnological research beginning in 1871 and marked by fairly monumental research projects by Kroeber (see his work on the Yurok) and his students. While these \"tribes\" held many unique traits, having to do with aspects of religion, and customs, they were, for all intents and purposes, identical cultures. Complicating matters is the fact that Northern California natives were notorious polyglots. Powers once noted an elderly informant that \"had one eye and six languages in his head\".\n\nSo how relevant were the distinctions to the native groups themselves? In the area I study, I don't think it was very relevant. As an example, almost all natives that lived near boundaries of linguistic groups were bilingual so intercourse of both an economic and social nature was unimpeded between groups. People routinely married outside their linguistic groups. In fact, certain villages held alliances with other villages in different language areas. Alternatively, villages within the same language group were traditional enemies. \n\nMany groups that have been identified as subtribes or tribelets of the Hupa, because they spoke dialects of the Hupa language felt no affiliation with the Hupa proper, in fact they felt the opposite. So my conclusion is that it probably made a little difference in that the natives recognized that there were other people that speak our language, but ethnologically and to the natives it was largely irrelevant.\n\nSee:\n\n[*All Those Things that You’re Liable\nTo Read in the Ethnographic Literature\nThey Ain’t Necessarily So* Thomas Keter, \nPaper Presented to\nThe Society for California Archaeology, 2009](_URL_0_)\n\n*Handbook of California Indians*, A. Kroeber 1970 (originally published 1926)\n\n*California Indian Languages*, Victor Golla, 2011\n\n*Life and Culture of the Hupa*, P.E. Goddard, 1903\n\nCalifornia Athabaskan Groups, Martin Baumhoff 1958.\n\nEdit: economic for economical\nEdit II: Algic for Algonkian\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm late to this party, but I wanted to chime in with a few points. Namely that the two examples you give, the Cherokee and the Choctaw, have some significant sociopolitical structures backing up those labels. They're not just names given to them by the colonists. In both cases, there were national councils developed to unify the Tsalagi and Chahta peoples, respectively. Of course, in both cases, there were regional distinctions, such as localized dialects and slight cultural differences, but that's true of all sufficiently large nations. However, the differences between these internal groups were far less than, say, the differences between the Five Nations of the Haudenosaunee.\n\nLinguistically, the Choctaw recognized that they were closely tied to the Chickasaw, long before any Euroamerican linguistic lumped them both into the Muskogean languages. Their ties to the Chickasaw are commemorated in a shared origins narrative, explaining how the two nations split over a disagreement concerning where to settle once they crossed the Mississippi from the west. For the Cherokee in the colonial period, linguistic connections with their neighbors were less important, mainly because there were far fewer neighbors that spoke a similar language. The Haudenosaunee, however, eventually came to see the Cherokee as distant cousins due to linguistic and cultural similarities, and - once they stopped fighting over Ohio - they engaged in some cultural exchange. We have, for example, the account of a Seneca traveler among the Cherokee, who went south to see what the Cherokee where up to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5559770",
"title": "History of New Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Athabaskans-Apachean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The historic peoples encountered by the Europeans did not make up unified tribes in the modern sense, as they were highly decentralized, operating in bands of a size adapted to their semi-nomadic cultures. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the European explorers, missionaries, traders and settlers referred to the different groups of Apache and Navajo by various names, often associated with distinctions of language or geography. The people identified as \"Diné\", which means \"the people\". The Navajo and Apache made up the largest non-Pueblo Indian group in the Southwest. These two tribes led nomadic lifestyles and spoke the same language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50490",
"title": "Cherokee",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "By the 19th century, European settlers in the United States classified the Cherokee of the Southeast as one of the \"Five Civilized Tribes\", because they were agrarian and lived in permanent villages and began to adopt some cultural and technological practices of the European American settlers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221765",
"title": "Geronimo",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Apache is the collective term for several culturally related groups of Native Americans originally from the Southwest United States. The current division of Apachean groups includes the Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan and Plains Apache (formerly Kiowa-Apache).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50490",
"title": "Cherokee",
"section": "Section::::Early cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions. The earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee (Creek) and Catawba. Specifically in 1540-41, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto passed through what was later characterized as Cherokee country by English colonists based on their historical encounter. De Soto's expedition visited villages in present-day western Georgia and eastern Tennessee, recording them as ruled by the Coosa chiefdom. It is now considered to be a chiefdom ancestral to the Muscogee Creek people, who are from a different language and cultural group. The Spanish recorded a Chalaque nation as living around the Keowee River where North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia meet. As some of this work was not translated into English until the 20th century, alternative views had developed among English-speaking historians, related to the limited understanding by English colonists of historic Native American cultures in the Southeast. In addition, the dominance of English colonists in the Southeast led to a discounting of Spanish sources for some time in their construction of history of the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1069952",
"title": "Casta",
"section": "Section::::Castas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "In Spanish America (and in other places), racial categories were formal legal classifications. Initially in Spanish America there were three racial categories. They generally referred to the multiplicity of indigenous American peoples as \"Indians\" (\"indios\"), a Spanish term applied to, but seldom used by Amerinds themselves. Those from Spain called themselves \"españoles\", which in the late colonial period was further refined to those born in Iberia, called politely \"peninsulares\", impolitely called \"gachupines\", while American-born españoles came to be called Criollos. The third group were black Africans, called \"negros\" (\"Blacks\"), brought as slaves from the earliest days of Spanish empire in the Caribbean. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20134780",
"title": "Multiracial Americans",
"section": "Section::::Native American identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Many tribes, especially those in the Eastern United States, are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous Native American identity, despite being predominantly of European ancestry. Point in case, more than 75% of those enrolled in the Cherokee Nation have less than one-quarter Cherokee blood and the current Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, Bill John Baker, is 1/32 Cherokee, amounting to about 3%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21217",
"title": "Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Racial identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 326,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 326,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Many tribes, especially those in the Eastern United States, are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous Native American identity, despite being predominantly of European ancestry. More than 75% of those enrolled in the Cherokee Nation have less than one-quarter Cherokee blood, and the current Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, Bill John Baker, is 1/32 Cherokee, amounting to about 3%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17fjpr
|
What would happen if two tidal waves hit one another in the middle of an ocean?
|
[
{
"answer": "You get a super position of waves. The waves would add up. Where the 2 peaks align, you would get a wave twice as high (assuming equal waves), where a peak meets a trough, you would get no wave. As they parted, you the waves would look unchanged.\n\nThis can lead to some freak waves, where a large number of tiny waves sum up to create a monster wave. This has been know to catch ships out in open water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "387440",
"title": "Physical oceanography",
"section": "Section::::Rapid variations.:Tides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "\"Tidal resonance\" occurs in the Bay of Fundy since the time it takes for a large wave to travel from the mouth of the bay to the opposite end, then reflect and travel back to the mouth of the bay coincides with the tidal rhythm producing the world's highest tides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Tides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1322,
"text": "Tidal flows of seawater are resisted by the water's inertia and can be affected by land masses. In places like the Gulf of Mexico where land constrains the movement of the bulges, only one set of tides may occur each day. Inshore from an island there may be a complex daily cycle with four high tides. The island straits at Chalkis on Euboea experience strong currents which abruptly switch direction, generally four times per day but up to 12 times per day when the moon and the sun are 90 degrees apart. Where there is a funnel-shaped bay or estuary, the tidal range can be magnified. The Bay of Fundy is the classic example of this and can experience spring tides of . Although tides are regular and predictable, the height of high tides can be lowered by offshore winds and raised by onshore winds. The high pressure at the centre of an anticyclones pushes down on the water and is associated with abnormally low tides while low-pressure areas may cause extremely high tides. A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the sea at high tide dramatically. In 1900, Galveston, Texas experienced a surge during a hurricane that overwhelmed the city, killing over 3,500 people and destroying 3,636 homes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19331",
"title": "Moon",
"section": "Section::::Earth-Moon system.:Tidal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1361,
"text": "The most obvious effect of tidal forces is to cause two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. This results in elevated sea levels called ocean tides. As the Earth spins on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place \"under\" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours. Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth. The Sun has the same tidal effect on the Earth, but its forces of attraction are only 40% that of the Moon's; the Sun's and Moon's interplay is responsible for spring and neap tides. If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects: the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors, the inertia of water's movement, ocean basins that grow shallower near land, the sloshing of water between different ocean basins. As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30718",
"title": "Tide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present. For example, the shape of the solid part of the Earth is affected slightly by Earth tide, though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "742834",
"title": "Hurricane Fabian",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Bermuda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Strong waves caused extensive damage to the coastline, especially on the southern portion of Bermuda. The strong waves broke a boat from its moorings at Spanish Point. Not wanting to lose the ship, the owner, accompanied with two people, tried to save the vessel. One fell overboard before climbing aboard the boat. The three ventured the vessel through tornadoes and 20-foot (6 m) waves, which dropped several feet of water in the ship; however, ultimately they safely arrived at Hamilton Harbour. Five charter boats capsized from the waves, while several others crashed against reefs. Strong waves collapsed a sea wall in Hamilton, causing traffic jams for one day until it was fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31161",
"title": "Tsunami",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "English pronunciation: or ) or tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances) above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21771097",
"title": "Ocean power in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Tidal power.:Cook Strait.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "A further consequence of these opposed tides is that there is almost zero tidal height change at the centre of the strait. Although the tidal surge should flow in one direction for six hours and then the reverse direction for six hours, a particular surge might last eight or ten hours with the reverse surge enfeebled. In especially boisterous weather conditions the reverse surge can be negated, and the flow can remain in the same direction through three surge periods and longer. This is indicated on marine charts for the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.