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1xzib1
|
how do scientists/anthropologists explain the seemingly quick ascent of the human species?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Punctuated Equilibrium, my man. Evolution of species or ideas shouldn't be be viewed as a gradual and constant change but as a series of leaps and bounds interspersed with periods of stability.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Am I the only one who thinks that in the grand scheme of things, 5,000 years is a really short span to have achieved so much? I mean language helps but other animals have been proven to communicate. I can see how written language would help our advance even more but is that the real explanation for going from the wheel to spaceships in 5,000 years, cause its hard to believe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "375674",
"title": "First ascent",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Overwhelmingly, the idea of a \"first ascent\" is a modern one, especially in places such as Africa and the Americas with a history of colonialism. There may be little or no physical evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. For example, the volcano Llullaillaco on the border of Argentina and Chile is known to have been climbed in the prehistoric period due to the presence of Incan artifacts at the summit, yet credit for the first recorded ascent is given to Chilean climbers Bión González and Juan Harseim, who summited in 1952.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6340014",
"title": "Nevado de Longaví",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The first recorded ascent occurred in 1965 by S. Kunstmann and W. Foerster, but evidence reported during that ascent implies that humans had reached the mountain earlier. Otherwise, Nevado de Longaví is one of the important tourist attractions of the commune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39127332",
"title": "High-altitude adaptation in humans",
"section": "Section::::Origin and basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The first scientific investigations of high-altitude adaptation was done by A. Roberto Frisancho of the University of Michigan in the late 1960s among the Quechua people of Peru. Paul T. Baker, Penn State University, (in the Department of Anthropology) also conducted a considerable amount of research into human adaptation to high altitudes, and mentored students who continued this research. One of these students went on to conduct research on high altitude adaptation among the Tibetans in the early 1980s through to today, anthropologist Cynthia Beall of the Case Western Reserve University.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267366",
"title": "Mauna Kea",
"section": "Section::::Human history.:Ascents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "BULLET::::- On August 26, 1823, Joseph F. Goodrich, an American missionary, made the first recorded ascent in a single day; however, a small arrangement of stones he observed suggested he was not the first human on the summit. He recorded four ecosystems as he travelled from base to summit, and also visited Lake Waiau.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20562313",
"title": "1924 British Mount Everest expedition",
"section": "Section::::After the expedition.:Findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "In 1999, a new search expedition was mounted, founded by German Everest researcher Jochen Hemmleb, and led by Eric Simonson. Simonson had seen some very old oxygen bottles near the First Step during his first summit climb in 1991. One of these bottles was again found in 1999 and was one belonging to Mallory and Irvine, thus proving the two climbed at least as high as shortly below the First Step. Their location also suggests a climbing speed of approximately 275 vert-ft/hr, good time for the altitude and an indication the oxygen systems were working perfectly. The expedition also tried to reproduce Odell's position when he had seen Mallory and Irvine. The mountaineer Andy Politz later reported that they could clearly identify each of the three steps without any problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39729236",
"title": "Cynthia Beall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Cynthia M. Beall is an American physical anthropologist at the Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Four decades of her research on people living in extremely high mountains became the frontier in understanding human evolution and high-altitude adaptation. Her groundbreaking works among the Andean, Tibetan and East African highlanders are the basis of our knowledge on adaptation to hypoxic condition and how it influences the evolutionary selection in modern humans. She is currently the Distinguished University Professor, and member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375674",
"title": "First ascent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "In mountaineering, a first ascent (abbreviated to FA in guidebooks) is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular climbing route. First mountain ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with greater risks, challenges, and recognition than climbing a route pioneered by others. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ow34m
|
Is it possible to tack into the solar wind the same way we can sail into the wind on earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you mean sailing in the opposite direction as the wind (i.e. to the Sun) then yes, it is possible, though not in the same way nor for the same reasons. Orbital dynamics are crazy and amazing :)\n\nYou can use [radiation pressure](_URL_0_) with a solar sail or the solar wind with an [electric sail](_URL_1_). In the rest of this comment I'll assume you have either of them.\n\nYour spacecraft is initially in orbit around the Sun (assuming it's already escaped Earth's gravity). If you're orienting your sail at an angle, so that the net force on your spacecraft points in a direction opposite to its velocity, then you're causing it to slow down. Orbital dynamics mandate that an object in orbit that loses speed will come closer to the central attracting body (i.e. migrate to a lower orbit). If you keep losing and losing speed it will end up spiraling inwards.\n\nFun fact: even though the sail will cause it to lose speed, while getting closer to the Sun gravitational potential energy is released in the form of kinetic energy, effectively speeding up the spacecraft. The second effect is more significant; slowing down while in orbit actually makes the spacecraft move faster.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29420",
"title": "Solar sail",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Satellites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "Robert L. Forward has commented that a solar sail could be used to modify the orbit of a satellite about the Earth. In the limit, a sail could be used to \"hover\" a satellite above one pole of the Earth. Spacecraft fitted with solar sails could also be placed in close orbits such that they are stationary with respect to either the Sun or the Earth, a type of satellite named by Forward a \"statite\". This is possible because the propulsion provided by the sail offsets the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Such an orbit could be useful for studying the properties of the Sun for long durations. Likewise a solar sail-equipped spacecraft could also remain on station nearly above the polar solar terminator of a planet such as the Earth by tilting the sail at the appropriate angle needed to counteract the planet's gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37845",
"title": "Magnetic sail",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation and design.:Solar wind example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The solar wind is a continuous stream of plasma that flows outwards from the Sun: near the Earth's orbit, it contains several million protons and electrons per cubic meter and flows at . The magnetic sail introduces a magnetic field into this plasma flow which can deflect the particles from their original trajectory: the momentum of the particles is then transferred to the sail, leading to a thrust on the sail. One advantage of magnetic or solar sails over (chemical or ion) reaction thrusters is that no reaction mass is depleted or carried in the craft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29420",
"title": "Solar sail",
"section": "Section::::Physical principles.:Solar radiation pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Many people believe that spacecraft using solar sails are pushed by the Solar winds just as sailboats and sailing ships are pushed by the winds across the waters on Earth. But Solar radiation exerts a pressure on the sail due to reflection and a small fraction that is absorbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35539811",
"title": "Orbit modeling",
"section": "Section::::Models of perturbing forces.:Propulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Another possible method is a solar sail. Solar sails use radiation pressure in a way to achieve a desired propulsive force. The perturbation model due to the solar wind can be used as a model of propulsive force from a solar sail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37845",
"title": "Magnetic sail",
"section": "Section::::Modes of operation.:In a plasma wind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Just as with solar sails, magnetic sails can \"tack\". If a magnetic sail orients at an angle relative to the solar wind, charged particles are deflected preferentially to one side and the magnetic sail is pushed laterally. This means that magnetic sails could maneuver to most orbits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29420",
"title": "Solar sail",
"section": "Section::::History of concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "J. D. Bernal wrote in 1929, \"A form of space sailing might be developed which used the repulsive effect of the Sun's rays instead of wind. A space vessel spreading its large, metallic wings, acres in extent, to the full, might be blown to the limit of Neptune's orbit. Then, to increase its speed, it would tack, close-hauled, down the gravitational field, spreading full sail again as it rushed past the Sun.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10031328",
"title": "Electric sail",
"section": "Section::::Intrinsic limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Like for other solar sail technologies, while modest variation of the thrust direction can be achieved by inclining the sail, the thrust vector always points more or less radially outward from the Sun. It has been estimated that maximum operational inclination would be 60°, resulting in a thrusting angle of 30° from the outward radial direction. However, like with the sails of a ship, tacking could be used for changing the trajectory. Interstellar ships approaching a sun might use solar wind flow for braking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2u1fvs
|
why do boobs in classical artworks look so different from those sported by today's models? [nsfw]
|
[
{
"answer": "The models have all had surgery, or are naturally big-breasted. \n\nIn antiquity, it was considered more attractive to have smaller breasts, so the artists chose smaller-breasted women.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm sure there are models with similar breasts that attract less attention in today's society due to a difference in culture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Small boobs were very much considered to be more attractive in those time periods.\n\nAlso size of the breast says nothing about the ability to produce milk for offspring. A small breasts woman might produce as much breastmilk as a bigger breasts woman. (and breasts generally grow a cupsize or two during pregnancy and breastfeeding anyway). So evolutionary speaking there is no basis for preferring big breasts over small breasts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1115491",
"title": "Slide (footwear)",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Slides are well known for their sporty look because of the impact Adidas has left. They are very functional so they are great for casual outfits. For example going out to the beach, walking in parks, summer barbecues. However, high fashion designers such as Prada, Gucci, Burberry, and Marc Jacobs have included them in their collection. The different designs and ideas that come from the designers are including everything imaginable. Things from feathers to floral to faux fur and regal pearls are being attached or used as the main design behind slides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8165775",
"title": "El Anatsui",
"section": "Section::::Artistic practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "With his metal hangings continuing to spread over the world, Western art critics began to connect Anatsui's work with potential art historical references in order for them, foreigners, to create familiarity. For example, one mentions that his bottle tops could be compared to \"Duchamp's bicycle wheel\" and \"recall disparate Modernist sweet spots without quite settling into any familiar category.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1039920",
"title": "Shabby chic",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "An offshoot of shabby chic is a trend towards 'relicing' of guitars and bass guitars to create a 'roadworn' appearance, from mild wear to extreme abuses almost never seen in genuine vintage instruments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "728337",
"title": "Alfred Mosher Butts",
"section": "Section::::\"Scrabble\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Butts initially called the game \"Lexiko\", but later changed the name to \"Criss Cross Words\", after considering \"It\", and began to look for a buyer. The game makers he originally contacted rejected the idea, but Butts was tenacious. Eventually, he sold the rights to entrepreneur and game-lover James Brunot, who made a few minor adjustments to the design and renamed the game \"\"Scrabble\".\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904847",
"title": "Leon Golub",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Golub, who always painted in a figural style, drew upon diverse representations of the body from ancient Greek and Roman sculpture, to photographs of athletic competitions, to gay pornography; often pulled directly from a huge database he assembled of journalistic images from the mass media. He likened his painting process to sculptural technique and employed a method of layering and scraping away paint, sometimes using a meat cleaver, leaving varying amounts of canvas untouched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16749848",
"title": "Butt (magazine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "\"BUTT\" has been praised for its unabashed sexual and non-sexual portrayals of men, which emphasize equal opportunity in depictions of all people in print. The magazine has been lauded for its unique, candid approach to interviews, which may be done by anyone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40013053",
"title": "Margaret Boozer",
"section": "Section::::Work & Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Boozer's work is included in the collection of the Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, New York's South Street Seaport Museum, the US Department of State, the Washington DC City Hall Art Collection at the John A. Wilson Building, and in other various private collections. Boozer also creates work that is more readily consumable for commercial art galleries, often consisting of highly decorative abstract wall-mounted pieces in the form of cracked, heat-blasted rectangular slabs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jqs5y
|
why was the race to the moon more important than the race to the first man in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "They know him in Russia. \n\nBecause the Soviets sent a man into space first, the achievement was downplayed in the West, and then the Moon Race was really hyped up to compensate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " \"It reminds me of the heady days of Sputnik and Yuri Gagarin when the world trembled at the sound of our rockets. Well, they will tremble again — at the sound of our silence.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Primarily because the US had the first man to the moon and Russia had the first man in space. Naturally, the US would want to emphasize the one that made them better. I imagine there were other reasons. For example, the first man on the moon was heavily publicized beforehand and broadcast live to the world. This would have gone badly had the mission ended in disaster, but the US put the extra effort in to make sure that most likely wouldn't happen. Russia didn't have the budget for that, so they had to perform the missions in secret until one of them succeeded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "84237",
"title": "Space Race",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "According to US sources, the \"race\" peaked with the July 20, 1969, US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. Most US sources will point to the Apollo 11 lunar landing as a singular achievement far outweighing any combination of Soviet achievements. In any case the USSR attempted several crewed lunar missions, but eventually canceled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations, while the US landed several more times on the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23597540",
"title": "Tank on the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "During the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union were engaged in a feverish technological competition, popularly known as the space race, to be the first to land a human on the Moon. The United States won the race, but less is known about a \"secret chapter\" from the Cold War era. Overshadowed by the Apollo Moon landings and largely ignored in the West at the time, the Soviets were also exploring the Moon with a series of successful robotic Moon missions. The Soviets never sent humans to the Moon, but they successfully guided two freely-roving robots by remote control from the Earth. For 16 months between 1970 and 1973, these Lunokhods traveled more than over the Moon's surface. Kept in utmost secrecy for two decades, the secret Soviet space archives concerning this program were finally declassified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35573172",
"title": "Space propaganda",
"section": "Section::::Examples used during the Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The space race had triumphs and failures on both sides. One significant triumph was Apollo 8 in 1968. 1968 was a bad year for America. The Tet Offensive, Robert Kennedy was shot and killed, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed, there were numerous race riots, and there was a brutal crackdown in Czechoslovakia. But there was one thing that gave people hope and inspiration. That was when Apollo 8 circled the moon and read from the first book of the Bible Genesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8182",
"title": "Dwight D. Eisenhower",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1953–1961).:Foreign policy.:Space Race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race as well as accomplishing their long time goal; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that \"man-in-space can not be justified\" and was too costly. Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, \"Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1558077",
"title": "Moon landing",
"section": "Section::::Human Moon landings (1969–1972).:Other aspects of the Apollo Moon successful landings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has remained unaffected in a direct way regarding the desire for territorial expansion. After the successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80740",
"title": "Moon landing conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Claimed motives of the United States and NASA.:The Space Race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Motivation for the United States to engage the Soviet Union in a Space Race can be traced to the then on-going Cold War. Landing on the Moon was viewed as a national and technological accomplishment that would generate world-wide acclaim. But going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by President John F. Kennedy famously stating in a 1962 speech that the United States chose to go \"because\" it was hard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26781876",
"title": "1969 Volunteer 500",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "This race's importance in the history book would be that the famous Apollo 11 moon landing would take place on the same day, with Neil Armstrong making his famous walk on the Moon. Henley Gray deliberately quit the race to get home in time to watch the moon landing on television; according to urban legend. As a result, he won $550 ($ when adjusted for inflation) in prize money and finished only 206 out of the 500 laps of the race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1z2qtn
|
how was the bureau of census measuring population before sampling?
|
[
{
"answer": "The census counts every person, or at least tries to, every ten years.\n\nHe is talking about people using the data collected - some of them insisted on using everything which, before modern computers could be a monumental task.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57070",
"title": "United States Census Bureau",
"section": "Section::::Legal mandate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts. The Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals. In 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their subordinate role in the department.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6889",
"title": "Census",
"section": "Section::::Sampling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation. This process of sampling marks the difference between historical census, which was a house to house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59979662",
"title": "Department of Commerce v. New York",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The United States Census Bureau, which operates out of the United States Department of Commerce, conducts a nationwide Census every decade to determine the population and its distribution within the United States, as required by Article I of the Constitution. The population numbers are used to distribute the number of members of the United States House of Representatives, as well as internally by each state to draw up their congressional and legislative redistricting maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648912",
"title": "United Kingdom census, 2001",
"section": "Section::::One Number Census.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The results from the 2001 census were produced using a methodology known as the One Number Census. This was an attempt to adjust the census counts and impute answers to allow for estimated under-enumeration measured by the Census Coverage Survey (sample size 320,000 households), resulting in a single set of population estimates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4595346",
"title": "1870 United States Census",
"section": "Section::::Census Act of 1850.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The Census Act of 1850 established the primary machinery of the ninth census. The Census Bureau, working within the Department of the Interior, oversaw the recording and tabulation of results gathered by assistant marshals, who were hired and supervised by Federal marshals. Two new structural changes during the 1870 Census occurred: marshals had to return the completed population questionnaire to the Census Office in September and penalties for refusing to reply to enumerator questions were extended to encompass every question on the questionnaires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57070",
"title": "United States Census Bureau",
"section": "Section::::Legal mandate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as \"demographic surveys\" and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial (10-year) population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts economic surveys of manufacturing, retail, service, and other establishments and of domestic governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4702244",
"title": "United States immigration statistics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The 1850 United States census was the first federal U.S. census to query respondents about their \"nativity\"—i.e, where they were born, whether in the United States or outside of it—and is thus the first point at which solid statistics become available. The following chart, based on statistics from the U.S. Census from 1850 on, shows the numbers of non-native residents according to place of birth. Because an immigrant is counted in each census during his or her lifetime, the numbers reflect the cumulative population of living non-native citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dh60c4
|
how is airport security regulated and kept consistent around the world
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it’s highly inconsistent from country to country.\n\nUS is the worst for sure, I hate travelling there. Its the only place they make us remove your shoes.\n\nAtm im in Nepal, and they only pass your luggage in a scanner, barely look at it, everyone pass the metal detector, everyones beeping and they dont give a fuck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not. \n\nEvery single country sets up their own rules and regulations, as well as how they enforce these rules and regulations. There are some countries who have treaties with others that set certain requirements for flights between said countries, but these are not always well enforced.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "284770",
"title": "Airport security",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any dangerous situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure the traveling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14456737",
"title": "Known Shipper Program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) implemented new rules to ensure the safety of domestic and international air travel in the United States. The rules of this program are administered by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), who is responsible for the oversight of all transportation security, including truck, rail and ocean, as well as air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284770",
"title": "Airport security",
"section": "Section::::Airport security by country.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "All restrictions involving airport security are determined by Transport Canada and some are implemented by the Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA) in conjunction with the Airport Operator . Since the September 11 attacks, as well as the Air India bombing in 1985 and other incidents, airport security has tightened in Canada in order to prevent any attacks in Canadian Airspace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37575",
"title": "Airport",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.:Airport security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11 attacks and the Real ID Act of 2005, airport security has dramatically increased and got tighter and stricter than ever before.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20267842",
"title": "United States border security concerns",
"section": "Section::::Current policies and security mechanisms.:Airports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Airport security mechanisms must be quick, efficient, and effective due to the massive numbers of travelers, the Department of Homeland Security has implemented the Automated Targeting System, a data mining program. The Automated Targeting System works by collecting information from airlines such as passport data, credit card numbers, and identity information. That information is then run against a list of known terrorists, phone numbers connected to terrorist cells, and other pertinent intelligence data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2962342",
"title": "Security operations center",
"section": "Section::::The United States government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1155,
"text": "The Transportation Security Administration in the United States has implemented security operations centers for most airports that have federalized security. The primary function of TSA security operations centers is to act as a communication hub for security personnel, law enforcement, airport personnel and various other agencies involved in the daily operations of airports. SOCs are manned 24-hours a day by SOC watch officers. Security operations center watch officers are trained in all aspects of airport and aviation security and are often required to work abnormal shifts. SOC watch officers also ensure that TSA personnel follow proper protocol in dealing with airport security operations. The SOC is usually the first to be notified of incidents at airports such as the discovery of prohibited items/contraband, weapons, explosives, hazardous materials as well as incidents regarding flight delays, unruly passengers, injuries, damaged equipment and various other types of potential security threats. The SOC in turn relays all information pertaining to these incidents to TSA federal security directors, law enforcement and TSA headquarters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1519705",
"title": "International airport",
"section": "Section::::Operations and management.:Security and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The current trend of enhancing security at the cost of passenger and baggage handling efficiency at international airports is expected to continue in the future. This places financial burden on airports, risks the flow of servicing processes, and has implications for the privacy of passengers. International flights often require a higher level of physical security than do domestic airports, although in recent years, many countries have adopted the same level of security for both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6eawqj
|
What happens to the parts of the brain which control amputated body parts?
|
[
{
"answer": "Op, the brain will began to adapt new brain cells to communicate with it, whatever is near in the somatosensory cotrex, that means if you cut off a finger the section of brain that used to respond to that will begin strengthening it's connections to still firing neighboring cells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They exist, and can even be \"tricked\" into thinking an arm is still there which is basically phantom limb syndrome; it's also the basis for some robotic prosthesis which wouldnt work if the brain didnt retain those faculties; there are some local neurons that likely need to be developed, but the brain remains entirely undisturbed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "487841",
"title": "Cerebrum",
"section": "Section::::Functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas by chance of cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1004706",
"title": "Dysarthria",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "These result in lesions to key areas of the brain involved in planning, executing, or regulating motor operations in skeletal muscles (i.e. muscles of the limbs), including muscles of the head and neck (dysfunction of which characterises dysarthria). These can result in dysfunction, or failure of: the motor or somatosensory cortex of the brain, corticobulbar pathways, the cerebellum, basal nuclei (consisting of the putamen, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, substantia nigra etc.), brainstem (from which the cranial nerves originate), or the neuro-muscular junction (in diseases such as myasthenia gravis) which block the nervous system's ability to activate motor units and effect correct range and strength of movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17681122",
"title": "Central nervous system disease",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The brain serves as the organic basis of cognition and exerts centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain is protected by the skull; however, if the brain is damaged, significant impairments in cognition and physiological function or death may occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992",
"title": "Amputation",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (\"Phantoms in the Brain\": V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42433514",
"title": "Proportional myoelectric control",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Rehabilitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Robotic lower limb exoskeletons have the potential to help an individual recover from an injury such as a stroke, spinal cord injury, or other neurological disabilities. Neurological motor disorders often result in reduced volitional muscle activation amplitude, impaired proprioception, and disordered muscle coordination; a robotic exoskeleton with proportional myoelectric control can improve all three of these by amplifying the relationship between muscle activation and proprioceptive feedback. By increasing the consequences of muscle activation, an exoskeleton can improve sensory feedback in a physiological way, which in turn can improve motor control Individuals with spinal cord injury or who have had a stroke can improve their motor capabilities through intense gait rehabilitation, which can require up to three physical therapists to help partially support the body weight of the individual. Robotic lower limb exoskeletons could help in both of these areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1918041",
"title": "Phantom pain",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Central mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1320,
"text": "Under ordinary circumstances, the genetically determined circuitry in the brain remains largely stable throughout life. It was thought, until about 30 years ago, that no new neural circuits could be formed in the adult mammalian brain. Recently, functional MRI studies in amputees have shown that almost all patients have experienced motor cortical remapping. The majority of motor reorganization has occurred as a downward shift of the hand area of the cortex onto the area of face representation, especially the lips. Sometimes there is a side shift of the hand motor cortex to the ipsilateral cortex. In patients with phantom limb pain, the reorganization was great enough to cause a change in cortical lip representation into the hand areas only during lip movements. It has also been found that there is a high correlation between the magnitude of phantom limb pain and the extent to which the shift of the cortical representation of the mouth into the hand area in motor and somatosensory cortical reorganization has occurred. Additionally, as phantom pains in upper extremity amputees increased, there was a higher degree of medial shift of the facial motor representation. There are multiple theories that try to explain how cortical remapping occurs in amputees, but none have been supported to a great extent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15250753",
"title": "Cervical spinal nerve 6",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Damage to the C6 motor neuron, by way of impingement, ischemia, trauma, or degeneration of nerve tissue, can cause denervation of one or more of the associated muscles. Muscle atrophy and other secondary complications can occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rf3qu
|
what is the benefit of a water-cooled pc?
|
[
{
"answer": "Generally superior cooling due to both heat absorption of liquid and a lack of stale warm air in the case. \n\nAlso quieter ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water cooling is more efficient, which allows the CPU and GPU to run at a higher frequency without overheating. Depending on how the cooling is set up it can also be less noisy. Last but not least it's just plain cool.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water has a higher specific heat than air. Thus its able to more quickly transfer heat away from the CPU. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It permits you to transport the heat away from the core at a rapid pace, to a radiator which can be much larger than any reasonable air cooled heatsink. \n\nAir cooling has made great strides with the use of heatpipes to carry heat away from the source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I imagine that you've put your hand in an oven at 400 degrees or higher before to remove a pizza, lasagna, etc. You can leave your hand in the air in the oven for a few seconds before it starts to feel uncomfortable. Now try putting your hand in a liquid at 400 degrees. It's going to burn your skin within milliseconds, right? This is because liquids take heat away from (or give heat to) objects faster than gases can.\n\nThis is what computers take advantage of. If you only use a heat-sink and fan on a computer, the metal from the heat-sink has to transfer heat from itself to the surrounding air, which is inefficient. However, if a liquid replaced the air, then it's going to transfer heat much more efficiently and quicker. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Other techniques.:Liquid cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Liquid cooling is a highly effective method of removing excess heat, with the most common heat transfer fluid in desktop PCs being (distilled) water. The advantages of water cooling over air cooling include water's higher specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531184",
"title": "Water cooling",
"section": "Section::::Computer usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Apple's Power Mac G5 was the first mainstream desktop computer to have water cooling as standard (although only on its fastest models). Dell followed suit by shipping their XPS computers with liquid cooling, using thermoelectric cooling to help cool the liquid. Currently, Dell's only computers to offer liquid cooling are their Alienware desktops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531184",
"title": "Water cooling",
"section": "Section::::Computer usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Water cooling can be used to cool many computer components, but usually it is used for the CPU and GPUs. Water cooling usually uses a water block, a water pump, and a water-to-air heat exchanger. By transferring device heat to a separate heat exchanger which can variously be made large and use larger, lower-speed fans, water cooling can allow quieter operation, improved processor speeds (overclocking), or a balance of both. Less commonly, Northbridges, Southbridges, hard disk drives, memory, voltage regulator modules (VRMs), and even power supplies can be water-cooled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Other techniques.:Liquid immersion cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Another growing trend due to the increasing heat density of computer, GPU, FPGA, and ASICs is to immerse the entire computer or select components in a thermally, but not electrically, conductive liquid. Although rarely used for the cooling of personal computers, liquid immersion is a routine method of cooling large power distribution components such as transformers. It is also becoming popular with data centers. Personal computers cooled in this manner may not require either fans or pumps, and may be cooled exclusively by passive heat exchange between the computer hardware and the enclosure it is placed in. A heat exchanger (i.e. heater core or radiator) might still be needed though, and the piping also needs to be placed correctly. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33237438",
"title": "Aquasar",
"section": "Section::::Cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The water cooling system is notable because micro-channels bring water directly over the processing units, rather than merely inside the computer case. This allows effective cooling even with water at , which has a side benefit of producing higher grade heat that can be used elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531184",
"title": "Water cooling",
"section": "Section::::Computer usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "The primary advantage of water cooling for cooling CPU cores in computing equipment is transporting heat away from the source to a secondary cooling surface to allow for large, more optimally designed radiators rather than small, relatively inefficient fins mounted directly on the heat source. Cooling hot computer components with various fluids has been in use since at least as far back as the development of Cray-2 in 1982, using Fluorinert. Through the 1990s, water cooling for home PCs slowly gained recognition amongst enthusiasts, but it started to become noticeably more prevalent after the introduction of the first Gigahertz-clocked processors in the early 2000s. As of 2018, there are dozens of manufacturers of water cooling components and kits, and many computer manufacturers include preinstalled water cooling solutions for their high-performance systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38254237",
"title": "IDataCool",
"section": "Section::::Background and design target.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Liquid cooling based on water as the coolant is another option. Since water has a very high heat capacity large amounts of heat can be removed from a system at moderate flow rates, thus allowing for a higher packaging density which in turn results in less floor space. Liquid cooling has recently resurfaced in the sector of high-performance computing. Since 2009 the Green500 list of the most energy-efficient supercomputers is dominated by liquid-cooled designs. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r7qm7
|
why group mentality is so powerful
|
[
{
"answer": "Human nature to belong and conform to social groups, empathy, and natural fear of exclusion.\n\nIt's kind of instinctual, that's why the weak minded are susceptible to group mentality. Case in point: Reddit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20757836",
"title": "Groupthink",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "It has been thought that groups with the strong ability to work together will be able to solve dilemmas in a quicker and more efficient fashion than an individual. Groups have a greater amount of resources which lead them to be able to store and retrieve information more readily and come up with more alternative solutions to a problem. There was a recognized downside to group problem solving in that it takes groups more time to come to a decision and requires that people make compromises with each other. However, it was not until the research of Janis appeared that anyone really considered that a highly cohesive group could impair the group's ability to generate quality decisions. Tight-knit groups may appear to make decisions better because they can come to a consensus quickly and at a low energy cost; however, over time this process of decision-making may decrease the members' ability to think critically. It is, therefore, considered by many to be important to combat the effects of groupthink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4933873",
"title": "System justification",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Previous social psychological theories that aimed to explain intergroup behavior typically focused on the tendencies for people to have positive attitudes about themselves (ego-justification) and their self-relevant groups (group-justification). In other words, people are motivated to engage in behaviors that allow for them to maintain a high self-esteem and a positive image of their group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171079",
"title": "Mindset",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "A mindset may be so firmly established that it creates a powerful incentive within these people or groups to continue to adopt or accept prior behaviors, choices, or tools. The latter phenomenon is also sometimes described as \"mental inertia\", \"groupthink\", and it is often difficult to counteract its effects upon analysis and decision making processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7224456",
"title": "Optimism bias",
"section": "Section::::Information about self versus target.:Egocentric thinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "\"Egocentric thinking\" refers to how individuals know more of their own personal information and risk that they can use to form judgments and make decisions. One difficulty, though, is that people have a large amount of knowledge about themselves, but no knowledge about others. Therefore, when making decisions, people have to use other information available to them, such as population data, in order to learn more about their comparison group. This can relate to an optimism bias because while people are using the available information they have about themselves, they have more difficulty understanding correct information about others. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39171372",
"title": "Leadership analysis",
"section": "Section::::Applied analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Personality types (and personality disorders) play a large part in aiding with analysis, as they are often associated with specific cognitive beliefs and processes. For example, extreme narcissists lack empathy, conscience, and will do anything to accomplish personal goals. Lack of accomplishment is usually taken extremely badly and narcissists have low self-esteem. Narcissists have trouble learning from others because they know everything. Leaders who are narcissists make their people give great shows affirming their righteous leadership, demand praise from others, and employ “yes men”, or sycophants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2452832",
"title": "Evolution of human intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Social brain hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The social brain hypothesis was proposed by British anthropologist Robin Dunbar, who argues that human intelligence did not evolve primarily as a means to solve ecological problems, but rather as a means of surviving and reproducing in large and complex social groups. Some of the behaviors associated with living in large groups include reciprocal altruism, deception and coalition formation. These group dynamics relate to Theory of Mind or the ability to understand the thoughts and emotions of others, though Dunbar himself admits in the same book that it is not the flocking itself that causes intelligence to evolve (as shown by ruminants).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35597854",
"title": "Political psychological rationalization",
"section": "Section::::Psychological influences.:Contributing theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "Groupthink refers to a state of mind when a group of people overlook their personal decisions and motivations in order to maintain the relationship of the in-group. Using groupthink, individuals are at risk of influence from others. This could result in the individual agreeing with unfounded ideas or credibility because many members of a particular group adhere to it in a desire to maintain cohesion. Janis also found that intelligence did not factor into the likelihood for groupthink; however, agreeableness and self-identification were strong factors. An example of groupthink exists within sociopolitical research across academia. In their famous review, Inbar and Lammers found a bias of research favoring or utilizing liberal participants over conservative. They suggest that this groupthink towards liberal participants may be affecting sociological, psychological, and political research that is being generalized to the overall population. This finding suggests that people across various domains and intelligence are susceptible to groupthink. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49av6o
|
Are protons in nuclei wiggled by electrons "flying" around them?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is better answered by answering each sub-question.\n\n > Are protons in nuclei wiggled by electrons \"flying\" around them?\n\nYes, in the system both motions contribute to the actual state. But, the nucleus is very much heavier than the electron, so it's the electron that does most of the moving. Analogously, a swing with one heavy person and one light person moves so that the heavy person moves little. For most calculations it can be and is assumed that the nucleus is stationary.\n\nAs for other than electric force, not. A proton and an electron don't \"collide\" classically, which is a feature that now takes this scenario into quantum mechanics. Protons and electrons are different particles, so they don't occupy the same quantum state, and don't repel each other through the [exchange interaction](_URL_0_) like two electrons. So, when an electron flies headfirst into a nucleus, it will simply go through it like a ghost. This is exactly what happens with the *s* orbitals: [the nucleus has the highest electron density](_URL_1_).\n\nThis isn't as weird as you'd think. Consider a classical analogy: loose balls of yarn and double-pointed knitting needles. I think we can agree both are solid objects. Yet, you can pretty easily stick a needle right through a ball of yarn, even if you can't force another ball of yarn through.\n\n > Protons and electrons attract each other.\n\nYes, but what is also necessary to understand that when an electron is accelerated, *there is nothing to stop it*. So, when it flies right at the nucleus, it will simply fly through and keep going, doing another loop on the other side. This system is stable over long times.\n\n > And I hear that an electron is like wave around the nucleus. Waves oscillate so they should shake the proton.\n\nNot really, in the dynamical sense you imagine. The reason quantum mechanics is called \"quantum\" is that there is the smallest possible quantum of energy, and only a restricted number of stable states. An electron forms a standing wave around the nucleus. In a similar way, the nucleus has its own mini-standing wave. The energy of this oscillation is very well-defined. In order to disturb it, you'd have to supply the full energy needed to raise it into a higher state. Smaller energies can't do much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "u/RRautamaa gives a good answer, stating that \n > yes both motions contribute to the actual state\n\n but\n > For most calculations it can be and is assumed that the nucleus is stationary.\n\nA very important example of when this perturbation is important is conventional superconductivity. In this quantum state electrons (which should repel each other) become attracted to one another and pair up in twos (Cooper pairs). This attraction is mediated by the nuclei in the lattice. Namely, when an electron travel through the crystal, the local nuclei are attracted towards the electron. Thus as the electron moves, it leaves behind it a trail of extra positive charge from the higher nuclei density in its wake. Another electron is then attracted into this potential and becomes bound to the first.\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228638",
"title": "Chemical shift",
"section": "Section::::Diamagnetic shielding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In real molecules protons are surrounded by a cloud of charge due to adjacent bonds and atoms. In an applied magnetic field () electrons circulate and produce an induced field () which opposes the applied field. The effective field at the nucleus will be . The nucleus is said to be experiencing a diamagnetic shielding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206",
"title": "Atomic orbital",
"section": "Section::::Electron properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "With the development of quantum mechanics and experimental findings (such as the two slit diffraction of electrons), it was found that the orbiting electrons around a nucleus could not be fully described as particles, but needed to be explained by the wave-particle duality. In this sense, the electrons have the following properties:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277468",
"title": "Two-body problem",
"section": "Section::::Results for prominent cases.:Inapplicability to atoms and subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Electrons in an atom are sometimes described as \"orbiting\" its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \"orbital\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31306",
"title": "Tritium",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "All atomic nuclei contain protons as their only electrically charged particles. They therefore repel one another because like charges repel. However, if the atoms have a high enough temperature and pressure (for example, in the core of the Sun), then their random motions can overcome such electrical repulsion (called the Coulomb force), and they can come close enough for the strong nuclear force to take effect, fusing them into heavier atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Electron cloud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19916559",
"title": "Atomic nucleus",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear models.:Shell models and other quantum models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the \"optical model\", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82365",
"title": "Spheroid",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The most common shapes for the density distribution of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus are spherical, prolate, and oblate spheroidal, where the polar axis is assumed to be the spin axis (or direction of the spin angular momentum vector). Deformed nuclear shapes occur as a result of the competition between electromagnetic repulsion between protons, surface tension and quantum shell effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q4huh
|
how is the milk of a cow so beneficial to humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it contains fats, proteins, and sugars, making it a very energy-packed beverage. Now granted, if you're lactose intolerant than you don't make the necessary enzyme to make use of the sugars, lactose, and that can lead to a fair bit of intestinal distress so...there is a downside for some people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not just cows. Milk of many mammals is as beneficial to humans (and, on a side-note, that benefit *is* debatable, and many humans are, in fact, *not* able to process it). \n\nCows are just the animal we domesticated and started using for milk in a way that is ubiquitous in Western culture. In other cultures, other animal's milk is more widespread. That includes goats, camels, even donkeys. Also remember that much of Human population is lactose-intolerant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can get all the nutrients you get from milk from other sources that are better for you health wise, so in relative terms it's not that great for us. People first started drinking the stuff specifically because of the calcium. Back before people had well established trade routes and high tech farming technology, sources of calcium in Northern climates were rare. The main way that humans are supposed to get our calcium is from green vegetables and fish. Not having green vegetables available for a large part of the year could mean death due to calcium deficiency for those people in the North, so they ended up with an adaptation that allowed them to drink milk from other animals that could eat the greens that grew in the area. Cows can eat grass and get the calcium that way. \n\nIn reality, all the healthy things that milk gives us like calcium, protein, and essential vitamins, you can get by eating green vegetables and meat. Even for the people who do have the ability to drink milk, eating greens and meats is actually healthier than getting those same nutrients from drinking milk because there's less sugars and fats. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "219640",
"title": "Animal husbandry",
"section": "Section::::Branches.:Dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "795199",
"title": "Breast milk",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to other milks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Whole cow's milk contains too little iron, retinol, vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin D, unsaturated fats or essential fatty acids for human babies. Whole cow's milk also contains too much protein, sodium, potassium, phosphorus and chloride which may put a strain on an infant's immature kidneys. In addition, the proteins, fats and calcium in whole cow's milk are more difficult for an infant to digest and absorb than the ones in breast milk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219640",
"title": "Animal husbandry",
"section": "Section::::Branches.:Dairy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26051975",
"title": "Cattle",
"section": "Section::::Animal cruelty concerns.:Dairy cows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "While the treatment of dairy cows is similar to that of beef cattle, it has faced additional criticism. To produce milk from dairy cattle, most calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed milk replacement in order to retain the cows' milk for human consumption. Animal welfare advocates point out that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf. Unwanted male calves are either slaughtered at birth or sent for veal production. To prolong lactation, dairy cows are almost permanently kept pregnant through artificial insemination. Because of this, some feminists state that dairy production is based on the sexual exploitation of cows. Although cows' natural life expectancy is about twenty years, after about five years the cows' milk production has dropped; they are then considered \"spent\" and are sent to slaughter, which is considered cruel by some. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Other animal-based sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41459894",
"title": "Herdshare",
"section": "Section::::Motivation for participating in herdshares.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Researchers at Michigan State University Department of Large Animal Clinical Studies interviewed 56 individuals all of whom obtained raw milk for personal consumption through a herdshare arrangement. Shareholders drove an average of 24 miles approximately 4 times per month to pick up their raw milk from the farm. Half of the respondents lived in the \"country\" while the remainder lived in the suburbs or the city. 64% of respondents had a bachelor's degree or higher. 91% of respondents believed that raw milk is healthier than pasteurized milk and nearly 80% disagreed with the claim that drinking raw milk would increase their risk of contracting a foodborne illness. Virtually all respondents had visited the farm where their milk was produced. Respondents drink raw milk for the following reasons:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cl55sk
|
Was the Indo-Aryan migration truth or fiction?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Indo-Aryan migration is absolutely true, insofar as Indo-Aryan - a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, which itself is a branch of the Indo-European family, which originated somewhere in the Pontic Steppe (around modern Ukraine, Crimea, and southern Russia) - is not indigenous to India. Anyone who claims that it was, including anyone who references the Indus Valley civilisation as an Indo-European one, is participating in nationalist pseudoscience. We know this from the method of [comparative reconstruction](_URL_3_), which shows that Proto-Indo-European, or the common ancestor to all Indo-European languages, had words relating to the material culture and natural environment of the Pontic steppe (for example, “salmon”, “birch tree”, and a whole host of words relating to horse domestication), but few or none indicating a culture that might have arisen in modern Pakistan (“elephant”, “lion”, and notably any words to do with the urban life that the Indus Valley people lived); those words were innovated or borrowed within Indo-Iranian or Indo-Aryan, and therefore don’t share any common ancestor with their equivalents in other Indo-European languages. With the addition of material archaeology, we can us the Indo-Europeans as being, or at least being related to, the [Yamnaya culture](_URL_1_), and thus certainly not related to the contemporaneous Indus Valley culture or any other culture of the Indian Subcontinent. This conclusively shows that the original speakers of Indo-Iranian, and thus their descendants the Indo-Aryans, migrated into Central Asia, then Iran and the Subcontinent at some point. The Indus Valley people, for their part, have been connected to the indigenous [Dravidian](_URL_0_) or (for a fringe hypothesis) [Munda](_URL_2_) peoples, but the relatively slim evidence doesn’t allow us to make a firm conclusion either or neither way; what’s certain is that originally, or at the time we generally associate them with, they weren’t Indo-Aryan.\n\nThe question that follows - and here the mainstream historical perspective differs from both the conflict-based Anglo-German colonial narrative *and* the unitarian Indian nationalist one - is what kind of migration this was: was it, as nineteenth- and early twentieth-century European historians generally assumed, a mass migration with violent conquest and population replacement, or a gradual, mostly-peaceful assimilation from a relatively small founding group based on trade and intermarriage? This is an important point, because the migration in general is a complex facet of human history - the Anglo-Saxon migration into Britain and the Slavic migration into Southeastern Europe are disputed along similar lines - and one we don’t have a complete answer to. Certainly it appears that the Indus Valley civilisation had a gradual but eventually total decline in the first half of the second millennium BC (from about 1900 to 1600), which coincides with the rise of the Indo-Aryan language family in the area. But whether the Indo-Aryan presence was a *cause* of the Indus Valley’s decline, or an *effect* of a decline caused by a more fundamental ecological or political collapse, is very much disputed. Modern history tends more toward the latter, as it does with the analogous but much later Anglo-Saxon and Slavic migrations, and some kind of synthesis between the two seems like the most plausible account of the period.\n\nAs for *why* Anglo-German historians preferred the idea of a violent migration over a gradual dispersal, the cause is not as fundamentally propagandistic as Indian nationalist historians assume; their arguments were based (for the most part) not in an effort to keep the various Indian peoples disunited and in conflict, but rather on a faulty scholarship that valued textual sources and those who produced them (i.e. the Vedas and Brahmins) over concerns of how, when, and why those texts were produced, leading to the impression of a united and distinct “Aryan” people - who supposedly neatly coincided with Brahmins themselves - opposed to a vague mass of *mleccha* indigenes. This, of course, was thoroughly amplified by the “scientific” racism of the time, and encouraged Anglo-German historians to interpret Indian history as one of Indo-Europeans (to whom they conveniently belonged) as a conquering people who subjugated the indigenous peoples of the Indian Subcontinent. The connection with race ideologies of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is obvious, and still colours Indian history from both European and Indian perspectives to this day.\n\nOverall, both the nationalist idea that the Indo-Aryan language family and early Hinduism were always indigenous to India and the Anglo-German colonial idea that Indo-Aryan represented a sudden and violent population shift are fundamentally discredited. The real answer lies not somewhere between the two, but through a subtler and more historically comprehensive understanding of “migration”.\n\nA good layman’s source for the Indo-European migrations is David W. Anthony’s *The Horse, the Wheel, and Language*. Additionally, the [Wikipedia article](_URL_4_) on the Indo-Aryan migration is surprisingly and gratifyingly comprehensive, so I’d recommend it at least over the Internet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476772",
"title": "Vedic period",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India. Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton used the term \"Indo-Aryan Controversy\" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and some of its opponents. These ideas are outside the academic mainstream. Mallory and Adams note that two types of models \"enjoy significant international currency\" as to the Indo-European homeland, namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes. According to Upinder Singh, \"The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31933470",
"title": "Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The ABISY believes that the Indo-Aryans did not migrate to the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia, but were the original inhabitants of India, some of whom later left the subcontinent and civilised other parts of the world. This theory is rejected by mainstream scholars, as it contradicts a wide range of scientific research. This belief is also used to argue that upper-caste Hindus and Adivasis share a common stock, but that only the caste-Hindu lineages were advanced enough to expand out of the subcontinent. Scholars have described this ideology as an effort to justify discrimination against Adivasi peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8451030",
"title": "Indigenous Aryans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "It includes arguments against the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and arguments to re-date the Vedas and the presence of the Vedic people in accordance with traditional, Vedic-Puranic datings. The idea of \"Indigenous Aryans\" also implies a migration \"Out of India\" to Europe and Central Asia. This is contrary to the mainstream scholarly view, saying that the Indo-Aryan languages originated outside India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2510506",
"title": "Indo-Aryan migration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Indo-Aryan migration models discuss scenarios around the theory of an origin from outside the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples, an ascribed ethnolinguistic group that spoke Indo-Aryan languages, the predominant languages of North India. Proponents of Indo-Aryan origin outside of the Indian subcontinent generally consider migrations into the region and Anatolia (ancient Mitanni) from Central Asia to have started around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period, which led to a language shift in the northern Indian subcontinent. The Iranian languages were brought into Iran by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2118584",
"title": "Edwin Bryant (author)",
"section": "Section::::Works.:\"Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "This book, edited by Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton, contains a series of articles by proponents of the \"Indigenous Aryans\" position and scholars of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, with some alternative interpretations. According to Edwin Bryant, most of the evidence regarding the origin of Indo-Aryans is inconclusive and he is not convinced of the Indo-Aryan migrations theory, but he is also not convinced of an \"Out-of-India position\", since the support for it is not significant. He notes that the discovery of Indo-Aryan language family was foundational to the investigation of the origins of the Western civilization, and the relationship between the Indo-Aryan family and the remaining Indo-European languages must be established. However, he states: \"... I find most of the evidence that has been marshalled to support the theory of Indo-Aryan migrations into the subcontinent to be inconclusive upon careful scrutiny, but on the other, I have not been convinced by an Out-of-India position, since there has been very little of significance offered so far in support of it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2510506",
"title": "Indo-Aryan migration",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:\"Indigenous Aryans\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 265,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 265,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory question it and instead promote the notion of \"Indigenous Aryans\", which claims that speakers of Indo-Iranian languages (sometimes called \"Aryan languages\") are \"indigenous\" to the Indian subcontinent. Within India, several such alternative ideas of the origins of the Indo-Iranian languages and cultures have been developed that purport to show indigenous origins. They are rejected by mainstream scholars, who point out that they neglect linguistic research, and are contradicted by a broad range of research on Indo-European migrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21373615",
"title": "Khyber Pass",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In a number of editions of the Indo-Aryan Migration Theory, the Indo-Aryans began relocating to India through the Khbar Pass. Well-known invasions of the area have been predominantly through the Khyber Pass, such as the invasions by Cyrus, Darius I, Genghis Khan and later Mongols such as Duwa, Qutlugh Khwaja and Kebek. Prior to the Kushan era, the Khyber Pass was not a widely used trade route. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p4cai
|
If photons are smaller than atoms, why don't they pass through solid matter?
|
[
{
"answer": "The closest thing to \"size\" for a photon is its wavelength. Different types of light have different wavelengths: x-rays have really short wavelengths, while radio waves have really long wavelengths. Visible light is somewhere in the middle.\n\nIf the wavelength is small compared to whatever we're dealing with, then you can treat the photon like a particle - i.e. it's a \"bullet\" that either hits, misses, or bounces off whatever we're dealing with. Visible light is 100s of nanometres in wavelength, which is way smaller than say, a window, and so you can think of it as a bunch of light \"particles\" flying towards the window: some of the particles go through the window, some bounce off the frame etc.\n\nBut if the wavelength is *big* compared to whatever we're dealing with, you really need to treat the photon like a wave - i.e. instead of a bullet being fired at a solid object, imagine a bunch of objects floating around in the ocean being shoved around by a water wave. This is the case for visible light and atoms. Visible light is 100s of nanometres in wavelength, but atoms can be even smaller than 1 nanometre. So you can't really \"miss\" with visible light - the photon passes through hundreds of atoms at the same time. This means there is definitely some interaction going on, and so the photon can be changed a little by the atoms, and that allows you to \"see\" the atoms when the photon hits your eye.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light is basically just waves of electrical and magnetic fields lined up perpendicularly. Astrokiwi made the solid point that 'size' of the wavelength and material it is passing through basically defines how far it can go through. i guess size is a simplification of it, but it comes down to some E & M constants called permittivity and permeability (I think that's them... represented by epsilon and mu for electric fields and magnetic fields, respectively) that essentially define how those fields pass through materials. Everything has a certain value for these constants, from vacuum to rock. For the most part, the combination of these values allows certain wavelengths to pass through, and others to be blocked to some extent. The extent to which they pass through is referred to as the skin depth: something like wood has a skin depth that is almost nonexistent, while air has a skin depth of miles (no idea the exact value), and water is somewhere in between.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some do : X-Rays and Gamma rays, for instance, will pass through a lot of different kinds of solid matter...all depends on the photon's wavelength and the atom's structure. One visible light photon MAY pass through a wall, but your eye would not be nearly sensitive enough to detect it. Read 'QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter' By Richard P. Feynman. It's wicked cool!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Photons can interact with atoms over a long range through the electronic force. Every material interacts with photons differently, sometimes they absorb and sometimes they let photons pass uninhibited (they actually slow down the photons but don't do much else).\n\nThe amount of photons absorbed is calculated by Beer's law:\n\nA=εcL\n\nWhere A is the absorbance, ε is the extinction coefficient at that specific wavelength, c is the concentration (in solution, but I assume we could also use density for solids if the extinction coefficient was given units to match) and L is the path length through a material. The extinction coefficient will vary based on many things related to the material, but it also varies based on the actual wavelength.\n\nI know I may have given you more questions than answers, but I hope this points you in the right direction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The interaction of light and matter has for centuries been treated with heuristics such as those among the replies here. However, in the mid-20th century a much more comprehensive theory (quantum electrodynamics) was developed, and the story is much more interesting. If you want to explore this further, I highly recommend Richard Feynman's slim volume \"QED\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The real reason some light doesn't pass through some matter is that the electrons have electric charge and so they can interact with the electric and/or magnetic field of the light. if the electrons are able to absorb the energy carried by the photon, then it'll absorb that photon. otherwise the light will carry on (mostly) unharmed. The amount of energy in a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength. but what light is absorbed and what light is transmitted is a very much dependent on what kind of stuff the light is hitting. \n\nNeutrons on the other hand, don't have electric charge and so they almost always pass straight through. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Feynman answered this in [QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter](_URL_0_). \n\nIn it he contradicts commonly held ideas such as light is a wavicle and explains why the double slit experiment isn't a paradox. He categorically states that photons and electrons are particles that behave in a probabilistic fashion. \n\nTo answer your question, a photon can travel through matter if it's probable that it will do so. \n\nWhat that means is the photon that enters an object interacts with the electrons in the object. It gets absorbed and a little later a photon gets spit out. When a photon gets spit out, the direction it's most likely to be headed depends on how energetic the photon was. If the energy level the photon has corresponds to a direction parallel to the original direction, we say the object is transparent because we can see most of the photons that made it through the object.\n\nFeynman described the wave/particle duality in terms of the photon being a particle that has a probability of being detected at various points in space. Map the probabilities and you map a wave-like structure.\n\n He spends a good part of the lectures trying to shake people away from the idea of a wavicle which given the wide-spread acceptance of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is a really tough sell. \n\nIf you buy his interpretation however, a lot of QM starts to make sense instead of being \"ooo that's so weird!!!!\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "they do at high energy/short wavelengths. gamma rays can pass through matter till it loses energy through pair production, compton scattering and when they get to a low enough energy level they are absorbed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought that the whole thing about photons was that they DO pass through SOME solid matter. I mean, that's literally the entire reason why *sight* is a thing:\n\nPhotons can easily pass through a lot of gases, like nitrogen and oxygen, but less easily through solids, carbon-based organisms, and especially metals. Gases whirl around at insane speeds, mostly at \"lowish\" concentrations. As such, there's less likelihood that photons will impact large enough amounts of the gas-particles to be visible to the human eye, and so many gases are colourless and few, if any, are opaque. Metals, on the other hand, are more concentrated. The whole tightly mashed structure of metals in general is what allows current to so easily flow through, and as such a \"smooth\" chunk of metal is less permeable to photons than most other things. And that's why metals are reflective! Not because photons CAN'T pass through, but because they meet a solid, dense layer of difficult-to-penetrate atoms, and so a lot of them reflect off of the metal's surface.\n\nOf course, the northern lights are an interesting case - here, a good way to put it is that electrons contain a lot more energy than normal, and so, EVEN WHEN THEY HIT \"invisible\", common molecules in the air, they become visible due to reflected photons.\n\nIs ALL colour a result of photons increasing the energy of an electrons orbit and then being unleashed once more upon the world in all its fearsome majesty? I only ever had 1 year of physics, so I don't know. Anyone?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8603",
"title": "Diffraction",
"section": "Section::::Particle diffraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Because the wavelength for even the smallest of macroscopic objects is extremely small, diffraction of matter waves is only visible for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms and small molecules. The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of solids and large molecules like proteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5346",
"title": "Colloid",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1144,
"text": "Because the size of the dispersed phase may be difficult to measure, and because colloids have the appearance of solutions, colloids are sometimes identified and characterized by their physico-chemical and transport properties. For example, if a colloid consists of a solid phase dispersed in a liquid, the solid particles will not diffuse through a membrane, whereas with a true solution the dissolved ions or molecules will diffuse through a membrane. Because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the lower the concentration of the dispersed colloidal particles remaining in the ultrafiltered liquid. The measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, or organic matter complexing these species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673093",
"title": "Matter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding \"cloud\" of orbiting electrons which \"take up space\". However this is only somewhat correct, because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like waves as well as particles and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms are quantum entities which do not have an inherent \"size\" or \"volume\" in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some \"point particles\" known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40646963",
"title": "Photonic molecule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Photonic molecules are a theoretical natural form of matter which can also be made artificially in which photons bind together to form \"molecules\". They were first theoretically predicted in 2007. Photonic molecules are formed when individual (massless) photons \"interact with each other so strongly that they act as though they have mass\". In an alternative definition (which is not equivalent), photons confined to two or more coupled optical cavities also reproduce the physics of interacting atomic energy levels, and have been termed as photonic molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3508610",
"title": "Ostwald ripening",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "Consider a cubic crystal of atoms: all the atoms inside are bonded to 6 neighbors and are quite stable, but atoms on the surface are only bonded to 5 neighbors or fewer, which makes these surface atoms less stable. Large particles are more energetically favorable since, continuing with this example, more atoms are bonded to 6 neighbors and fewer atoms are at the unfavorable surface. As the system tries to lower its overall energy, molecules on the surface of a small particle (energetically unfavorable, with only 3 or 4 or 5 bonded neighbors) will tend to detach from the particle, as per the Kelvin equation, and diffuse into the solution. When all small particles do this, it increases the concentration of free molecules in solution. When the free molecules in solution are supersaturated, the free molecules have a tendency to condense on the surface of larger particles. Therefore, all smaller particles shrink, while larger particles grow, and overall the average size will increase. As time tends to infinity, the entire population of particles becomes one large spherical particle to minimize the total surface area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563847",
"title": "Electromigration",
"section": "Section::::Failure mechanisms.:Diffusion mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "In a homogeneous crystalline structure, because of the uniform lattice structure of the metal ions, there is hardly any momentum transfer between the conduction electrons and the metal ions. However, this symmetry does not exist at the grain boundaries and material interfaces, and so here momentum is transferred much more vigorously. Since the metal ions in these regions are bonded more weakly than in a regular crystal lattice, once the electron wind has reached a certain strength, atoms become separated from the grain boundaries and are transported in the direction of the current. This direction is also influenced by the grain boundary itself, because atoms tend to move along grain boundaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963787",
"title": "Ion",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Electrons, due to their smaller mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms and molecules that possess any electrons at all. Thus, anions (negatively charged ions) are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron(s) repel each other and add to the physical size of the ion, because its size is determined by its electron cloud. Cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of the electron cloud. One particular cation (that of hydrogen) contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - \"very much smaller\" than the parent hydrogen atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5kbm2n
|
Did the concept of mutually assured destruction prevent the Cold War from going hot?
|
[
{
"answer": "We really can't know the answer to complex hypotheticals like that. Smaller \"What ifs\" can sometimes be productive. But \"what if the strategic situation of the world was totally different?\" isn't something that historians can readily answer.\n\nWhat they can do is point out that, 1) the Cold War was plenty \"hot\" if you lived in one of the places consumed by proxy war or state interference; 2) \"mutually assured destruction\" as a condition did not really apply until the 1960s, arguably the 1970s, because the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities were far undermatched against the USA's, though the question of whether deterrence broadly (which is not the same thing as MAD) mattered is still up for grabs; and 3) there is evidence that there is more than nuclear deterrence that kept the Soviets from initially pressing westward in the 1940s, and there is clearly more than deterrence with the US lack of interest in engaging the Soviets militarily (or with nuclear arms) prior to the Soviets having a truly compelling nuclear force (e.g. before the mid-1950s if you care primarily about Europe, the 1960s or 1970s if you care more globally). The \"nuclear taboo\" — lack of use of nuclear weapons — has applied even in non-deterrent, definitely non-MAD, situations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22158",
"title": "Nuclear proliferation",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for and against proliferation.:Total proliferation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "In embryo, Waltz argues that the logic of mutually assured destruction (MAD) should work in all security environments, regardless of historical tensions or recent hostility. He sees the Cold War as the ultimate proof of MAD logicthe only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict. This was, he argues, because nuclear weapons promote caution in decision-makers. Neither Washington nor Moscow would risk a nuclear apocalypse to advance territorial or power goals, hence a peaceful stalemate ensued (Waltz and Sagan (2003), p. 24). Waltz believes there to be no reason why this effect would not occur in all circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6513114",
"title": "World War III in popular culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "During the Cold War, concepts such as mutual assured destruction (MAD) led lawmakers and government officials in both the United States and the Soviet Union to avoid entering a nuclear war that could have had catastrophic consequences on the entire world. Various scientists and authors, such as Carl Sagan, predicted massive, possibly life-ending destruction of the Earth as the result of such a conflict. Strategic analysts assert that nuclear weapons prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from fighting World War III with conventional weapons. Nevertheless, the possibility of such a war became the basis for speculative fiction, and its simulation in books, films and video games became a way to explore the issues of a war that has thus far not occurred in reality. The only places a global nuclear war has ever been fought are in expert scenarios, theoretical models, war games, and the art, film, and literature of the nuclear age. The concept of mutually assured destruction was also the focus of numerous movies and films.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65307",
"title": "World War III",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "With the advent of the Cold War in 1945 and with the spread of nuclear weapons technology to the Soviet Union, the possibility of a third global conflict became more plausible. During the Cold War years, the possibility of a Third World War was anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities in many countries. Scenarios ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. At the height of the Cold War, a scenario referred to as Mutually Assured Destruction (\"MAD\") had been calculated which determined that an all-out nuclear confrontation would most certainly destroy all or nearly all human life on the planet. The potential absolute destruction of the human race may have contributed to the ability of both American and Soviet leaders to avoid such a scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59746086",
"title": "Global issue",
"section": "Section::::Global issues.:Conflict-related.:Potential for World War III.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "With the advent of the Cold War in 1945 and with the spread of nuclear weapons technology to the Soviet Union, the possibility of a third global conflict became more plausible. During the Cold War years, the possibility of a Third World War was anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities in many countries. Scenarios ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. At the height of the Cold War, a scenario referred to as Mutually Assured Destruction (\"MAD\") had been calculated which determined that an all-out nuclear confrontation would most certainly destroy all or nearly all human life on the planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "The strategy of the Cold War was that of containment, and it was a generation dominated by the threat of total world annihilation through the use of nuclear weapons. Deterrence was a part of containment via retributive intimidation from the risk of mutually assured destruction. As a consequence, it was also a war in which attacks were not exchanged between the two main rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union. Instead, the war was fought through proxies. Instead of mainly being confined to Europe or the Pacific, the entire world was the battlefield, with countries rather than armies acting as main players. The only constant rule was that troops of the Soviet Union and the United States could not overtly fight with each other. Military strategy involved bipolar powers with global actors who could strike an opponent with nationally debilitating destruction in a matter of minutes from land, air, and sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2032576",
"title": "Nuclear weapons of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:During the Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. and USSR threatened with all-out nuclear attack in case of war, regardless of whether it was a conventional or a nuclear clash. U.S. nuclear doctrine called for mutually assured destruction (MAD), which entailed a massive nuclear attack against strategic targets and major populations centers of the Soviet Union and its allies. The term \"mutual assured destruction\" was coined in 1962 by American strategist Donald Brennan. MAD was implemented by deploying nuclear weapons simultaneously on three different types of weapons platforms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1008074",
"title": "Social dilemma",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Perceptual dilemma.:In conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "An example of the deterrence theory in practice is the Cold War strategy (employed by both the United States and the Soviet Union) of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Because both countries had second strike capability, each side knew that the use of nuclear weapons would result in their own destruction. While controversial, MAD succeeded in its primary purpose of preventing nuclear war and kept the Cold War cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12iqdn
|
How does pollution from mostly unregulated countries like China affect the rest of the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Long-range transport of air pollutants, including metals and pops, and is well-documented with ongoing research. While your last question seems mostly policy related, a large proportion of, but not all, nations decreasing use/production/emission of toxic chemicals does have significant effects in decreasing levels (sorry - turned your question around a bit).\n\nThe example I'm most familiar with is mercury - in its elemental form (Hg0), it forms a vapour and can be transported great distances. Ultimately, a lot of this winds up in the arctic, storing up over the winter and, upon polar sunrise, changing form (Hg2+), causing deposition, oral bioavailability, and toxicity. In recently chatting with a phd student working on mercury testing in arctic birds, she mentioned that mercury levels have begun to drop, although levels of other compounds either haven't/are increasing still. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5405",
"title": "China",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Environmental issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution. While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development. Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China. And China is the country with the highest death toll because of air pollution. There are 1.14 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution. China is the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter. The country also has significant water pollution problems: 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011. In 2014, the internal freshwater resources per capita of China reduced to 2,062m, and it was below 500m in the North China Plain, while 5,920m in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9895897",
"title": "Pollution in China",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Pollution in China is one aspect of the broader topic of environmental issues in China. Various forms of pollution have increased as China has industrialised, which has caused widespread environmental health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19255148",
"title": "Regulation and monitoring of pollution",
"section": "Section::::Regulation and monitoring by region.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "China's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979 Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modeled on U.S. legislation, but the environment continues to deteriorate. Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water discharges. This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and 10 to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the World Bank reluctantly censored a report revealing that 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's State Environment Protection Agency and the Health Ministry asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of premature deaths from the report fearing the revelation would provoke \"social unrest\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41300273",
"title": "2013 Eastern China smog",
"section": "Section::::Pollutants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Pollution from China has already affected other countries, and some ozone-forming particles have travelled across the Pacific Ocean to the United States, contributing to a relatively high level of ozone on the American West Coast. While these particles, along with other ozone-related chemicals, can be carried up to 30,000 feet above the ground, researchers in the United States predict that these pollutants may play a bigger role in the near future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9895897",
"title": "Pollution in China",
"section": "Section::::Pollution statistics.:Industrial pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "In 1997, the World Bank issued a report targeting China's policy towards industrial pollution. The report stated that \"hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution. Seriously contaminated by industrial discharges, many of China's waterways are largely unfit for direct human use\". However, the report did acknowledge that environmental regulations and industrial reforms had had some effect. It was determined that continued environmental reforms were likely to have a large effect on reducing industrial pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8755609",
"title": "Chinese industrialization",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Implications.:Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Pollutants emitted into the air and water by China's rapid industrialization has brought major health concerns. The anthropogenic activities in China have decreased food safety and antibiotic resistance and have increased resurging infectious diseases. Air pollution, alone, is directly linked to increased risk of lung cancer, breast cancer, and bladder cancer and has already led to more than 1.3 million premature deaths in China and linked to 1.6 million deaths a year - 17% of all annual Chinese deaths. 92% of Chinese have had at least 120 annual hours of unhealthy air determined by EPA standards. As the World Health Organization states hazardous air is more deadly than AIDS, malaria, breast cancer, or tuberculosis, than Chinese air quality is especially problematic because of the scale at which it occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15464854",
"title": "Water conflict",
"section": "Section::::Economic and trade issues.:Pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Water pollution poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ckjlo7
|
Do I weigh less at midday than at midnight?
|
[
{
"answer": "A point of clarification: Mass is how much matter makes something up, so it won't change mass.\n\nThe position of the sun will change your weight, but only very, very slightly. It's only a very small fraction of the influence from the earth, so all other things being equal, there should be a very slight difference, something like less than a tenth of a percent.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's ignore the Moon for now and assume that you are at the equator for simplicity. As discussed the mass doesn't change, but the weight does.\n\nThe weight has a minimum both at midday and at midnight a maximum at sunrise/sunset.\n\nYou are attracted by the Sun, but so is the Earth. Only the difference in acceleration matters. During sunset/sunrise you are at the same distance and the effect of the Sun cancels (there is a smaller effect from being not in the same direction, but that is increasing your weight). During midday you are closer to the Sun, you are attracted more (\"away from Earth\") - you feel a bit lighter. During midnight you are farther away, you are attracted less, or equivalently Earth is attracted more - again you feel a net effect away from Earth and feel lighter than you would without Sun.\n\nThe effect is small: (mass of Sun)\\*(gravitational constant)\\*(radius of Earth)/(distance to Sun)^3 = 2.4\\*10^(-7) m/s^(2) or 24 parts in a billion. The Moon actually has a larger effect as it is much closer: (mass of Moon)\\*(gravitational constant)\\*(radius of Earth)/(distance to Moon)^3 = 6.7\\*10^(-7) m/s^(2). Both together cause the tides.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67046",
"title": "Thermal mass",
"section": "Section::::Thermal mass in buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The terms \"heavy-weight\" and \"light-weight\" are often used to describe buildings with different thermal mass strategies, and affects the choice of numerical factors used in subsequent calculations to describe their thermal response to heating and cooling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3821985",
"title": "Complex training",
"section": "Section::::Complex training variations.:Weight lifting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Weight lifting can effectively demonstrate the effects of post-activation potentiation. For example, if a person lifts a light weight, and then lifts a heavy weight, before lifting the light weight again, the light weight will be relatively easier to lift and feel lighter the second time it has been lifted. Because the intense activation of the nervous system and correspondent recruitment of muscle fibres which occurred in conjunction with the heavy lift has allowed the person to perform more powerful movements, and the weight therefore feels relatively lighter. Another resistance based explanation involves the example of heavy suitcase, light suitcase i.e. after lifting a heavy suitcase, a person lifts a similar size, but light suitcase with no idea what is in it; as the person has just been carrying a heavy suitcase, their level of power application is well in excess of what is required to lift the light suitcase and it flies off the floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1084213",
"title": "Beverage-can stove",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Total weight, including a windscreen/stand, can be less than one ounce (28 g). The design is popular in ultralight backpacking due to its low cost and lighter weight than commercial stoves. This advantage may be lost on long hiking trips, where a lot of fuel is packed, since alcohol has less energy per weight than some other stove fuels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13285352",
"title": "Chilling requirement",
"section": "Section::::Models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The Utah model assigns different weight to different temperature bands; a full unit per hour is assigned only to temperatures between and . Maximum effect is achieved at . Temperatures between and (the threshold between chilling and warm weather) have zero weight, and higher temperature have negative weights: they reduce the beneficial effects of an already accumulated chilling hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6926950",
"title": "Ultralight backpacking",
"section": "Section::::Foot weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Weight on one's feet (from socks, boots, etc.) requires 4–6x times more energy to move than the same weight on one's back. Minimizing footwear weight is the most efficient means to reduce a hiker's total calories burned (i.e. food carried), stress on body, etc. For example, Grandma Gatewood wore Keds rather than army boots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10425761",
"title": "Load factor (aeronautics)",
"section": "Section::::Human perception of load factor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "When the load factor is +1, all occupants of the aircraft feel that their weight is normal. When the load factor is greater than +1 all occupants feel heavier than usual. For example, in a 2 g maneuver all occupants feel that their weight is twice normal. When the load factor is zero, or very small, all occupants feel weightless. When the load factor is negative, all occupants feel they are upside down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15491979",
"title": "Paris–Madrid race",
"section": "Section::::The organisation.:The setup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The rules called for four weight categories: less than 250 kg, 250 to 400 kg, 400 to 650 kg and 650 to 1000 kg. The weight was intended as dry weight, excluding the driver, fuel, batteries, oil, spare parts, tools, food and water, driver's luggage, headlights and lights harnesses, horns and eventual external starter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ec1tu
|
why does standing on a train tire me out?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the same thing as being in a car for an extended period of time.\n\nWhile you aren't really making a lot of *big* movements, you are making a *very very large amount* of *tiny* movements. Every second you're adjusting, balancing, making sure things are going smoothly, watching all of the people, etc - so while you aren't physically doing a whole lot, your muscles are constantly contracting/relaxing, and your brain is constantly thinking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The train shakes and sways and changes speed while you're riding. A lot of muscles are constantly acting to absorb and counter that motion and that takes energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6076643",
"title": "Hyde railway disaster",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Prior to the accident, some passengers became concerned about their safety. Regular travellers were aware that the train was travelling at excessive speed and one who had moved from his seat to stand with friends in another carriage was forced to return to his seat as the movement of the train made it uncomfortable to stand. In the minutes immediately preceding the accident, luggage and parcels fell from racks above the seats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12027644",
"title": "Wheel slide protection",
"section": "Section::::Wheel slide whilst braking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "When a train is braking, the low adhesion manifests as wheel slip where the wheelset is rotating at a lower velocity (speed) than the forward speed of the train. The most extreme example of this is where the wheel stops rotating altogether (wheel slide) while the train is still moving and can result in a “wheel flat” caused by the softer wheel steel being abraded away by the harder rail steel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2095186",
"title": "Wild Thing (Valleyfair)",
"section": "Section::::Accidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Contrary to widespread rumors, neither the train, the cars, or any of the riders fell from the track. All riders were wearing their required seat belts and lap bars, preventing them from being ejected from their car. The sixth car did not completely derail from the track, rather settling in a leaning position on its right side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12027644",
"title": "Wheel slide protection",
"section": "Section::::Wheel slip whilst taking power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "In traction, low adhesion may cause a wheelset to accelerate more quickly than the train (wheel spin) to the point where it can damage the traction system or result in damage to the wheel and rail (rail burn).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19153780",
"title": "Minimum railway curve radius",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting the minimum curve radius.:Speed and cant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "As a heavy train goes round a bend at speed, the reactive centrifugal force can cause negative effects: passengers and cargo may feel unpleasant forces, the inside and outside rails will wear unequally, and insufficiently anchored track may move. To counter this, a cant (superelevation) is used. Ideally the train should be tilted such that resultant (combined) force acts straight \"down\" through the bottom of the train, so the wheels, track, train and passengers feel little or no sideways force (\"down\" and \"sideways\" are given with respect to the plane of the track and train). Some trains are capable of tilting to enhance this effect for passenger comfort. Because freight and passenger trains tend to move at different speeds, a cant cannot be ideal for both types of rail traffic. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2044956",
"title": "Adhesion railway",
"section": "Section::::Toppling conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Toppling will occur when the overturning moment due to the side force (centrifugal acceleration) is sufficient to cause the inner wheel to begin to lift off the rail. This may result in loss of adhesion - causing the train to slow, preventing toppling. Alternatively, the inertia may be sufficient to cause the train to continue to move at speed causing the vehicle to topple completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9572288",
"title": "Jaguar!",
"section": "Section::::Queue.:Lifts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The train is propelled by drive tires because of the short distance of the two lifts. These tires vary in tread pattern. The main tread pattern is recycled rubber diamond cut. Some tires appear to not be spinning, but rather are speed monitors, which track how fast the train is being propelled and depending on how fast the train is going, tells the other motors how fast to spin. If the train is going too fast, a fault will occur and the train will stop at the next possible stopping point. Each lift is 65 feet high; the first lift is a 20 degree incline, while the second lift is a 25 degree incline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22cjj1
|
When a star collapses into a black hole, does the density of the singularity continue to increase forever?
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't really make sense to consider the density of the singularity. You can consider the mean density of the entire black hole within the event horizon, which actually decreases as the black hole gets bigger. If you treat the center as a singularity, it has infinite density, like an electron has infinite charge density.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Piggybacking off of this question:\n\nIs it possible for large masses such as collapsing stars to collapse asymmetrically? If so, would such an object become unstable or exhibit properties that are strange in comparison to symmetrically collapsing entities?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51629229",
"title": "N6946-BH1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "One hypothesis is that the core of the star collapsed to form a black hole. The collapsing matter formed a burst of neutrinos that lowered the total mass of the star by a fraction of a percent. This caused a shock wave that blasted out the star's envelope to make it brighter. After the idea that a black holes are usually formed after a supernova, N6946-BH1 has given evidence that, instead of following this process, the star may automatically collapse into a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3352536",
"title": "Exotic star",
"section": "Section::::Preon stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "In general relativity, if a star collapses to a size smaller than its Schwarzschild radius, an event horizon will exist at that radius and the star will become a black hole. Thus, the size of a preon star may vary from around 1 metre with an absolute mass of 100 Earths to the size of a pea with a mass roughly equal to that of the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "510340",
"title": "Stellar black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star — either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294408",
"title": "Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation and significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "In the collapsing star example, since all matter and energy is a source of gravitational attraction in general relativity, the additional angular momentum only pulls the star together more strongly as it contracts: the part outside the event horizon eventually settles down to a Kerr black hole (see No-hair theorem). The part inside the event horizon necessarily has a singularity somewhere. The proof is somewhat constructiveit shows that the singularity can be found by following light-rays from a surface just inside the horizon. But the proof does not say what type of singularity occurs, spacelike, timelike, orbifold, jump discontinuity in the metric. It only guarantees that if one follows the time-like geodesics into the future, it is impossible for the boundary of the region they form to be generated by the null geodesics from the surface. This means that the boundary must either come from nowhere or the whole future ends at some finite extension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Ultimate fate of the universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop. Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out, leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619926",
"title": "Gravitational collapse",
"section": "Section::::Stellar remnants.:Black holes.:Theoretical minimum radius for a star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "It might be thought that a sufficiently massive neutron star could exist within its Schwarzschild radius (1.0 SR) and appear like a black hole without having all the mass compressed to a singularity at the center; however, this is probably incorrect. Within the event horizon, matter would have to move outward faster than the speed of light in order to remain stable and avoid collapsing to the center. No physical force therefore can prevent a star smaller than 1.0 SR from collapsing to a singularity (at least within the currently accepted framework of general relativity; this does not hold for the Einstein–Yang–Mills–Dirac system). A model for nonspherical collapse in general relativity with emission of matter and gravitational waves has been presented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619926",
"title": "Gravitational collapse",
"section": "Section::::Stellar remnants.:Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "On the other hand, the nature of the kind of singularity to be expected inside a black hole remains rather controversial. According to some theories, at a later stage, the collapsing object will reach the maximum possible energy density for a certain volume of space or the Planck density (as there is nothing that can stop it). This is when the known laws of gravity cease to be valid. There are competing theories as to what occurs at this point, but it can no longer really be considered gravitational collapse at that stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xk1p5
|
LEDs vs Normal Bulbs - Environmental Impact Outweighs Benefits?
|
[
{
"answer": "I work with LEDs all the time. If you live in the US, the \"Prius Conundrum\" could be applied to any imported product.\n\nAs far as [luminous efficacy](_URL_5_), the LED lights that you can buy *right now* at Home Depot etc are about the same as compact fluorescent lighting (CFL). What's inside a white LED (blue LEDs are used with a phosphor) are some small amounts of semiconducting material, usually [indium gallium nitride](_URL_3_) that is completely encapsulated and not a heavy metal. Some [Philips LED lights](_URL_1_) (Home Depot has those for $15) use a remote phosphor that is completely encapsulated in plastic. (The blue LEDs inside them are about 45% electrically efficient)\n\nLEDs will quickly over take CFLs in luminous efficacy and one can buy white LEDs now that are [significantly higher](_URL_0_) (+125 lumens per watt typical).\n\nWhat they don't have are the shorter life spans of compact fluorescent bulbs, which reduces the the conundrum argument, and the small amounts of mercury they contain and some states have [specific laws on their disposal](_URL_4_). \n\n_URL_2_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47139",
"title": "Incandescent light bulb",
"section": "Section::::Efficacy, efficiency, and environmental impact.:Measures to ban use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1246459",
"title": "Tactical light",
"section": "Section::::Lighting features.:Bulb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Bulbs are chosen based on the desired light output and battery life. Generally, high performance bulbs are used, such as xenon bulbs or high power LED lights. LEDs provide maximum battery life due to their energy efficiency, and 2000s technology has greatly increased the light output of LEDs. At one time, xenon bulbs offered the brightest light levels, but recent high-power LEDs are brighter and more efficient than comparable xenon-filled incandescent lamps. Most importantly, LED bulbs are not subject to filament breakage due to the shot recoil of a firearm. Recent advances in high-lux, high-efficiency white LEDs have led to a wave of brighter and more energy-efficient tactical lights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Lighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. Displacing less effective sources such as incandescent lamps and fluorescent lighting reduces electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5146334",
"title": "Over illumination",
"section": "Section::::Energy and economic considerations.:Architectural design and the type of light bulbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Lastly, the type of light bulbs that are installed has a significant effect on energy consumption. The efficiency of light sources vary greatly. Fluorescent lights produce several times as much light, for given power input, as incandescent lights do, and LEDs are continuing to improve beyond that. Shades vary in their absorption. Light colored ceilings, walls and other surfaces increase ambient light by reflecting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "478933",
"title": "Energy conservation",
"section": "Section::::Consumer products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. A prominent example of this is the energy savings that can be made by replacing an incandescent light bulb with a more modern alternative. When purchasing light bulbs, many consumers opt for cheap incandescent bulbs, failing to take into account their higher energy costs and lower lifespans when compared to modern compact fluorescent and LED bulbs. Although these energy-efficient alternatives have a higher upfront cost, their long lifespan and low energy use can save consumers a considerable amount of money. The price of LED bulbs has also been steadily decreasing in the past five years due to improvements in semiconductor technology. Many LED bulbs on the market qualify for utility rebates that further reduce the price of purchase to the consumer. Estimates by the U.S. Department of Energy state that widespread adoption of LED lighting over the next 20 years could result in about $265 billion worth of savings in United States energy costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24530443",
"title": "Electron-stimulated luminescence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Drawbacks include high weight, a slightly larger-than-normal base and – as with compact fluorescent lamps – when switched on, a slight delay before illumination begins and a static charge which attracts dust to the bulb face. As of 2016 the cost is higher and claimed efficiency is less than half that of commercially available LED bulbs, although it is considerably better than that of traditional incandescent lamps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3555585",
"title": "Vertical farming",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Lighting can be natural or via LEDs. As of 2018 commercial LEDs were about 28% efficient, which keeps the cost of produce high and prevents vertical farms from competing in regions where cheap vegetables are abundant. However, lighting engineers at Philips have demonstrated LEDs with 68% efficiency. Energy costs can be reduced because full-spectrum white light is not required. Instead, red and blue or purple light can be generated with less electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k74ie
|
Is their a chemical or other additive(like what I do not know, perhaps one that reacts with water) that could make paint dry faster?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many of the paints in use now take advantage of chemical driers or other systems to accelerate 'drying.'\n\nFirstly, not all paints are water-based. In the case of oil-based paints, 'drying' is actually not related to the evaporation of water, but instead to the slow chemical reaction of the oil to oxygen in the air that gradually [polymerizes the oil into a film](_URL_0_). This is a slow process compared to, say, how fast watercolors dry. But, there are things ([like cobalt](_URL_2_)) that can be added to speed up the process. There are also other types of [oil-based products](_URL_1_) that have been chemically treated to 'dry' faster.\n\nWater-based paints can be diluted with water-soluble volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that evaporate at a lower temperature than water, thus speeding drying, but this practice is generally frowned on (as it's never a good idea to inhale a lot of most chemicals). Most latex paints are water soluble (and, these days, low-VOC), so your best bet is to paint on a low-humidity day, open some windows and turn on some fans. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many of the paints in use now take advantage of chemical driers or other systems to accelerate 'drying.'\n\nFirstly, not all paints are water-based. In the case of oil-based paints, 'drying' is actually not related to the evaporation of water, but instead to the slow chemical reaction of the oil to oxygen in the air that gradually [polymerizes the oil into a film](_URL_0_). This is a slow process compared to, say, how fast watercolors dry. But, there are things ([like cobalt](_URL_2_)) that can be added to speed up the process. There are also other types of [oil-based products](_URL_1_) that have been chemically treated to 'dry' faster.\n\nWater-based paints can be diluted with water-soluble volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that evaporate at a lower temperature than water, thus speeding drying, but this practice is generally frowned on (as it's never a good idea to inhale a lot of most chemicals). Most latex paints are water soluble (and, these days, low-VOC), so your best bet is to paint on a low-humidity day, open some windows and turn on some fans. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22605",
"title": "Oil painting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In recent years, water miscible oil paint has become available. Water-soluble paints are either engineered or an emulsifier has been added that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows, when sufficiently diluted, very fast drying times (1–3 days) when compared with traditional oils (1–3 weeks).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288420",
"title": "Gum arabic",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Painting and art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "If little water is used, after evaporation the acacia gum functions as a true binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity and helping prevent the colors from lightening. Gum arabic allows more subtle control over washes, because it facilitates the dispersion of the pigment particles. In addition, acacia gum slows evaporation of water, giving slightly longer working time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "668958",
"title": "Oil paint",
"section": "Section::::Carrier.:Extraction methods and processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Once the oil is extracted, additives are sometimes used to modify its chemical properties. In this way, the paint can be made to dry more quickly (if that is desired), or to have varying levels of gloss, like Liquin. Modern oils paints can, therefore, have complex chemical structures; for example, affecting resistance to UV. By hand, the process involves first mixing the paint pigment with the linseed oil to a crumbly mass on a glass or marble slab. Then, a small amount at a time is ground between the slab and a glass Muller (a round, flat-bottomed glass instrument with a hand grip). Pigment and oil are ground together 'with patience' until a smooth, ultra-fine paste is achieved. This paste is then placed into jars or metal paint tubes and labelled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6717166",
"title": "Glaze (painting technique)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Often, because a paint is too opaque, painters will add a medium like linseed oil or alkyd to the paint to make them more transparent and pliable for the purposes of glazing. While these media are usually liquids, there are solid and semi-solid media used in the making of paints as well. For example, many classical oil painters have also been known to use ground glass and semi-solid resins to increase the translucency of their paint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180046",
"title": "Watercolor painting",
"section": "Section::::Watercolor paint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The term \"watercolor\" refers to paints that use water-soluble, complex carbohydrates as a binder. Originally (in the 16th to 18th centuries), watercolor binders were sugars and/or hide glues, but since the 19th century, the preferred binder is natural gum arabic, with glycerin and/or honey as additives to improve plasticity and solubility of the binder, and with other chemicals added to improve product shelf life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18622193",
"title": "Painting",
"section": "Section::::Painting media.:Water miscible oil paint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Water miscible oil paints (also called \"water soluble\" or \"water-mixable\") is a modern variety of oil paint engineered to be thinned and cleaned up with water, rather than having to use chemicals such as turpentine. It can be mixed and applied using the same techniques as traditional oil-based paint, but while still wet it can be effectively removed from brushes, palettes, and rags with ordinary soap and water. Its water solubility comes from the use of an oil medium in which one end of the molecule has been altered to bind loosely to water molecules, as in a solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288420",
"title": "Gum arabic",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Painting and art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it dissolves easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the acacia gum in varying amounts, resulting in watercolor paint. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint and helps to transfer the paint to a surface such as paper. When all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ms1sy
|
When did the Byzantines stop wearing togas and other classical Greco-Roman garments?
|
[
{
"answer": "They probably rarely wore togae in the first place. Togae were notoriously uncomfortable to wear, let alone in the stifling heat of the Eastern Roman Empire. Martial refers to work done during the day wearing the toga as 'toga work' (_opera togata_) and 'never ending' being such a pain. They would have official places, but according to Juvenal outside of Rome, everyone made do with more comfortable tunics or so forth instead - although the following is likely hyperbole, it reflects known attitudes towards the toga and its uncomfortableness. \n\n > \"There are many parts of Italy, to tell the truth, in which no man puts on a toga until he is dead. Even on days of festival, when a brave show is made in a theatre of turf, and when the well-known farce steps once more upon the boards; when the rustic babe on its mother's breast shrinks back affrighted at the gaping of the pallid masks, you will see stalls and populace all dressed alike, and the worshipful aediles content with white tunics as vesture for their high office. In Rome, everyone dresses above his means, and sometimes something more than what is enough is taken out of another man's pocket. This failing is universal here: we all live in a state of pretentious poverty.\n\n(Juvenal, Satire 3).\n\nSee also; [Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, edited by Jonathan Edmondson and Alison Keith](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8288124",
"title": "History of clothing and textiles",
"section": "Section::::Medieval clothing and textiles.:Byzantium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The Byzantines made and exported very richly patterned cloth, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. By Justinian's time the Roman toga had been replaced by the tunica, or long \"chiton\", for both sexes, over which the upper classes wore various other garments, like a \"dalmatica\" (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica; short and long cloaks were fastened on the right shoulder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583157",
"title": "Byzantine dress",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. The Byzantines liked color and pattern, and made and exported very richly patterned cloth, especially Byzantine silk, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, and many single stripes down the body or around the upper arm are seen, often denoting class or rank. Taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court. As in the West during the Middle Ages, clothing was very expensive for the poor, who probably wore the same well-worn clothes nearly all the time; this meant in particular that any costume owned by most women needed to fit throughout the full term of a pregnancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981466",
"title": "Tunic",
"section": "Section::::Medieval tunic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both sexes throughout the medieval period. The upper classes wore other garments atop the basic tunic, such as the \"dalmatica\", a heavier and shorter type of tunic, again, worn by both sexes, or the \"scaramangion\", a riding-coat of Persian origin. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583157",
"title": "Byzantine dress",
"section": "Section::::On the body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "In the early stages of the Byzantine Empire the traditional Roman toga was still used as very formal or official dress. By Justinian's time this had been replaced by the tunica, or long \"chiton\", for both sexes, over which the upper classes wore other garments, like a \"dalmatica\" (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica, again worn by both sexes, but mainly by men. The hems often curve down to a sharp point. The \"scaramangion\" was a riding-coat of Persian origin, opening down the front and normally coming to the mid-thigh, although these are recorded as being worn by Emperors, when they seem to become much longer. In general, except for military and presumably riding-dress, men of higher status, and all women, had clothes that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Women often wore a top layer of the stola, for the rich in brocade. All of these, except the stola, might be belted or not. The terms for dress are often confusing, and certain identification of the name a particular pictured item had, or the design that relates to a particular documentary reference, is rare, especially outside the Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42361734",
"title": "Greek dress",
"section": "Section::::Byzantine period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. The Byzantines liked colour and pattern, and made and exported very richly patterned cloth, especially Byzantine silk, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, and many single stripes down the body or around the upper arm are seen, often denoting class or rank. Taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2370357",
"title": "Greek Muslims",
"section": "Section::::Central Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "In the Middle Ages, after the Seljuq victory over the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV, many Byzantine Greeks were taken as slaves to Central Asia. The most famous among them was Al-Khazini, a Byzantine Greek slave taken to Merv, then in the Khorasan province of Persia but now in Turkmenistan, who was later freed and became a famous Muslim scientist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583157",
"title": "Byzantine dress",
"section": "Section::::Imperial costume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The Imperial Regalia of the Holy Roman Emperors, kept in the Schatzkammer (Vienna), contains a full set of outer garments made in the 12th century in essentially Byzantine style at the Byzantine-founded workshops in Palermo. These are among the best surviving Byzantine garments and give a good idea of the lavishness of Imperial ceremonial clothing. There is a cloak (worn by the Emperors with the gap at the front), \"alb\", dalmatic, stockings, slippers and gloves. The \"loros\" is Italian and later. Each element of the design on the cloak (see Textiles below) is outlined in pearls and embroidered in gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ulku9
|
Was it commonplace for Royals of old to be highly learned and respected in Academia?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was generally not common. Certainly there were some monarchs who did have some scholarly abilities. Queen Elizabeth I translated Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy.\n\nBut the amount of training in languages and literature necessary to be a truly accomplished scholar was tough for a monarch to achieve. They tended to be more patrons of scholarship (like Charlemagne or Alfred the Great or Catherine the Great) than scholars themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59568348",
"title": "Education of the British royal family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Later, in the Georgian and Victorian eras, royal education followed the French model, with governors overseeing the child's discipline and moral development, and preceptors conducting academic instruction. In the modern era, members of the House of Windsor have had varying degrees of education. The first heir to the British throne to receive a university degree is the current one, Charles, Prince of Wales. Since the later 20th century, members of the royal family have been educated in public schools, universities and military institutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59568348",
"title": "Education of the British royal family",
"section": "Section::::Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian eras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Historians have \"assessed how well royal education has prepared monarchs for their political and ceremonial role\" in British society. Peter Gordon and Dennis Lawton rated the education of Queen Victoria as good, \"yet in contrast no subsequent monarch (or current heir) has been anywhere near adequately educated\". Ross McKibbin argues that the educations of George V, Edward VIII, and George VI were \"aimless\" and \"narrow,\" leaving them with the equivalent to the educations of \"landed gentry with military connections\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9384153",
"title": "Female education",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe.:Medieval period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "During the reign of Emperor Charlemagne, he had his wife and daughters educated in the liberal arts at the Palace Academy of Aachen, for which he is praised in the Vita Karolini Magni. There is evidence that other nobles had their daughters educated at the Palace Academy as well. In line with this, authors such as Vincent of Beauvais indicate that the daughters of the nobility were widely given to education so that they could live up to their social position to come.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2048381",
"title": "Golden Bull of 1222",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Hungarian society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "The highest-ranking royal officials were appointed from among men who regarded themselves the descendants of either the Hungarian chieftains of the period of the establishment of the kingdom or of the foreign warriors who settled in Hungary during the subsequent centuries. They were mentioned as \"noblemen\" from the end of the 12th century, but they did not form a hereditary elite. The most prominent families started to name themselves after their forefathers in the 1200s, but their genealogies were often fabricated. The \"Gesta Hungarorum\", which was completed around 1200, emphasized that the ancestors of many noblemen played a preeminent role in the Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59568348",
"title": "Education of the British royal family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The education of the British royal family has changed over time, reflecting shifting ideas about education of the aristocracy and the role of the monarchy in the United Kingdom. Traditionally, heirs to the throne and other royal children were educated privately by tutors. In the Tudor era, ideas of Renaissance humanism—emphasising the liberal arts and sciences and the classics—influenced royal education. Elizabeth I of England, for example, was multi-lingual and wrote a number of translations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38399335",
"title": "Women in early modern Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Education and writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women, of which Queen Mary is the most obvious example. By the early eighteenth century their education was expected to include basic literacy and numeracy, musical instruments (including lute, viol and keyboard), needlework, cookery and household management, while polite accomplishments and piety were also emphasised. From the seventeenth century they were some notable aristocratic female writers. The first book written by a woman and published in Scotland was Elizabeth Melville's \"Ane Godlie Dreame\" in 1603. Later major figures included Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw (1627–1727) and Lady Grizel Baillie (1645–1746). There are 50 autobiographies extant from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth century, of which 16 were written by women, all of which are largely religious in content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7326278",
"title": "Royal High School, Edinburgh",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The Royal High School is, by one reckoning, the 18th-oldest school in the world, with a history of almost 900 years. Historians associate its birth with the flowering of the 12th century renaissance. It first enters the historical record as the seminary of Holyrood Abbey, founded for Alwin and the Augustinian canons by David I in 1128.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14pyjg
|
why is gold so expensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "[It is not used only for jewelry](_URL_0_), but what does it matter if it was? There is a limited amount of gold on earth. If there are a lot of people who want that gold, the price will go up. Lets say you only have ten pieces of gold, but there are a hundred people who want a piece. If you want to make money you are not just going to ask a fixed amount of dollars. You ask those people how much they want to pay for a piece of gold. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > Gold emerged as a sort of inevitable global currency, before people even thought of it as currency. It is rare, portable, easy to identify, can easily be made into jewelry, and can be easily quantified (unlike, say, jewels or seashells, which are harder to treat as a \"substance\"). Once word got around that rich people like it, it became easy to barter with anyone, anywhere, for anything.\n\n > In the early stages, it was not really the same thing as \"money\", it was just an easy thing to barter. But it had money-like characteristics:\n\n > - If someone walked into your apple-orchard offering to trade a yellow rock for apples, you might look at them a little funny. What use does an apple-grower have for a yellow rock?\n\n > - But if you know that rich people in town covet this soft yellow metal as something they can make jewelry out of, then you might be happy to trade apples for it. \n\n > - Once *everyone* knows that rich people will trade for this stuff, it becomes something like actual currency: neither the hunter, the shoemaker, nor the fisherman in town has much use for it, but because they know they can redeem it for the stuff they *do* want and need, it becomes a sort of transferable IOU that can be redeemed anywhere, i.e., money. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) There's not a lot of it. 2) People like the way it looks. 3) When 1 & 2 are true (limited supply and high demand) there is high value for something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "by actions taken over hundreds of years of history, societies have decided by fiat that gold is a reliable long-term store of wealth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason that gold is so expensive is because gold has been expensive for a long time, and people want gold to remain expensive, so that the wealth invested in gold will remain. The value in gold is purely a social construct, and nothing more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it has certain properties, many mentioned here, that would make it the default medium of exchange; people are valuing it at its current level because of all the debt (which will need money to be created in the future in order to pay) and money that has been created worldwide.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gold is rare and cannot be cheaply or easily manufactured. It's compact and can be stored easily. It won't rust, rot or decay when stored in a safe place. It's also considered beautiful (hence the jewelry thing). Something rare, beautiful, resilient and _small_ (compared to it's relative value) makes it an excellent store of value or wealth.\n\nGold _does_ have some industrial uses but it's value derives mainly because it is _universally recognized_ as a store of wealth. If everybody suddenly decided it was useless, it would have little or no value.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39740796",
"title": "Gold coin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Gold has been used as money for many reasons. It is fungible, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell. Gold is also easily transportable, as it has a high value to weight ratio, compared to other commodities, such as silver. Gold can be re-coined, divided into smaller units, or re-melted into larger units such as gold bars, without destroying its metal value. The density of gold is higher than most other metals, making it difficult to pass counterfeits. Additionally, gold is extremely unreactive, hence it does not tarnish or corrode over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11186404",
"title": "Economic history of South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Sanctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Ironically, during the 1980s gold reached its highest price as a result of international tensions reaping huge profits for the mining company conglomerates. However, because of currency restrictions and bans on the sales of Krugerrands in some countries, they were unable to invest abroad. The result was that they used their surplus funds to buy up businesses in virtually every activity in the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2697304",
"title": "Gold as an investment",
"section": "Section::::Gold price.:Influencing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "Like most commodities, the price of gold is driven by supply and demand, including speculative demand. However, unlike most other commodities, saving and disposal play larger roles in affecting its price than its consumption. Most of the gold ever mined still exists in accessible form, such as bullion and mass-produced jewelry, with little value over its fine weight — so it is nearly as liquid as bullion, and can come back onto the gold market. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totalled . The investor Warren Buffett has said that the total amount of gold in the world that is above ground could fit into a cube with sides of just (which is roughly consistent with 158,000 tonnes based on a specific gravity of 19.3). However, estimates for the amount of gold that exists today vary significantly and some have suggested the cube could be a lot smaller or larger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32658518",
"title": "August 2011 stock markets fall",
"section": "Section::::Commodities.:Gold.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Gold increased in value up to US$1750. Gold is typically considered a secure investment in times of economic uncertainty, with other investors and traders also investing in foreign currencies, such as the Swiss franc and Japanese yen, also considered to be safe investments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21805076",
"title": "Frank E. Holmes",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "\"Don't try to get rich with gold because the corresponding risk is too high. Gold is a volatile asset whose daily price action can be far more dramatic than blue-chip stocks and many other asset classes\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41660686",
"title": "Chinese Dama",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Relatively cheap gold has retained its allure in China compared with other investment options, such as a stock market which had fallen. \"Gold is culturally accepted as a place to put your money in\", said Axel Merk, who increased his fund's gold holdings. In traditional Chinese culture, gold represents wealth; collecting gold collects peace, luck and wealth. In some regions of China, many observe the tradition of giving gold jewelry as betrothal, wedding and baby gifts. Chinese parents help their children pay for a wedding, and most store gold for their children's future. Due to this traditional preference to gold for thousands of years, many Chinese Dama choose to invest in gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12240",
"title": "Gold",
"section": "Section::::Monetary use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Although the prices of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise \"Utopia\". On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware, and lavatory seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fwgbt2
|
how do options and shorts work for investments?
|
[
{
"answer": "For shorts, its better to think about what you're expecting to happen when you do it than how its actually executed in the market (which is more complicated, but ultimately unimportant to you, the trader).\n\nWhen you buy a stock, the *only* reason to buy it is that in the future you expect it to be higher than when you bought it. This is being \"long\".\n\nWhen you short a stock, the *only* reason you \"buy\" it is that you think the stock will be lower in the future.\n\nYour broker doesn't give a shit what you trade, they just facilitate the trade and take a commission (this is a bit untrue, but for these purpose its fine). When you short a stock, you potentially have a chance to lose more money than you have though, so they require these accounts to have some extra money to cover the losses in case that happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why do platforms allow shorting, doesn’t it make them earn less if the stock drops?\n\nMake who earn less?\n\nShort selling is a simple principle, you borrow stock from someone else who is holding it, sell it on the market, and then return it to them at some point in the future. If stock price goes down, you sell high then buy low, pocket the difference and return the share. If stock price goes up, you choose when you have to buy the shares back to give back to the borrower, here you sell low buy high, eating the loss. With brokers this is easier, they have a vast pool of people who hold shares that they can borrow from, as long as all of them don't sell at the same time there is always someone you can keep borrowing from.\n\nThe broker doesn't or risk anything here as long as you show the ability to buy back the share (posting sufficient collateral, if you don't then the broker will loan you money with interest which limits their risk), the person from who you borrowed generally loses (if they sell) but that was the risk they agreed to when they bought the share.\n\nOptions are a different thing than short selling but can accomplish a similar purpose. \n\nA call gives you the right to buy 1 shares at any point until some future expiration date at the strike price. A put gives you the right to sell 1 shares at any point until some future expiration date at a strike price. Do note that options are only sold in batches of 100. \n\nSay I buy a call for company A (whose share price is 10 dollars), with a strike price of 11 dollars and expiration date of next friday, costs me 1 dollar. If A's share price increases to 12 dollars, at expiration I just broke even, but if it rises to 13, I can buy a share at 11 dollars using the contract and sell on the market for 13, pocketing 2 dollars minus the 1 dollar I paid for the contract initially. If it stays stagnant at 10 dollars, or in general goes to less than 11 dollars, at expiration, it doesn't make sense for me to exercise this option so I don't it expires worthless and I lost the dollar I put in. \n\nPuts work similarly in the opposite way, think about how this works with selling. Puts are a bet that the stock goes down, try to apply the same logic as a call but with selling at a price instead of buying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idealized idea and general business model of a platform is indifferent to the types of position you take ie long or short because they function as a meeting place between buyer and seller. They make money off the volume of trade and (mostly) aren't the counterparty to your trade - ie one person going short means someone else goes long. They are concerned that the traders are \"reliable\" - ie that you fill your position and not run away with or have insufficient assets which is a higher risk to the platform in short positions.\n\nThat said, shorting is still not allowed by some governments (ie the stock exchange). Some feel that increases short term volatility and is a sort of \"bet on failure\". Others say that shorting delivers the right \"signal\" and that it allows for better price discovery - ie stocks prices reflect the market sentiment better. \n\nOptions are standardized contracts (ie legal agreement) between two parties to agree to trade (buy and sell) some stock in the future at a fixed price with an option (ie the right) to nullify the trade given to one party. The other party must complete the trade if the holder of this option so chooses. This \"option\" is clearly valuable and represents the price of that option.\n\nThe idea of the option is straightforward but the terminology used and liability involved is confusing. A put option is a contract where the option belongs to the seller of the stock (\"ie right to sell this stock on this date at this price\"). A call option is a contract where the option belongs to the buyer of the stock (\"ie right to buy this stock on this date at this price\").\n\nNow each type of option (put or call) contract has two parties. (again sometimes confusingly, the term buyer and seller are used again). The person who obtains the right is called the buyer of the option. The person who gives up the right is called the seller of the option. The reason for this terminology is the buyer of the option has to pay the seller because this \"right to buy/sell\" has value. \n\nBecause these option contracts are standardized (100 shares typically) and their value changes over time, there is a secondary market for these contracts - there are people who want buy and sell existing options contracts. And this is what is usually seen on trading platforms.\n\nExample: \n\n1) AAPL $200 Put June 2020. This is a contract that gives the right to sell 100 Apple shares at the fixed price of $200 on June 2020. \n\n2) AAPL $200 Put August 2020. This is a contract that gives the right to sell 100 Apple shares at the fixed price of $200 on August 2020. \n\n2) AAPL $200 Call June 2020. This is a contract that gives the right to BUY 100 Apple shares at the fixed price of $200 on June 2020. \n\nThe $200 is called the exercise or strike price, and the date is when the option contract expires (ie must be completed or nullified). To make matters worse, there are standardized so called \"American style\" or \"European style\" options contracts which give different rights. \n\nThere are MANY MANY moving parts to options - strike price, option expiry dates, puts or calls, the price of the actual shares (in the example Apple), the price of the option contract. These option contracts are time limited, highly volatile and (for some stocks) thinly traded. These are all risks that the traders in options must appreciate.\n\nLink to useful resource:\n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) \n\nCheers!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3877582",
"title": "Covered call",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "This type of option is best used when the investor would like to generate income off a long position while the market is moving sideways. It allows an investor/writer to continue a buy-and-hold strategy to make money off a stock which is currently inactive in gains. The investor/writer must correctly guess that the stock won't make any gains within the time frame of the option; this is best done by writing an out-of-the-money option. A covered call has lower risk compared to other types of options, thus the potential reward is also lower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216474",
"title": "Real options valuation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Recently, real options have been employed in business strategy, both for valuation purposes and as a conceptual framework. The idea of treating strategic investments as options was popularized by Timothy Luehrman in two HBR articles: \"In financial terms, a business strategy is much more like a series of options, than a series of static cash flows\". Investment opportunities are plotted in an \"option space\" with dimensions \"volatility\" & value-to-cost (\"NPVq\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4475040",
"title": "Venture capital financing",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "An investment strategy defines in part the identity of a firm that engages in the provision of venture capital financing. It need be neither unitary nor unchanging. One strategy relates to the subject matter expertise of personnel at the funding firm; if the firm members have expertise in the transportation industry, their funding transportation startups would be a logical choice based on their understanding of the industry, while their funding of franchise restaurants, less so. Another strategy is to align with a set of known serial entrepreneurs who have a demonstrated success at establishing start-ups that acrue value and return on investment. An emerging strategy is one based on machine learning with a focus on likely investments with a high return on investment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15383885",
"title": "Target market",
"section": "Section::::Strategies for segmenting and targeting.:Concentrated marketing or niche marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Developing a market plan is when a firms marketing team evaluates the firms current condition, what niches the company would want to target and any potential competition. A market plan can consist of elements such as, target market, consumer interests, and resources; it must be specific and key to that group of consumers as that is the speciality of niche marketing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7434495",
"title": "Options strategy",
"section": "Section::::Option strategy profit / loss chart.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "A typical option strategy involves the purchase / selling of at least 2-3 different options (with different strikes and / or time to expiry), and the value of such portfolio may change in a very complex way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30226414",
"title": "Prospect Partners",
"section": "Section::::Investment strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "As an opportunistic investor, Prospect Partners pursues transactions in a number of ways: by working with current management teams seeking a recapitalization, by backing outside executives in a buyout, and by co-investing with independent equity sponsors. Private equity situations in which the firm invests include leveraged expansions, industry consolidations, corporate orphans, transitional sales, and undermanaged companies. Prospect Partners seeks to build equity value in its companies over time through internal growth and/or subsequent acquisitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48865963",
"title": "Growth planning",
"section": "Section::::What is in a Growth Plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "A Growth Plan only contains the elements of a business where the customer can see value. It begins by setting out business goals and leads to the strategies and tactics for reaching them. The benefit of this is it enables businesses to connect their goals with precise actions. Small businesses focus on market penetration to sell more to existing customers. A growth plan for more mature small business is market development where they sell existing offerings to a different market (e.g. a neighboring state or country). Larger businesses tend to focus on reaching customers through alternate channels (e.g. online) or broadening their target customer through product development to solve their unique problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3e5z2m
|
Why is tungsten at room temperature so brittle? Since super cooled metals are more brittle, is this the same phenomenon but just at a much lower temperature because tungstens melting point is so high? Or is it something entirely different?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basic answer is that tungsten is Body Centered Cubic (BCC) and therefore will go through a ductile to brittle transformation at certain temperatures. DBTT (Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature) of tungsten is quite high, around 400K. Room temperature, or 273K, is way below this transition temperature, so the tungsten will be brittle.\n\nThe basic mechanics here is that below this temperature there isn't enough vibrational energy in the lattice to allow for slip. So the atoms are almost locked in place and are unable to slide past each other, therefore they will separate and the material will fracture. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. No? Something completely different. Explaining will require defining several different \"kinds\" of material strength.\n\nElastic modulus (E, in units MPa) describes how a material's chemical bonds respond to mechanical pressure. E is directly proportional to the chemical bond strength in KJ/mol; the stronger the chemical bond is, the stiffer the material will be. As temperature increases, the bonds will elongate a little, and vibrate more until the material melts. It follows that melting temperature is also approximately proportional to bond strength, as well as E.\n\nYield strength (YS) is the pressure (also MPa) a material can withstand before deforming permanently (e.g. bending a paperclip into a different shape). Yielding activates an entirely different deformation mechanism in metals than elasticity. When a metal bends, crystalline defects in the metal's structure called dislocations are pushed around. This involves the atomic planes of the crystal sliding and shearing past one another. YS is highly dependent of metal purity and microstructure. Yielding takes a lot of energy, but you still haven't broken any chemical bonds, you've only shifted them around. YS and E are two very important numbers in fracture mechanics, which (in a nutshell) is a field of engineering used to predict if a material with inherent defects will fracture or yield.\n\nDuctility (the opposite of brittle-ness) is the percentage of elongation (percent total increase in length for tension) that a material can withstand before rupturing and failing (breaking bonds). It is how much you can yield (see above) a material above its YS before it fails. Ductility can vary from low (~1% for very brittle metals) to high (approaching 40% for very ductile metals). Ductility can vary even in metals and alloys of the SAME composition, and depends highly on crystal structure, microcrystalline grain size, and orientation. It also depends highly on alloy purity and composition. Even some lower melting point metals are very brittle (e.g. pure Cr).\n\nNow we have that out of the way, I can answer your immediate question.\n\nFirst of all, the class of materials that exhibit the largest reduction in ductility at low temperatures is high strength steel alloys. This phenomenon is called ductile to brittle transition (DBT) and happens primarily with BCC crystalline materials (which tungsten is also). There are a few alloys (e.g. nickel alloys) that have higher impact toughness at lower temperatures.\n\nTungsten (W) is one of the strongest pure metals we know of, in terms of E and YS. Its metallic chemical bonds are strong, which cause it to have a high E modulus and melting point. However, it takes so much force to move dislocations in W at room temperature that it fails locally before much of the material can yield. Based on fracture mechanics, minuscule defects result in a far larger problem for a brittle material than for a ductile material. As the temperature increases, YS decreases to a point where dislocations can be push around more easily. One source reports this temperature threshold to be around 400 deg C [_URL_0_]. IMO, however it is unclear how the rate of loading (impact testing vs. tensile testing) would affect the ductility in the way I defined above.\n\nI should also point out that W has extremely good high temperature strength (creep resistance), but that is a completely different damage mechanism and I've already written too much.\n\ntl;dr: Melting point (bond strength ) is one way to qualify one of the many factors concerning material ductility. Crystal structure, purity, microcrystalline grain size, and defect occurrence are all sensitive factors as well.\n\nSources:\n\n[_URL_0_]\n\nDieter, Mechanical Metallurgy.\n\nPorter, Easterling, Sherif, Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys.\n\nI am a metallurgical engineer.\n\n[Edit: Spelling]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30046",
"title": "Tungsten",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Of all metals in pure form, tungsten has the highest melting point (3422 °C, 6192 °F), lowest vapor pressure (at temperatures above 1650 °C, 3000 °F), and the highest tensile strength. Although carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than tungsten, carbon sublimes at atmospheric pressure instead of melting, so it has no melting point. Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal. The low thermal expansion and high melting point and tensile strength of tungsten originate from strong covalent bonds formed between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30046",
"title": "Tungsten",
"section": "Section::::Health factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Because tungsten is a rare metal and its compounds are generally inert, the effects of tungsten on the environment are limited. The abundance of tungsten in the Earth's crust is thought to be about 1.5 parts per million. It is one of the more rare elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27058",
"title": "Steel",
"section": "Section::::Material properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are removed from the steel melt during processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44632714",
"title": "Tantalum-tungsten alloys",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Tantalum-tungsten alloys are in the refractory metals group, keeping their chemical and physical properties the same at high temperatures. The tantalum-tungsten alloys are characterized by their high melting point and the tension resistance. The properties of the final alloy are a combination of properties from the two elements: tungsten, the element with the highest melting point in the periodic table, and tantalum which has high corrosion resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30046",
"title": "Tungsten",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Electronics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point, elemental tungsten is used in many high-temperature applications, such as light bulb, cathode-ray tube, and vacuum tube filaments, heating elements, and rocket engine nozzles. Its high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high-temperature uses such as electrical, heating, and welding applications, notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process (also called tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28942",
"title": "Solder",
"section": "Section::::Alloys.:Alloying element roles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- Tin is the usual main structural metal of the alloy. It has good strength and wetting. On its own it is prone to tin pest, tin cry, and growth of tin whiskers. Readily dissolves silver, gold and to less but still significant extent many other metals, e.g. copper; this is a particular concern for tin-rich alloys with higher melting points and reflow temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60921122",
"title": "USAF-96",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "An earlier material, Eglin Steel, ES-1, resolved these issues but the tungsten used in it was expensive, difficult to melt, and the resulting tungsten carbide particles made the material difficult to process in thick sections. However, the tungsten also gave ES-1 excellent high-temperature strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sxoss
|
can someone explain to me the pros and cons of capitalism?
|
[
{
"answer": "As far as economic history goes, there simply isn't a better set of institutions than capitalism to generate technological growth.\n\nCons: inequality - though this can be abated with a welfare state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Capitalism: An economic system under which capital is controlled by private individuals.\n\nCapital: Productive property such as factories, farms, financial institutions, or other systems which create wealth.\n\nPros: In theory, it allocates capital to the areas in society where they are most useful. For instance, let's suppose Mr. White, Mr. Green, and Ms. Brown all own factories making T-Shirts. Ms. Brown finds a cheaper way to put the design on T-shirts, thus, she can make more of them while spending less money. Because she's spending less money, she is able to expand the factory, so more T-Shirts will be made in the more efficient way, benefiting society.\n\nCons: A lot of the money that goes to capitalists doesn't make its way down to the rest of society, and ends up not benefiting society in any particular way. For instance, after a few months or two, Ms. Brown is making enough money that she not only expands her factory, but also buys Mr. White's factory. Now she's making twice as much money (even though she isn't doing twice as much work as she was before). Now, most of her money is going to pay for luxuries and more capital. This isn't benefiting society, since it's silly to produce extravagant luxuries for the few when there are still people struggling to get things they need. Furthermore, Mr. Green has long since adopted the new way of making T-Shirts, so it no longer really benefits society that Ms. Brown is expanding her factories, because factories owned by her are no longer any more efficient than factories owned by anyone else. In fact, Ms. Brown doesn't even manage most of the factories anymore; she pays other people to do that. So in the end, the only one who has benefited from Ms. Brown having so much capital is Ms. Brown herself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "165451",
"title": "Laissez-faire",
"section": "Section::::Raw capitalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "A closely related conception is that of raw or pure capitalism, or unrestrained capitalism, that refers to capitalism free of social regulations, with low, minimal or no government and operating almost entirely on the profit motive. Other than \"laissez-faire\" economics and anarcho-capitalism, it is not associated with a school of thought and typically has a bad connotation which hints towards a perceived need for restraint due to social needs and securities that can not be adequately responded to by companies with just a motive for making profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3860995",
"title": "Right realism",
"section": "Section::::Critique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "It has been argued that within Right Realism, there is inadequate interest in corporate crime, white-collar crime, political crime or state crime. Van Den Haag (1975) asserts that capitalism is about the creation of \"winners\" and \"losers\". Livesey identifies the implication that winners must be allowed to enjoy the fruits of their enterprise and their risk-taking without these rewards being taken away by the losers. Indeed, if capitalism continues as a form of economic production, those responsible for the creation and accumulation of wealth must be protected from the activities of criminals. This apparently justifies shifting the remit of law enforcement to concentrate surveillance and monitoring on the activities of the poor and powerless. However, it has also been asserted that any given set of economic institutions establishes \"winners\" and \"losers\", who also existed before the rise of capitalism and will also continue to exist under a system protective of the criminal, therefore turning its victims into the real \"losers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3741885",
"title": "Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:What is capitalism?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "As understood by Rand, capitalism is the system that emerges among a group of free individuals, each applying time and reason to sustain his or her own life, each the owner of the means to do so, freely trading among themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "782741",
"title": "Hizb ut-Tahrir",
"section": "Section::::Positions/policies.:Capitalism, democracy, freedoms, and pluralism.:Capitalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "\"Capitalism\" is defined by HT as a political system of democracy and freedom (a definition many critics of HT, especially leftists, regard as risible), not just as an economic system based on private ownership, and is frequently condemned by the party. Freedom of ownership is one of capitalism's freedoms, along with freedom of belief and opinion and \"personal freedom\". Capitalism is based on the idea of \"the separation of religion from life\", and supported by the \"pillars\" of democracy, \"pluralism\" (the recognition and affirmation of diversity and peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles), \"human rights and free market policies\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60809403",
"title": "World-Ecology",
"section": "Section::::Relation to capitalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "The suggestion that capitalism should be viewed as a World-Ecology was made by professor Jason W Moore , this view is often referred to as a \"capitalist world-ecology\". This suggestion has been adapted by other academics in their papers on topics that relate to capitalism such as assistant professor Aaron Jakes, who utilized the view of capitalism as a world-ecology to analyse a historical case in Egypt when the British government conducted foreign affairs in cotton production. The view of capitalism as world-ecology discards the notion that nature and societies are mostly unrelated and separate entities and clarifies that nature and societies form a woven system of intricate relations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3079085",
"title": "Criticism of capitalism",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Inequality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Critics argue that capitalism is associated with the unfair distribution of wealth and power; a tendency toward market monopoly or oligopoly (and government by oligarchy); imperialism, counter-revolutionary wars and various forms of economic and cultural exploitation; repression of workers and trade unionists and phenomena such as social alienation, economic inequality, unemployment and economic instability. Critics have argued that there is an inherent tendency toward oligopolistic structures when \"laissez-faire\" is combined with capitalist private property. Capitalism is regarded by many socialists to be irrational in that production and the direction of the economy are unplanned, creating many inconsistencies and internal contradictions and thus should be controlled through public policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48852",
"title": "Market economy",
"section": "Section::::Capitalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Capitalism generally refers to an economic system where the means of production are largely or entirely privately owned and operated for a profit, structured on the process of capital accumulation. In general, in capitalist systems investment, distribution, income and prices are determined by markets, whether regulated or unregulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wm6zb
|
What is the final form of energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Heat (thermal energy) would be the closest to the answer you are looking for.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Scientific use.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1478,
"text": "In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a \"feel\" for the use of a given amount of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Transformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Energy is also transferred from potential energy (formula_8) to kinetic energy (formula_9) and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy cannot be created or destroyed; therefore, the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Scientific use.:Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The \"speed\" of a chemical reaction (at given temperature \"T\") is related to the activation energy \"E\", by the Boltzmann's population factor ethat is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to \"E\" at the given temperature \"T\". This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The word \"energy\" derives from the , which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31694170",
"title": "Zero-K",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Energy is produced by certain structures, most of which can be built anywhere; each of these structures is ideal for its own set of situations. Energy is consumed in all build projects 1:1 with metal, for repairs to damaged units and structures, during \"Resurrection\" of unit wrecks, powering structures like radar towers and charging shields, and is used to activate the biggest defenses such as the \"Annihilator\" energy weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1t1wve
|
how does apple own the beatles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apple Inc, the computer/device company, is different from Apple Records/Apple Corps Ltd, which is the record label created by the Beatles. Apple Inc doesn't own the rights to the Beatles music.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Beatles sold the rights to their catalog of music back in the 1960s.](_URL_1_) It's been owned by many people, most famously by Michael Jackson, who made almost as much money on Beatles royalties as on his own music.\n\nI don't know if Apple Computer has any ownership in Beatles music, but you might be confused by [Apple Records](_URL_0_). Long before Steve Jobs was in business, The Beatles named their record company Apple. There was actually [a lawsuit between the computer company and the record label, because of conflicting trademarks.](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, Apple Records IS owned by McCartney and Ringo and the estates of Lennon and Harrison.\n\nInteresting point to add:\nYou may remember that it was a big deal (well kind of) when iTunes started carrying the Beatles' music. Why the delay?\nThere was a lawsuit (as /u/PLJVYF stated) between the two in which the judge basically said that it was okay for the two companies to have the same name because the computer and music markets were completely separate. \nWell, as Apple computers started gradually including music as part of its market, it had regular legal clashes with Apple Records and they weren't able to reach an agreement to sell the Beatles' music on iTunes. Too much animosity between the two. It did eventually get cleared up though, and the Beatles were on iTunes in 2010.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "187668",
"title": "Apple Records",
"section": "Section::::History.:1973–2007: Aspinall era, Beatles reissues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "After Klein's departure, Apple was managed by Neil Aspinall on behalf of the four Beatles and their heirs. Apple Records' distribution contract with EMI expired in 1976, when control of the Beatles' catalogue—including solo recordings to date by George Harrison, John Lennon and Ringo Starr—reverted to EMI (Paul McCartney had acquired ownership of his solo recordings when he re-signed with Capitol in 1975).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187668",
"title": "Apple Records",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Apple Records is a record label founded by the Beatles in 1968 as a division of Apple Corps Ltd. It was initially intended as a creative outlet for the Beatles, both as a group and individually, plus a selection of other artists including Mary Hopkin, James Taylor, Badfinger, and Billy Preston. In practice, the roster had become dominated by the mid-1970s with releases of the former Beatles as solo artists. Allen Klein managed the label from 1969 to 1973, then it was managed by Neil Aspinall on behalf of the Beatles and their heirs. Aspinall retired in 2007 and was replaced by Jeff Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646886",
"title": "Apple Corps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "From 1970 to 2007, Apple's chief executive was former Beatles road manager Neil Aspinall, although he did not officially bear that title until Allen Klein had left the company. The current CEO is Jeff Jones. In 2010, Apple Corps ranked number 2 on the \"Fast Company\" magazine's list of the world's most innovative companies in the music industry, thanks to the release of \"\" video game and the remastering of the Beatles' catalogue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14245236",
"title": "Ken Mansfield",
"section": "Section::::Apple Records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "In 1967 when the Beatles decided to form their own corporation, they turned to Mansfield to run their record division and named him the U.S. Manager of Apple Records beginning in 1968. Mansfield joined his four new bosses setting up the worldwide launch of Apple Records and the U.S. management of subsequent projects such as \"The Beatles\" (aka \"The White Album\"), \"Yellow Submarine\", \"Abbey Road\", \"Let It Be\" and \"Hey Jude\". In addition to the Beatles, Mansfield looked after the careers of Apple artists such as James Taylor, Mary Hopkin, Badfinger and Jackie Lomax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8639991",
"title": "Apple to the Core",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Apple to the Core: The Unmaking of the Beatles is a book by Peter McCabe and Robert D. Schonfeld, first published in the United States by Pocket Books in 1972. Released two years after the break-up of the English band the Beatles, the book covers the business aspect of the group's career, particularly the problems that befell their Apple Corps enterprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218232",
"title": "ITunes Store",
"section": "Section::::Legal disputes.:Apple records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "For three years, The Beatles' record company Apple Records were in a legal dispute, \"Apple Corps v Apple Computer\", with Apple Computer over the name \"Apple.\" On May 8, 2006, a ruling was declared in favor of Apple Computer, but Apple Records said it would appeal the ruling. Despite this, plans were announced by Neil Aspinall in April 2006 to remaster completely and release the entire Beatles catalog on an unspecified online music service, as well as release some previously unheard work by the band. No date was set at that time. It has also been reported that the Beatles' music catalog might initially be appearing on iTunes only, as Apple is reported to be negotiating with Britain's EMI group over an online distribution deal that might be exclusive for a limited time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187668",
"title": "Apple Records",
"section": "Section::::History.:1967–69: Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Apple Corps Ltd was conceived by the Beatles in 1967 after the death of their manager Brian Epstein. It was intended to be a small group of companies (Apple Retail, Apple Publishing, Apple Electronics, and so on) as part of Epstein's plan to create a tax-effective business structure.. The first project that the band released after forming the company was their film \"Magical Mystery Tour\", which was produced under the Apple Films division. Apple Records was officially founded by the group after their return from India in 1968 as another sub-division of Apple Corps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5vle6l
|
if in the vacuum of space there are no exterior forces acing on a spacecraft, why can't we continuously speed up the craft to light speed with constant thrust?
|
[
{
"answer": "It takes more and more energy to constantly accelerate a spacecraft. This means that as you approach C the amount of energy that you need to go faster approaches infinity. Sadly humans do not have access to infinite energy so we can never actually reach C.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of relativity, from your point of view on the ship it may seem like you are always accelerating but from the point of view of someone back on Earth, you will never reach the speed of light. From their perspective, the closer you get to the speed of light the more slowly you would seem to age, the more your length would contract in the direction you are moving and the more your mass would increase. Theoretically, your mass would become infinite if you could reach the speed of light. Since the amount of energy needed accelerate an object is proportional to its mass, you would need an infinite amount of energy to accelerate up to the speed of light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The main major problem is it would take a massive amount of energy (i.e. fuel) to be able to produce enough overall thrust to even get *close* to the speed of light (ignoring relativistic implications of doing this). That fuel has to somehow be contained in a single spacecraft and that massive spacecraft has to be launched from Earth while also hauling that massive payload.\n\n > Why not just build the spaceship *in* space?\n\nIt would still require astronomical resources to ferry enough building materials, crew, and fuel using smaller crafts spread over hundreds of trips up to the theoretical shipyard. \n\nThe sheer amount of time it would take to accomplish the feat of building and launching such a spacecraft using existing technologies and fuel sources would probably equal the amount of time it will take humanity to discover new technologies that can accomplish the same thing cheaper and faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26957755",
"title": "Space travel using constant acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Interstellar travel.:Feasibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "A related issue is drag. If the near light-speed space craft is interacting with matter or energy that is moving slowly in the planetary reference frame—solar wind, magnetic fields, cosmic microwave background radiation—this will cause drag which will bleed off a portion of the engine's acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37839",
"title": "Ion thruster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Ion thrust engines are practical only in the vacuum of space and cannot take vehicles through the atmosphere because ion engines do not work in the presence of ions outside the engine. Additionally, the engine's minuscule thrust cannot overcome any significant air resistance. Spacecraft rely on conventional chemical rockets to initially reach orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155758",
"title": "Gravity assist",
"section": "Section::::Limits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking. There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32185736",
"title": "Jitter (optics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "For spacecraft, operation in a vacuum often means low mechanical damping. Meanwhile, spacecraft are compact and rigid, to withstand high launch loads. Jitter, then, is transmitted easily and often a limiting factor for high-resolution optics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2860340",
"title": "Electrodynamic tether",
"section": "Section::::Tether propulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "As part of a \"tether propulsion\" system, crafts can use long, strong conductors (though not all tethers are conductive) to change the orbits of spacecraft. It has the potential to make space travel significantly cheaper. When direct current is applied to the tether, it exerts a Lorentz force against the magnetic field, and the tether exerts a force on the vehicle. It can be used either to accelerate or brake an orbiting spacecraft. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49553622",
"title": "DEEP-IN",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "DEEP-IN would use an array of small lasers to focus a stream of photons onto reflectors on spacecraft, eliminating the need for spacecraft to carry propellant and therefore significantly lowering their mass. Photon momentum would be translated to the spacecraft, and reflectors enable a theoretical twofold increase in momentum transfer compared to a blackbody surface. The project anticipates it could carry femtosatellites weighing grams at approximately 0.25 times the speed of light, and still have significant maximum speed on larger spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12718563",
"title": "Gravity turn",
"section": "Section::::Use in orbital redirection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "For spacecraft missions where large changes in the direction of flight are necessary, direct propulsion by the spacecraft may not be feasible due to the large delta-v requirement. In these cases it may be possible to perform a flyby of a nearby planet or moon, using its gravitational attraction to alter the ship's direction of flight. Although this maneuver is very similar to the gravitational slingshot it differs in that a slingshot often implies a change in both speed and direction whereas the gravity turn only changes the direction of flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
250f92
|
Hebrew language revival
|
[
{
"answer": "It was about the national identity, not religious reasons. More religious segments of Judaism were historically (and often still are) skeptical of Zionism in general, of which the Hebrew revival was a part.\n\nFirst, some linguistic background. Hebrew went extinct by the 2nd century. But it remained in use in Jewish communities as the language of the liturgy, Jewish texts, and religious literature. Synagogues still generally used Hebrew biblical texts, religious learners still learned Jewish texts, Rabbis still wrote Hebrew commentaries. Jews were generally literate in Hebrew script, and used it for writing non-Hebrew languages in many cases.\n\nThe revival of Hebrew is an interesting linguistic topic. The father of Hebrew is Eliezer Ben-Yehudah. But the process began a bit before. During the 19th century, the Jewish literary revival involved making Jewish works of \"high\" literature, in both Hebrew and Yiddish. One product of this was a body of literature in Eastern Yiddish (Tevye the Milkman was a product of this, which of course became Fiddler on the Roof). Another was new literary writing in Hebrew, by authors like Chayim Nachman Bialik.\n\nIt's with this backdrop that we get a critically important, but sadly forgotten, Zionist named Ahad Ha'am (that was his penname--his actual name was Asher Grinsberg. Ahad Ha'am means \"one of the nation\"). There were several strands of Zionism in the late 19th century. His was sometimes called \"cultural Zionism\". He saw the establishment of a Jewish state as the ultimate expression of this Jewish cultural revival. Just as writing literature would revitalize Jewish writing, a Jewish state would revitalize all aspects of Jewish life. He saw Zionists like Herzl as being sort of half-assed. They wanted to help Jews, yes, but they didn't want to really make Jews a more vibrant nation. In essence, he saw Herzl et al as trying to create a \"state of Jews\", while he wanted a Jewish state. He didn't think it was practical to just get Jews to migrate to Palestine--you'd need a cultural revival to get people interested in such a national enterprise\n\nAnd he wrote these objections in Hebrew. One of his bigger essays, זה לא דרך (Hebrew for \"this is not the way\"), where he outlined his objections. Trying to build a state out of nothing is pointless--first, Jews have to be inspired by a revitalization of Jewish culture.\n\nAround this time Eliezer Ben-Yehudah started working to revive Hebrew. He did a few things to this end. He wrote a Hebrew-language newspaper based in Jerusalem. He raised his son as a native monolingual Hebrew speaker. He wrote a Hebrew dictionary, including a number of coined words for new concepts.\n\nTo address your initial question, there were religious objections to this. Hebrew was, in Jewish parlance, *lashon kodesh/loshn koshesh*, the Holy Tongue. It had a religious significance. And many objected to its use in daily affairs. It was a particular point of controversy for Eliezer Ben-Yehudah in Jerusalem, which had a large religious population.\n\nWith this intellectual and ideological backing, combined with someone doing the legwork, Hebrew slowly started to gain ground. In the early 1900s Zionists incorporated Revisionist Zionist lingo into the language arguement. They saw Yiddish as an exilic language, which was to be eschewed for the *real* Jewish language, Hebrew. This active objection to other languages, combined with the ideological advantage of a Jewish revival it provided, gave it strength.\n\nPerhaps the solidifying moment was in the establishment of the Technion. It's a scientific univerisity in Haifa. There were intense debates about what its language should be. On one hand, German was the language of scientific discourse at the time. On the other, it was a institution in the Jewish statehood enterprise, and it should use the Jewish language. Eventually, Hebrew won out.\n\nSo propelled by a couple pieces of Zionist ideology, Hebrew managed to become the language of what would become Israel.\n\nEdited to remove typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1361082",
"title": "Language death",
"section": "Section::::Language revitalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The revival of the Hebrew language in Israel is the only example of a language's acquiring new first language speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a liturgical language. Even in the case of Hebrew, there is a theory that argues that \"the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue(s).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6744873",
"title": "Revival of the Hebrew language",
"section": "Section::::Revival of spoken Hebrew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Nonetheless, Ghil'ad Zuckermann believes that \"Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mother tongue of the vast majority of language revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew\". According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew with Semitic grammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their European background. He argues that their attempt to deny their European roots, negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. \"Had the language revivalists been Arabic-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language—both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6744873",
"title": "Revival of the Hebrew language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The language's revival eventually brought linguistic additions with it. While the initial leaders of the process insisted they were only continuing \"from the place where Hebrew's vitality was ended\", what was created represented a broader basis of language acceptance; it includes characteristics derived from all periods of Hebrew language, as well as from the non-Hebrew languages used by the long-established European, North African, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities, with Yiddish (the European variant) being predominant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6744873",
"title": "Revival of the Hebrew language",
"section": "Section::::Revival of spoken Hebrew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "The revival of spoken Hebrew can be separated into three stages, which are concurrent with (1) the First Aliyah, (2) the Second Aliyah, and (3) the British Mandate period. In the first period, the activity centered on Hebrew schools in the Settlements and in the Pure Language Society; in the second period, Hebrew was used in assembly meetings and public activities; and in the third period, it became the language used by the Yishuv, the Jewish population during the Mandate Period, for general purposes. At this stage, Hebrew possessed both spoken and written forms, and its importance was reflected in the official status of Hebrew during the British Mandate. All of the stages were characterized by the establishment of many organizations that took an active and ideological part in Hebrew activities. This resulted in the establishment of Hebrew high schools (גימנסיות), the Hebrew University, the Jewish Legion, the Histadrut labor organization, and in Tel Aviv—the first Hebrew city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376042",
"title": "Study of the Hebrew language",
"section": "Section::::Jewish scholars of Hebrew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Eliezer Ben-Yehuda is the main revivalist of Hebrew as a modern spoken language, although in his book \"Language in Time of Revolution\", Israeli scholar Benjamin Harshav diminishes Ben-Yehuda's role and attributes the success of the revival to a wider movement in the Jewish society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6744873",
"title": "Revival of the Hebrew language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1472,
"text": "The revival of the Hebrew language took place in Europe and Palestine toward the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, through which the language's usage changed from the sacred language of Judaism to a spoken and written language used for daily life in Israel. The process began as a diversity of Jews started arriving and establishing themselves alongside the pre-existing Jewish community in the region of Palestine in the first half of the nineteenth century, when veteran Jews in Palestine (largely Arabic-speaking by that time) and the linguistically diverse newly arrived Jews all switched to use Hebrew as a lingua franca, the historical linguistic common denominator of all the Jewish groups. At the same time, a parallel development in Europe changed Hebrew from primarily a sacred liturgical language into a literary language which played a key role in the development of nationalist educational programs. Modern Hebrew was one of three official languages of Mandatory Palestine, and after the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, one of two official languages of Israel, along with Modern Arabic. In July 2018, a made Hebrew the sole official language of the state of Israel, with Arabic having \"special status\". More than purely a linguistic process, the revival of Hebrew was utilized by Jewish modernization and political movements, and became a tenet of the ideology associated with settlement of the land, Zionism and Israeli policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6744873",
"title": "Revival of the Hebrew language",
"section": "Section::::Revival of literary Hebrew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "The revival of the Hebrew language in practice advanced in two parallel strains: The revival of written-literary Hebrew and the revival of spoken Hebrew. In the first few decades, the two processes were not connected to one another and even occurred in different places: Literary Hebrew was renewed in Europe's cities, whereas spoken Hebrew developed mainly in Palestine. The two movements began to merge only in the beginning of the 1900s, and an important point in this process was the immigration of Haim Nahman Bialik to Palestine in 1924. But after the transfer of literary Hebrew to Palestine, a substantial difference between spoken and written Hebrew remained, and this difference persists today. The characteristics of spoken Hebrew only began to seep into literature in the 1940s, and only in the 1990s did spoken Hebrew start widely appearing in novels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fdnkv
|
What was the source of gunpowder for the colonial militias during the American Revolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't have much analysis that can add to their own words. From the Journals of the Continental Congress, Saturday, June 10, 1775:\n > Resolved: That it be, and is hereby earnestly recommended to the several Colonies of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut and the interior towns of Massachusetts bay, that they immediately furnish the American army before Boston with as much powder out of their town, and other publick stocks as they can possibly spare; keeping an exact account of the quantities supplied, that it may be again replaced, or paid for by the Continent; this to be effected with the utmost secrecy and dispatch.\n\n > That it be recommended to the committees of the several towns and districts in the colonies of the Massachusetts bay, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, and the eastern division of New Jersey, to collect all the salt petre and brimstone in their several towns and districts, and transmit the same, with all possible despatch, to the provincial Convention at New York.\n\n > That it be recommended to the provincial Congress ∥convention∥ of the colony of New York, to have the powder Mills, in that colony, put into such a condition as immediately to manufacture, into gun powder, for the use of the Continent, whatever materials may be procured in the manner above directed.\n\n > That it be recommended to the committees of the western division of New Jersey, the colonies of Pensylvania, lower counties on Delaware and Maryland, that they, without delay, collect the salt petre and sulphur in their respective Colonies, and transmit the same to the committee for the city and liberties of Philadelphia; to the end, that those articles may be immediately manufactured into gun powder, for the use of the continent. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The American colonists had very limited supplies of gunpowder and very limited capacity for manufacturing more of it (precise figures are in the link.) Had there not been a foreign source of gunpowder it is very doubtful that they could have been successful in their revolution. Who was this crucial benefactor? [Why the liberty loving King of France Louis XVI.](_URL_1_)\n\nIt's easy to forget that North America remained a side theater to European conflicts. Without France's self interested support there couldn't have been American independence.\n\n[Here's another link with more detailed figures]( _URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This doesn't really answer your question other than saying the gunpowder wasn't made domestically.\n\nHowever, the first gunpowder mill in the US was the Eleutherian Mills near Wilmington, DE. It was run by the DuPonts shortly after the revolutionary war. It was also the start of their industrial empire.\n\nI can't link to anything currently, but there is a wiki page about the mill. You might also look into the Hagley Museum, which is located near the mill and contains loads of information about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "135112",
"title": "Elizabethton, Tennessee",
"section": "Section::::History.:American Revolutionary War.:Overmountain Men Muster for the Battle of Kings Mountain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Prior to the American Revolutionary War very little gunpowder had been made in the colonies, and most was imported from Britain. In October 1777, the British Parliament banned the importation of gunpowder into the American colonies. In preparation for the overmountain march, five hundred pounds of black powder was manufactured for the Overmountain Men by Mary Patton and her husband at their Gap Creek powder mill. The Overmountain Men stored the Patton black powder on the rainy first night of their march in a dry cave known as the Shelving Rock that is located near Roan Mountain State Park at present-day Roan Mountain, Tennessee. During January 1781, the Overmountain Men also fought the British at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8513712",
"title": "Roan Mountain (Roan Highlands)",
"section": "Section::::History.:American Revolutionary War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Prior to the Revolution, very little gunpowder had been made in the United States. During the colonial period, most gunpowder used in America had been manufactured in Britain. In October 1777, the British Parliament banned the importation of gunpowder into the rebellious American colonies. To supply the Overmountain Men, five hundred pounds of black powder was manufactured by Mary Patton and her husband at their Gap Creek powder mill in present-day Elizabethton. On the first night of the march from Sycamore Shoals, the Overmountain Men stored the Patton black powder in a dry cave known as \"Shelving Rock\" to protect it from the rain. Shelving Rock is located along TN-143 just outside Roan Mountain State Park.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "947196",
"title": "USS Providence (1775)",
"section": "Section::::Service as \"Katy\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Gunpowder was an essential commodity, scarce in the Continental Army throughout the Revolutionary War and desperately low during the first year of the struggle for independence. Late in the summer of 1775, the shortage in Washington's army besieging Boston became so severe that he was unable to use his artillery, and his riflemen would have been unable to repel an attack had the British taken the offensive. Cooke, therefore, ordered Whipple to cruise for two weeks off Sandy Hook, New Jersey to intercept a powder-laden packet expected from London. He was then to proceed to Bermuda to capture the powder stored in the British magazine there. \"Katy\" departed Narragansett Bay on 12 September but caught no sight of the packet. Upon reaching Bermuda, Whipple learned that the powder from the magazine was already en route to Philadelphia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1862328",
"title": "Powder Alarm",
"section": "Section::::Colonial reaction.:Portsmouth Alarm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Stores of gunpowder—typically referred to by Loyalists as \"the King's powder\" but in contrast by Patriots as \"the militia's powder\"—were also carried off from forts in Newport, Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island, and New London, Connecticut, and distributed to the militias in towns away from the coast. Cannon and other supplies were smuggled out of Boston and Charlestown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "450957",
"title": "Gun politics in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Colonial era through the Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "These two incidents were the attempt to confiscate the cannon of the Concord and Lexington militias, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord of April 19, 1775, and the attempt, on April 20, to confiscate militia powder stores in the armory of Williamsburg, Virginia, which led to the Gunpowder Incident and a face-off between Patrick Henry and hundreds of militia members on one side and the Royal Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, and British seamen on the other. The Gunpowder Incident was eventually settled by paying the colonists for the powder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16794292",
"title": "History of Williamsburg, Virginia",
"section": "Section::::18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Beginning in April 1775, the Gunpowder Incident, a dispute between Governor Dunmore and Virginia colonists over gunpowder (stored in the Williamsburg Magazine) evolved into an important event in the run-up to the American Revolution. Dunmore, fearing another rebellion, ordered royal marines to seize gunpowder from the magazine. Virginia militia led by Patrick Henry responded to the \"theft\" and marched on Williamsburg. A standoff ensued, with Dunmore threatening to destroy the city if attacked by the militia. The dispute was resolved when payment for the powder was arranged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14991988",
"title": "Oswald Eve",
"section": "Section::::Birth of the Frankford Powder-Mill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "In 1774, Eve built a water-powered factory for producing gunpowder on Frankford Creek in Frankford, which was then a village outside Philadelphia. Prior to the American Revolutionary War, Eve's powder mill at Wingohocking Street and Adams Avenue, was the only one in operation in the colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ctl2kg
|
when cops and dea agents perform undercover drugs busts where do they obtain said drugs?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think most of the time they act as the buyers, not the sellers. They are trying to work their way UP the ladder, not down, so they want the dealers, not the end users. \n\nSo they just make multiple buys from a small dealer, then bust him, and try to flip him to be a double agent in exchange for less jail time. Then they try to get him to introduce them to the next step up the ladder and do some bigger buys from him, then bust him and try to flip him also. \n\nThen they just repeat this process as high as they can go, but the higher they go and the less productive the undercover operation is, as it takes much longer to gain trust, and get to the real kingpin instead of one of his flunkies or lieutenants, plus the buy quantity needs to keep escalating and it's hard to tell your boss down at the cop station, \"Hey, I need a million bucks to buy some drugs\" so there is really only so high they can go before it becomes completely unproductive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know of a movie/film prop house in Atlanta that makes fake drugs specifically for drug busts. Also film. They also specialize in high quality fake money for film which involved years of talks with the Secret Service to figure out what could be allowed. I guess that's part of where the connections were made for the fake drug supply stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While the other comments here are are accurate, the DEA does keep a small quantity of drugs on hand if there is a need to have _actual_ drugs used in sting operations.\n\nThese drugs are obtained from other drug busts, and are simply not destroyed after the trial (as is customary for drugs seized as evidence).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2066412",
"title": "Johnny Stool Pigeon",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "A narcotics agent convinces a convict he helped send to Alcatraz go undercover with him to help expose a heroin drug smuggling ring. The unlikely pair travels from San Francisco to Vancouver and finally to a dude ranch in Tucson which is run by mob bosses. They end up getting help breaking the case from the gang leader's dingy blonde girlfriend (Winters), who falls for the narcotics agent during the sting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60353906",
"title": "The Legend of Cocaine Island",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A man goes looking for cocaine on an island. Some cops (undercover) offer to help by taking the map and getting the coke in exchange for half. The cops (still undercover) send the man a picture of a hole with a bag in it, implying that cocaine is in the bag. They ask the man to come to a parking lot to give him his cut. At this time they arrest him for conspiracy. It was a witch hunt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43951082",
"title": "L.A. Slasher",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The Drug Dealers come to the desert looking for the location of an underground drug lab. One of the Drug Dealers reveals himself to be an Undercover Cop after calling in the discovery of The Stripper’s body lying in the sand. The other Drug Dealer shoots the Undercover Cop, but The Slasher then kills the Drug Dealer with a machete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51036",
"title": "Prohibition of drugs",
"section": "Section::::Methods of law enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Investigation on drug trafficking often begins with the recording of unusually frequent deaths by overdose, monitoring financial flows of suspected traffickers, or by finding concrete elements while inspecting for other purposes. For example, a person pulled over for traffic violations may have illicit drugs in his or her vehicle, thus leading to an arrest and/or investigation of the source of the materials. The United States federal government has placed a premium on disrupting the large drug trafficking organizations that move narcotics into and around the United States, while state and local law enforcement focus on disrupting street-level drug dealing gangs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2120933",
"title": "An Innocent Man (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Detectives Mike Parnell (David Rasche) and Danny Scalise (Richard Young) are crooked narcotics cops who steal the drugs they seize at busts for their own recreational drug use and to sell to dealers, brutalizing or framing anyone who gets in their way. One of their regular customers for stolen drugs is Joseph Donatelli (J.J. Johnston), a high-level mobster. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15045360",
"title": "Hollywood Police Department (Florida)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In 2007, several Hollywood Police Department officers were implicated in a wide-reaching corruption investigation by the FBI, and a few officers turned state's evidence in order to reduce their potential sentences. Four officers were jailed for trafficking in heroin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045576",
"title": "Blue wall of silence",
"section": "Section::::Cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In the later 1990s, the FBI arrested 42 officers from five law enforcement agencies in 1998 on charges of conspiracy to distribute cocaine. In a 1998 report to U.S. Congressman Charles B. Rangel, the federal General Accounting Office (GAO) found evidence of growing police involvement in drug sales, theft of drugs and money from drug dealers, and perjured testimony about illegal searches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4qy10k
|
what happens to clothing that isn't sold?
|
[
{
"answer": "What you're asking about is the retail chain. For most products, it works like this:\n\nManufacturer makes a product, and markets it to retailers, who place orders in various quantities. They ship the orders, and the retailers sell it in line with their contract with the manufacturer. Using your example, Levi doesn't want to compete with itself or have the price fall so low it causes perceived value issues, so they may have a minimum price the jeans can be sold for.\n\nAfter a certain point, the unsold merchandise will go through a series of price reductions via sales, promotions, bogos, and ultimately end up on clearance.\n\nThe merchandise remaining after the clearance sale will be sent to the retailers distribution centers and bundled into lots. These lots are sold to discount outlets. For clothes, that would be places like Marshall's, Kohl's, TJ Maxx, etc.\n\nThey go through the same price reduction process as before, only becoming cheaper still. These places do hold on to merchandise for a considerable amount of time. You can find some relics at Big Lots, for example.\n\nIf the merchandise is still sitting unsold, it often ends up being put back in lots and re-auctioned to the bottom feeders of the retail chain - flea marketeers, eBay and Amazon wanna be moguls, etc.\n\nAt that point, the merchandise that doesn't sell is either so severely discounted, you are literally only paying for the shipping and storage, or it is finally liquidated via donation for tax purposes.\n\nOr, you fill a warehouse with it, wait a respectable amount of time, and light a match.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends there are a few companies that will dependent on the manufacturer's (or the company that had them made for them) wishes will either:\n\n- destroy them\n- remove all identifing features and sell them in some country where the manufacturer is not present in the market.\n- simply sell them in some far away country\n- or simply sell them off to clearence stores / dollar stores or similar",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something funny to think about is that they print \"Superbowl Champion\" shirts for both teams so somewhere in Africa, there are a bunch of kids running around in Seattle 2015 shirts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm surprised there isn't more mention here about the companies that do just destroy and throw away the unsold clothes, it's actually a pretty large problem. Just so a quick Google, there's been a lot of flack about this lately.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38180",
"title": "Clothing",
"section": "Section::::Functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Clothing has been made from a very wide variety of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses), worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or those that serve a function other than protection (eyeglasses), are normally considered accessories rather than clothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997664",
"title": "Used good",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Used clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "In developed countries, unwanted used clothing is often donated to charities that sort and sell it. Some of these distribute some of the clothing to people on low incomes for free or a very low price. Others sell all of the collected clothing in bulk to a commercial used clothing redistributor, and then use the raised funds to finance their activities. In the U.S., almost 5 billion pounds of clothing is donated to charity shops each year. Only about 10% of it can be re-sold by the charity shops. About a third of the donated clothing is bought, usually in bulk and at a heavy discount, by commercial dealers and fabric recyclers, who export it to other countries. Some of the used clothes are also smuggled into Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12675756",
"title": "Sustainable fashion",
"section": "Section::::Sustainable clothing through charities.:Clothing donations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Generally, charitable organizations often sell donated clothing rather than directly giving the clothing away. Charities keep 10% of donated clothing for their high quality and retail value for the thrift shops. Charities sell the rest of the donations to textile recycling businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31850148",
"title": "Global trade of secondhand clothing",
"section": "Section::::Secondhand clothing: a recycling option.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The customer base of secondhand clothing market is usually extremely cost-conscious and often promotes the ideologies of sustainability and environmentalism. Secondhand clothing, after all, is the recycling of used and/or unwanted clothing, and this reciprocal buy/sell/trade transaction between the customer and the retailer saves an incalculable amount of unwanted clothing from dumps and landfills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38180",
"title": "Clothing",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:Clothing maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials like these inevitably age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12675756",
"title": "Sustainable fashion",
"section": "Section::::Sustainable clothing through charities.:Consignment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "In layman’s terms, a clothing consignment shop sells clothes that are owned not by the shop’s owner but by the individual who had given (or consigned) the items to the shop for the owner to sell. The shop owner/seller is the consignee and the owner of the items is the consignor. Both the consignor and the consignee receive portions of the profit made from the item. However, the consignor will not be paid until the items are sold. Therefore, unlike donating clothing to charities, people who consign their clothes to shops can make profit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38180",
"title": "Clothing",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:Recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It can also be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Used clothing is also often collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries. Globally, used clothes are worth $4 billion with the US as the leading exporter at $575 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7lc8hh
|
how is a single injection of a drug able to provide months of therapy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Esterification of an injectable steroid basically accomplishes one thing, it slows the release of the parent steroid from the site of injection. \nThis happens because the ester will notably lower the water solubility of the steroid, and increase its lipid (fat) solubility. This will cause the drug to form a deposit in the muscle tissue, from which it will slowly enter into circulation as it is picked up in small quantities by the blood. Generally, the longer the ester chain, the lower the water solubility of the compound, and the longer it will take to for the full dosage to reach general circulation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20840716",
"title": "Vitamin D deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Initial phase.:Single-dose therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Alternatively, a single-dose therapy is used for instance if there are concerns regarding the patient's compliance. The single-dose therapy can be given as an injection, but is normally given in form of an oral medication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19933497",
"title": "Infusion therapy",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Infusion therapy involves the administration of medication through a needle or catheter. Typically, \"infusion therapy\" means that a drug is administered intravenously or subcutaneously. The term may pertain where drugs are provided through other non-oral routes of administration, such as intramuscular injection and epidural administration (into the membranes surrounding the spinal cord).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6447865",
"title": "Drug injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "A wide variety of drugs are injected, often opioids: these may include legally prescribed medicines and medication such as morphine, as well as stronger compounds often favored in recreational drug use, which are often illegal. Although there are various methods of taking drugs, injection is favoured by some people as the full effects of the drug are experienced very quickly, typically in five to ten seconds. It also bypasses first-pass metabolism in the liver, resulting in higher bioavailability and efficiency for many drugs (such as morphine or diacetylmorphine/heroin; roughly two-thirds of which is destroyed in the liver when consumed orally) than oral ingestion would. The effect is that the person gets a stronger (yet shorter-acting) effect from the same amount of the drug. Drug injection is therefore often related to substance dependence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40542151",
"title": "History and culture of substituted amphetamines",
"section": "Section::::Illicit drug culture.:Recreational use.:Recreational routes of administration.:Injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "Drug injection via intravenous administration, intramuscular administration, or subcutaneous administration carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. The doses used by recreational intravenous users vary widely, with a range of 1–200 times the doses used therapeutically (i.e., up to several grams). Intravenous users risk developing pulmonary embolism (PE), a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches, and commonly develop skin rashes or infections at the site of injection. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis, can be transmitted. The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug-injection users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3378502",
"title": "Palifermin",
"section": "Section::::Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Palifermin is administered via intravenous bolus injection. The drug comes as a lyophilized powder that must be reconstituted with sterile water for injection before it may be administered. It is given for three days before, and three days after chemotherapy is undergone. However, it is important that the drug is not administered within 24 hours of the actual chemotherapy process. This drug is most commonly dosed in a hospital setting, but can be taken at home as per specific instructions regarding preparation and storage from a doctor. The recommended dosage consists of 60 µg/kg/day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24210413",
"title": "Heroin-assisted treatment",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "In the case of heroin-assisted treatment however, users are provided with a form of pharmaceutical-grade heroin injection solution which doctors consider fit for injection. And as doctors refrain from drastic changes in dose and provide post-injection monitoring, overdoses are rare and can be quickly treated with opioid antagonists like naloxone. Thus, patients in heroin-assisted treatment are relieved from the major complex of problems that defines illicit heroin use. Synthetic heroin taken under the aforementioned conditions is not neurotoxic and has few long-term side effects beside constipation and dependency. And while it had been speculated that the availability of such treatment options might change public perception of the risks associated with drug use and might lead to an increase in illicit drug use, the incidence of heroin abuse in Switzerland has declined sharply since the introduction of heroin-assisted treatment. As a study published in The Lancet concluded:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6190706",
"title": "Ranibizumab",
"section": "Section::::Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The drug is injected intravitreally (into the vitreous humour of the eye) once a month. If monthly injections are not feasible, the regimen may be reduced to 1 injection every 3 months after the first 4 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13hp7g
|
How does amputation early in life affect growth of the amputated limb?
|
[
{
"answer": "Typically amputated limbs do not grow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27162986",
"title": "Arterial embolism",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "If extensive necrosis and gangrene has set in an arm or leg, the limb may have to be amputated. Limb amputation is in itself usually remarkably well tolerated, but is associated with a substantial mortality (~50%), primarily because of the severity of the diseases in patients where it is indicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338154",
"title": "Wound",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.:Complications.:Chronic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "As many as 25% of diabetic patients will eventually develop foot ulcers, and recurrence within five years is 70%. If not aggressively treated, these wounds can lead to amputations. It is estimated that every 30 seconds a lower limb is amputated somewhere in the world because of a diabetic wound. Amputation often triggers a downward spiral of declining quality of life, frequently leading to disability and death. In fact, only about one third of diabetic amputees will live more than five years, a survival rate equivalent to that of many cancers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7528524",
"title": "Replantation",
"section": "Section::::Recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Outcome of major limb replantations can be predicted by the potassium level of the blood which flows out of the replanted part after revascularization as a high level of potassium can be a marker of muscle and tissue death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53661259",
"title": "Gait deviations",
"section": "Section::::Lower-limb amputations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "Over 185,000 amputations occur annually, with approximately 86% of incidents being lower-limb amputations. The majority of cases are reportedly caused by vascular disease (54%) and trauma (45%). Lower-limb amputees are further categorized by where the amputation occurs with respect to the knee joint. However, 34.5% of individuals with an initial foot or ankle amputation experience a progression of symptoms leading to subsequent amputations at higher levels of limb loss. Out of these reamputation cases, diabetic patients had a higher likelihood of requiring further amputations, regardless of initial amputation location. The rate of amputation has decreased significantly with the introduction and optimization of revascularization to combat vascular disease. An increasingly studied trend in amputation rates is the gender disparity of women receiving more surgical revascularization treatments and less amputations than male counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "853501",
"title": "Erythromelalgia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Amputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Because of the severity of the pain in erythromelalgia, and the lack of good pain medication then, there have been reports dating back to 1903 of amputation of the affected limb. In 1903 H. Batty Shaw reported that in three cases the pain was so severe, and that the affected extremities are so useless, that amputation was performed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9126890",
"title": "Open fracture",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Before the 1850s, surgeons usually amputated the limbs for those with open fractures, as it was associated with severe sepsis and gangrene which can be life threatening. It was only until the 20th century, when Joseph Lister adopted the aseptic technique in surgeries, that the rate of death from open fractures reduced from 50% to 9%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992",
"title": "Amputation",
"section": "Section::::Trauma.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2johqv
|
Were legendary swords actually a thing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Heya guys, just popping in here to issue a quick reminder as to the [standards we uphold in this subreddit.](_URL_0_) Not a single one of the answers so far has measured up to those standards, including posts along the lines of:\n\n* \"I don't know a great deal about this but as there are no other replies I'll have a go\"\n* \"This one (Wiki link)\"\n* \"Link to Youtube 'popumentary'\" (We've had 6 or 7 different posts linking to the Ulfbehrt video, which is about as far from academic as you can get.) \n\nAlso, please remember the three things to ask yourself before posting:\n\n1. Do I, personally, actually know a lot about the subject at hand?\n2. Am I essentially certain that what I know about it is true?\n3. Am I prepared to go into real detail about this?\n\nIf any one of these is answered with a \"no,\" then please think twice about posting.\n\nThanks so much for your consideration! :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know for sure there were coronation swords - for example Szczerbiec of Piast dynasty, the only surviving part of crown jewels of Piasts, currently displayed in Kraków. The name translates to \"Jagged Sword\" or \"Notched Sword\" and the legend has it the sword was chipped by Bolesław Chrobry against Golden Gate of Kiev during his capture of the city - purely a myth, as the capture took place in 1018, and the gate was constructed in 1037. The sword is a symbol of Poland, used throughout 20th century and to this day even by nationalists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a prior thread that addressed this topic: _URL_0_\n\nHope you find something you wanted to know, I thought it was a good thread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sorry OP: do you mean a real, existing weapons that hold high reputation, or simply a legendary or semi-legendary weapons (which existence is doubted)?\n\nIf it is the latter, I guess I'm going to mention a rather not-well known Asian weapon. The Javanese people in Indonesia has a huge fascination with *keris*, a dagger-like weapon. Back in the pre-modern times every Javanese man who is considered as adult, no matter whether he's rich or poor, always have at least one keris in his home. This tradition is well-documented in Tome Pires' *Suma Oriental*. Today we can still see the Javanese wield decorative keris in very formal events, such as weddings or, in case of Jogjakarta (a province in Indonesia which retains the autonomy for operating as sultanate), in sultanate-related events.\n\nOne famous legend is of the Keris Mpu Gandring.\n\nIt was wielded by Ken Arok, a bandit-turned-king. Once upon a time during his life he encountered Ken Dedes, a beautiful wife of Tunggul Ametung, a provincial of Tumapel. He told his mentor of this encounter, and the mentor told Arok that whoever man who took Dedes as his wife would be a king of prosperous kingdom. Arok, already infatuated with Dedes, then desired to murder Ametung, marry Dedes, and become a famous king. \n\nIn traditional Javanese belief, a man with high position such as Ametung is believed to hold a supernatural power. So Arok needed a special weapon to be able to kill Ametung. He asked Mpu Gandring, a famous keris-smith, to make such weapon. Gandring fulfilled Arok's request and asked him to wait several months. However after several months and a number of visits, Arok grew tired of waiting. So he took the keris (it's already exceptional at that time, just need some more imbuing with supernatural power), and murdered Gandring. With his last breath, Gandring cursed the keris, and told Arok that he and his seven generation of descendants will be killed by the same keris.\n\nLong story short, Arok murdered Ametung, married Ken Dedes, and built the Kingdom of Singhasari. However his rule was short, as Ametung's son, Anusapati, murdered him during his reign. Later on, Anusapati got murdered himself by Arok's son, Panji Tohjaya. Then Tohjaya's rule ended when Anusapati's son, Wisnuwardhana, rebelled. Tohjaya was wounded severely and died while seeking refugee.\n\nWhether they were all wounded and murdered by the same keris remains a question, but it is what the Javanese believed until today. The story of Arok's ascension, along with the murder of Ametung and the tragedy that followed are real though.\n\nThere are many other keris, like Keris Setan Kober, Keris Condong Campur, Keris Kyai Omyang, etc, but Keris Mpu Gandring is the most famous. Many are believed to have supernatural power. Keris Kyai Omyang, which was wielded by one of anti-colonial heroes in 19th century, Prince Diponegoro, now resides in Sasana Wiratama Museum, Jogjakarta.\n\nThe only source written in English I can recall dealing with this subject, albeit only briefly, is Benedict Anderson's *The Idea of Power in Javanese Culture*. Others I know unfortunately are in Indonesian.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Related question if anyone knows: Is Kusanagi (the Japanese national treasure) thought to still exist, or is it more likely to have been lost?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Does the Sword of Goujian count? It probably dates to 500-300BC, was owned by a king (since engravings on the sword itself says so), and is remarkable for being a copper/bronze-age sword that remains untarnished. Maybe this one doesn't count as legendary because it's an archaeological artifact and not mentioned in legends.\n\nOn Tiger Hill in Suzhou, China, there is a boulder called \"Sword Testing Stone\" and legend says that the boulder was split in half by one of the emperors who lived there using his legendary sword.\n\nSecondly, Guan Yu was a legendary General who wielded a legendary pole-arm. I'm not sure if this is only legend or historical. I was taught that it was real, but Wikipedia says that there's no historical evidence either way.\n\nI'm not a Chinese historian, but mention these as they either haven't been mentioned below or in similar threads. Hopefully a Chinese historian will be able to fill in the details and mention any other legendary Chinese weapons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I really like this question - sure there have been a lot of named swords, but getting down to the reason why they're named is deeply fascinating when there's a story to be found.\n\nSo to answer directly - yes! There absolutely were swords that had reputations to go along with their names. The vast majority of them would qualify as being 'well made' or at least perceived so even if they failed and broke in some way. The truly legendary swords though, were believed to have something special about them though - whether some magic, an other-worldly quality or a personality all their own.\n\nOne such sword was Skofnung - the sword of the Danish King Hrolf Kraki. The sword in Kraki's time was revered for it's hardness, sharpness and was said to have been imbued with the spirits of twelve of his Berserks. It was also said to give a loud cry whenever it saw wounds. It had quite a reputation, and when Hrolf Kraki died, the sword was entombed with him in his burial howe.\n\nNow, in Scandinavian tradition it wasn't uncommon for valued possessions to be put to rest with it's owner rather than handed down. This led to a habit of retrieving weapons and armour from graves that is documented in a number of Norse sagas. These tales are often embellished with battles against the previous owner for the item, but they are at least rooted in factual history.\n\nSkofnung shows up in tales well after the time of Hrolf Kraki - notably in the hands of Skeggi of Midfjord who is said to have recovered the sword. It's at this time that we hear more about what makes Skofnung so special, and the particular way in which it has to be handled.\n\nSkofnung has with it a 'Life-stone' and it's said that a wound inflicted with the sword can only be healed if the life-stone is rubbed on the would first. Life-stones are mentioned in conjunction with a handful of other historical swords so while it isn't a unique feature, it does mark it as a special blade believed to have an otherworldly power about it.\n\nThen there are the rules to handling the sword. Skofnung came with a small bag on the pommel and it was said to never allow the sun to shine on the pommel directly. Also it was never to be drawn unless the wielder was ready for a fight. Then there was the little snake - when drawn the wielder should blow gently on the blade just below the guard and a little snake with creep out. When that happens the blade is to be inclined to allow the little snake to creep back in again. \n\nAs a side-note, the bit about the blade-snake isn't as crazy as it might sound. Skofnung was pattern welded from a number of metal rods, and made in several sections (typically three - a longer central section that was tempered to be softer and springier, and two hardened outer edges that were welded on). The metal rods were twisted and folded in the forging process which imbued a pattern in the blade. It is this pattern that, on Skofnung in particular, made a little 'snake' when the warm breath of a person in the cooler climate of Scandinavia, contacted the blade. \nNote: Googling 'pattern welded blade' will give you an idea of how the effect looks on a blade.\n\nThis is all very well explained because these are the things that weren't done when the famous sword was lent to a man named Kormac to fight a duel with a man named Bersi (who also had a sword, Hviting, which had a life-stone as well). Kormac ends up losing the duel and it's his failure to follow the sword's rituals that are blamed (which are believed to have imparted bad luck as he lost the fight when he cut the point off Hviting and it flew onto his hand, cut him and caused him to bleed first). \nFailing to observe the rules of the sword (and doing pretty much everything wrong) Kormac is forced to wrench Skofnung out of the scabbard and the sword was said to have come unwillingly and howling. It's also said that the luck of the sword was changed, which didn't work out so well for Kormac.\nIt's worth noting however that the sword served both Skeggi and his son for many years after this, with no mention of it's luck being damaged or changed in any way.\n\nSo, a long, somewhat rambling answer, but I think it covers off most of the points and shares a bit of an interesting story as well. I'd highly recommend checking out the sources I've listed below here - in particular Oakeshott's book is excellent.\n\n\nSources & Further Reading:\nThe Archaelology of Weapons, R. Ewart Oakeshott\n\nSkofnung on Wikipedia: _URL_0_\n\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60288134",
"title": "Weapons and armor in Chinese mythology",
"section": "Section::::Made by notable smiths.:Famous swords of Chinese legend or mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Various famous swords may be encountered Chinese legend or mythology. Some of these swords also appear in literary fiction; or, various other media, including comics and video games. There are two main types of sword: \"jian\" and \"dao\". Swords with estimated or presumed magical powers (or, that were especially well-made) were often designated by the epithet \"treasure\" (寶), as is the case with \"treasure \"jian\"\" (寶劍) and \"treasure\" dao\" (寶刀)\". Famous sword smiths documented in mythology include Ou Yezi and the husband and wife pair Gan Jiang and Mo Xie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20607949",
"title": "List of fictional swords",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "This article is a list of fictional swords in various pieces of literature, film and television.. For swords originating in mythology and legend, see List of mythological swords. Swords that originate in epic poems, tales and chronicles that were taken at one time as a \"true\" accounting of history rather than being composed as works of fiction, such as \"Beowulf\", \"The Tale of the Heike\" and the \"Kojiki\" of similar are not listed here, regardless of whether the swords themselves are believed by contemporary scholars to have existed historically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27863",
"title": "Sword",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistoric and ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The first weapons that can be described as \"swords\" date to around 3300 BC. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, and are about long. Some of them are inlaid with silver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4168623",
"title": "Turkic mythology",
"section": "Section::::Legends.:Legend of Timur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The legend of Timur (Temir) is the most ancient and well-known. Timur found a strange stone that fell from the sky (an iron ore meteorite), making the first iron sword from it. The word \"temür, temir or demir\" means \"iron\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1761514",
"title": "Magic sword",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In some traditions, the sword is ascribed no powers of its own. It is famous because it is the hero's sword, or because of its origin, as when a god gives it to the hero. Other swords keep their wielders safe or destroy their enemies. A more localized motif is the sword that has been broken and must be reforged, commonly found in Northern Europe. Such a sword symbolizes the initial defeat and loss of honor of its wielder. Subsequent victory and the restoration of honor is achieved by reforging it, either at the wielder's hand or that of his heir.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053370",
"title": "Middle-earth weapons and armour",
"section": "Section::::General items.:Knives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Knives are mentioned in Tolkien's works, sometimes as backup weapons—such as the nondescript long knife of Legolas the archer. However, some individual knives are given more significance through naming (e.g. Sting, see below). Weapons that were only knives or short swords for adult Men or Elves could function as formidable swords in the hands of Hobbits, a diminutive people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148653",
"title": "Terracotta Army",
"section": "Section::::Warrior figures.:Weaponry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt. Some carry inscriptions that date their manufacture to between 245 and 228 BCE, indicating that they were used before burial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dcac6
|
how quartz crystal resonators work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They rely on a piezo crystal. These crystals have the useful property that they generate a voltage if you squeeze them, and expand or contract if you apply a voltage. They are commonly used in lighters (squeezing them generates a high voltage, which causes a spark), speakers and ultra sound transducers(a rapidly oscillating voltage contracts and expands the crystal) and kitchen scales (putting a weight on them generates a voltage).\n\nAs a resonator, the crystal is tuned like a musical instrument to oscillate at a certain frequency, and combined with a small amplifying circuit. If you turn it on, it starts oscillating at a precise frequency, and never stops. Imagine it like a tuning fork, only that it never stops humming as long as you apply a voltage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quartz is Piezo Electrical. Which means if it moves it generates power. Or if power passes though it, it moves.\n\nThe Quartz Crystal is placed in contact with metal wall. Power passes though, Quartz moves, power is cut off, Quartz moves back, power is back on. As long as the circuit has power it'll produce a predictable On/Off/On/Off hundreds of thousands time per second forever. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Someone will be able to explain it better, however it basically oscillates at a specific frequency, if we apply a specific voltage. So, if we do apply that known voltage, we can count up its 'vibrations' so to speak, and we can use that to accurately measure time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a great Air Force training video that explains it like you're five. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979",
"title": "Crystal oscillator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. This frequency is often used to keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979",
"title": "Crystal oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Crystal oscillator circuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "An oscillator crystal has two electrically conductive plates, with a slice or tuning fork of quartz crystal sandwiched between them. During startup, the controlling circuit places the crystal into an unstable equilibrium, and due to the positive feedback in the system, any tiny fraction of noise is amplified, ramping up the oscillation. The crystal resonator can also be seen as a highly frequency-selective filter in this system: it only passes a very narrow subband of frequencies around the resonant one, attenuating everything else. Eventually, only the resonant frequency is active. As the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the signals in the crystal's frequency band becomes stronger, eventually dominating the output of the oscillator. The narrow resonance band of the quartz crystal filters out all the unwanted frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10792995",
"title": "Frequency synthesizer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "Quartz crystal resonators are many orders of magnitude more stable than LC circuits and when used to control the frequency of the local oscillator offer adequate stability to keep a receiver in tune. However the resonant frequency of a crystal is determined by its dimensions and cannot be varied to tune the receiver to different frequencies. One solution is to employ many crystals, one for each frequency desired, and switch the correct one into the circuit. This \"brute force\" technique is practical when only a handful of frequencies are required, but quickly becomes costly and impractical in many applications. For example, the FM radio band in many countries supports 100 individual channel frequencies from about 88 MHz to 108 MHz; the ability to tune in each channel would require 100 crystals. Cable television can support even more frequencies or channels over a much wider band. A large number of crystals increases cost and requires greater space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979",
"title": "Crystal oscillator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "A crystal oscillator, particularly one using a quartz crystal, works by distorting the crystal with an electric field, when voltage is applied to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz - which oscillates in a precise frequency - generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit, but with a much higher Q.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979",
"title": "Crystal oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator, a crystal, as its frequency-determining element. \"Crystal\" is the common term used in electronics for the frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes connected to it. A more accurate term for it is \"piezoelectric resonator\". Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979",
"title": "Crystal oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Crystal cuts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 1267,
"text": "Several resonator configurations are possible, in addition to the classical way of directly attaching leads to the crystal. E.g. the BVA resonator (Boîtier à Vieillissement Amélioré, Enclosure with Improved Aging), developed in 1976; the parts that influence the vibrations are machined from a single crystal (which reduces the mounting stress), and the electrodes are deposited not on the resonator itself but on the inner sides of two condenser discs made of adjacent slices of the quartz from the same bar, forming a three-layer sandwich with no stress between the electrodes and the vibrating element. The gap between the electrodes and the resonator act as two small series capacitors, making the crystal less sensitive to circuit influences. The architecture eliminates the effects of the surface contacts between the electrodes, the constraints in the mounting connections, and the issues related to ion migration from the electrodes into the lattice of the vibrating element. The resulting configuration is rugged, resistant to shock and vibration, resistant to acceleration and ionizing radiation, and has improved aging characteristics. AT cut is usually used, though SC cut variants exist as well. BVA resonators are often used in spacecraft applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40979",
"title": "Crystal oscillator",
"section": "Section::::Crystal oscillator circuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator. The rate of expansion and contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the crystal. When the energy of the generated output frequencies matches the losses in the circuit, an oscillation can be sustained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7dy4xi
|
What are the best examples of forgiveness and philanthropy and self-sacrifice from history?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [\"example seeking\" questions](_URL_1_). It's not that your question was bad; it's that these kinds of questions tend to produce threads that are collections of disjointed, partial, inadequate responses. If you have a question about a specific historical event, period, or person, feel free to rewrite your question and submit it again. If you don't want to rewrite it, you might try submitting it to /r/history, /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact. \n\nFor further explanation of the rule, feel free to consult [this META thread](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "246042",
"title": "Forgiveness",
"section": "Section::::Popular recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Forgiveness as a tool has been extensively used in restorative justice programs, after the abolition of apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa), run for victims and perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, the violence in Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Northern Ireland conflict, which has also been documented in film, \"\" (2012).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "38602267",
"title": "Beyond Right and Wrong",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Beyond Right & Wrong: Stories of Justice and Forgiveness is a 2012 American documentary film about restorative justice and forgiveness. It is directed by Roger Spottiswoode and Lekha Singh and produced by Lekha Singh and Rebecca Chaiklin. The film depicts victims and perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and The Troubles in Northern Ireland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218404",
"title": "Restorative justice",
"section": "Section::::In the media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The use of forgiveness as a tool has in the restorative justice programs, run for victims and perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, the violence in Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Northern Ireland conflict, has also been documented in film, \"\" (2012). A tribal form of restorative justice is portrayed in the book \"Touching Spirit Bear\" by Ben Mikaelsen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "41902597",
"title": "The Forgiveness Project",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "The Forgiveness Project is a UK-based charity that uses real stories of victims and perpetrators of crime and violence to help people explore ideas around forgiveness and alternatives to revenge. With no political or religious affiliations, The Forgiveness Project’s independent and inclusive approach ensures its core message – that everyone has the potential to change their perspective and break the cycle of vengeance – resonates across all cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32794677",
"title": "Theodore B. Sachs",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "No altar of civic patriotism ever held a more loyal offering than that on which Dr. Theodore B. Sachs sacrificed himself in life and death to save Chicago's Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium from ruthless partisan spoilsmen. In truth, many altars and offerings seemed to unite in that one costly sacrifice. Such supreme devotion to a cause as the Jewish religious spirit can beget, such self-sacrifice as the Russian oppression of the Jew incites, such idealism as only the Orient inspires, such sensitivity as the heritage of suffering weaves into the very texture of the soul, such humanitarian achievements as are possible only in America—all combined to make the achieving life and the tragic death of Dr. Sachs profoundly impressive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "198876",
"title": "Indian Removal Act",
"section": "Section::::Support and opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1142,
"text": "Humanity has often wept over the fate of the aborigines of this country and philanthropy has long been busily employed in devising means to avert it, but its progress has never for a moment been arrested, and one by one have many powerful tribes disappeared from the earth...But true philanthropy reconciles the mind to these vicissitudes as it does to the extinction of one generation to make room for another...In the monuments and fortresses of an unknown people, spread over the extensive regions of the West, we behold the memorials of a once powerful race, which was exterminated or has disappeared to make room for the existing savage tribes...Philanthropy could not wish to see this continent restored to the condition in which it was found by our forefathers. What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39865431",
"title": "Earning to give",
"section": "Section::::Proponents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1236,
"text": "In the 1996 book \"Living High and Letting Die\", the philosopher Peter Unger wrote that it was morally praiseworthy and perhaps even morally required for people in academia who could earn substantially greater salaries in the business world to leave academia, earn the greater salaries, and donate most of the extra money to charity. Moral philosopher Peter Singer has laid the foundations for effective altruism and earning to give in his 1971 essay \"\"Famine, Affluence and Morality\"\" and since advocated for donating considerable amounts of one's income to effective charitable organizations. Singer is a public proponent of effective altruism and endorsed earning to give in his 2013 TED talk. Associate Professor in Philosophy at Oxford University William MacAskill promoted earning to give as one possible high impact career in several news articles and in his 2015 book \"Doing Good Better: Effective Altruism and a Radical New Way to Make a Difference\". MacAskill is the co-founder and president of 80,000 Hours, a nonprofit which conducts research on careers with positive social impact and provides career advice. The organization recommends earning to give as a career path with a high impact potential for effective altruists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
4szktg
|
how does the 100 year old light bulb work?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe you're talking about the firehouse lightbulb that is 100 years old.\n\nThe answer is a combination of several things- the bulb has been fairly gently used, the power that it running it is lower than standard, the bulb itself is of a sturdier design than its modern replacements would be, and, IIRC, the bulb is in a dangling wire fixture, which provides some protection against vibrations from nearby traffic, activity in the building, or earthquakes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lightbulbs work by running current through a wire, making that wire get white-hot and using that whiteness as light. The hotter a lightbulb is, the whiter, and brighter, the light. The thinner the filament, the more light you get for a given amount of electrical power. Therefore, an efficient lightbulb needs thin wires. Thin wires break easily. Long-living lightbulbs are less efficient, dim, reddish and therefore have many drawbacks over conventional 1000 hour bulbs. But it makes for some nice headlines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's actually nowhere near as exceptional as you think. A huge proportion of the wear on light bulb filaments is to to thermal expansion and contraction from being turned on/off (this is why bulbs only ever to fail when you first turn them on). These very old bulbs are bulbs that have been left on continuously, so they don't get that wear: they just sit there, at a steady temperature, not being stressed in any way, so they don't fail. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "8429933",
"title": "Centennial Light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The Centennial Light is the world's longest-lasting light bulb, burning since 1901, and almost never switched off. It is at 4550 East Avenue, Livermore, California, and maintained by the Livermore-Pleasanton Fire Department. Due to its longevity, the bulb has been noted by \"The Guinness Book of World Records\", \"Ripley's Believe It or Not!\", and General Electric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530190",
"title": "Longest-lasting light bulbs",
"section": "Section::::Other long-lasting light bulbs.:Fourth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The fourth-longest-lasting light bulb is located in a fire house in Mangum, Oklahoma. The bulb is not attached to any special electrical supply, and when the power goes off, so does the bulb. The firefighters in Mangum are willing to show people the bulb as long as they're not busy with something else. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8429933",
"title": "Centennial Light",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The Centennial Light was originally a 30-watt (or 60-watt) bulb, but is now very dim, emitting about the same light as a 4-watt nightlight. The hand-blown, carbon-filament common light bulb was manufactured in Shelby, Ohio, by the Shelby Electric Company in the late 1890s; many just like it still exist and can be found functioning. According to Zylpha Bernal Beck, the bulb was donated to the Fire Department by her father, Dennis Bernal, in 1901. Bernal owned the Livermore Power and Water Company and donated the bulb to the fire station when he sold the company. That story has been supported by firefighter volunteers of that era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28644316",
"title": "Fingal Head Light",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "In 1980 the light was converted to electricity. The current light source is a modern FA-251 Beacon with a 12 Volt 75 Watt HL-2000 quartz halogen lamp. It is fed by mains electricity with a Battery standby. It revolves once every 30 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11728535",
"title": "Fort Canning Lighthouse",
"section": "Section::::History.:Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The light was created by a burner fuelled by kerosene, which generated 20,000 candlepower and itself was dioptric occulting type. The light was \"eclipsed\" (darkened) every 17 seconds by lowering a metal cylinder around the burner for 3 seconds, thus giving rise to the term\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8530190",
"title": "Longest-lasting light bulbs",
"section": "Section::::Edison and the Eternal Light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Thomas Edison designed a bulb that was supposed to last forever, called the Eternal Light, and turned it on on October 22, 1929. The bulb is located in the Edison Memorial Tower at the Thomas Edison Center at Menlo Park, as small museum near the tower in Menlo Park, New Jersey. The tower fell down in 1937, but the bulb's power was supposedly uninterrupted, according to General Electric, and the bulb continued to burn while a second tower was constructed. However, according to museum curator Jack Stanley, the bulb is fake, consisting of a hollow bulb illuminated by a series of automobile headlights mounted in the display's base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21416251",
"title": "Livermore-Pleasanton Fire Department",
"section": "Section::::Centennial Light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "LPFD Station 6 maintains the Centennial Light, the world's longest-lasting light bulb, Located at 4550 East Avenue in Livermore. The department says that the bulb is at least 117 years old and has been turned off only a handful of times. Due to its longevity, the bulb has been noted by \"The Guinness Book of World Records\", \"Ripley's Believe It or Not!\", and General Electric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fktct0
|
Why aren't you still contagious after you recover from a viral infection?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is absolutely not true that viruses remain in your body forever. There are a small subset of viruses that do that, but the vast, vast majority of viruses are completely eliminated from your body by the immune system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24481",
"title": "Provirus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "A latent infection may become productive in response to changes in the host's environmental conditions or health; the provirus may be activated and begin transcription of its viral genome. This can result in the destruction of its host cell because the cell's protein synthesis machinery is hijacked to produce more viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5069414",
"title": "Genital herpes",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Once infected, there is no cure. Antiviral medications, such as acyclovir, valacyclovir, may prevent outbreaks or shorten outbreaks if they occur. The long term use of antivirals may also decrease the risk of further spread. The longer a person has the virus, the less outbreak they experience and the harder it will be to transmit to others, due to these specialty antigens and a strengthened immune system response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3783315",
"title": "Virus latency",
"section": "Section::::Ramifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "While viral latency exhibits no active viral shedding nor causes any pathologies or symptoms, the virus is still able to reactivate via external activators (i.e. sunlight, stress) to cause an acute infection. In the case of herpes simplex virus, which generally infects an individual for life, a serotype of the virus reactivates occasionally to cause cold sores. Although the sores are quickly resolved by the immune system, they may be a minor annoyance from time to time. In the case of varicella zoster virus, after an initial acute infection (chickenpox) the virus lies dormant until reactivated as herpes zoster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17308296",
"title": "Gastroenterocolitis",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes/prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Gastroenteritis caused by viruses may last one to two days. Most people recover easily from a short episode of vomiting and diarrhea by drinking clear fluids to replace the fluid that was lost and then gradually progressing to a normal diet. But for others, especially infants and the elderly, the loss of bodily fluid with gastroenteritis can cause dehydration, which can be a life-threatening illness unless it is treated and fluids in the body are replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11857262",
"title": "Herpes gladiatorum",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Often, people have regular outbreaks of anywhere from 1 to 10 times per year, but stress (because the virus lies next to the nerve cells), or a weakened immune system due to a temporary or permanent illness can also spark outbreaks. Some people become infected but fail to ever have a single outbreak, although they remain carriers of the virus and can pass the disease on to an uninfected person through asymptomatic shedding (when the virus is active on the skin but rashes or blisters do not appear).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14579421",
"title": "Introduction to viruses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Viral infections can cause disease in humans, animals and even plants. However, they are usually eliminated by the immune system, conferring lifetime immunity to the host for that virus. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life-threatening infections. Vaccines that produce lifelong immunity can prevent some viral infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18821046",
"title": "Chickenpox",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Because watery nasal discharge containing live virus usually precedes both exanthem (external rash) and enanthem (oral ulcers) by 1 to 2 days, the infected person actually becomes contagious one to two days before recognition of the disease. Contagiousness persists until all vesicular lesions have become dry crusts (scabs), which usually entails four or five days, by which time nasal shedding of live virus ceases. The condition usually resolves by itself within a couple of weeks. The rash may, however, last for up to one month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fq2fb
|
Are there any magnets available commercially that will adhere to aluminum?
|
[
{
"answer": "Magnetic effects generally arise from the interactions of unpaired electrons. Typically, magnetic materials (such as iron) are ferromagnets, which means that the the unpaired electrons the d-orbitals can spin-align under certain conditions. Aluminum only has s and p orbitals, and therefore no d electrons are available for spin alignment. Therefore, aluminum exhibits no intrinsic ferromagnetism.\n\nHowever, there are other means by which aluminum may magnetically interact. For instance, if one passes a current through an aluminum object, it will give off a weak magnetic field (Lenz's law), which will cause the aluminum to interact with a magnet. Other effects related to Lenz's law and electromagnetic flux may also cause aluminum to weakly interact with magnets (_URL_0_). So, in principle, one could apply a current to a piece of aluminum, and achieve a magnetic interaction with any commercially available magnet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6613267",
"title": "Magnet wire",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Conductor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The most suitable materials for magnet wire applications are unalloyed pure metals, particularly copper. When factors such as chemical, physical, and mechanical property requirements are considered, copper is considered the first choice conductor for magnet wire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51079",
"title": "Magnet",
"section": "Section::::Types of permanent magnets.:Composites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as portable AM radio antennas) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14508661",
"title": "Molecule-based magnets",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Specific materials include purely organic magnets made of organic radicals for example p-nitrophenyl nitronyl nitroxides, decamethylferrocenium tetracyanoethenide, mixed coordination compounds with bridging organic radicals, Prussian blue related compounds, and charge-transfer complexes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51079",
"title": "Magnet",
"section": "Section::::Common uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in the so-called \"magnet test\", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51079",
"title": "Magnet",
"section": "Section::::Types of permanent magnets.:Composites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: \"Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax\", and \"Ticonal\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "950025",
"title": "Plastic magnet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Plastic magnets could have uses in computer hardware, for example as disc drives and in medical devices such as pacemakers and cochlear implants where the organic material is more likely to be biocompatible than its metallic counterpart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207601",
"title": "Adsorption",
"section": "Section::::Adsorbents.:Zeolites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Non-polar (siliceous) zeolites are synthesized from aluminum-free silica sources or by dealumination of aluminum-containing zeolites. The dealumination process is done by treating the zeolite with steam at elevated temperatures, typically greater than . This high temperature heat treatment breaks the aluminum-oxygen bonds and the aluminum atom is expelled from the zeolite framework.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e7jnch
|
how does a fast charging plug charge faster when the socket has the same output when there's a regular plug?
|
[
{
"answer": "The \"fast charge\" socket **does not** have the same output.\n\nThe voltage is the same, but the current available at that voltage is higher. This must be taken into account when choosing cables and connectors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1102240",
"title": "Marx generator",
"section": "Section::::Optimization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Note that the less resistance there is between the capacitor and the charging power supply, the faster it will charge. Thus, in this design, those closer to the power supply will charge quicker than those farther away. If the generator is allowed to charge long enough, all capacitors will attain the same voltage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Where devices (for example, high-speed disk drives) require more power than a high-power device can draw, they function erratically, if at all, from bus power of a single port. USB provides for these devices as being self-powered. However, such devices may come with a Y-shaped cable that has two USB plugs (one for power and data, the other for only power), so as to draw power as two devices. Such a cable is non-standard, with the USB compliance specification stating that \"use of a 'Y' cable (a cable with two A-plugs) is prohibited on any USB peripheral\", meaning that \"if a USB peripheral requires more power than allowed by the USB specification to which it is designed, then it must be self-powered.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.:Faster-charging standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "When a device detects it is plugged into a charger with a compatible faster-charging standard, the device pulls more current or the device tells the charger to increase the voltage or both to increase power (the details vary between standards).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1277603",
"title": "Mitsubishi Outlander",
"section": "Section::::Third generation (GF/GG/ZJ/ZK; 2013–present).:Plug-in hybrid.:Specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "The plug-in hybrid comes equipped with two charging sockets, regular and quick charging CHAdeMO. When charging at home the driver can choose between a standard 3-pin plug socket or via a dedicated EV charging point. The vehicle comes with a charging cable for connection to a standard plug socket. From a standard plug, charging from empty to full charge takes about five hours. From a dedicated charging point at home or at a public charging point, it takes about 3.5 hours for a full charge. The DC rapid charging socket can be used at CHAdeMO charging stations. Rapid charging allows for an 80% charge in approximately 25 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157736",
"title": "Hybrid vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Environmental issues.:Charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "There are two different levels of charging. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a 120 V/15 A single-phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 V or 240 V (at up to 80 A, 19.2 kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for home or public units, although vehicles such as the Tesla have the power electronics on board and need only the outlet. The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V. Recharging with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. Three important factors—distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.:USB Battery Charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3025876",
"title": "Electric bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Technical.:Motors and drivetrains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Because the power is applied through the chain and sprocket, power is typically limited to around 250–500 watts to protect against fast wear on the drivetrain. An electric mid-drive combined with an internal gear hub at the back hub may require care due to the lack of a clutch mechanism to soften the shock to the gears at the moment of re-engagement. A continuously variable transmission or a fully automatic internal gear hub may reduce the shocks due to the viscosity of oils used for liquid coupling instead of the mechanical couplings of the conventional internal gear hubs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1br8vb
|
Generating electricity and rotating magnets
|
[
{
"answer": "You could, but it wouldn't be beneficial. Any energy being used to cause rotation of the smaller magnets is not going in to generating electricity. You could be better off using your super magnet to generate electricity directly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9540",
"title": "Electricity generation",
"section": "Section::::Methods of generating electricity.:Generators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be seen experimentally by rotating a magnet within closed loops of conducting material (e.g. copper wire). Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15276649",
"title": "Excitation (magnetic)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "An electric generator or electric motor consists of a rotor spinning in a magnetic field. The magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets or by field coils. In the case of a machine with field coils, a current must flow in the coils to generate the field, otherwise no power is transferred to or from the rotor. The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an electric current is called excitation. Field coils yield the most flexible form of magnetic flux regulation and de-regulation, but at the expense of a flow of electric current. Hybrid topologies exist, which incorporate both permanent magnets and field coils in the same configuration. The flexible excitation of a rotating electrical machine is employed by either brushless excitation techniques or by the injection of current by carbon brushes (static excitation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10631769",
"title": "Dynamo",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. Due to Faraday's law of induction the motion of the wire within the magnetic field creates an electromotive force which pushes on the electrons in the metal, creating an electric current in the wire. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called \"field coils\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261621",
"title": "Rotating magnetic field",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Rotating magnetic fields are often utilized for electromechanical applications such as induction motors and electric generators. However, they are also used in purely electrical applications such as induction regulators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7425",
"title": "Electromagnetic coil",
"section": "Section::::Types of coils.:Electric machines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Electric machines such as motors and generators have one or more windings which interact with moving magnetic fields to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. Often a machine will have one winding through which passes most of the power of the machine (the \"armature\"), and a second winding which provides the magnetic field of the rotating element ( the \"field winding\") which may be connected by brushes or slip rings to an external source of electric current. In an induction motor, the \"field\" winding of the rotor is energized by the slow relative motion between the rotating winding and the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding, which induces the necessary exciting current in the rotor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82330",
"title": "Electric generator",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "BULLET::::- Field winding or field (permanent) magnets: The magnetic field producing component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets. Electrically-excited generators include an excitation system to produce the field flux. A generator using permanent magnets (PMs) is sometimes called a magneto, or permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSMs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32266248",
"title": "Magneto",
"section": "Section::::Future possibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The development of modern rare earth magnets makes the simple magneto alternator a more practical proposition as a power generator, as these permit a greatly increased field strength. As the magnets are compact and of light weight, they generally form the rotor, so the output windings can be placed on the stator, avoiding the need for brushgear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53m6oc
|
In John Milton's Paradise Lost, Satan is sometimes read as the protagonist. While Milton obviously didn't intend this, did any of his contemporaries believe this?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Yes.](_URL_0_)\n\nAs the source describes, Milton was a republican in the historical sense. It was during his lifetime that Oliver Cromwell, still a divisive figure in English history, rose to power after overthrowing Charles I. Milton supported this. Charles I was deposed, but after returning and making war throughout the 1640s, the English ultimately executed him in 1649. Following this, Cromwell is given the title of Lord Protector of the realm, although after his death, the monarchy is restored bloodlessly. Although Richard Cromwell was selected to succeed, he did not command the requisite respect and was booted out of office within a year, leading to the restoration of Charles II to the throne.\n\nFast forwarding to 1667, after Milton (unpopular for his Republican views, at this point blind, which was considered by some to be divine punishment for his support of regicide, or the killing of the king.)\n\n > England in 1667 was reeling from the events of the previous year, when plague and fire had swept the capital, causing a devastation many people thought was divinely inspired; a biblical epic from a blind, grim old controversialist was by no means certain of being sympathetically received, as the poet's wish that his poem might 'fit audience find, though few' (VII.31) perhaps recognises. In spite of this unwelcoming climate, when Paradise Lost appeared, it was hailed as a work of genius, even by Milton's political opponents. \n\nOne of the first adaptations of the poem is John Dryden's play, which \"outsold the original until the end of the seventeenth century.\"\n\n > Satan, who disdains servitude and tries to overturn his monarch, becomes in Dryden's rewriting an unmistakeable portrait of Oliver Cromwell, the king-killer. He also believed that the fallen angel, and not Adam, was the hero (in the sense of his structural position as the protagonist of the epic), and weighted his adaptation accordingly... Contemporary readers who thought there was a whiff of sulphur about the unrepentant republican poet were not surprised to find these sentiments in the mouth of the arch-fiend; and there were those who believed that Milton was in fact disowning his previous stance by associating it with Satan. Neither reading does justice to the complexity of Paradise Lost, but this does identify what was to become a recurrent theme in later responses to the poem: the contested interpretation of Satan, its eloquent anti-hero.\n\nThe most prominent later commenter on Milton who views Satan as the protagonist, William Blake, remarks that, \"The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels and God, and at liberty when of Devils and Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil's party without knowing it.\"\n\nEssentially, opinions are divided: as the linked source would indicate, many at the time may have viewed Milton's poem as autobiographical in a sense, or as they say, that Milton was \"disowning his previous stance by associating it with Satan.\" Those who favored Cromwell were likely to favor it; even those who didn't agree with Milton like his political opponents \"hailed [it] as a work of genius.\" The role of Satan, then as now, was open to interpretation and disputation.\n\n\nSource:\n\nPeter Gaunt, *Oliver Cromwell*",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27694",
"title": "Satan",
"section": "Section::::In culture.:In literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "John Milton's epic poem \"Paradise Lost\" features Satan as its main protagonist. Milton portrays Satan as a tragic antihero destroyed by his own hubris. The poem, which draws extensive inspiration from Greek tragedy, recreates Satan as a complex literary character, who dares to rebel against the \"tyranny\" of God, in spite of God's own omnipotence. The English poet and painter William Blake famously quipped that \"The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it.\" \"Paradise Regained\", the sequel to \"Paradise Lost\", is a retelling of Satan's temptation of Jesus in the desert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1743415",
"title": "Prometheus Unbound (Shelley)",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Satanic hero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "In other words, while Milton's Satan embodies a spirit of rebellion, and, as Maud Bodkin claims, \"The theme of his heroic struggle and endurance against hopeless odds wakens in poet and reader a sense of his own state as against the odds of his destiny\", his character is flawed because his aims are not humanistic. Satan is like Prometheus in his struggle against the universe, but Satan loses his heroic aspect after being turned into a serpent who desires only revenge and becomes an enemy to mankind. But Bodkin, unlike Shelley, believes that humans would view Prometheus and Satan together in a negative way:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5883250",
"title": "Devil in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::History.:John Milton in \"Paradise Lost\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Until John Milton created the character of Satan for his \"Paradise Lost\", the different attributes of Satan were usually ascribed to different entities. The angel who rebelled in Heaven was not the same as the ruler in Hell. The ruler of Hell was often seen as a sort of jailer who never fell from grace. The tempting serpent of Genesis was just a serpent. Milton combined the different parts of the character to show his fall from near-divine beauty and grace to his eventual skulking role as a jealous tempter. He was so successful in his characterization of Satan as a romantic hero who \"would rather rule in Hell than serve in Heaven\" that his version of Satan has displaced all others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "37373",
"title": "Paradise Lost",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "Milton's story has two narrative arcs, one about Satan (Lucifer) and the other following Adam and Eve. It begins after Satan and the other rebel angels have been defeated and banished to Hell, or, as it is also called in the poem, Tartarus. In Pandæmonium, the capital city of Hell, Satan employs his rhetorical skill to organize his followers; he is aided by Mammon and Beelzebub. Belial and Moloch are also present. At the end of the debate, Satan volunteers to corrupt the newly created Earth and God's new and most favoured creation, Mankind. He braves the dangers of the Abyss alone in a manner reminiscent of Odysseus or Aeneas. After an arduous traversal of the Chaos outside Hell, he enters God's new material World, and later the Garden of Eden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26508187",
"title": "Drive Angry",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "John Milton (Nicolas Cage) is an undead criminal who has escaped Hell and stolen Satan's gun, labeled the Godkiller, to kill Jonah King (Billy Burke). King is a cult leader who tricked Milton's daughter into joining his followers in the wake of Milton's death ten years prior, only to kill her and her husband and steal their infant daughter (Milton's granddaughter) to be sacrificed in a Satanist ritual; King believes that if he kills the baby, that will unleash Hell over Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9635291",
"title": "The Tragedy of Man",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The play is invariably compared to John Milton's \"Paradise Lost\", as the two deal with the same subject matter—the creation and fall of Man, and the devil's role in it. As in \"Paradise Lost\", some critics maintain that the true protagonist of the \"Tragedy\" is Lucifer himself, being more active than Adam and God combined. Milton offers a more well-rounded Lucifer, however; he is motivated chiefly by a desire for power, and all his actions stem from that, rather than from any specifically malicious drive. Madách's version is significantly more one-sidedly villainous, seeking to destroy mankind simply to prove God's creation experiment a failure. This spite, combined with his charisma in dealing with Adam and Eve, make him a decidedly sinister character, more so than Milton's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "204406",
"title": "Pastoral",
"section": "Section::::Pastoral literature.:Pastoral poetry.:Pastoral epic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "Milton is perhaps best known for his epic \"Paradise Lost\", one of the few Pastoral epics ever written. A notable part of Paradise Lost is book IV where he chronicles Satan's trespass into paradise. Milton's iconic descriptions of the garden are shadowed by the fact that we see it from Satan's perspective and are thus led to commiserate with him. Milton elegantly works through a presentation of Adam and Eve’s pastorally idyllic, eternally fertile living conditions and focuses upon their stewardship of the garden. He gives much focus to the fruit bearing trees and Adam and Eve's care of them, sculpting an image of pastoral harmony. However, Milton in turn continually comes back to Satan, constructing him as a character the audience can easily identify with and perhaps even like. Milton creates Satan as character meant to destabilize the audience’s understanding of themselves and the world around them. Through this mode, Milton is able to create a working dialogue between the text and his audience about the ‘truths’ they hold for themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ap076
|
after their extinction, why did dinosaur type creatures not evolve all over again?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are infinite forms for life to try. There is no trajectory of evolution except the historical lineage. Since the non-avian dinos were erased, there was no evolutionary history to build on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution creates species that do better in there current environment than there predecessors. Dinosaurs or creatures like them didn't 're-evolve' because they wouldn't have survived in the post extinction environment better than the surviving species of there family/group.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, first of all, Dinosaurs never disappeared. Their descendants still roam this earth and are one of the most successful and widely spread types of animals on the planet: birds. \n\nWhatever species evolves after a massive extinction event like that is really down to a lot of luck and timing (having the right traits at the right time), what sort of competition is out there for those species, what kind of environment those species are evolving in, and none of those things are static. The ancestors of dinosaurs (archosaurs) had the right luck, the right timing, the right traits for dealing with their competition, and the right environment to thrive in after the Permian-Triassic extinction event (a mass extinction even bigger than the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event) which had wiped out *a lot* of the species competing with them for resources. But just because they were able to do that once, doesn't mean all those events lined up again. A lot had changed. Most giant dinosaurs were unable to deal with the impact winter that followed. And the smaller ones that could deal with that winter were either birds/bird-like (which, again, have turned into a hugely popular group) or were outcompeted by early mammals (which are actually descendants of synapsids, the group Dinosaurs once outcompeted after the Permian-Triassic extinction event). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually many Mammals and Birds fill niches vacated by the Non-Avian Dinosaurs. Convergent Evolution seems to be a vastly under appreciated concept. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ecological niches formerly occupied by dinosaurs were taken over by the creatures that survived the mass extinction. So now instead of big dinosaur carnivores like t-rex, we have big mammalian carnivores like lions, tigers, polar bears, killer whales, and fish like great white and bull sharks.\n\nIf all mammals became extinct tomorrow, but amphibians survived, hundreds of millions of years from now there would probably be big amphibian carnivores and big herbivores.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution takes place in an environment; different organisms compete to best survive (reproduce) in an environment, and it is their adaptation to it that drives evolution. \n\nThe environment of the earth after the dinoasaurs died out was different from that when they first evolved - for one thing, there were all those dead dinosaurs! That may sound silly, but that really was one of many factors that drove the evolution of the surviving species. Another major factor was the thing that wiped out the dinoaurs, the meteor impact that affected the global climate. If it was drastic enough that the living dinosaurs were wiped out, then it was drastic enough that any new evolutions that might be similar to the old dinosaurs wouldn't survive either. And there is the factor that organisms themselves are part of the environment. The dinosaurs could never evolve again because now there were other species that took their environmental niche. To regain that niche, the surviving descendants of dinosaurs had to evolve in to something different from dinosaurs (and that's what modern birds are).\n\nSimilar organisms can evolve in different places or times only if the environments are sufficiently similar. The earth is always changing, and was never similar enough to the pre-dinosaur environment, so similar species never evolved again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Phanerozoic Eon.:Evolution of tetrapods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "After yet another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 Ma), around 230 Ma, dinosaurs split off from their reptilian ancestors. The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates. Though some mammalian lines began to separate during this period, existing mammals were probably small animals resembling shrews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29989",
"title": "Triassic",
"section": "Section::::Triassic–Jurassic extinction event.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Though the end-Triassic extinction event was not equally devastating in all terrestrial ecosystems, several important clades of crurotarsans (large archosaurian reptiles previously grouped together as the thecodonts) disappeared, as did most of the large labyrinthodont amphibians, groups of small reptiles, and some synapsids (except for the proto-mammals). Some of the early, primitive dinosaurs also became extinct, but more adaptive ones survived to evolve into the Jurassic. Surviving plants that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world included modern conifers and cycadeoids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Biology.:Evolution and palaeontology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "BULLET::::- Not all dinosaurs became extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Birds evolved from small feathered theropods in the Jurassic, and while most dinosaur lineages were cut short at the end of the Cretaceous, some birds survived. Consequently, dinosaurs are part of the modern fauna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23166842",
"title": "Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "After the publication of the paper, many news organizations misrepresented the findings by stating that dinosaurs seemed to have stopped evolving during the end of their reign. This may reflect cultural bias (bio-bigotry to the advantage of mammals, i.e. humans) because the actual journal article states right in the abstract that \"dinosaurs did not experience a progressive decline at the end of the Cretaceous, nor was their evolution driven directly by the KTR.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24749",
"title": "Permian–Triassic extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Extinction patterns.:Terrestrial vertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The groups that survived suffered extremely heavy losses of species, and some terrestrial vertebrate groups very nearly became extinct at the end-Permian. Some of the surviving groups did not persist for long past this period, while others that barely survived went on to produce diverse and long-lasting lineages. Yet it took 30million years for the terrestrial vertebrate fauna to fully recover both numerically and ecologically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99656",
"title": "Creative destruction",
"section": "Section::::History.:Other early usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In the \"Origin of Species\", which was published in 1859, Charles Darwin wrote that the \"extinction of old forms is the almost inevitable consequence of the production of new forms.\" One notable exception to this rule is how the extinction of the dinosaurs facilitated the adaptive radiation of mammals. In this case creation was the consequence, rather than the cause, of destruction. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10727548",
"title": "Evolution of mammals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs (birds being the only surviving dinosaurs) and several mammalian groups, placental and marsupial mammals diversified into many new forms and ecological niches throughout the Paleogene and Neogene, by the end of which all modern orders had appeared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bioer
|
I know of absolute zero at -273.15°C, but is there an absolute hot?
|
[
{
"answer": "We don't know if there's a maximum temperature.\n\nIn certain models -- string theory is one of them -- there is a maximum temperature called the *Hagedorn temperature*. This arises because the number of possible high energy states increases sufficiently fast that as you put more energy into the system, it gets spread out over more and more states in such a way that the temperature decreases less and less for a given amount of heat put in. Net result is that there's a temperature that is the upper limit of the temperatures that can be reached.\n\nI'll add that even in string theory, some people think the Hagedorn temperature might not be an actual limit, but more an indication that there is a phase transition (like when a liquid turns to gas), but that's even more speculative.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "If you're interested in \"what is the hottest temperature achievable\" that may be an unanswerable question (or at least one I cannot answer), but if you want to know the defined lowest temperature, it is -0K. \n\nIt turns out any negative temperature (in K, not C or F) is actually hotter than any positive temp. The temperature scale goes something like this:\n\n0K,... inf K, -inf K, ... -0K\n\nThis may seem odd, to answer why this is the case, you must understand a fundamental property of temperature. While temperature is defined as [T = dE/dS](_URL_0_), aka- Temperature is defined as the derivative of energy with respect to entropy. See, normally as entropy increases, energy increases, but you can arrange systems where the opposite happens, as entropy increases energy actually goes down. That means that temperature will be negative. \n\nSince we know from the Second Law of Thermodynamics that in a closed system, entropy will increase, that means that energy will flow from a negative temperature system to a positive temperature system, because when a system has a negative temperature, by decreasing the energy in the system (heat), the entropy will actually go up (and in a positive system, increasing energy will lead to increased entropy, so entropy goes up there too). \n\nAnd that's why negative temperature is hotter than positive- heat will flow from the negative temperature to the positive one, and a higher temperature item will have heat flow from it to a lower temperature one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Planck temperature is 1.42 x 10^32 K.\n\nAt this temperature, the radiation emitted causes quantum gravitational effects. Lacking a unified theory of quantum gravity, our understanding of physics breaks down at or past this point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In terms of the Universe, I guess there would be one we can say is a definite upper limit but it would be nonsensical. The max temperature would be equal to or less than the total energy content of the Universe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethan Siegel on his [Starts with a Bang blog](_URL_0_) wrote about this very question a few weeks ago...\n\nHe basically came up with 10^28 - 10^29 K as the maximum temperature because at this point you would be re-initiating the exponential expansion of the Universe (cosmic inflation).\n\nEthan says it would be like \"hit[ting] the 'reset' button on the Universe... resulting in the Big Bang starting all over again.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The black hole discussed by others in the tread is formed by a concentration of light so intense that it forms an event horizon and becomes self-trapped. This is referred to as a Kugelblitz. A kugelblitz is so hot it surpasses the Planck temperature. Both the Plank temperature and a Kugleblitz are listed at 1.41x10^41 degrees Kelvin. I haven't checked which is really hotter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh, I didn't answer your question directly so here goes. The generally accepted maximum possible temp is the Planck temperature. There is an inverse relationship between temperature and wavelength of electromagnetic energy released by a heated body. We see this by heating a piece of steel. At one temp it glows a dull red. As it heats it shifts to orange and eventually white. If we had a material which was capable if infinite heat resistance we'd see UV, X-ray, gamma rays and on and on to the point where the wavelength of energy would be less than the Planck length which is a no-go. That temperature is on the order of 10^32 Kelvin. That's really really hot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If there is an absolute hot, it is, surprisingly enough, -273.15°C. The reason for this is that temperature is defined based on how much energy it takes to make a marginal increase in entropy. If there is a maximum temperature, then there's some lower point with maximal entropy where temperature is infinite. When it gets hotter, adding energy starts reducing entropy, so the temperature is negative. As heat approaches the maximum, the temperature approaches zero from below.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yess there is! It's the [planck temperature](_URL_1_) (141 * 10^30 kelvin). It's the point at which the radiation emitted would have a wavelength smaller than the [planck length](_URL_0_) (161 * 10^-33 meters). So it can get more energy but it can't get any hotter.\n\n[Cool video](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why, then, is life sustained at so close a temperature to absolute zero? The difference between absolute zero and temperatures on Earth's surface is minuscule compared with, say, the millions of degrees of the sun and entirely negligible when we're talking about the scales of any theoretical \"absolute hot.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes.\n\nIf you pack enough energy into a single point it turns into particles (thus removing some of the energy) meaning there's is an equilibrium in which temperature no longer increases as new particles are created as fast as you can pack energy.\n\nSimilarly you can't separate quarks. You just create new ones when you stress the gluon field enough.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe.\n\nSteven Weinberg addressed this question in the 1996 updated version of \"The First Three Minutes\" (Afterword P 190-191)\n\n*...the continued success of the \"asymptotically free\" theory of strong interactions has by now made obsolete the speculations in Chapter VII about a maximum temperature of two million \nmillion degrees Kelvin (10^12 ºK). At higher temperatures, nuclear particles dissolve\ninto the quarks they are made of, and the matter of the universe behaves, quite\nsimply, as a gas of quarks, leptons, and photons. The description of matter only\nbecomes greatly difficult at the much higher temperature of 100 million \nmillion million million million degrees (10^32 ºK), where gravitation becomes as\nstrong as the other forces. Theorists have been speculating about the theory that\ngoverns matter at these temperatures, but we are a long way from any direct\nexperimental test of these speculations.\nThe most exciting speculative theories studied since 1977 have been the\nstring theories. These replace the description of matter in terms of particles with\na description in terms of strings—tiny one-dimensional discontinuities in\nspace-time. The strings can be in any one of an infinite number of modes of\nvibration, each of which appears to us as a different species of elementary \nparticle. Gravity appears not only naturally but inevitably in string theories; the\nquantum of gravitational radiation is one of the modes of vibration of a closed\nstring.* **There may be a maximum temperature in modern string theories, but it\nwould be in the neighborhood of 10^32 ºK, not 10^12 ºK.**\n\n*Unfortunately, there are thousands of versions of string theories, and we do\nnot know how to evaluate their consequences or why one string theory rather\nthan another should describe our universe. But there is one aspect of string \ntheories that is of great potential importance to cosmology. Our familiar \nfour-dimensional space-time continuum is not a truly fundamental ingredient of string\ntheories, but arises in the approximate descriptions of nature that only become\nvalid at temperatures below about 10^32 ºK. It may be that our real problem will\nnot be to understand the beginning of the universe, or even to decide whether\nthere really was a beginning, but rather to understand nature under conditions\nin which time and space have no meaning.*",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "So this will probably get buried and not answered but...\n\nHow do we know things can't get colder than Absolute Zero? Is that when particles stop moving? And even then what if it came down to quarks or strings, do those particles still move at AZ? And if those particles DO still move at AZ, then is it really AZ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to start talking about speed, but I'll get around to temperature, so stick around. C is defined as light speed, and is also the maximum speed something can move at. The reason it's the maximum speed in this universe is that the energy required to accelerate something depends on its current velocity, and is exponential. This means it takes more energy to get something moving 50 mph up to 51 mph than it does to get something moving 25 mph up to 26 mph. This also means that there is a velocity where it would take an infinite amount of energy to get anything at that velocity to move any faster. That velocity happens to be C, light speed.\n\nNow, to temperature. What you're asking about is called specific heat, which is a linear equation (E = c*m*deltaT, where E is the energy required to raise the temperature, c is the specific heat constant of the material being heated, m is the mass, and deltaT is the change in the temperature). You'll also note that there's no place in the formula for starting temperature, meaning that it's independent of the starting temperature and the same amount of energy will net you the same increase in temperature regardless of initial conditions. This leads me to believe that, at least in classical physics, the view is that there is no maximum temperature a material can reach other than the maximum temperature the material can survive without being destroyed.\n\ntl;dr-Newton says the answer is no.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [Planck temperature](_URL_0_) is the highest theoretically possible temperature, at 1.417x10^32 degrees Celsius. Matter at any specific temperature gives off radiation of a certain wavelength, with the wavelength decreasing as temperature increases. Matter at the Planck temperature gives off radiation with a wavelength of one Planck length, the shortest possible length.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thermodynamics doesn't place a strict upper limit on temperature, although there clearly an upper bound if the universe is finite. Thermodynamically, temperature is dE/dS -- the fundamental relationship between energy and entropy. As it turns out, thermodynamic systems, by law, have monotonically increasing temperature with respect to increased energy. Well, by rearranging, TdS = dE. If T is huge, then a finite dS can require a dE exceeding the total amount of energy in the universe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Temperature is the random vibration of atoms. It's essentially the combined kinetic energy of all the atoms in an object. So, the maximum temperature should be equivalent to whatever the temperature would be with all the atoms vibrating at 99.99999999999999999% the speed of light (or however fast they could vibrate with all the energy of the universe pumped into that object). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll give this a try based on logic.\n\nSo temperature is nothing more than energy right? And we know that energy in the universe is finite. So therefore if there is a finite amount of energy then there must be a maximum temperature. Except I have no clue what that would be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting stuff, I don't understand it completely (was never very scientifically minded) but I just had a question of scale. Between - 273.15°C and the average human body temp of 36(?)°C and the suns temperature, which is in the thousands? How much hotter are we talking? Is the suns heat still only in the bottom 1%? Less? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Planck temperature, denoted by TP, is the unit of temperature in the system of natural units known as Planck units.\n\nIt serves as the defining unit of the Planck temperature scale. In this scale the magnitude of the Planck temperature is equal to 1, while that of absolute zero is 0. Unlike Planck length and Planck time, which are defined as the smallest possible measurable units of length and time, Planck temperature is defined as the largest possible measurable unit of temperature. Other temperatures can be converted to Planck temperature units. For example, 0 °C = 273.15 K = 1.9279 × 10−30TP.\n\nThe Planck temperature in Fahrenheit is 2.55*1032 degrees Fahrenheit (255 nonillion degrees Fahrenheit)/1.417*1032 degrees Celsius (141.7 nonillion degrees Celsius).\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the wavelength of light emitted by an object decreases as the temperature increases there is a theory that you couldn't go past a certain temperature because the wavelength would get smaller than Plank's distance, the smallest distance possible. I think it's 1.31x10^32 K, but don't quote me on that number, not sure if I remember exactly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a question. Does a total vacuum have a temprature? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not confirmed but I believe I read somewhere about the [Planck temperature](_URL_1_)\n\nI believe if you cross that limit, you run the risk of turning that area into a [kugelblitz](_URL_0_) , a black hole formed by energy. Of course, once a black hole is made it doesn't particularly matter if it was made from a star or not. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All matter gives off electromagnetic radiation. Humans give off infared wavelength radiation; when something is hot enough, it gives off visible light.\n\nWhen something gets so hot that the wavelength of the radiation given off reaches the Planck Length, it technically can't get any hotter. This is called the Planck Temperature: 2.55 x 10^32 degrees Fahrenheit, or 1.417 x 10^32 degrees Celsius.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought just recently, probably a few months ago. They discovered something colder than absolute zero by actually heating it. It was something along the lines of heating it and as it's energy potential neared infinite (nature apparently doesn't like infinite things) it essentially reversed and dropped negative or something. Dropping it below absolute zero by .000001 or something rather minute, but interesting nonetheless.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418",
"title": "Absolute zero",
"section": "Section::::Very low temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "BULLET::::- In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to have achieved temperatures formally below absolute zero (\"negative temperature\") in gases. The gas is artificially forced out of equilibrium into a high potential energy state, which is however cold. When it then emits radiation it approaches the equilibrium, and can continue emitting despite reaching formal absolute zero; thus, the temperature is formally negative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50969944",
"title": "Glossary of civil engineering",
"section": "Section::::A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "BULLET::::- Absolute zero – is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418",
"title": "Absolute zero",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11524",
"title": "Fahrenheit",
"section": "Section::::Definition and conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. The \"Rankine\" temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R — the same way that the \"Kelvin\" temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical foundation.:Kinetic theory of gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "This relationship gives us our first hint that there is an absolute zero on the temperature scale, because it only holds if the temperature is measured on an absolute scale such as Kelvin's. The ideal gas law allows one to measure temperature on this absolute scale using the gas thermometer. The temperature in kelvins can be defined as the pressure in pascals of one mole of gas in a container of one cubic meter, divided by the gas constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33302",
"title": "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. While the existence of a lower limit to temperature (absolute zero) was known prior to his work, Lord Kelvin is known for determining its correct value as approximately −273.15 degree Celsius or −459.67 degree Fahrenheit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418",
"title": "Absolute zero",
"section": "Section::::History.:Limit to the \"degree of cold\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his \"Chemical Philosophy\" gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3000 °C as the natural zero of temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j3oo0
|
programming and writing computer code (if it can be explained to a 5 year old) elim
|
[
{
"answer": "If you have a lot of time, I think a wonderful and engaging introduction is Harvard's [CS50](_URL_0_) course, and it leads you step-by-step through many of the questions you have. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34550",
"title": "1964",
"section": "Section::::Events.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "BULLET::::- May 1 – At 4:00 a.m., John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz run the first computer program written in BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), an easy to learn high level programming language which they have created. BASIC is eventually included on many computers and even some games consoles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189845",
"title": "Low-level programming language",
"section": "Section::::Machine code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Machine code is the only language a computer can process directly without a previous transformation. Currently, programmers almost never write programs directly in machine code, because it requires attention to numerous details that a high-level language handles automatically. Furthermore it requires memorizing or looking up numerical codes for every instruction, and is extremely difficult to modify.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118035",
"title": "Automatic programming",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Mildred Koss, an early UNIVAC programmer, explains: \"Writing machine code involved several tedious steps—breaking down a process into discrete instructions, assigning specific memory locations to all the commands, and managing the I/O buffers. After following these steps to implement mathematical routines, a sub-routine library, and sorting programs, our task was to look at the larger programming process. We needed to understand how we might reuse tested code and have the machine help in programming. As we programmed, we examined the process and tried to think of ways to abstract these steps to incorporate them into higher-level language. This led to the development of interpreters, assemblers, compilers, and generators—programs designed to operate on or produce other programs, that is, \"automatic programming\".\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23015",
"title": "Programming language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "896120",
"title": "History of programming languages",
"section": "Section::::First programming languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The first functioning programming languages designed to communicate instructions to a computer were written in the early 1950s. John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234071",
"title": "Copy-and-paste programming",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Inexperienced programmers who copy code often do not fully understand the pre-written code they are taking. As such, the problem arises more from their inexperience and lack of courage in programming than from the act of copying and pasting, per se. The code often comes from disparate sources such as friends' or co-workers' code, Internet forums, code provided by the student's professors/TAs, or computer science textbooks. The result risks being a disjointed clash of styles, and may have superfluous code that tackles problems for which new solutions are no longer required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23716",
"title": "Programmer",
"section": "Section::::Nature of the work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Programmers' work varies widely depending on the type of business for which they are writing programs. For example, the instructions involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. Simple programs can be written in a few hours, more complex ones may require more than a year of work, while others are never considered 'complete' but rather are continuously improved as long as they stay in use. In most cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8zaa51
|
how can google get fined by eu for practically promoting their own products/brand(google search engine & android/google search engine on android devices)
|
[
{
"answer": "How can they? The EU can impose a fine and refuse to let them operate in the EU until it is paid.\n\nWhy would they? Because it can be considered a breach in monopoly laws. Microsoft was indicted on the grounds of monopolization for bundling internet explorer with their OS. \n\nI may be a bit out of the loop but are you asking about what rule they might break or what rule they did break?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51664929",
"title": "European Union vs. Google",
"section": "Section::::Android and mobile apps charges.:Decision and impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1305,
"text": "On 19 July 2018, EU has fined Google (about ). Google responded it would appeal the fine, which it did in October 2018. According to company spokesperson Al Verney \"Android has created more choice for everyone, not less\". To date, this fine is the biggest ever imposed by European Union on a company for anti-competitive behaviour. European Union Competition Commissioner Margrethe Vestager, who was part of the decision against Google, stated that only after the EU found against Google in the search anti-trust case in 2017 did Google attempt to settle on the issues of the Android anti-trust issues, which was far too late after the EU filed the initial charges against Google. In October 2018 Google revamped how it would distribute its Google Play Store with Android in the future: Charging a licensing fee for the store, without requiring installation of Google apps, but making it free to pre-install the Google apps if they want. Furthermore Google's hardware partners will be allowed to marked in devices in the EU that run rival versions of Android or other operating systems. In March 2019 Google announced that it will give European users of Android phones an option of which browser and search engine they want on their phone at the time of purchase to further comply with the EU's decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092923",
"title": "Google",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversy.:Litigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "On July 18, 2018, the European Commission fined Google €4.34 billion for breaching EU antitrust rules. The abuse of dominant position has been referred to Google's constraint applied on Android device manufacturers and network operators to ensure that traffic on Android devices goes to the Google search engine. On October 9, 2018, Google confirmed that it had appealed the fine to the General Court of the European Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51664929",
"title": "European Union vs. Google",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Since 2010, the European Union has launched three separate antitrust investigations into Google for violating the EU's competition laws due to its dominant position in the market. These cases have resulted in formal charges against Google related to Google Shopping, Google AdSense and the Android operating system. To date, Google has been found guilty of antitrust behavior in the cases related to Google Shopping and Android, and has been fined over .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092923",
"title": "Google",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversy.:Litigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "On March 20, 2019, the European Commission imposed a €1.49 billion ($1.69 billion) fine on Google for preventing rivals from being able to “compete and innovate fairly” in the online advertising market. European Union competition commissioner Margrethe Vestager said Google had violated EU antitrust rules by “imposing anti-competitive contractual restrictions on third-party websites” that required them to exclude search results from Google’s rivals. Kent Walker, Google’s senior vice-president of global affairs, said the company had “already made a wide range of changes to our products to address the Commission’s concerns,” and that \"we'll be making further updates to give more visibility to rivals in Europe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9874319",
"title": "Criticism of Google",
"section": "Section::::Antitrust.:Android.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "On April 20, 2016, the European Union filed a formal antitrust complaint against Google's leverage over Android vendors, alleging that the mandatory bundling of the entire suite of proprietary Google software, hindered the ability for competing search providers to be integrated into Android and that barring vendors from producing devices running forks of Android both constituted anti-competitive practices. In June 2018, the European Commission determined a $5 billion fine for Google regarding the April 2016 complaints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "401401",
"title": "Google Shopping",
"section": "Section::::Antitrust fine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "On June 27, 2017, the European Commissioner for Competition, Margrethe Vestager, decided to fine Google €2.4 billion for breaching EU antitrust rules. Google was found to have abused its market dominance as a search engine by giving illegal advantages to another Google product, its own comparison shopping service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42195355",
"title": "Google mobile services",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Aptoide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "A third-party Android app store Aptoide also filed a EU competion complaint against Google once again stating that they are misusing its power within the market. Aptoide alleged that Google was blocking third-party app stores from being on Google Play, as well as blocking Google Chrome from downloading any third-party apps and app stores. As of June 2014, Google had not responded to these allegations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yivi2
|
What was US espionage like from the Revolutionary War period through the Civil War? What sort of information was targeted and how was it collected?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the intelligence community Nathan Hale is often called \"America's first spy\". He was captured by the British in 1776 and executed, famously stating \"I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.\" \n\nHale's mission was to go behind the British lines and report on their movements. \n\nThis was the same for almost all human intelligence (HUMINT) gathering in those days. When battles were fought in formations the most valuable piece of information was at what point the formation would be weakest so that it can be penetrated/flanked/or used to flank. When the force was too large to fight, it allowed units to avoid engagement or retreat and re-engage under more favorable conditions. \n\nMore famous \"spies\" during the Civil War weren't actually conducting espionage as much as sabotage. The Great Locomotive Chase as an example, for which the first Medal of Honor was awarded. These men were executed as spies regardless. \n\nInformation of simple troop movements back in those days sounds useless with all the things the US intelligence community can do nowadays, but don't discredit its value. \n\nGeneral Beauregard of the Confederacy credits a spy from Virginia for the victory at First Manassas (First Bull Run). This spy was Bettie Duvall, and she rode from Washington to Fairfax to pass on those troop movements. Individual spies, same as scouts, could move much faster than entire units. However, scouts were uniformed and watched carefully. Spies were not uniformed and integrated themselves into local life. This was the advantage of a spy. \n\nMostly, the spies were just eyes. They went into an environment, kept an eye on things, and reported anything deemed valuable enough. None of this was centralized. \n\nAllen Pinkerton made the first attempt at centralizing intelligence. He built a counterintelligence (CI) network in Washington to counter Confederate HUMINT. He built up his own HUMINT operation in Richmond to keep eyes and ears open. However, its effectiveness is questionable. Pinkerton's intel was often bad and cost a few battles by convincing the commanders not to attack a force they thought was stronger, but wasn't. \n\n**TL;DR + Conclusion** - It was mostly a de-centralized network of eyes and ears in public. The targeted information was primarily troop movements, though other information like important infrastructure, routes, goals, and unit readiness were also valuable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075422",
"title": "Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "American Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War was essentially monitored and sanctioned by the Continental Congress to provide military intelligence to the Continental Army to aid them in fighting the British during the American Revolutionary War. Congress created a Secret Committee for domestic intelligence, a Committee of Secret Correspondence for foreign intelligence, and a committee on spies, for tracking spies within the Patriot movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39274469",
"title": "History of espionage",
"section": "Section::::18th Century.:American Revolution, 1775–1783.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "During the American Revolution, 1775–1783, American General George Washington developed a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans. In 1778, he ordered Major Benjamin Tallmadge to form the Culper Ring to collect information about the British in New York. Washington was usually mindful of treachery, but he ignored incidents of disloyalty by Benedict Arnold, his most trusted general. Arnold tried to betray West Point to the British Army, but was discovered and barely managed to escape. The British intelligence system was weak—it completely missed the movement of the entire American and French armies from the Northeast to Yorktown, Virginia, where they captured the British invasion army in 1781 and won independence. Washington has been called \"Americas First Spymaster\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42423485",
"title": "Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring (2006) is a history book by Alexander Rose, based on the stories of four real-life childhood friends who formed the Culper spy ring that affected the course of the Revolutionary War. In an interview with the \"National Review\", Rose stated he used the website of the Library of Congress to research the letters by George Washington and those in the Culper Ring, as well as newspapers from the time period and various writings left by those involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075422",
"title": "Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Committee on Spies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "On June 5, 1776, the Congress appointed John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Edward Rutledge, James Wilson, and Robert Livingston \"to consider what is proper to be done with persons giving intelligence to the enemy or supplying them with provisions.\" They were charged with revising the Articles of War in regard to espionage directed against the American forces. The problem was an urgent one: Dr. Benjamin Church, chief physician of the Continental Army, had already been seized and imprisoned as a British agent, but there was no civilian espionage act, and George Washington thought the existing military law did not provide punishment severe enough to afford a deterrent. On November 7, 1775, the death penalty was added for espionage to the Articles of War, but the clause was not applied retroactively, and Dr. Church escaped execution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372744",
"title": "American Civil War spies",
"section": "Section::::Union Spying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The most useful military intelligence of the American Civil War was probably provided to Union officers by slaves and smugglers. Intelligence provided by slaves and blacks were called black dispatches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14180447",
"title": "Mark Allen Baker",
"section": "Section::::Gaining recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "In \"Spies of Revolutionary Connecticut: From Benedict Arnold to Nathan Hale\", Baker's first book of 2014, he introduces readers to the role the state played in intelligence gathering during the American Revolution. From coded messages and invisible ink, to early submarines with the first exploding torpedoes, the book incorporates chapters on: Ethan Allen, Benedict Arnold, Edward Bancroft, David Bushnell, Enoch Crosby, Silas Deane, Nathan Hale, Thomas Knowlton, Ezra Lee and even The Culper Ring. Lesser-known spies are also included, such as Dr. Samuel Adams, James Aitken, Daniel Bissell, John Clark, William Heron, Solomon Jones, Nehemiah Marks, and Noah Phelps. With this release, Baker tops the 6,000 published book page plateau.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075422",
"title": "Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- Daigler, Kenneth A. \"Spies, Patriots, and Traitors: American Intelligence in the Revolutionary War\" 2014. . A comprehensive history of intelligence activities during the Revolutionary Era from the perspective of a career intelligence officer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nnv0t
|
computer shellcode (shell code)
|
[
{
"answer": "If you're not a programmer, the only thing you can really do is make sure that you consistently update your software, especially when it says it's for security reasons.\n\nIf you are a programmer, you should be aware that one of the most common types of security vulnerability is a buffer overflow. What this means is that if your program is not properly checking the length of data inputted by the user, the user can write past the boundary you have allocated for that particular data and overwrite different parts of memory. This becomes an issue when the user overwrites the code segment of memory, which tells the computer which instructions to execute. If a malicious user overwrites this area of memory with his own instructions, they can be executed instead. Commonly, a user will overwrite it with \"shell code,\" which is code designed to spawn a shell. A shell is basically the command line interface by which you can control your computer (cmd most closely resembles this in Windows).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may be a bit past ELI5, but I'll try:\n\nSo first, let's define the shell: a way for the user to give the computer instructions.\n\nShell code is a way of creating a shell from somewhere else that I can use. Say I'm in New York and your computer is in Los Angeles, shell code gives me a way of opening a shell so I can control your computer over the internet.\n\nHow it works: The person trying to execute shell code gives a program some bad input that gets the shell code in \"the right place\" so that it runs next. Imagine I give you a piece of paper with a list of instructions:\n\n1) Go to the grocery store\n\n2) Go to the meat counter\n\n3) Ask how much the filets cost\n\n4) Walk back home\n\n) Write down the filet cost here: \n\nNow, the guy at the meat counter says, \"Oh, I'll make it easy, hand me your paper and let me write down the price.\" But he's malicious, so he writes down the price but also writes over your old instructions, so now step 4 on your list is \"Go see the banker and do whatever he says.\" He hands you back the list, and you see step 4 and go to the banker and wait for him to tell you nefarious things to do. (So the shell code would essentially be telling you to go to the banker.)\n\nHow it can be avoided: there are various approaches, but it's kind of an arms race. Generally it amounts to either checking the amount of input -- making sure that when the guy at the meat counter writes down the cost, he doesn't try to use more room than you gave him to write -- or putting extra data around the \"walk back home\" instruction to make sure it hasn't been altered.\n\nEdit: it occurred to me that you may have meant how can you avoid it as a user, not as a programer. Like smango said, basically, your best bet is keep all of your software up to date.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're not a programmer, the only thing you can really do is make sure that you consistently update your software, especially when it says it's for security reasons.\n\nIf you are a programmer, you should be aware that one of the most common types of security vulnerability is a buffer overflow. What this means is that if your program is not properly checking the length of data inputted by the user, the user can write past the boundary you have allocated for that particular data and overwrite different parts of memory. This becomes an issue when the user overwrites the code segment of memory, which tells the computer which instructions to execute. If a malicious user overwrites this area of memory with his own instructions, they can be executed instead. Commonly, a user will overwrite it with \"shell code,\" which is code designed to spawn a shell. A shell is basically the command line interface by which you can control your computer (cmd most closely resembles this in Windows).",
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},
{
"answer": "This may be a bit past ELI5, but I'll try:\n\nSo first, let's define the shell: a way for the user to give the computer instructions.\n\nShell code is a way of creating a shell from somewhere else that I can use. Say I'm in New York and your computer is in Los Angeles, shell code gives me a way of opening a shell so I can control your computer over the internet.\n\nHow it works: The person trying to execute shell code gives a program some bad input that gets the shell code in \"the right place\" so that it runs next. Imagine I give you a piece of paper with a list of instructions:\n\n1) Go to the grocery store\n\n2) Go to the meat counter\n\n3) Ask how much the filets cost\n\n4) Walk back home\n\n) Write down the filet cost here: \n\nNow, the guy at the meat counter says, \"Oh, I'll make it easy, hand me your paper and let me write down the price.\" But he's malicious, so he writes down the price but also writes over your old instructions, so now step 4 on your list is \"Go see the banker and do whatever he says.\" He hands you back the list, and you see step 4 and go to the banker and wait for him to tell you nefarious things to do. (So the shell code would essentially be telling you to go to the banker.)\n\nHow it can be avoided: there are various approaches, but it's kind of an arms race. Generally it amounts to either checking the amount of input -- making sure that when the guy at the meat counter writes down the cost, he doesn't try to use more room than you gave him to write -- or putting extra data around the \"walk back home\" instruction to make sure it hasn't been altered.\n\nEdit: it occurred to me that you may have meant how can you avoid it as a user, not as a programer. Like smango said, basically, your best bet is keep all of your software up to date.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "218067",
"title": "Shellcode",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "In hacking, a shellcode is a small piece of code used as the payload in the exploitation of a software vulnerability. It is called \"shellcode\" because it typically starts a command shell from which the attacker can control the compromised machine, but any piece of code that performs a similar task can be called shellcode. Because the function of a payload is not limited to merely spawning a shell, some have suggested that the name shellcode is insufficient. However, attempts at replacing the term have not gained wide acceptance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2379185",
"title": "Hacking: The Art of Exploitation",
"section": "Section::::Content 2nd edition.:0x500 Shellcode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Shellcode is used in the exploitation of code. It is like the hacker's own code that he wants to run when he gains control over a program. Usually a hacker will find an exploit in a programs code and be able to insert some of his own code (shellcode) where he found the exploit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218067",
"title": "Shellcode",
"section": "Section::::Platforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Most shellcode is written in machine code because of the low level at which the vulnerability being exploited gives an attacker access to the process. Shellcode is therefore often created to target one specific combination of processor, operating system and service pack, called a platform. For some exploits, due to the constraints put on the shellcode by the target process, a very specific shellcode must be created. However, it is not impossible for one shellcode to work for multiple exploits, service packs, operating systems and even processors. Such versatility is commonly achieved by creating multiple versions of the shellcode that target the various platforms and creating a header that branches to the correct version for the platform the code is running on. When executed, the code behaves differently for different platforms and executes the right part of the shellcode for the platform it is running on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218459",
"title": "Alphanumeric shellcode",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "In computer security alphanumeric shellcode is a shellcode that consists of or assembles itself on execution into entirely alphanumeric ASCII or Unicode characters such as 0-9, A-Z and a-z. This type of encoding was created by hackers to hide working machine code inside what appears to be text. This can be useful to avoid detection of the code and to allow the code to pass through filters that scrub non-alphanumeric characters from strings (in part, such filters were a response to non-alphanumeric shellcode exploits). A similar type of encoding is called printable code and uses all printable characters (0-9, A-Z, a-z, !@#%^&*() etc...) It has been shown that it is possible to create shellcode that looks like normal text in English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32035",
"title": "Unix shell",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The most generic sense of the term \"shell\" means any program that users employ to type commands. A shell hides the details of the underlying operating system and manages the technical details of the operating system kernel interface, which is the lowest-level, or \"inner-most\" component of most operating systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95833",
"title": "C shell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The C shell is a command processor typically run in a text window, allowing the user to type commands. The C shell can also read commands from a file, called a script. Like all Unix shells, it supports filename wildcarding, piping, here documents, command substitution, variables and control structures for condition-testing and iteration. What differentiated the C shell from others, especially in the 1980s, were its interactive features and overall style. Its new features made it easier and faster to use. The overall style of the language looked more like C and was seen as more readable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281397",
"title": "Shell (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "In computing, a shell is a user interface for access to an operating system's services. In general, operating system shells use either a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI), depending on a computer's role and particular operation. It is named a shell because it is the outermost layer around the operating system kernel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
66oskt
|
How does a king or queen end up with a epithet...such as Alfred the Great, Æthelred the Unready, Edward the Confessor, etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "A couple ways.\n\n1. They give it to themselves. *Every* Joseon Korean King styled himself \"the Great\"\n\n2. Others give it to them. Kings in Europe took their epithets personally and knew what they were in many cases. They all wanted a name like \"the Bold\", \"the Good\", \"the Brave\", or \"the Great\", or in rare cases \"the Lionheart\". Richard probably got a little woody when he heard the last one for the first time. It became standard practice for courtiers to assign such names and for even ordinary people to come up with ways to describe their King. Lots of them were neutral, like \"Barbarossa\" (Red Beard). Others, like \"the Thunderbolt\", referring to Bayezid of the Ottomans, were very accurate and referred to specific events, like Bayezid's racing his army between Europe and Asia.\n\n3. The state officially assigned names to monarchs and minted them on coins. Islamic countries did this a lot, with every Ottoman Sultan styling himself \"Gazi\" or some positive epithet. \n\n4. Historians and literati ascribe epithets after the reign of the monarch. No doubt very few would dare call Ethelred \"the Unready\" during his reign. That was an epithet made popular by later historians of England writing about their own country. The same case was for Timur the Lame, who in his day was called Timur the Great.\n\nUsually it starts with courtiers or literati genuinely praising a King or coming up with a witty, ironic epithet like \"the Confessor\". Then, it either catches on with contemporaries at the time, or with later writers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7237361",
"title": "Ælfric Cild",
"section": "Section::::Family connections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In some contemporary as well as later sources, Ælfric (a common Old English name) is distinguished by his cognomen \"Cild\". Literally meaning \"child\", it is an Old English title borne by some Anglo-Saxon nobles and typically denotes a man of high rank. Ælfric appears to have been a wealthy landowner in Huntingdonshire, East Anglia, hence in the ealdormanry of Ælfhere's great rival Æthelwine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514444",
"title": "Epithet",
"section": "Section::::Linguistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Some epithets are known by the Latin term \"epitheton necessarium\" because they are required to distinguish the bearers, e.g. as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart (Richard I of England), or Charles the Fat alongside Charles the Bald. The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, e.g. Alexander the Great as well as Constantine the Great.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375113",
"title": "Odal (rune)",
"section": "Section::::Name and etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The term \"oþal\" (Old High German \"uodal\") is a formative element in some Germanic names, notably \"Ulrich\" and variants;, the stem \"aþal\" is more frequent, found in Gothic names such as Athalaric, Ataulf, etc. and in Old High German names such as \"Adalbert\", and\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42531201",
"title": "Cultural depictions of Alfred the Great",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Alfred the Great was an Anglo-Saxon King, who ruled Wessex 871 – 899. His reign is usually regarded as the first in the lists of English monarchs. He has inspired many artistic and cultural works noticeably from the sixteenth century onwards, with a height in the Victorian Period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60379177",
"title": "Akkadian royal titulary",
"section": "Section::::Epithets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Many epithets are religious in nature, usually focusing on the king as a \"provider\" (\"zānin\") for the gods in some capacity, provider here meaning that the king is fulfilling his duty of providing required nourishments for the deities and keeping their temples in good condition. Considering the boastful nature of Esarhaddon's titles, his epithet \"kanšu\" (\"submissive\") may seem strange, his title \"šarru šaḫtu\" (\"humble king\") likewise so, but these titles refer to humility and inferiority in regards to the gods, for which this was appropriate. The Assyrian king would never have acknowledged inferiority in the earthly sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1640",
"title": "Alfred the Great",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Alfred the Great (, , 'Elf-counsel' or 'Wise-elf'; between 847 and 849 – 26 October 899) was King of Wessex from 871 to and King of the Anglo-Saxons from to 899. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex. His father died when he was young and three of Alfred's brothers, Æthelbald, Æthelberht and Æthelred, reigned in turn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56675386",
"title": "Sussex in the High Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "\"The Proverbs of Alfred\" is a collection of sayings supposedly from King Alfred said to have been uttered at Seaford that were written in the mid-12th century in Middle English. It is likely to have been written by someone living in or originating from southern Sussex, probably from either Lewes Priory or Battle Abbey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bnxah
|
Why do English translations of WWII German always leave the words "Reich" and "Führer" in German?
|
[
{
"answer": "These words have entered the consciousness of English-speakers (and speakers of other languages) as having a specific connection to a certain object. There are dozens of German leaders, there is only one Fuhrer. This is the same with, say, Czar or Chief.\n\nSimilarly, sometimes words get extra meanings that are lost in translating. A South American Caudillo isn't just a \"war leader\" or \"head\", but a Caudillo. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "213765",
"title": "Führer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The word \"Führer\" in the sense of \"guide\" remains common in German, and it is used in numerous compound words such as \"Oppositionsführer\" (Leader of the Opposition). However, because of its strong association with Hitler, the isolated word usually has negative connotations when used with the meaning of \"leader\", especially in political contexts. The word \"Führer\" has cognates in the Scandinavian languages, spelled \"fører\" in Danish and Norwegian which have the same meaning and use as the German word, but without necessarily having political connotations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5958545",
"title": "Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver",
"section": "Section::::Literary references.:Nazi symbols revisited.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "While the world associates the word \"Führer\" with Hitler, in German, the word is in everyday parlance as \"driver\", \"conductor\" or \"leader\". Early in his first book, Ende writes, \"Lokomotiven haben zwar keinen großen Verstand – deshalb brauchen sie ja auch immer einen Führer\". In English, the sentence has only its superficial meaning, \"Locomotives actually have no great understanding – which is why they always need a conductor\". Not so in German, where it has a double entendre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217284",
"title": "List of German expressions in English",
"section": "Section::::German terms mostly used for literary effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 551,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 551,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "BULLET::::- Führer (umlaut is usually dropped in English) – always used in English to denote Hitler or to connote a fascistic leader – never used, as is possible in German, simply and unironically to denote a (non-fascist) leader or guide (e.g. Bergführer: mountain guide, Stadtführer: city guide [book], Führerschein: driving licence, Geschäftsführer: managing director, Flugzeugführer: Pilot in command)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213765",
"title": "Führer",
"section": "Section::::Modern German usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "In Germany, the isolated word \"\"Führer\"\" is usually avoided in political contexts, due to its intimate connection with Nazi institutions and with Hitler personally. However, the term \"-führer\" is used in many compound words. Examples include \"Bergführer\" (mountain guide), \"Fremdenführer\" (tourist guide), \"Geschäftsführer\" (CEO or EO), \"Führerschein\" (driver's license), \"Führerstand\" or \"Führerhaus\" (driver's cab), \"Lok(omotiv)führer\" (train driver), \"Reiseführer\" (travel guide book), and \"Spielführer\" (team captain — also referred to as \"Mannschaftskapitän\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213765",
"title": "Führer",
"section": "Section::::Military usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "\"Führer\" has been used as a military title (compare Latin Dux) in Germany since at least the 18th century. The usage of the term \"Führer\" in the context of a company-sized military subunit in the German Army referred to a commander lacking the qualifications for permanent command. For example, the commanding officer of a company was (and is) titled \"Kompaniechef\" (literally, Company Chief), but if he did not have the requisite rank or experience, or was only temporarily assigned to command, he was officially titled \"Kompanieführer\". Thus operational commands of various military echelons were typically referred to by their formation title followed by the title \"Führer\", in connection with mission-type tactics used by the German military forces. The term \"Führer\" was also used at lower levels, regardless of experience or rank; for example, a \"Gruppenführer\" was the leader of a squad of infantry (9 or 10 men).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337386",
"title": "Foreign language influences in English",
"section": "Section::::Languages influencing the English language.:German.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "German words relating to World War I and World War II found their way into the English language, words such as \"Blitzkrieg\", \"Führer\" and \"Lebensraum\"; food terms, such as \"bratwurst\", \"hamburger\" and \"frankfurter\"; words related to psychology and philosophy, such a \"gestalt\", \"Übermensch\", \"zeitgeist\" and \"realpolitik\". From German origin are also: \"wanderlust\", \"schadenfreude\", \"kaputt\", \"kindergarten\", \"autobahn\", \"rucksack\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1452686",
"title": "Nur für Deutsche",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The slogan Nur für Deutsche (English: \"Only for Germans\") was during World War II, in many German-occupied countries, a racialist slogan indicating that certain establishments and transportation were reserved for Germans. Signs bearing the slogan were posted at entrances to parks, cafes, cinemas, theaters and other facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4smarr
|
how far ahead we are in achieving unified field theory ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not very far unfortunately. Without going into the details (which I'd be crap at explaining anyway), string theory seems to be the most promising avenue. However, there seem to be virtually an infinite number of configurations of the math that leads to a consistent universe which makes it practically impossible to find the right equations that would give us the conditions for our universe. Without the math it's extremely hard to come up with experiments that would test the theory. There's also the problem of the theory being based on sizes near the Planck scale which are currently impossible for us to see. A few experiments or potential observations have been proposed which could provide evidence based on current or near future technology, but so far none have yielded any evidence.\n\nThere's also the problem that so far there is no experiment or observation proposed which could disprove the theory. For a scientific theory to even be considered a scientific theory, this is one of the most important features. (I.E. relativity could be disproved by there being no time dilation observed by clocks or observing something moving faster than light speed.) String theory so far has nothing like this after a couple of decades, and there has been debate about whether or not it should even be considered a scientific theory.\n\nThere are a couple of other possibilities being floated around, but so far they have yet to yield any results more promising than string theory.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "681582",
"title": "Effective field theory",
"section": "Section::::The renormalization group.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1290,
"text": "Presently, effective field theories are discussed in the context of the renormalization group (RG) where the process of \"integrating out\" short distance degrees of freedom is made systematic. Although this method is not sufficiently concrete to allow the actual construction of effective field theories, the gross understanding of their usefulness becomes clear through an RG analysis. This method also lends credence to the main technique of constructing effective field theories, through the analysis of symmetries. If there is a single mass scale M in the \"microscopic\" theory, then the effective field theory can be seen as an expansion in 1/M. The construction of an effective field theory accurate to some power of 1/M requires a new set of free parameters at each order of the expansion in 1/M. This technique is useful for scattering or other processes where the maximum momentum scale k satisfies the condition k/M≪1. Since effective field theories are not valid at small length scales, they need not be renormalizable. Indeed, the ever expanding number of parameters at each order in 1/M required for an effective field theory means that they are generally not renormalizable in the same sense as quantum electrodynamics which requires only the renormalization of two parameters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28391726",
"title": "Einstein group",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Every attempt to establish a unified field theory must start, in my opinion, from a group of transformations which is no less general than that of the continuous transformations of the four coordinates. For we should hardly be successful in looking for the subsequent enlargement of the group for a theory based on a narrower group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "681582",
"title": "Effective field theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1015,
"text": "In physics, an effective field theory is a type of approximation, or effective theory, for an underlying physical theory, such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model. An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale, while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances (or, equivalently, at higher energies). Intuitively, one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to be a simplified model at longer length scales. Effective field theories typically work best when there is a large separation between length scale of interest and the length scale of the underlying dynamics. Effective field theories have found use in particle physics, statistical mechanics, condensed matter physics, general relativity, and hydrodynamics. They simplify calculations, and allow treatment of dissipation and radiation effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "932217",
"title": "Classical unified field theories",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Since the 19th century, some physicists, notably Albert Einstein, have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account for all the fundamental forces of nature – a unified field theory. Classical unified field theories are attempts to create a unified field theory based on classical physics. In particular, unification of gravitation and electromagnetism was actively pursued by several physicists and mathematicians in the years between the two World Wars. This work spurred the purely mathematical development of differential geometry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "932217",
"title": "Classical unified field theories",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The early attempts at creating a unified field theory began with the Riemannian geometry of general relativity, and attempted to incorporate electromagnetic fields into a more general geometry, since ordinary Riemannian geometry seemed incapable of expressing the properties of the electromagnetic field. Einstein was not alone in his attempts to unify electromagnetism and gravity; a large number of mathematicians and physicists, including Hermann Weyl, Arthur Eddington, and Theodor Kaluza also attempted to develop approaches that could unify these interactions. These scientists pursued several avenues of generalization, including extending the foundations of geometry and adding an extra spatial dimension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1293340",
"title": "Classical field theory",
"section": "Section::::Unification attempts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "There are several ways of extending the representational framework for a unified field theory which have been considered by Einstein and other researchers. These extensions in general are based in two options. The first option is based in relaxing the conditions imposed on the original formulation, and the second is based in introducing other mathematical objects into the theory. An example of the first option is relaxing the restrictions to four-dimensional space-time by considering higher-dimensional representations. That is used in Kaluza-Klein Theory. For the second, the most prominent example arises from the concept of the affine connection that was introduced into the theory of general relativity mainly through the work of Tullio Levi-Civita and Hermann Weyl. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41555255",
"title": "History of subatomic physics",
"section": "Section::::Physics goes to high energies.:Quarks, leptons, and four fundamental forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The next step was a reduction in number of fundamental interactions, envisaged by early 20th century physicists as the \"united field theory\". The first successful modern unified theory was the electroweak theory, developed by Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow. This development culminated in the completion of the theory called the Standard Model in the 1970s, that included also the strong interaction, thus covering three fundamental forces. After the discovery, made at CERN, of the existence of neutral weak currents, mediated by the Z boson foreseen in the standard model, the physicists Salam, Glashow and Weinberg received the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their electroweak theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m77h4
|
Were there ground public transportation options before the advent of the automobile and the locomotive?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the best known ground public transport options was stage coaches, so-called because they regularly changed horses with each stretch between changes being called a \"stage\". In Australia the best known and remembered of these is \"Cobb & Co\" although there were many other companies running coaches.\n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "186950",
"title": "Liverpool and Manchester Railway",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The proposed Liverpool and Manchester Railway was to be one of the earliest land-based public transport systems not using animal traction power. Before then, public railways had been horse-drawn, including the Lake Lock Rail Road (1796), Surrey Iron Railway (1801) and the Oystermouth Railway near Swansea (1807).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21724363",
"title": "History of roads in Ireland",
"section": "Section::::20th century onwards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Railways became the dominant form of land transport from the mid-19th century. This situation persisted until the first half of the 20th century when motorised road transport (cars, buses and trucks) gradually began to take over from railways as the most important form of land transport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "353104",
"title": "Roads in Ireland",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Railways became the dominant form of land transport from the mid-19th century. This situation persisted until the first half of the 20th century when motorised road transport (cars, buses and trucks) gradually began to take over from railways as the most important form of land transport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "587997",
"title": "History of rail transportation in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The system was largely built by 1910, but then trucks arrived to eat away the freight traffic, and automobiles (and later airplanes) to devour the passenger traffic. After 1940, the use of diesel electric locomotives made for much more efficient operations that needed fewer workers on the road and in repair shops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6688048",
"title": "Light rail in North America",
"section": "Section::::History of streetcars and light rail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "From the mid-19th century onwards, horse-drawn trams or \"horsecars\" were used in cities around the world. In the late 1880s electrically powered street railways became technically feasible following the invention of a trolley pole system of collecting current by American inventor Frank J. Sprague who installed the first successful system at Richmond, Virginia. They became popular because roads were then poorly surfaced, and before the invention of the internal combustion engine and the advent of motor-buses, they were the only practical means of public transport around cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211919",
"title": "History of rail transport",
"section": "Section::::History by country.:North America.:United States.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The system was largely built by 1910, but then trucks arrived to eat away the freight traffic and automobiles (and later airplanes) to devour the passenger traffic. The use of diesel electric locomotives (after 1940) made for much more efficient operations that needed fewer workers on the road and in repair shops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8368886",
"title": "Walter Hancock",
"section": "Section::::Hancock's steam buses.:Demise of steam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "By 1840, the development of steam-powered road vehicles had lost impetus and the heavy road tolls imposed by the Turnpike Acts had turned inventors away from steam power, except on rails. Hancock was forced to give up the struggle, and the way was left clear for the operators of horse-drawn buses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sod3n
|
how do generic brands work and why are they cheaper than their name brand cournterparts?
|
[
{
"answer": "My roommate used to work at Kraft foods. He said when they were making the \"Brand Name\" product, everything was added to the mix. About mid day they would change to the \"Store Brand\" product, and either remove an ingredient, or use lower quality ingredients, and just change the label.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More often than not there is no difference other than the packaging. Most \"generic\" batteries, for example, are produced on the same line as Duracell and just have a different label.\n\nThe rest of the time they have lower quality, either in terms of ingredients, fiber quality, etc., etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Typically the main difference is the amount of marketing the company puts in. Large brands put in millions of dollars into marketing while off brand counterparts usually advertise not at all. Sometimes they may even made in the same place as brand name products but it comes down to the advertising costs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the story for generic drugs is a little bit different than other products:\n\nTypically, the \"brands\" (non-generics) are made by companies that have patents. These patents, in the United States, last 20 years. By having this patent, a company producing the drug establishes a monopoly. As a monopoly, it has considerably more **market power** because it is able to set the price of the good without having to deal with influence from competitors.\n\nWhen the patent expires, the monopoly status is lost. Competitors enter the market and now all of the suppliers will begin to play by the rules of the free market.\n\nOften, however, the brand name remains considerably more expensive. As an example of this: Lipitor costs about $152.00 for a one-month supply, while Atorvastatin (it's generic counterpart) costs about $14.00 (Source: Costco Pharmacy). Marketing plays a role at this point; the pharmaceutical companies invest on swaying prescribers to feel their drug is better. Or, they might just work to make their drug the most recognizable. It may even be subtle: if all you know furosemide by is Lasix, you may just start writing prescriptions for Lasix. If this happens to be paid by your insurance company, then nobody will make much of a stink about it and the drug company wins.\n\nAs an aside: The active ingredients in pharmaceutical generics are required by law to be identical or bioequivalent to previously patented brand-name drugs. However, the packaging (the materials in the capsule, for example) may vary as these aren't the active ingredients. For some patients with bad reactions to generic medications, providers may opt to continue prescribing the brand-name drug.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The scope of your questions is pretty broad. The difference between generic and brand name is different depending on the category of product (food, prescriptions, toiletries, fashion, gas ect...)\n\nCBS has an online article that answers the question for some of the categories (_URL_0_)\n\nI can tell you that a very large manufacturer of chips also makes chips for store brands. They do this for a few reasons. First they make sure that even if you buy the cheaper store brand they still make money. Second the can control the quality of the store brand. They can (and do) make sure that inferior quality ingredients are used. (Source: I worked for this company)\n\nThe same is true for a lot of dry pasta. They are made at the same factory. \n\nIn some cases there are factories or companies that make a product exclusively for store brands. In these cases the ingredients can be very different. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "404177",
"title": "Aldi",
"section": "Section::::Business practices.:In-store layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Branded products carried include HARIBO in Germany, Knoppers in Belgium and France, Marmite and Branston Pickle in Great Britain; and Vegemite and Milo in Australia. This is usually very strongly branded items, that in the past they have had difficulty in creating a generic version of the product. In the United States, major brand-name products, such as Oscar Mayer bacon, sometimes are offered as a 'special purchase': name-brand items that Aldi has received at a special price from the vendor and can offer for a reduced price. Unlike most shops, Aldi does not accept manufacturers' coupons, although some US stores successfully experimented with store coupons (e.g. $10 off a $25 purchase).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48629137",
"title": "Multibrands International",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "2002–2012 By importing branded goods on the grey market, Multibrands purchases the products at the best price and then redistributes them at more competitive prices in the United Kingdom. By 2002, Multibrands is declared the largest parallel goods trader in the UK. In 2003, PZ Cussons objects to this practice of parallel trading and takes court action against Multibrands to stop them from importing and selling the Cussons brand of Imperial Leather soap at cheaper prices. Cussons wins the case and this way seizes 230,000 bars of soap from Multibrands premises. The ruling is later criticised by the consumers association who call for an end to the practice of price fixing by manufactures and suggest that EU markets should be opened up for fair and more competitive trade to end the Rip-Off Britain culture. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31832487",
"title": "Generic pharmaceutical price decay",
"section": "Section::::Equalisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Some companies offer 'branded generics' in the UK market. However these are no longer common, and are not popular as their reimbursement price may be higher than the generic reimbursement price, costing the tax-payer more than a true generic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1330266",
"title": "Generic brand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "They may be manufactured by less prominent companies or manufactured on the same production line as a 'named' brand. Generic brands are usually priced below those products sold by supermarkets under their \"own\" brand (frequently referred to as \"store brands\" or \"own brands\"). Generally they imitate these more expensive brands, competing on price. Generic brand products are often of equal quality as a branded product; however, the quality may change suddenly in either direction with no change in the packaging if the supplier for the product changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1330266",
"title": "Generic brand",
"section": "Section::::Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Due to the lack of promotion, generic brands are priced lower than branded products. They are preferred by customers for whom price or value-for-money is the priority. 57% of consumers agreed with the statement “Brand names are not better quality.” More recently, the figure inched up to 64%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950900",
"title": "Brand",
"section": "Section::::Branding strategies.:Multibranding strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Multibranding strategy is when a company gives each product a distinct name. Multibranding is best used as an approach when each brand in intended for a different market segment. Multibranding is used in an assortment of ways with selected companies grouping their brands based on price-quality segments. Procter & Gamble (P&G), a multinational consumer goods company that offers over 100 brands, each suited for different consumer needs. For instance, Head & Shoulders that helps consumers relieve dandruff in the form of a shampoo, Oral-B which offers inter-dental products, Vicks which offers cough and cold products, and Downy which offers dryer sheets and fabric softeners. Other examples include Coca-Cola, Nestlé, Kellogg's, and Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1330266",
"title": "Generic brand",
"section": "Section::::Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Generic products are generally more popular in recessionary times, when consumers' purchasing power is lower, putting them on the lookout for value-for-money products. Generic brands are more readily available for goods such as aluminum foil, CD/DVD, hand tools, paper products and small appliances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3t2p0i
|
what is a runny nose supposed to accomplish? it seems so counterproductive
|
[
{
"answer": "Your \"internal snot chutes\" empty into the stomach. The snot, along with anything that happens to get stuck in it, gets destroyed by stomach acid. So sniffing it back in, and then down into your throat, is the entire point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25182036",
"title": "Eating mucus",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Mucophagy, despite its benefits on one's immunity, comes with some health risks due to the potential physical aggravation resulting from the action of nose picking, and the germs on fingers and in mucus. Picking one's nose can cause upper airway irritation as well as other injuries including nasal septal perforation (a \"through-and-through defect\" of the cartilage separating the nostrils), and epistaxis (nosebleed). In a study by Andrade and Srihari, 25% of subjects were ailed by nose bleeds, 17% with nasal infections, and 2% with damage more serious than bleeding. W. Buzina studied the fungal diversity in nasal mucus in 2003. 104 samples were gathered with 331 identifiable strains of fungi and 9 different species per patient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18882309",
"title": "Tobacco products",
"section": "Section::::Consumable.:Snuff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "European (dry) snuff is intended to be shallowly \"sniffed\" (technically insufflated) into the nose, where nicotine is absorbed through the mucous membranes in the nostrils. Snuff is not deeply \"snorted\" (such as in the way cocaine is) because snuff shouldn't get past the nose, i.e. into sinuses, throat or lungs. Generally a small portion of dry snuff is either pinched in the fingers or laid out on the wrist of the user, from where it is sniffed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60439573",
"title": "Customs and etiquette in Japanese dining",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "When using toothpicks, it is good etiquette to cover one's mouth with the other hand. Blowing one's nose in public is considered rude, especially at a restaurant; cloth handkerchiefs should never be used for this purpose. Conversely, sniffling is considered acceptable, as an alternative to nose-blowing. When sneezing, it is polite to cover one's nose with a hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965957",
"title": "Etiquette in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Eating and drinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "When using toothpicks, it is good etiquette to cover one's mouth with the other hand. Blowing one's nose in public is considered rude, especially at a restaurant; cloth handkerchiefs should never be used for this purpose. Conversely, sniffling is considered acceptable, as an alternative to nose-blowing. When sneezing, it is polite to cover one's nose with a hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Symptomatic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "In adults short term use of nasal decongestants may have a small benefit. Antihistamines may improve symptoms in the first day or two; however, there is no longer-term benefit and they have adverse effects such as drowsiness. Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine appear effective in adults. Combined oral analgesics, antihistaminics and decongestants are generally effective for older children and adults. Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce the symptoms of a runny nose but has little effect on stuffiness. The safety and effectiveness of nasal decongestant use in children is unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288638",
"title": "Nasalis muscle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The nasalis is a sphincter-like muscle of the nose whose function is to compress the nasal cartilages. It is the muscle responsible for \"flaring\" of the nostrils. Some people can use it to close the nostrils to prevent entry of water when underwater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26083160",
"title": "Throat irritation",
"section": "Section::::Post-nasal drip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Also called rhinorrhea, is a very common medical disorder that occurs when the nasal tissues are congested and the excess fluid runs either at the back of the throat or out of the nose. Post-nasal drip can be caused by the common cold, allergies to dust, smoking, or pet dander. Even spicy foods can sometimes cause post-nasal drip. Runny nose is not life-threatening but can be uncomfortable and socially unacceptable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4d134m
|
how can we know the size of the observable universe of we only just escaped the solar system?
|
[
{
"answer": "We can look at galaxies outside ours, and see how far away they are (using various techniques like standard candles, a particular kind of star with known brightness) and how fast they are moving (using techniques like redshift). When we do this, we find that (almost) everything is moving away from us, but the speed they move away is proportional to the distance away they are.\n\nIf we turn time backwards we would see them coming towards us. We can use maths to work out when they would hit us. This is ~13Billion years. Because we have turned back time, we can make it go forwards again and we see a Big Bang. So know we know the age of the universe. (I am ignoring dark energy, because I don't know what it is).\n\nBecause the universe is ~13billion years old, and light is the fastest thing in the universe, the furthest we can see is things which gave of light 13 billion years ago, thirteen billion light years away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can observe something without going there.\n\nFor instance, I can observe the city across a busy ship channel. It's clearly observable. However, I would not want to swim across the ship channel to go walk around in the city. I would need my own vessel capable of safely crossing the intervening waters to allow me to get there safely.\n\nIt's the same for space. We can observe it from earth with the naked eye. Stars are part of observable space. They're not in the solar system, yet we can see them without any equipment. But to visit them we would need a vessel capable of getting there safely. The people that launched it would be long dead before it reached its destination unless we drastically extend our lifespans, or faster than light travel happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nlight travels fast, but not infinitely fast. a very short time after the big bang light was first able to travel in straight lines relatively unobstructed. we can only see as far away from our vantage point as the light gets to us.\n\nso if the universe is 13 billion years old, you would only expect to be able to see a sphere around us with about a 13 billion light year radius. That is simple way to think about the observable universe.\n\nbut the universe is still expanding, so it is a little more larger and more complicated than that, too.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The more important question that has been bothering me is, how exactly do scientists have the rough measurement of the size of the un-observable universe?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The current top reply is incorrect. Certainly if you were to assume a static universe, then knowing the age of the universe would easily give you an estimate of the size of the observable universe, but the response neglects dark energy, which vastly underestimates the approximation.\n\nWe know space has been expanding since the big bang, and we also know that the rate of expansion is increasing. This means that an object that is, say, a billion light years from earth will emit light that will have to travel much further than one billion light years to reach our telescopes, because the distance between the object and earth has been increasing. And when we get that light, we know that that object has since traveled even further away than it was before. A few calculations reveal that objects we'd think are 13.8B light years away are actually around 46B light years away, meaning in either direction the furthest things in the observable universe are 46B light years away, giving an approximate diameter of about 93B light years. \n\nAs to address u/tikhung01's question, we have a few very, very rough ideas of how big the entire Universe is, but as of right now there is no answer. Maybe the Universe is 100B light years in diameter, maybe its 10,000B light years, and maybe it's size is infinite. That may seem a little unsatisfying, but we just don't know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The diameter of the observable universe is 92 billion light years centered around us. The oldest light we can see has been travelling for a little less than 13.7 billion years but the distance which it has traveled is **now** 46 billion light years. We know this because of the redshift of the light from the furthest galaxies is redshifted more than galaxies closer to us because of the expansion of space. It's analogous to someone throwing you a ball and then running away from you. By the time you receive the ball(light) the person(galaxy) is standing much further away. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "99293",
"title": "Shape of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Shape of the observable universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1359,
"text": "If the observable universe encompasses the entire universe, we may be able to determine the structure of the entire universe by observation. However, if the observable universe is smaller than the entire universe, our observations will be limited to only a part of the whole, and we may not be able to determine its global geometry through measurement. From experiments, it is possible to construct different mathematical models of the global geometry of the entire universe all of which are consistent with current observational data and so it is currently unknown whether the observable universe is identical to the global universe or it is instead many orders of magnitude smaller than it. The universe may be small in some dimensions and not in others (analogous to the way a cuboid is longer in the dimension of length than it is in the dimensions of width and depth). To test whether a given mathematical model describes the universe accurately, scientists look for the model's novel implications—what are some phenomena in the universe that we have not yet observed, but that must exist if the model is correct—and they devise experiments to test whether those phenomena occur or not. For example, if the universe is a small closed loop, one would expect to see multiple images of an object in the sky, although not necessarily images of the same age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::The Drake equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Based on observations from the \"Hubble Space Telescope\", there are between 125 and 250 billion galaxies in the observable universe. It is estimated that at least ten percent of all Sun-like stars have a system of planets, i.e. there are stars with planets orbiting them in the observable universe. Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99293",
"title": "Shape of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Shape of the observable universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The observable universe can be thought of as a sphere that extends outwards from any observation point for 46.5 billion light years, going farther back in time and more redshifted the more distant away one looks. Ideally, one can continue to look back all the way to the Big Bang; in practice, however, the farthest away one can look using light and other electromagnetic radiation is the cosmic microwave background (CMB), as anything past that was opaque. Experimental investigations show that the observable universe is very close to isotropic and homogeneous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99293",
"title": "Shape of the universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Cosmologists distinguish between the observable universe and the global universe. The observable universe consists of the part of the universe that can, in principle, be observed by light reaching Earth within the age of the universe. It encompasses a region of space that currently forms a ball centered at Earth of estimated radius . This does not mean the universe is 46.5 billion years old; instead the universe is measured to be 13.8 billion years old, but space itself has also expanded, causing the size of the observable universe to be larger than the distance traversible by light over the duration of its current age. Assuming an isotropic nature, the observable universe is similar for all contemporary vantage points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Size and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Because we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the Universe in its totality is finite or infinite. Estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as formula_1 megaparsecs, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251399",
"title": "Observable universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "The observable universe is a spherical region of the universe comprising all matter that can be observed from Earth or its space-based telescopes and exploratory probes at the present time, because electromagnetic radiation from these objects has had time to reach the Solar System and Earth since the beginning of the cosmological expansion. There are at least 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe. Assuming the universe is isotropic, the distance to the edge of the observable universe is roughly the same in every direction. That is, the observable universe has a spherical volume (a ball) centered on the observer. Every location in the universe has its own observable universe, which may or may not overlap with the one centered on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251399",
"title": "Observable universe",
"section": "Section::::The universe versus the observable universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "If the universe is finite but unbounded, it is also possible that the universe is \"smaller\" than the observable universe. In this case, what we take to be very distant galaxies may actually be duplicate images of nearby galaxies, formed by light that has circumnavigated the universe. It is difficult to test this hypothesis experimentally because different images of a galaxy would show different eras in its history, and consequently might appear quite different. Bielewicz et al. claim to establish a lower bound of 27.9 gigaparsecs (91 billion light-years) on the diameter of the last scattering surface (since this is only a lower bound, the paper leaves open the possibility that the whole universe is much larger, even infinite). This value is based on matching-circle analysis of the WMAP 7 year data. This approach has been disputed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mhpx8
|
why in germany or the netherlands the youth unemployment rate is under 9% while in countries such as greece, spain and portugal the same rate ranges from a 40% to 60%?
|
[
{
"answer": "Overall unemployment in Germany and the Netherlands is significantly lower, so without a lot of unemployed, experienced workers around, businesses have no real choice. They would either have to get into a bidding war with other businesses over older, already trained workers, or hire young people and train them themselves.\n\n\nIn Spain, Greece and Portugal, businesses have no need to take on younger, inexperienced workers because they can hire unemployed experienced workers cheaply. In addition to that, with the situation of the economy in those countries, businesses aren't expanding, so they're hiring fewer new workers to begin with. They may even be overstaffed already.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, currently the situation in those countries with extremely high youth unemployment is exceptionally bad. For that reason alone you can expect it to be a quite a bit higher than usual.\n\nNext, you have to consider what youth unemployment actually means. It doesn't mean that 40-60% of 15-25 year olds are unemployed, but only those among this group who aren't in school, university or an apprenticeship are (i.e., it's the share of those who could take on a full time job tomorrow). So, while many among the unemployed youth indeed have already finished their professional training, the proportion of people without a learned profession (among the group relevant for those statistics) is higher than in an age group that is old enough to have a professional degree, because the ones still in training aren't counted while their peers of the same age but without professional training are. An economic crisis always hits untrained workers harder.\n\nFinally, Germany has a [different education system](_URL_0_) for vocational training. To learn a trade, apprentices split their time between trade school and (the larger part) on the job at a company. So, by the time they graduate, they've already been with a company for (typically) three years, which is more than just a foot in the door. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is often a statistical illusion (but not always).\n\nEmployment is calculated as \"number of people employed\" divided by \"ACTIVE population\" which is the population looking for a job.\nIn order to have high figure of employment (ie a low for UNemployment), you can either have a high number of people employed AND/OR a LOW active population.\n\nUnlike what most journalists say, an unemployment rate is not the percentage of youth NOT having a job, it is the percentage of youth IN THE ACTIVE POPULATION, not having a job. If almost no youth is in the active population, a high unemployment in that category is not a problem.\n\nCountries have VASTLY different active population, especially for the youth. \n\nIf in country A 80% of the youth are full time students not looking for work, and 10% are having a full time job, and 10% are looking for one, you'll have youth unemployment rate of 50% (only 20% are in the labour force, 80% are not so those are not counted to calculate the unemployment).\nIf in country B you have 50% of the youth as full time students, 40% having a job, and 10% looking for one (ie same overall figure as country A), you'll have a youth unemployment rate of 20%. \n\nBut is the country B in a better situation? Are the youth of country B working because they can't afford to study (because studies are too expensive) or because they finished them early (less education than country A) or because they have a better job market?\n\nOne needs to ALSO look at the employement/total population ratio. In some countries, it is very high (ie every one works, regardless of age and sex). In others it is very low (only few categories work).\n\n\nIf you look at this data:\n_URL_0_\n\nYou'll see for the 15-19 age bracket both sexes, VERY different Labour participation rates (ie the number of people actually in the labour force, having or looking for a job):\nGermany 28.5% and Greece 8% 2012. So youth unemployement rate of let's say 10% in Germany means 2.85% of total youth are looking for a job. The same 2.85% would mean 35% unemployement in Greece because of its much lower active population.\n\nIf you look at the real figures you have for 2012 in \n\nA. Employment/total population:\nFrance (9.7%) Germany (25.8%) Greece (2.8%) USA (26.1%)\n\nB. Labour force/population\nFrance (14.4%) Germany (28.5%) Greece (8%) USA (34.4%)\n\nC. Unemployment rate (A/B)\nFrance (32.7%) Germany (9.2%) Greece (65.7%) USA (24%)\n\nBut what does C represents in matter of total population? This is what is important to really gauge the scale of the problem. The number of youth looking for a job/total youth population, ie the UNEMPLOYEMENT/POPULATION. For Greece, this means 65.7% (very high scary figure) but of ONLY 8% of the youth (super low)\n\nHere is the result, ie the percentage of youth unemployed (ie looking for a job) of the total population of youth (and not only those in the active population).\n\nFrance (4.7%) Germany (2.7%) Greece (5.2%) USA (8.3%)\n\nSo the unemployment of youth concerns a much bigger part of the youth population in the US than in Greece... even though its unemployment rate is many times smaller (24% vs 65.7%)...\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Netherlands might be a bad example as all policies are aiming to keep this figure as low as possible.\n\nSome background information: Real estate values dropped a lot over the past couple of years and as a result in many households the mortgage is higher than the amount of money their house is worth. This difference easily hits tens of thousands of euros. These people can not move because even selling their house will result in a net loss. Plenty of people are currently losing their jobs. Since they can not go anywhere these people, with multiple years of experience, will gladly accept entry level jobs.\n\nEmployers prefer to hire these people because they get experienced people at entry level salaries. It is not uncommon to see entry level job ads requiring multiple years of experience. If you are currently starting on the job market, you're shit out of luck.\n\nNow here is the beauty of the system. In order to be counted as unemployed, you need to register with the government. This is the only way to get 'free' money. In order to be eligable you will have to follow training programs if requested and you'll have to apply for x jobs per week/month. You are required to take on any job that is actually offered. The problem with this is that applying for a job in your own field is hard if you are working in a factory 40 hours a week. Besides that, paying off your student debt with a minimum income is not going to give you a financially stable life.\n\nAs a result a lot of young people decide to stay in the educational system. They have already been studying for at least 4 years, and racked up some debt to persue a career. Most people are not going to give up on that, and will go and try to get a higher degree. Hoping that by the time they finish they can actually get a job they like.\n\nThis will become a problem as soon as the economy improves. All of those people who decided to stay in the educational system will come out at once. They will all be overqualified, and they all need a decent income to pay of their debts.\n\nSo it is not that the Netherlands actually has enough jobs for young people, the government is just really good at hiding this and postponing the problems.\n\ntl;dr There are no jobs, so young people stay in the educational system to study for jobs which might be available in the future. Students are not registered as unemployed therefore the unemployment problem is \"solved\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38000781",
"title": "Youth unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.:European Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Due to the great recession in Europe, in 2009, only 15 per cent of males and 10 per cent of females between ages 16–19 in were employed full-time. The youth employment rate in the European Union reached an all-time low of 32.9 percent in the first half of 2011. Of the countries in the European Union Germany sticks outs with its low rate of 7.9%. Some critics argue that the decrease of the youth unemployment began even before the economic downturn, countries such as Greece and Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29269651",
"title": "Effects of the Great Recession",
"section": "Section::::Unemployment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The average numbers for European Union nations are similar to the US ones. Some European countries have been hit by recession very hard, for instance Spain's unemployment rate reached 18.7% (37% for youths) in May 2009 — the highest in the eurozone. In the UK, youths bore the brunt of unemployment during the recession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38000781",
"title": "Youth unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In 2017 the youth unemployment rate in France was 22.3%, relatively high compared to the overall unemployment rate of 8.9%. France has one of the highest rates of youth unemployment among the EU countries, trialing behind Greece, Spain, Italy and Portugal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52087661",
"title": "Youth unemployment in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "The above figure depicts the series of unemployment among individuals in the age group of 15 to 24 years (Dietrich & Möller, 2016). This reflects that the rate of youth unemployment increased to double (reaching 40 per cent from 20 per cent) from the years 2008 to 2013. This was highest across all counties of Europe, apart from Spain, Portugal, and Greece. The rate of unemployment across the older population did not increase or decrease in such a manner raising queries regarding if there was a recent enactment of the pension reform. If this was the case, several older employees would have been employed for a long time and this had a short-term influence on the unemployment faced by the youth population (Gebel & Giesecke, 2011). The above figure provides that there is a specifically high ratio of unemployment when compared between youths and adults in Italy. This particular fact clearly indicates that there are youth specific issues in the labour market of Italy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38000781",
"title": "Youth unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.:Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Within the Eurozone, only Greece and Spain display higher rates of youth unemployment than Italy. Similarly to Spain, the percentage of people aged 15–24 excluded from the labour market saw a dramatic rise in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Between 2008 and 2014, youth unemployment rose by 21.5%. By that year, almost 43% of the young were excluded from the labour market in Italy. Furthermore, youth unemployment is unequally distributed throughout the country. In the third quarter of 2014, only 29.7% of the young were unemployed in the North. This number increases to an alarming 51.5% when looking at the South of Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38000781",
"title": "Youth unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.:Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "In addition to youth unemployment (namely those up to 25 years of age), Greece also faced severe graduate unemployment of those 25–29 years of age. In 1998, Greece had the highest level of unemployment of higher education graduates in the 25-29 year old age group. This was due to a lack of demand for highly educated personnel at the time. This trend of low employment among those with higher educational qualifications continues on today. As recently as 2009, \"one in three higher education graduates, two in three secondary graduates, and one in three compulsory education graduates have not found some form of stable employment.\" This lack of employment is thought to have contributed to the feelings of frustration among youth that eventually led to the 2008 Greek riots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1598533",
"title": "Economy of the European Union",
"section": "Section::::Economies of member states.:Labour market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The EU seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 6.7% in September 2018. The euro area unemployment rate was 8.1%. Among the member states, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in the Czech Republic (2.3%), Germany and Poland (both 3.4%), and the highest in Spain (14.9%) and Greece (19.0 in July 2018).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nsiiw
|
Why is the way in which colonial powers took over North America viewed today as "stealing", when similar scenarios are often seen as "occupying" or "invading" and then largely forgotten?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you give some examples, please? That would help.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50190219",
"title": "Border imperialism",
"section": "Section::::Settler colonialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Settler colonialism is the act of newcomers/colonizers coming into a place, claiming it as their own and taking great measures to disappear the Indigenous peoples who live their in order to take and exploit the land and resources that yield value. Additionally, settler colonialism is designed to seem inevitable and without origin. Imperialism uses stories and academia to make colonialism seem natural by “[superseding] the conditions of its operation,” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35951572",
"title": "Genocide of indigenous peoples",
"section": "Section::::Pre–1948 examples.:British Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "In places like the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada settler colonialism was carried out by the British. Foreign land viewed as attractive for settlement was declared as terra nullius or \"nobody's land\". The indigenous inhabitants were therefore denied any sovereignty or property rights in the eyes of the British. This justified invasion and the violent seizure of native land to create colonies populated by British settlers. Colonization like this usually caused a large decrease in the indigenous population from war, newly introduced diseases, massacre by colonists and attempts at forced assimilation. The settlers from Britain and Europe grew rapidly in number and created entirely new societies. The indigenous population became an oppressed minority in their own country. The gradual violent expansion of colonies into indigenous land could last for centuries, as it did in the Australian frontier wars and American Indian Wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31025901",
"title": "Stranger King",
"section": "Section::::The Stranger King in Sulawesi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The Stranger King theory argues against the theory that the centuries-long colonisation process was a non-stop process of indigenous resistance against aggressive military occupation. Notwithstanding the fact that the Stranger King's merchants, military, civil servants and missionaries had their own motives and agenda, the colonists achieved authority not just on the basis of military power, but also through political alliances, diplomatic collaboration and by providing a relatively impartial mechanism for arbitration. Colonial courts, rather than solely being instruments of oppression, also provided indigenous people with an access to justice, less subject to local bribery and patronage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5090455",
"title": "Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization",
"section": "Section::::Varieties of colonialism.:Exploitation colonialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "Exploitation colonialism is a form of colonisation where foreign citizens conquer a country in order to control and capitalize on its natural resources and indigenous population. Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson argue, \"institutions [established by colonials] did not introduce much protection for private property, nor did they provide checks and balances against government expropriation. In fact, the main purpose of the extractive state was to transfer as much of the resources of the colony to the colonizer, with the minimum amount of investment possible.\" Since these colonies were created with the intent to extract resources, colonial powers had no incentives to invest in institutions or infrastructure that did not support their immediate goals. Thus, Europeans established authoritarian regimes in these colonies, which had no limits on state power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57784300",
"title": "Black legend (Spain)",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Conquest of the Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "All European powers which colonized the Americas, including England, Portugal and the Netherlands, ill-treated indigenous peoples. Colonial powers have been also accused of genocide in Canada, the United States, and Australia. These issues have received greater scholarly attention and the historiographical evaluation of colonialism's effects is evolving. According to William B. Maltby, \"At least three generations of scholarship have produced a more balanced appreciation of Spanish conduct in both the Old World and the New, while the dismal records of other imperial powers have received a more objective appraisal.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186824",
"title": "Black Legend",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Conquest of the Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "From the perspective of history and the colonization of the Americas, all European powers that colonized the Americas, such as England, Portugal, the Netherlands and others, were guilty of the ill-treatment of indigenous peoples. Colonial powers have been also accused of genocide in Canada, the United States, and Australia. These issues have received greater scholarly attention over recent years and have led to and evolution in historiographical evaluations of the effects of colonialism. \"At least three generations of scholarship have produced a more balanced appreciation of Spanish conduct in both the Old World and the New, while the dismal records of other imperial powers have received a more objective appraisal.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60657337",
"title": "Mass poisonings of Aboriginal Australians",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1114,
"text": "During the British colonisation of Australia, land ownership was forcefully transferred from the various Indigenous populations to the colonists. Several military and paramilitary organisations such as the British Army, Native Police, Border Police and New South Wales Mounted Police were utilised by the British to eliminate any Aboriginal resistance to this acquisition of land. However, it was often the responsibility of the pioneering colonists themselves to take the initiative in enforcing land ownership transferral. Usually this was done violently through the use of firearms to intimidate or kill the native people. Some colonists though, chose an alternative approach, using poison concealed in consumables as a method of extirpating the original custodians of the land. The tainted consumables were either knowingly given out to groups of native people, or purposely left in accessible places where they were taken away and eaten collectively by the local clans. As a result, incidents of mass deaths of Aboriginal Australians due to these deliberate mass poisonings occurred throughout the continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fgy10d
|
why is it harder to find veins for injection on someone who's feeling nervous about it ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nervousness causes high blood pressure. One of the causes of high blood pressure is constriction of the blood vessels thus making them smaller and hard to find. Add in the fact that not everyone has the same body make-up, I.e. some people may just have naturally smaller/less flexible veins or their veins don’t run in exactly the same way, can also contribute.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Likely to do with vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels. When you get nervous, your body releases adrenaline into the bloodstream. This serves several purposes but one of the effects of adrenaline is vasoconstriction. This could lead to a smaller target for the nurse to hit with a needle. Also, adrenaline can cause increased body movement which can make it more difficult to be accurate with the needle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, from a theoretical perspective:\n\nYour body goes through something called sympathetic stimulus during stressful situations - it is colloquially called a \"fight or flight\" reaction. The body does several things with this, it reduces blood flow to your gut (don't need to be digesting things when running from a tiger), activates insulin (to get glucose into your muscles, where you are gonna need it to run from a tiger), dilated the pupils (so you can see the tiger better), increases blood flow to your heart, and increases heart rate (definitely need that with tigers around), and *decreases* peripheral blood flow (to prioritise the central organs, like your heart and lungs) by constricting your veins. Smaller tubes, less blood in them, more blood for your heart. This increases your blood pressure too.\n\nFrom a practical perspective, the venous constriction is actually relatively small, certainly compared to other factors affecting how easy it is to get a needle in, like hydration.\n\nYour nervous disposition also has an effect on the person putting the needle in. I am massively needle-phobic, and I really hate cannulating other needle-phobes, cos I know what they are going through, and it makes me feel under massive pressure to get the vein first time, which inevitably makes me miss.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "334816",
"title": "Route of administration",
"section": "Section::::Choice of routes.:Parenteral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665909",
"title": "Injection (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Intravenous injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Intravenous injections involve needle insertion directly into the vein and the substance is directly delivered into the bloodstream. In medicine and drug use, this route of administration is the fastest way to get the desired effects since the medication moves immediately into blood circulation and to the rest of the body. This type of injection is the most common and often associated with drug use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8127859",
"title": "Absorption (skin)",
"section": "Section::::Measurement of skin absorption.:Indirect measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "It is sometimes impossible for humane reasons to apply a drug to the skin and measure its absorption. Sarin, a nerve gas, can be absorbed through intact skin and be lethal at low concentrations. Thus if one needs to assess the risk of Sarin exposure one must take skin absorption and other routes into account but one cannot ethically test Sarin on human subjects; thus ways of modeling the risk from skin exposure of the agent have been found. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6447865",
"title": "Drug injection",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The preferred injection site is the crook of the elbow (i.e., the Median cubital vein), on the user's non-writing hand. Other users opt to use the Basilic vein; while it may be easier to \"hit\", caution must be exercised as two nerves run parallel to the vein, increasing the chance of nerve damage, as well as the chance of an arterial \"nick\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065865",
"title": "Subcutaneous tissue",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Injection into the subcutaneous tissue is a route of administration used for drugs such as insulin: because it is highly vascular, the tissue absorbs drugs quickly. Subcutaneous injection is believed to be the most effective manner to administer some drugs, such as human growth hormones. Just as the subcutaneous tissue can store fat, it can also provide good storage space for drugs that need to be released gradually because there is limited blood flow. \"Skin popping\" is a slang term that includes this method of administration, and is usually used in association with recreational drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290517",
"title": "Gamma globulin",
"section": "Section::::Use as medical treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Injections are most commonly used on patients having been exposed to hepatitis A or measles, or to make a kidney donor and a recipient compatible regardless of blood type or tissue match. Injections are also used to boost immunity in patients unable to produce gamma globulins naturally because of an immune deficiency, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hyper IgM syndrome. Such injections are less common in modern medical practice than they were previously, and injections of gamma globulin previously recommended for travelers have largely been replaced by the use of hepatitis A vaccine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21354316",
"title": "Injection site reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Injection site reactions are allergic reactions that result in cutaneous necrosis that may occur at sites of medication injection, typically presenting in one of two forms, (1) those associated with intravenous infusion or (2) those related to intramuscular injection. Intra muscular injections may produce a syndrome called livedo dermatitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2t5gal
|
how come when i dream something relevant happens in real world?
|
[
{
"answer": "You dream many things per night and some of them are relevant. Or maybe they are not all that relevant, but can be interpreted in a strange way to make sense to you. Like in your example, it could have been your brother, your father, anyone calling, anyone on the TV etc. you just want it to fit, so it does. \nThis will be paired with the confirmation bias. You dream 99 nights without it fitting, after that, 1 dream seems to fit \"perfectly\" like your example and you remember this one but disregard the rest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4897231",
"title": "Dream argument",
"section": "Section::::Simulated reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Dreaming provides a springboard for those who question whether our own reality may be an illusion. The ability of the mind to be tricked into believing a mentally generated world is the \"real world\" means at least one variety of simulated reality is a common, even nightly event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566767",
"title": "Time (Electric Light Orchestra album)",
"section": "Section::::Concept and storyline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1196,
"text": "When asked whether the man's experiences had been a dream all along, Lynne responded: \"This is what I'd like to know, because it's baffled me since I wrote it, if he has actually gone [to the future], or if he's just thinking about it. ... It could be real, or it could be a dream... I'm not sure. I'd rather not say, because I don't know either. I'm supposed to, but I don't.\" Mathews writes: \"Like \"Eldorado\", \"Time\" contained a prologue and an epilogue ... Although there is hardly any plot to thread the various songs together, the theme remains largely intact ... they embellish, rather than engage.\" A recurring line that appears in the album's epilogue is: \"though you ride on the wheels of tomorrow, you still wander the fields of your sorrow\". Rockol's writer says that the protagonist revisits the place he once lived only to find that it has become unrecognisable (\"The Way Life's Meant to Be\"). Afterwards, he hopes that he may be able to return home with a time machine, \"but with all their great inventions and all their good intentions, here I stay\" (\"Rain Is Falling\"). Following his final attempt to return to the past, the protagonist is invited to \"hold on\" (\"Hold On Tight\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Other associated phenomena.:Apparent precognition of real events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "According to surveys, it is common for people to feel their dreams are predicting subsequent life events. Psychologists have explained these experiences in terms of memory biases, namely a selective memory for accurate predictions and distorted memory so that dreams are retrospectively fitted onto life experiences. The multi-faceted nature of dreams makes it easy to find connections between dream content and real events. The term \"veridical dream\" has been used to indicate dreams that reveal or contain truths not yet known to the dreamer, whether future events or secrets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35832938",
"title": "Don't Wake Me Up (song)",
"section": "Section::::Music video.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "With this video, we wanted to go completely into the dream world. A lot of my videos from 'Turn Up the Music' and other videos I'm doing now are in a dream state of believing what you want to believe. So that's what \"Fortune\" kinda encompasses. So it's basically dreaming and accomplishing your dreams. This video is me dreaming and being taken into this whole kind of maze. I keep waking up within a dream within a dream, almost on some \"Inception\" type ... but I don't want to bite that.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30823714",
"title": "Lucidity (web series)",
"section": "Section::::Involvement in Lucid Dreaming Community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Creator Sean Oliver is quoted, \"The dream is still a mystery. People live their lives thinking that we understand it, but the truth is we don’t, we ignore it. If we can’t accurately comprehend the dream state then perhaps some of our assumptions about normal consciousness are misguided as well. I think we should all explore that.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4897231",
"title": "Dream argument",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "While one dreams, one does not normally realize one is dreaming. On more rare occasions, the dream may be contained inside another dream with the very act of realizing that one is dreaming, itself, being only a dream that one is not aware of having. This has led philosophers to wonder whether it is possible for one ever to be certain, at any given point in time, that one is not in fact dreaming, or whether indeed it could be possible for one to remain in a perpetual dream state and never experience the reality of wakefulness at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15730095",
"title": "Zhenren",
"section": "Section::::Daoist usages of \"zhenren\" 真人.:\"Liezi\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "A dream is something that comes into contact with the mind; an external event is something that impinges on the body. Hence our feelings by day and our dreams by night are the result of contacts made by mind or body. it follows that if we can concentrate the maid in abstraction, our feelings and our dreams will vanish of themselves. Those who rely on their waking perceptions will not argue about them. Those who put faith in dreams do not understand the processes of change in the external world. \"The pure men of old passed their waking existence in self-oblivion, and slept without dreams.\" How can this be dismissed as an empty phrase? \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j2pol
|
explain me stocks (what i should look for, what types are there).
|
[
{
"answer": "Honestly, this is your best shot at learning about [stocks](_URL_2_)\n\n\nThere is no easy answer to any of the things you asked.\n\nStop spending money as if it grows on trees. \n\nalso here are some important links that you might want to take a look at\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You aren't smart enough to pick winners. Almost nobody is. You are best off buying an index fund like SPY or QQQQ, which contains hundreds of stocks so your risk is spread out and one company's trouble won't take down your retirement. As you get older you should have an increasing amount of your money in bonds rather than stocks. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1974731",
"title": "Stock (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Traditionally, stocks are made from wood, generally a durable hardwood such as walnut. A growing option is the laminated wood stock, consisting of many thin layers of wood bonded together at high pressures with epoxy, resulting in a dense, stable composite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38090833",
"title": "Stocks (shipyard)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Stocks are an external framework in a shipyard used to support construction of (usually) wooden ships. They are normally associated with a slipway to allow the ship to slide down into the water. In addition to supporting the ship itself, they are typically used to give access to the ship's bottom and sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2920738",
"title": "Style investing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Classification of large numbers of stocks into categories is widespread in financial markets. Traders classify assets as liquid securities such as stocks and bonds. They may also do the same with illiquid securities, such as real estate and venture capital. Stocks may be classified as domestic or international, small or large, growth or value, “old economy\" or “new economy\", cyclical or non-cyclical. Such groups of securities are often called “asset classes\" or “styles”. Portfolio allocation based on selection among styles rather than among individual securities is known as “style investing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657129",
"title": "Stock (food)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Stock is a flavored liquid preparation. It forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups, stews and sauces. Making stocks involves simmering animal bones or meat, seafood, or vegetables in water or wine, adding mirepoix or other aromatics for more flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31860977",
"title": "Max Otte",
"section": "Section::::Books.:\"Investieren statt Sparen\" (investing rather than saving).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The value of stocks is based on the present and future earnings of the organization. Otte divides stocks into several categories: ‘Meisteraktien’ (‘master stocks’: internationally renowned companies with global brands such as DaimlerChrysler, Coca-Cola, Siemens), ‘Kaufleuteaktien’ (‘trader stocks’: large corporations that are currently undervalued with a low price / earnings ratio; high earnings in spite of low market value), ‘Königsaktien’ (‘king stocks’: the world’s best mature large corporations and industry leaders that grow less quickly than revolutionary stocks), ‘Revolutionärsaktien’ (‘revolutionary stocks’: young growing companies with revolutionary, innovative ideas such as Google, Microsoft, Cisco Systems, etc.) and ‘Valueaktien’ (blue chips).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52328",
"title": "Stock market",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "A stock market, equity market or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers (a loose network of economic transactions, not a physical facility or discrete entity) of stocks (also called shares), which represent ownership claims on businesses; these may include \"securities\" listed on a public stock exchange, as well as stock that is only traded privately. Examples of the latter include shares of private companies which are sold to investors through equity crowdfunding platforms. Stock exchanges list shares of common equity as well as other security types, e.g. corporate bonds and convertible bonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888140",
"title": "Stock and flow",
"section": "Section::::More general uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "A stock (or \"level variable\") in this broader sense is some entity that is accumulated over time by inflows and/or depleted by outflows. Stocks can only be changed via flows. Mathematically a stock can be seen as an accumulation or integration of flows over time – with outflows subtracting from the stock. Stocks typically have a certain value at each moment of time – e.g. the number of population at a certain moment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3k8zxw
|
how did people used to find their penpal, back in the day?
|
[
{
"answer": "I found some in the back of a magazine called Stickers, for sticker collectors, back in the 80's. It was in the classified section where people could advertise that they wanted pen pals to write to them about the hobby.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were penpal sections in newspapers, magazines and such. For example gaming magazines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The United States Postal Service had a penpal program. Also highschool language classes used a service to pair up penpals from other regions of the world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We did them as a class project, so the teacher gave us the names and locations, it was somewhere in Guatemala as I recall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286019",
"title": "Penpal (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "\"Penpal\" is told via a series of non-linear recollections by an anonymous narrator trying to make sense of mysterious events that happened to him during his childhood, the truth of which was kept from him by his mother all his life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286019",
"title": "Penpal (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Penpal is a 2012 self-published horror/thriller novel and the debut novel of the American author Dathan Auerbach. The work was first published in paperback on July 11, 2012 through 1000Vultures and is based on a series of popular creepypasta stories that Auerbach posted to Reddit. The book follows the narrator as he finds himself the focus of an obsessed stalker who tracks him throughout his childhood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10404",
"title": "Esperanto culture",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Penpals have been popular since Esperanto's earliest days, as Esperanto was originally advertised as a language where you could \"send a letter with a message, short list of grammar rules and a dictionary to a complete stranger, and they'll be able to look up the words and write a coherent reply back\". Many people did indeed do this in order to recruit more Esperanto speakers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411958",
"title": "Handsel Monday",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The word \"handsel\" originates from old Saxon word which means “to deliver into the hand”. It refers to small tips and gifts of money given as a token of good luck, particularly at the beginning of something; the modern house-warming gift would be a good example. An 1825 glossary marks Handsel Monday as an occasion \"when it is customary to make children and servants a present\". On this day, tips of small gifts were expected by servants, as well as by the postman, the deliverers of newspapers, scavengers, and all persons who wait upon the house.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24537",
"title": "Pen pal",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "While the expansion of the Internet has reduced the number of traditional pen pals, pen pal clubs can nowadays be found on the Internet, in magazine columns, newspapers, and sometimes through clubs or special interest groups. Some people are looking for romantic interests, while others just want to find friends. It seems, on the internet, that the term \"pen pals\" defines those looking to correspond with others that live in a different place, where pen pals originated via postal mail correspondences and has evolved to mean something more. Pen pals also make and pass around friendship books, slams and crams. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59935183",
"title": "Harald Geisler",
"section": "Section::::Notable works.:Pen-pals Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The Pen-pals Project was a historic reenactment of the letter exchange between Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud in 1932, discussing the possibility to \"\"free mankind from the menace of war\"\". In 2017, commemorating the 85th anniversary of the exchange, Geisler reproduced and send the letters from the same location and time of year. Supporters of the project on the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter received copies of the letters or addressed copies to politicians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047568",
"title": "Penjing",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origin of the components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The container known as the \"pen\" originated in Neolithic China in the Yangshao culture as an earthenware shallow dish with a foot. It was later one of the vessels manufactured in bronze for use in court ceremonies and religious rituals during the Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pj3xi
|
why do police always show up to places with their sirens on?
|
[
{
"answer": "If police are doing something sneaky, like a sting, then they won't use a siren.\n\nBut the siren gets them through traffic, instructs the public to clear away, and can intimidate criminals (or potential criminals) to dissuade any further crimes. You might think twice about shooting a hostage if you know there are guys outside with guns drawn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "874073",
"title": "Siren (alarm)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "A siren is a loud noise-making device. Civil defense sirens are mounted in fixed locations and used to warn of natural disasters or attacks. Sirens are used on emergency service vehicles such as ambulances, police cars, and fire trucks. There are two general types: pneumatic and electronic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26160789",
"title": "Public Warning System (Singapore)",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Sirens attached on appropriate rooftops of buildings can have a custom-made mini server box (which is white) beside the siren, and to the lower section of on-ground sirens, to eliminate remote control of them from the nearby fire stations turning them into sourcing sirens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230649",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment",
"section": "Section::::Audible warning devices (sirens).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Some emergency vehicle operators occasionally turn off their sirens when on side streets or when there are no cars on the road so as not to disturb residents; however, there is seldom a mandate for responders to do so. The driver will then turn on the sirens before proceeding through intersections or when traveling on potentially dangerous stretches of road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "874073",
"title": "Siren (alarm)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Fire sirens are often called \"fire whistles\", \"fire alarms\", or \"fire horns\". Although there is no standard signaling of fire sirens, some utilize codes to inform firefighters of the location of the fire. Civil defense sirens also used as fire sirens often can produce an alternating \"hi-lo\" signal (similar to emergency vehicles in many European countries) as the fire signal, or a slow wail (typically 3x) as to not confuse the public with the standard civil defense signals of alert (steady tone) and attack (fast wavering tone). Fire sirens are often tested once a day at noon and are also called \"noon sirens\" or \"noon whistles\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51018",
"title": "Civil defense siren",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "A civil defense siren (also known as an air-raid siren or tornado siren) is a siren used to provide an emergency population warning to the general population of approaching danger. It is sounded again to indicate the danger has passed. Some sirens (especially within small towns) are also used to call the volunteer fire department when needed. Initially designed to warn city dwellers of air raids in World War II, they were later used to warn of nuclear attack and natural destructive weather patterns such as tornadoes. The generalized nature of the siren led to many of them being replaced with more specific warnings, such as the broadcast Emergency Alert System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230649",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment",
"section": "Section::::Audible warning devices (sirens).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sirens - These can be fully electronic, electric, or manual, but are all designed to create changing sound patterns. These patterns vary by model of siren. Emergency drivers are often trained to use different siren tones in different conditions, to achieve maximum effectiveness through traffic. A long-standing problem for emergency services has been traffic being unable to determine the direction a siren is approaching from, and different tones have been developed on some electronic sirens to help combat this, such as the use of white or pink noise in between more conventional siren noises, which helps people to pinpoint their origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1888459",
"title": "The Receiving End of Sirens",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "\"I was a cook at a place called McCarthy's Pub in Massachusetts. A bunch of police cars and ambulances went screaming by and the name popped in my head. Like, thinking about how people never really think what's 'on the receiving end of sirens,' because its such a common thing just to hear the sirens. Especially if you live in a city, it just becomes this commonplace thing, nobody thinks twice about it anymore. Even though there's so much awful stuff going on in the world, and horrible things that happen to people, it's kind of like 'out of sight, out of mind.' It's just kind of a sad thing. So it's kind of a commentary on that. It also works on a couple levels. It can be taken as the Greek mythology example with the Sirens that lure sailors in with their singing, so being on the receiving end of those sirens isn't a great thing. It works both ways.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4332ig
|
why does "populism" have a negative connotation within democratic societies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Wiki has this definition:\n\n > Populism is a doctrine that appeals to the interests and conceptions (such as hopes and fears) of the general population, especially when contrasting any new collective consciousness push against the prevailing status quo interests of any predominant political sector.\n\nBasically it's demagogy. Pandering and appealing to emotional knee-jerk parts of people, and tending towards short-term satisfaction, as opposed to logical, rational, long-term and sustainable planning. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is fairly well explained by the tragedy of the commons, see William Forster Lloyd. Basically an individual person is likely to look out for themselves, with rational interest in short term success /safety. Their interest will not take into account what is good for the majority however. This is one of the arguments made against communism, for example. An Ayn Rand supporter would say that capitalism works because working towards your rational self interest is economically supported, jobs and taxes are levied as a byproduct of 'selfishness'. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Populism is a political philosophy that is not truly represented by any of the candidates for President, and not accurately described by the posts so far. People seem to be defining populism based upon how they think it fits into their view of hour our government should or does work, while populism has been around for much longer than we have.\n\nIn its purest form, populism is a belief in the rights and power of the people against the privileged class who exploit them, especially through economic means. These \"elites\" typically are hold power in the government and work hard to maintain the status quo. One of their most successful tactics is to drive a wedge between the underclasses by convincing the middle class that the welfare class is their greatest enemy.\n\nFDR may have been the last, closest thing we have had to a real populist, not very popular with the upper classes. Nowadays, populism is used pretty much as a derogatory term, although people generally go further over the top. I heard someone the other day call Mr. Trump a populist, which left me shaking my head. Speaking to issues of concern to many of the middle and lower classes does not make one a populist, at least in the historical and philosophical sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's generally associated with unconsidered, \"passionate\" mob rule as opposed to the carefully considered, respectfully debated consensus upon which democratic rule relies. It's generally thought of as the sort of dark side of democracy where people are led down a policy path based on their anger and frustration instead of peacefully reaching a consensus on an issue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "211484",
"title": "Populism",
"section": "Section::::Populism and other themes.:Democracy and populism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Populism can serve as a democratic corrective by contributing to the mobilization of social groups who feel excluded from political decision making. It can also raise awareness among the socio-political elites of popular concerns in society, even if it makes the former uncomfortable. When some populists have taken power—most notable Chávez in Venezuela—they have enhanced the use of direct democracy through the regular application of referenda. For this reason, some democratic politicians have argued that they need to become more populist: René Cuperus of the Dutch Labour Party for instance called for social democracy to become \"more 'populist' in a leftist way\" in order to engage with voters who felt left behind by cultural and technological change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54375684",
"title": "Democratic backsliding",
"section": "Section::::Causes of democratic backsliding.:Populism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "A December 2018 report by the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change concluded that populist rule, whether left- or right-wing, leads to a significant risk of democratic backsliding. The authors examine the effect of populism on three major aspects of democracy: the quality of democracy in general, checks and balances on executive power and citizens' right to politically participate in a meaningful way. They conclude that populist governments are four times more likely to cause harm to democratic institutions than non-populist governments. Also, more than half of populist leaders have amended or rewritten the countries' constitution, frequently in a way that eroded checks and balances on executive power. Lastly, populists attack individual rights such as freedom of press, civil liberties and political rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27074851",
"title": "Political class",
"section": "Section::::Populism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Populist political movements portray themselves as the enemies of the established political class and outsiders from the main political class that no longer represents the people and are morally corrupt. Such movements have included the United Kingdom’s United Kingdom Independence Party, France's National Front, Austria's Freedom Party and Belgium's Vlaams Belang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211484",
"title": "Populism",
"section": "Section::::Other definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "In popular discourse, \"populism\" is sometimes used in a negative sense in reference to politics which involves promoting extremely simple solutions to complex problems in a highly emotional manner. Mudde suggested that this definition \"seems to have instinctive value\" but was difficult to employ empirically because almost all political groups engage in sloganeering and because it can be difficult to differentiate an argument made emotionally from one made rationally. Mudde thought that this phenomenon was better termed \"demagogy\" rather than \"populism\". Another use of the term in popular discourse is to describe opportunistic policies designed to quickly please voters rather than deciding a more rational course of action. Examples of this would include a governing political party lowering taxes before an election or promising to provide things to the electorate which the state cannot afford to pay for. Mudde suggested that this phenomenon is better described as \"opportunism\" rather than \"populism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22492241",
"title": "Popular democracy",
"section": "Section::::Values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "As the ideal of Popular democracy came out of prepositions of Populism (ex: popular rule in democracy is fairer than elitist parliaments; decisions by general referendums are fairer than decisions by limited groups like parliaments and governments), and as platforms of certain groups claiming to be popular democratic are very similar to those of various democratic and undemocratic populist movements, there is discussion on the relation between both political philosophies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211484",
"title": "Populism",
"section": "Section::::Populism and other themes.:Democracy and populism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Mudde and Kaltwasser argued that \"populism is essentially democratic, but at odds with \"liberal\" democracy,\" since populism is based on putting into effect \"the will of the people\". It is therefore majoritarian in nature, and opposed to the safeguarding of minority rights, which is a defining feature of liberal democracy. Populism also undermines the tenets of liberal democracy by rejecting notions of pluralism and the idea that anything, including constitutional limits, should constrain the \"general will\" of \"the people\". In this, populist governance can lead to what the liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill described as the \"tyranny of the majority\". Populists tend to view democratic institutions as alienating, and in practice, populists operating in liberal democracies often criticised the independent institutions designed to protect the fundamental rights of minorities, particularly the judiciary and the media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57721291",
"title": "Populism in Latin America",
"section": "Section::::Populist socialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1740,
"text": "Because populist tradition ascertains the paramountcy of the \"people\" (instead of class) as a political subject, it suffices to say that, in the 21st century, the large numbers of voters living in extreme poverty in Latin America has remained a bastion of support for new populist candidates. By early 2008 governments with varying forms of populism and with some form of left leaning (albeit vague) social democratic or democratic socialist platform had come to dominate virtually all Latin American nations with the exceptions of Colombia, El Salvador and Mexico. This political shift includes both more developed nations such as Argentina's Front for Victory and Chile's Socialist Party, and smaller income countries like Bolívia with its Movement towards Socialism and Paraguay with the Patriotic Alliance for Change. Even in middle-income Mexico, a populist candidate like López Obrador, albeit defeated, nevertheless appeared as part of a strong neopopulist reaction. Nevertheless, populist candidates have been more successful in poorer Latin American countries such as Bolivia (under Morales), Ecuador (under Rafael Correa) and Nicaragua (under Daniel Ortega). By the use of broad grassroots movements populist groups have managed to gain power from better organized, funded and entrenched groups such as the Bolivian Nationalist Democratic Action and the Paraguayan Colorado Party. Some people see also parallels with the Work Party in Brazil, with President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and his successor Dilma Rousseff, that used the state controlled oil company Petrobras to illegally fund their party, big companies, and politicians, while at the same time used populism strategies to get good results on the polls and elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
74z0xe
|
why do wifi routers need to be power cycled periodically? are there any that don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "Routers do NOT need to be reset periodically. If you set it up correctly and installed its firmware then you shouldn’t even be touching it for months or years. If you have an older modem then it could possibly be set on DoD and you’ll need to figure out how to make it a permanent connection. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22824905",
"title": "Hop (networking)",
"section": "Section::::Hop count.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Each time a router receives a packet, it modifies the packet, decrementing the time to live (TTL). The router discards any packets received with a zero TTL value. This prevents packets from endlessly bouncing around the network in the event of routing errors. Routers are capable of managing hop counts, but other types of network devices (e.g. Ethernet hubs and bridges) are not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2563492",
"title": "Reliability (computer networking)",
"section": "Section::::Reliable delivery in real-time systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "TTEthernet provides the lowest possible latency in transferring data across such a network by using time domain control methods – each time triggered transfer is scheduled at a specific time, so that contention for shared resources is entirely controlled and thus the possibility of congestion is eliminated. The switches in the network enforce this timing to provide tolerance of faults in, and malicious actions on the part of, the other connected equipments. However, \"synchronized local clocks are the fundamental prerequisite for time-triggered communication\". This is because the sources of critical data will have to have the same view of time as the switch, in order that they can transmit at the correct time and the switch will see this as correct. This also requires that the sequence with which a critical transfer is scheduled has to be predictable to both source and switch. This, in turn, will limit the transmission schedule to a highly deterministic one, e.g. the cyclic executive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11177823",
"title": "Multi-link trunking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Using this technology allows or enables the use of several links (from 2 up to 8) and combined them to create increased bandwidth and several fail-over paths. This produces server to switch or switch to switch connections that are up to 8 times faster. In the past redundant links were unused due to Spanning Tree’s loop protection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13064488",
"title": "Wireless repeater",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "A wireless repeater (also called wireless range extender) takes an existing signal from a wireless router or wireless access point and rebroadcasts it to create a second network. When two or more hosts have to be connected with one another over the IEEE 802.11 protocol and the distance is too long for a direct connection to be established, a wireless repeater is used to bridge the gap. It can be a specialized stand alone computer networking device. Also, some wireless network interface controllers (WNIC)s optionally support operating in such a mode. Those outside of the primary network will be able to connect through the new \"repeated\" network. However, as far as the original router or access point is concerned, only the repeater MAC is connected, making it necessary to enable safety features on the wireless repeater. Wireless repeaters are commonly used to improve signal range and strength within homes and small offices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4122592",
"title": "Computer network",
"section": "Section::::Network nodes.:Repeaters and hubs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "A repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row, e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52948503",
"title": "TRAME",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:TRAME+.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "By losing redundancy (a single processor per router) the node lost some availability with respect to TRAME previous versions. This was done due to economical reasons coming from the fact that the network was being extended to smaller substations where the cost constraints are more stringent. Dual homing could help in places with more stringent availability requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1272682",
"title": "Available bit rate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "The network switches use locally available information to determine the explicit allowable rates or relative rate (increase/decrease) for the source. The newly calculated rates are then being sent to the sources using resource management records (RM-cells). RM-cells are generated by the source and travel along the data path to the destination and sent back. ABR sets a minimum cell rate (MCR) and a peak cell rate (PCR). When transfers exceed the PCR, cells are dropped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eofx6
|
why do towels have a band without fuzz on each end?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is there so the towel does not fall apart over time. There are two reasons for using this stitch over the regular \"fold-and-stitch\" version:\n\n* the fabric is very thick so it would give a very fat fold at the end which does not look appealing\n* the frothing does not make it very easy to handle\n* as there is no front and back, there is also no side that you could hide this ugly part, eg. in contrast to clothes where usually the seams are on the inside",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "165767",
"title": "Towel",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "BULLET::::- A \"beach towel\" is usually a little bit larger than a bath towel. Although it is often used for drying off after being in the water, its chief purpose is to provide a surface on which to lie. They are also worn for privacy while changing clothes in a public area, and for wiping sand from the body or objects. Beach towels often have colorful patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165767",
"title": "Towel",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- A \"show towel\" is a bath or hand towel that has had trim—such as satin, lace or linen stitched onto it, or embroidery done on it—mainly to simply \"look nice\". They are used to add a decorative touch—usually to a bathroom—most commonly in the United States. They are generally not to be used to for drying, as regular washing ruins the added trim, and the towel buckles as well (because the towel usually shrinks differently than the trim).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30572079",
"title": "Rally towel",
"section": "Section::::Present day.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In other sports, rally towels are rarely used. In the Major League Soccer (MLS), rally towels were never used because of the popularity of scarves. The rally towel made a rare appearance in the 2010 MLS Playoffs, when Real Salt Lake gave rally towels to fans during a semi-final match against FC Dallas. The towels did not help the team, as FC Dallas won in the aggregate and went all the way to the MLS Cup Final. They are used in minor leagues as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483244",
"title": "Slipmat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Unlike the rubber mat which is made to hold the record firmly in sync with the rotating platter, slipmats are designed to slip on the platter, allowing the DJ to manipulate a record on a turntable while the platter continues to rotate underneath. This is useful for holding a record still for slip-cueing, making minute adjustments during beatmatching and mixing and pulling the record back and forth for scratching. They are also very commonly used simply as decoration for when a record isn't on the turntable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147092",
"title": "Cock ring",
"section": "Section::::Materials and types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Designs range from the simple to the complex. Simple rings may lie flat on a surface, while others are ergonomically curved to fit more comfortably on the wearer. Some designs are horseshoe shaped with a closure. In cross section, the rings may vary from round to flattened oval, the latter offering more friction on the penis and are therefore less likely to slip. Many of the newer rings also have different accessories and projections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165767",
"title": "Towel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "As the Ottoman Empire grew, so did the use of the towel. Weavers were asked to embroider more elaborate designs, aided by their knowledge of carpet-weaving. By the 18th century, towels began to feature loops sticking up from the pile of the material. These looped towels became known as \"havly\"; over time, this word has changed to \"havlu\", the Turkish word for towel, and means ‘with loops’.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30572079",
"title": "Rally towel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Since the Terrible Towel's debut, teams have used similar gimmicks, mainly using white towels (or towels with the team's colors) and giving them out to fans. The main time teams give rally towels is during league postseasons. Towels have gained much popularity as distractions to visiting players. Teams that use rally towels include the NFL's Seattle Seahawks, New England Patriots, and New York Jets, the NHL's Anaheim Ducks, Montreal Canadiens, Vancouver Canucks, San Jose Sharks, Pittsburgh Penguins, New York Rangers, New Jersey Devils and Dallas Stars, the NBA's Cleveland Cavaliers, Memphis Grizzlies and Oklahoma City Thunder, and the MLB's Detroit Tigers, San Francisco Giants, Toronto Blue Jays, Philadelphia Phillies, Texas Rangers, Minnesota Twins, Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets and the Washington Nationals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ntaga
|
If we know all the naturally occurring elements and how they combine, is there a finite number of compounds? Do we know them all? Have we synthesized all or most of them??
|
[
{
"answer": "It's quite likely we know all naturally occurring elements, as all the ones heavier than those we know are naturally occurring are quite short-lived, and AFAIK it's not believed any more stable elements exist (even if an 'island of stability' may exist higher up, but then they mean _relative_ stability - they'd still be short-lived).\n\nThere's a finite, but very large number of compounds. You can build very long polymer chains and very large crystals, although their size is theoretically limited by entropy (although practical limits are far smaller). No matter how strong they're bonded, it's a finite strength, and if you make the chain long enough, it'll statistically be likely to break _somewhere_.\n\nWe do not know all possible compounds. Not at all. Although many of the possible ones are just quite boring variations. If you add another amino acid to a protein, you may have a protein that's never been synthesized, but it's not going to differ much in its properties from the original, or other proteins. Not in the way that small compounds are distinct from each other.\n\nHowever, there are even relatively small compounds we still don't know about, because it's not always easy to predict whether a molecule is stable or not (especially if it doesn't much resembles ones we know already), nor predict how stable it is if it exists. We're also discovering new states and properties of old and well-known elements, e.g. it was fairly recently discovered that stable compounds of Fe(VI) were existed, where it'd previously only been thought to exist as an intermediate in certain reactions, at most. \n\nThere are a number of 'theoreticals', compounds that are predicted to be stable, but which we don't know how to synthesize, often because they're high-energy compounds. One example is Td-N4, four nitrogen atoms should be able to form a (somewhat) stable tetrahedron, with each bonded to three others. Nobody has been able to produce it yet though.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes there are a finite amount of compounds. Most molecules will become unstable if they get too big, which limits the amount of bonds that can occur in a molecule. That being said, the number of possible compounds might as well be infinite. One tiny adjustment in the position of an element creates an entirely new compound. That, coupled with the sheer number of elements is mind boggling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The concept that you're asking about is called \"chemical space\". There have been attempts made to ennumerate exactly how big it is for non-polymers (which hugely complicate things, but could conceivably be dealt with), and even with a search limited to 13 atoms and a select elements, the number is [huge](_URL_0_) (977 million compounds came to less than 0.01% of the total number, which was too large to calculate). A group at Pfizer tried to calculate how many compounds are possible with synthetic techniques we have right now, and came up with [10 trillion](_URL_1_). But it should be noted, these are a little limited to the organic chemists, and certainly underestimates the true number.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We know all the notes - C, D, E, F, G, A, B , plus their sharps and flats, and a few octaves either side. (Fewer than the number of elements!)\n\nAre we close to knowing all possible songs? Is this even feasible?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29365",
"title": "Synthetic element",
"section": "Section::::Other elements usually produced through synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "All elements with atomic numbers 1 through 94 occur naturally at least in trace quantities, but the following elements are often produced through synthesis. Technetium, promethium, astatine, neptunium, and plutonium were discovered through synthesis before being found in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23053",
"title": "Periodic table",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) through 118 (oganesson) have been discovered or synthesized, completing seven full rows of the periodic table. The first 94 elements all occur naturally, though some are found only in trace amounts and a few were discovered in nature only after having first been synthesized. Elements 95 to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors. The synthesis of elements having higher atomic numbers is currently being pursued: these elements would begin an eighth row, and theoretical work has been done to suggest possible candidates for this extension. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44112",
"title": "John Dalton",
"section": "Section::::Scientific contributions.:Atomic weights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Dalton hypothesised the structure of compounds can be represented in whole number ratios. So, one atom of element X combining with one atom of element Y is a binary compound. Furthermore, one atom of element X combining with two atoms of element Y or vice versa, is a ternary compound. Many of the first compounds listed in the \"New System of Chemical Philosophy\" correspond to modern views, although many others do not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29952420",
"title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History",
"section": "Section::::Episode 3: The Power of the Elements.:Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler encounter isomerism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Wöhler and von Liebig had inadvertently discovered isomerism: the same number of atoms of the same elements \"combining in different ways\" to make \"different\" compounds. In time, this would explain how just 92 elements could make the vast array of compounds we know today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Properties.:Occurrence and origin on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68326",
"title": "Extended periodic table",
"section": "Section::::Predicted properties of eighth-period elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "Element 118, oganesson, is the last element that has been synthesized. The next two elements, elements 119 and 120, should form an 8s series and be an alkali and alkaline earth metal respectively. Beyond element 120, the superactinide series is expected to begin, when the 8s electrons and the filling 8p, 7d, 6f, and 5g subshells determine the chemistry of these elements. Complete and accurate CCSD calculations are not available for elements beyond 122 because of the extreme complexity of the situation: the 5g, 6f, and 7d orbitals should have about the same energy level, and in the region of element 160, the 9s, 8p, and 9p orbitals should also be about equal in energy. This will cause the electron shells to mix so that the block concept no longer applies very well, and will also result in novel chemical properties that will make positioning these elements in a periodic table very difficult. For example, element 164 is expected to mix characteristics of the elements of group 10, 12, 14, and 18.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2844",
"title": "Atomic theory",
"section": "Section::::History.:John Dalton.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "John Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous work and defended a new idea, later known as the law of multiple proportions: if the same two elements can be combined to form a number of different compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the two elements in their various compounds will be represented by small whole numbers. For example, Proust had studied tin oxides and found that there is one type of tin oxide that is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen and another type that is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these are tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found several examples of such instances of integral multiple combining proportions, and asserted that the pattern was a general one. Most importantly, he noted that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this law, as well as Proust's law of definite proportions. For example, in the case of Proust's tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms to form either the first or the second oxide of tin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d0edar
|
Why do positron-electron pair not annihilate each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "To answer the question in the title: electrons and positrons do annihilate eachother.\n\nTo address the [different] question in the body of the post: the matter–antimatter asymmetry of the universe is an unsolved problem. Perhaps there are processes that violate lepton number or baryon number (key ingredients in generating the asymmetry), but we haven't observed anything like that yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202522",
"title": "Ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Directly ionizing.:Positrons and other types of antimatter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron, annihilation occurs, resulting in their conversion into the energy of two or more gamma ray photons (see electron–positron annihilation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24731",
"title": "Positron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1 \"e\", a spin of 1/2 (same as electron), and has the same mass as an electron. When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs. If this collision occurs at low energies, it results in the production of two or more gamma ray photons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV. On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51519180",
"title": "Angular Correlation of Electron Positron Annihilation Radiation",
"section": "Section::::Experimental details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "When a positron is implanted into a solid it will quickly lose all its kinetic energy and annihilate with an electron. By this process two gamma quanta with each are created which are in the reference frame of the electron positron pair emitted in exactly anti-parallel directions. In the laboratory frame, however, there is a Doppler shift from and an angular deviation from collinearity. Although the full momentum information about the momentum of the electron is encoded in the annihilation radiation, due to technical limitations it cannot be fully recovered. Either one measures the Doppler broadening of the annihilation radiation (DBAR) or the angular correlation of the annihilation radiation (ACAR).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217717",
"title": "Carbon-burning process",
"section": "Section::::Neutrino losses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Normally, the positron quickly annihilates with another electron, producing two photons, and this process can be safely ignored at lower temperatures. But around 1 in 10 pair productions end with a weak interaction of the electron and positron, which replaces them with a neutrino and anti-neutrino pair. Since they move at virtually the speed of light and interact very weakly with matter, these neutrino particles usually escape the star without interacting, carrying away their mass-energy. This energy loss is comparable to the energy output from the carbon fusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391267",
"title": "Positron emission",
"section": "Section::::Energy conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "A positron is ejected from the parent nucleus, and the daughter (Z−1) atom must shed an orbital electron to balance charge. The overall results is that the mass of two electrons are ejected from the atom (one for the positron and one for the electron), and the β decay is energetically possible only if the mass of the parent atom exceeds the mass of the daughter atom by at least two electron masses (1.02 MeV).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140857",
"title": "Electron–positron annihilation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Electron–positron annihilation occurs when an electron () and a positron (, the electron's antiparticle) collide. At low energies, the result of the collision is the annihilation of the electron and positron, and the creation of gamma ray photons:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fiqj4
|
what are pilots checking during pre/post flight?
|
[
{
"answer": "Im not a pilot, but as a truck driver i would assume you would check a lot of the same things as i do on my rig. Check your fluid levels, belts, guages, lights, and for leaks. I bet they check their wings and tail like i check my tires and steering. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not everything on the checklist will ground the plane, but some things can. For example, during flight a bird might have damaged a [pitot tube](_URL_0_). That wouldn't ground a plane by itself (unless *all* of them were damaged by a flock of birds), but you'd need to clean them out at the very least, and certify they were working properly before you could fly.\n\nOther items on the checklist make sure that the plane is ready for flight. Is it snowing/cold outside? Turn on engine anti-ice. Are your outboard lights on (so other planes can see you)? Are your radios setup on the correct frequencies? Did you program the flight computer? etc.\n\nAs for post flight, that's mostly to do with shutting down the electrical systems and engines in a safe manner. When you're on the ground, you're generally connected to ground-based power. You still need to switch the plane over to actually use this power, and ensure that things like the APU are not generating power. You also don't want to drain your batteries. Also, no sense in trying to pressurize the cabin when the door is open. The checklists exist to make sure you turn all the knobs and dials you're supposed to turn because despite the automation, there is still a LOT of settings that can/should be tweaked on a plane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23648401",
"title": "Preflight checklist",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In aviation, a preflight checklist is a list of tasks that should be performed by pilots and aircrew prior to takeoff. Its purpose is to improve flight safety by ensuring that no important tasks are forgotten. Failure to correctly conduct a preflight check using a checklist is a major contributing factor to aircraft accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12269560",
"title": "Tracking (commercial airline flight)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Flight/airline tracking, that is the use of flight trackers has been growing due to the obvious reason to know whether a flight has safely landed or whether everything goes according to the schedule so it is the time to go to the airport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398368",
"title": "Aeroperú Flight 603",
"section": "Section::::Accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Faced with a lack of reliable basic flight instrument readings, constant contradictory warnings from the aircraft's flight computer (some of which were valid and some of which were not) and believing that they were at a safe altitude, the crew decided to begin descent for the approach to the airport. Since the flight was at night over water, no visual references were available to convey to the pilots their true altitude or to aid their descent. As a consequence of the pilots' inability to precisely monitor the aircraft's airspeed or vertical speed, they experienced multiple stalls, resulting in rapid loss of altitude with no corresponding change on the altimeter. While the altimeter indicated an altitude of approximately 9,700 feet, the aircraft's true altitude was much lower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1676707",
"title": "Flight service station",
"section": "Section::::Flight services in different countries.:Flight services in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Leidos until early 2016 had another inflight position called Flight Watch, which was dedicated to updating weather for aircraft en route. Radio now performs that function. Enroute Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) or Flight Watch was designed to give pilots who are already airborne updates on weather during their current flight, and take pilots' reports or PIREPS, which they enter into the computer for transmission to the National Weather Service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12269560",
"title": "Tracking (commercial airline flight)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Flight tracking software is available for commercial operators to track their aircraft and monitor if they deviate from the agreed flight path, if so, a warning alarm is generated to alert to a potential problem. The type of software available also imports and reviews global weather and NOTAM information to monitor any emerging issues that could affect the flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173394",
"title": "Flight attendant",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1460,
"text": "Prior to each flight, flight attendants attend a safety briefing with the pilots and lead flight attendant. During this briefing, they go over safety and emergency checklists, the locations and amounts of emergency equipment and other features specific to that aircraft type. Boarding particulars are verified, such as special needs passengers, small children traveling as unaccompanied or VIPs. Weather conditions are discussed including anticipated turbulence. Prior to each flight a safety check is conducted to ensure all equipment such as life-vests, torches (flashlights) and firefighting equipment are on board, in the right quantity, and in proper condition. Any unserviceable or missing items must be reported and rectified prior to takeoff. They must monitor the cabin for any unusual smells or situations. They assist with the loading of carry-on baggage, checking for weight, size and dangerous goods. They make sure those sitting in emergency exit rows are willing and able to assist in an evacuation and move those who are not willing or able out of the row into another seat. They then must do a safety demonstration or monitor passengers as they watch a safety video. They then must \"secure the cabin\" ensuring tray tables are stowed, seats are in their upright positions, armrests down and carry-ons stowed correctly and seat belts are fastened prior to takeoff. All the service between boarding and take-off is called \"Pre Take off Service\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "115894",
"title": "Loring Air Force Base",
"section": "Section::::History.:Operational history.:Early history.:Operation Head Start.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Before each flight, a briefing was held, alerting the crewmembers to basic world events as well as safety criteria. At least 15 hours before takeoff, the crew would thoroughly pre-flight their aircraft. Inadvertently, this also increased efficiency in terms of maintenance and other pre-flight routines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fw2yke
|
why does yawning temporarily make a headache go away?
|
[
{
"answer": "Headaches are mostly caused by misfiring nerves in your brain (migraines) or \"heartbeat\"/pressure headaches in the nerves/vessels/muscle that surround your brain.\n\nYawning causes a few things to happen in your body: it increases oxygen in your blood stream, increases blood flow around your jaw as you use the muscles (which is why you sometimes hear a \"whooshing\" as you stretch/yawn) and relieves pressure imbalances in your sinuses (when your ears pop). All three of these effects can impact headache pain.\n\nThe most significant \"immediate\" effects on your headache are pressure balancing and muscle stretching - especially for non-migraine headaches. Pressure in your sinuses can cause the sinus walls to trigger nearby nerves, making them to react in a throbbing pain that is relieved by a temporary release of pressure while yawning. The pain will, of course, come back when the pressure is unbalanced again\n\nIf your headache is caused by dehydration or a hangover, your brain has slightly shrunk and pulled away from your skull, alerting the nerves in a painful way (esp at your temples). By yawning, you are stretching the muscles in your jaw and temples, making nearby nerves fire a sense of \"pleasure\" that overrides the \"pain\" from dehydration - it's a very similar principal to rubbing an area near an injury to reduce the feeling of pain. Once you are no longer doing that, the pain returns. Yawning also stretches muscles that can be tight with painful tension (due to stress or exhaustion), and the temporary relax + stretch makes nerve firings associated with constricting your muscles go away.\n\nYawning during migraines is a little different because migraines are (to our current understanding) misfires of nerves within the brain itself. Yawing is usually a sign that a migraine is coming on, likely because the brain is reacting to random nerve firings the same way it reacts to exhaustion - by trying to get more oxygen. There is no real evidence that yawning lessens migraine pain in a physical way caused by an increase in oxygen, but the action may temporarily district you from your headache.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1731,
"text": "Still another hypothesis suggests yawns are caused by the same chemicals (neurotransmitters) in the brain that affect emotions, mood, appetite, and other phenomena. These chemicals include serotonin, dopamine, glutamic acid, and nitric oxide. As more (or fewer) of these compounds are activated in the brain, the frequency of yawning increases. Conversely, a greater presence in the brain of opioid neurotransmitters, such as endorphins, reduces the frequency of yawning. Individuals in opioid withdrawal exhibit a greatly increased frequency of yawning. Patients taking the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Paxil (paroxetine HCl) or Celexa (citalopram) have been observed yawning more often. Excessive yawning is more common during the first three months of taking the SSRIs. Anecdotal reports by users of psilocybin mushrooms often describe a marked stimulation of yawning while inebriated, often associated with excess lacrimation (eyes producing tears) and nasal mucosal stimulation, especially while \"peaking\" (undergoing the most intense portion of the psilocybin experience). While opioids have been demonstrated to reduce this yawning and lacrimation provoked by psilocybin, it is not clear that the same pathways that induce yawning as a symptom of opioid abstinence in habituated users are the mode of action in yawning in mushroom users. While, even, opioid-dependent users of psilocybin on stable opioid therapy often report yawning and excess lacrimation while undergoing this entheogenic mushroom experience, there are no reports on mushrooms in the literature regarding habituated users experiencing other typical opioid withdrawal symptoms, such as cramping, physical pain, anxiety, gooseflesh, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found, that, when a subject wearing earplugs yawned, a breeze is heard, caused by the flux of the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen, the pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen, or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24044309",
"title": "Sleep induction",
"section": "Section::::Activities.:Yawning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Yawning is commonly associated with imminent sleep, but it seems to be a measure to maintain arousal when sleepy and so prevents sleep rather than inducing it. Yawning may be a cue that the body is tired and ready for sleep, but deliberate attempts to yawn may have the opposite effect of sleep induction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Yawning (\"oscitation\") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This \"contagious\" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, creating a rumbling noise from within the head. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body, including arms, neck, shoulders and back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "Section::::Brain involvement.:Involuntary expiration.:Yawning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Yawning is considered a non-respiratory gas movement. A non-respiratory gas movement is another process that moves air in and out of the lungs that don't include breathing. Yawning is a reflex that tends to disrupt the normal breathing rhythm and is believed to be contagious as well. The reason why we yawn is unknown, but some think we yawn as a way to regulate the body’s levels of O and CO. Studies done in a controlled environment with different levels of O and CO have disproved that hypothesis. Although there isn’t a concrete explanation as to why we yawn, others think people exhale as a cooling mechanism for our brains. Studies on animals have supported this idea and it is possible humans could be linked to it as well. What is known is that yawning does ventilate all the alveoli in the lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35wuj4
|
Is there a name for the feeling you get when you see something that makes you cringe?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ This is more about sounds like scratching, scraping etc., but it does cover where the reaction comes from",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Might not be what you're looking for exactly, but this site has a plethora of definitions that haven't been captured by words by an official dictionary yet. You might find a word that means that here](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps \"Neural Mirroring\" is what you're looking for.\n\nIt's an overhyped concept right now, but the concept itself makes sense.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11026307",
"title": "Simulation theory of empathy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Emotion understanding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Observing video clips that displayed facial expression of feeling disgust activated the neural networks typical of direct experience of disgust. Similar results have been found in the case of touch. Watching movies that someone touched legs or faces activated the somatosensory cortex for direct feeling of the touch. A similar mirror system exists in perceiving pain. When people see other people feel pain, people feel pain not only affectively, but also sensorially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215176",
"title": "Infrasound",
"section": "Section::::Human reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "One study has suggested that infrasound may cause feelings of awe or fear in humans. It has also been suggested that since it is not consciously perceived, it may make people feel vaguely that odd or supernatural events are taking place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23878453",
"title": "Squeamishness",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Anything can cause someone to feel squeamish. Some examples of common triggers are the sight of blood or other bodily fluids, witnessing a human endure pain, the sight of insects, strong smells, and general ideas such as war, hospitals, or death. While these are common triggers, there are no limits to what stimuli can cause this reaction as it is based on the subjective observations of the person experiencing it. The feeling can also be triggered by traumatic experiences from the past. People can feel squeamish while witnessing, thinking of, or speaking about any particularly unpleasant topic. Often squeamishness is associated with medical phobia, as some of the most common triggers include sites or experiences one may encounter during a medical emergency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242682",
"title": "Sensation (fiction)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Also according to Rozelle, \"The sensation of what something feels like is used to describe everything from sensual pleasure to pain and torture. It's a wide range, and your readers have actually experienced only some of those feelings. So your job is to either make them recall exactly what it feels like when something occurs in your story or, if they haven't experienced it, what it would feel like if they did\" . Morrell describes a \"sensory surround\", which when \"coupled with drama tugs the reader into [the] story and forces him to keep reading.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7973164",
"title": "Anomalous experiences",
"section": "Section::::Subtypes.:Sense of presence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "This is a paradoxical experience in which the person has a strong feeling of the presence of another person, sometimes recognised, sometimes unrecognised, but without any apparently justifying sensory stimulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3318239",
"title": "Glossary of psychiatry",
"section": "Section::::D.:Déjà pensé.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In \"Déjà pensé\", a completely new thought sounds familiar to the person and he feels as he has thought the same thing before at some time.This feeling can be caused by seizures which occur in certain parts of the temporal lobe and possibly other areas of the brain as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1038052",
"title": "Neuroesthetics",
"section": "Section::::Theories of pioneers.:Ramachandran's eight laws of artistic experience.:Visual metaphors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Support for this view is highlighted by the symptoms of Capgras delusion, where sufferers experience reduced facial recognition due to impairments in the connections from the inferotemporal cortex to the amygdala, which is responsible for emotions. The result is that a person no longer experiences the warm fuzzy feeling when presented with a familiar face. A person's 'glow' is lost through what is suggested as due to the lack of limbic activation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6du8cw
|
How did Gen James Longstreet go from Lee's right-hand man to pro-Reconstruction Republican?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a word, Longstreet was a realist. He accepted that the South has lost, and was looking for the best way for her to bounce back. But while he wasn't alone in the former officer corps in his caution \"to accept the terms that are now offered by the conquerors\" following the implementation of Reconstruction in 1867, he was fairly unique in his advocacy for actual cooperation, which resulted in considerable vilification by Southern veterans and writers over the next few decades. Maybe if he had kept is views to himself it wouldn't have been so bad, but he put them in a letter that was published in a New Orleans newspaper. [I don't know if the entire text is available, but \"Lee's Tarnish Lieutenant\" has a fairly extensive quotation](_URL_0_). In short though, He was arguing that cooperation with Republicans was essential in order to best be able to mitigate the adverse effects of Reconstruction - \"if whites won't do it, the thing will be done by the blacks\" - and additionally that ensuring a Southern presence within the Republican party was essential to limiting the ability of the newly enfranchised African-Americans to have any real power with their vote.\n\nAs you can see, his views are still fairly offensive as far as our ideas of racial equality goes, but for a Southern audience, still smarting from defeat, and still *pretty* damn racist, he might as well have just waved a white flag. Most of them weren't willing to give even an inch, and of course, as the next few decades would bear out, the South was fairly effective in ensuring the failure of Reconstruction, and the continued subjugation of the African-American population under Jim Crow. It didn't matter to them that Longstreet firmly believed he was advocating in Southern interests, and for the continued marginalization of the Black population at that. The Republican Party was *the enemy*. It was everything that stood in opposition to white, Southern civilization. One of the most core aspects of the Southern views on their defeat was to ensure that their honor remained intact - defeated on the battlefield but not in spirit. Longstreet's path went against that, however much his long term view of the continuance of a white dominated South may still have aligned.\n\nLongstreet perhaps could have defended himself, but he simply never really tried, at least in the early days. A few private letters exist which speak to his commitment to white supremacy, but he never made strong, public statements to that effect in order to clarify his position. It didn't help that within a few months, he was granted his Federal pardon, which would allow him to again run for office, and of course led to accusations of abandoning the Confederate cause out of sheer self-interest. \n\nHe then just keep digging that hole deeper, endorsing Grant for the presidency, and then accepting a Federal job in the Port of New Orleans. This just only continued to feed Southern attacks on his generalship and character, and soon enough, Longstreet was essentially the sole cause of Southern defeat, having been made the lynchpin of defeat at Gettysburg, and in turn Gettysburg the lynchpin of defeat in the war itself. It was essentially a vicious cycle, with each side acting and reacting to further entrench the other's position. When, in 1896, he published his memoir and dared speak an ill-word of General Lee in defense of himself, well, he might as well have taken a dump on Jesus Christ himself as far as Southern audiences were concerned. While he wasn't exactly at Sherman's level, Longstreet had very much come to be a villain of the 'Lost Cause' narrative as it was formed in the late 19th century. \n\nJames Longstreet and the Lost Cause by Jeffry D. Wert, in The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History, edited by Gary W. Gallagher & Alan T. Nolan\n\nLee's Tarnished Lieutenant by William G. Piston",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49588",
"title": "James Longstreet",
"section": "Section::::Postbellum life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Longstreet was one of a small group of former Confederate generals, including James L. Alcorn and William Mahone, to join or ally with the nationally dominant Republican Party during the Reconstruction era. He endorsed Grant for president in the election of 1868, attended his inauguration ceremonies in Washington, D.C., and six days later was appointed by Grant as surveyor of customs in New Orleans. For these acts he lost favor with many white Southerners. His old friend Harvey Hill wrote to a newspaper: \"Our scalawag is the local leper of the community.\" Unlike Northerners who moved South and were sometimes referred to as \"Carpetbaggers,\" Hill wrote, Longstreet \"is a native, which is so much the worse.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171486",
"title": "Horace Greeley",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Greeley's alliance with William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed led to him serving three months in the House of Representatives, where he angered many by investigating Congress in his newspaper. In 1854, he helped found and may have named the Republican Party. Republican newspapers across the nation regularly reprinted his editorials. During the Civil War, he mostly supported Lincoln, though he urged the president to commit to the end of slavery before he was willing to do so. After Lincoln's assassination, he supported the Radical Republicans in opposition to President Andrew Johnson. He broke with Republican President Ulysses Grant because of corruption and Greeley's sense that Reconstruction policies were no longer needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49588",
"title": "James Longstreet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "He enjoyed a successful post-war career working for the U.S. government as a diplomat, civil servant, and administrator. His conversion to the Republican Party and his cooperation with his old friend, President Ulysses S. Grant, as well as critical comments he wrote in his memoirs about General Lee's wartime performance, made him anathema to many of his former Confederate colleagues. His reputation in the South further suffered when he led African-American militia against the anti-Reconstruction White League at the Battle of Liberty Place in 1874. Authors of the Lost Cause movement focused on Longstreet's actions at Gettysburg as a primary reason for the Confederacy's loss of the war. Since the late 20th century, his reputation has undergone a slow reassessment. Many Civil War historians now consider him among the war's most gifted tactical commanders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49588",
"title": "James Longstreet",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Historical reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Longstreet's former subordinate Col. John S. Mosby defended his commander, and other former Confederates who joined the Republican Party were subjected to similar criticism, including Gen. William Mahone and Robert W. Flournoy. A \"reconstructed rebel\", Longstreet embraced equal rights for blacks, unification of the nation, and Reconstruction, After Longstreet died, his widow Helen Dortch Longstreet, privately published \"Lee and Longstreet at High Tide\" in his defense and stated that \"the South was seditiously taught to believe that the Federal Victory was wholly the fortuitous outcome of the culpable disobedience of General Longstreet.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2164837",
"title": "History of Virginia",
"section": "Section::::Reconstruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "The leader of the moderate Republicans, calling themselves \"True Republicans,\" was William Mahone (1826–1895), a railroad president and former Confederate general. He formed a coalition of white Scalawag Republicans, some blacks, and ex-Democrats who formed the Conservative Party. Mahone recommended that whites had to accept the results of the war, including civil rights and the vote for Freedmen. Mahone convinced the Conservative Party to drop its own candidate and endorse Gilbert C. Walker, Mahone's candidate for governor. In return, Mahone's people endorsed Conservatives for the legislative races. Mahone's plan worked, as the voters in 1869 elected Walker and defeated the proposed disfranchisement of ex-Confederates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14459046",
"title": "Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In general he was a moderate and a pragmatist. He kept the promise to withdraw the last federal troops from the South, as Democrats took control of the last three Republican states. A paragon of honesty, he sponsored civil service reform, where he challenged the patronage hungry Republican politicians. Though he failed to enact long-term reform, he helped generate public support for the eventual passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883. The Republican Party in the South grew steadily weaker as his efforts to support the civil rights of blacks in the South were largely stymied by Democrats in Congress. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2797201",
"title": "Lodge Bill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Julius Caesar Chappelle (1852–1904) was among the earliest black Republican legislators in the United States, representing Boston and serving from 1883–1886. In 1890, Chappelle gave a political speech for the right of blacks to vote at an \"enthusiastic\" meeting at Boston's Faneuil Hall to support the federal elections bill. He was featured in a front page article in \"The New York Age\" newspaper covering his support of the Lodge bill. (The Republican Party had been founded by abolitionists and other slavery opponents called Free Soilers, explaining why black voters were overwhelmingly Republican in this era.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ryol9
|
hasidic judaism (or jewish mysticism)
|
[
{
"answer": "Alright, first of all, not all Chasidim (-im generally means plural people in Hebrew) are mystics, nor are all mystics Chasidim. But you will usually find more Chasidic Kabbalah scholars than you will Reform. (Anecdotal evidence: I knew a Chabadnik who started Reform and eventually became Chabad.)\n\nChasidim (and especially the Chabadim, one of the most popular form of Chasidic Judaism in the US) feel that besides devotion to G-D, one must study G-D's ways as well. The Chabad movement took it further and said that it wasn't enough to just give G-D and Judaism your heart; you had to give your mind and your wisdom as well. No mindless devotion to the Law for them! They believe in studying always the Talmud (thousands of years of commentary on the Torah, the first five books of the Bible) and don't think that just saying the prayers and keeping the commandments are good enough. One has to always be learning.\n\nRabbis in the Chabad (and also most Chasidic movements) are not priests or superiors, so much as they are a supervisor of sorts. (One thing that drew me back to my family's Judaism was the idea that one is expected to argue with the rabbi, as that is one of the best ways to learn. True, he'll usually win, but that's not the point.)\n\nSo -- Chasidic Jews are Orthodox Jews who devote themselves to a strict interpretation of the Law. Chabad also devote themselves to learning, to spreading wisdom, and to a general appreciation of life. If you're ever at a Jewish meal, and there's one guy with long hair, a long beard, and a glass of vodka in his hand, telling you that G-D commands all to make three *l'chayim* (toasts) in his honor, that's the Chabadnik. \n\n(By the way, the 'ch' can be spelled or pronounced as 'H' and you won't be too wrong. But properly... pretend you have a hair in the back of your throat, and you're at dinner with your girlfriend's family, so you don't want to just cough it out in front of them. That gentle throat-clearing... THAT'S the Hebrew 'ch.')\n\nEDIT to finish your question: A general view of the other branches of Judaism:\n\nOrthodox: for all practical purposes, follows all the *mitzvot* or commandments. They keep all the dietary laws, they pray in separate rooms in the Synagogue (Men in one, Women in the other... it's supposed to keep your mind off the other sex), and do their best to live the way the Torah and the Talmud say Jews should live. Chasidic Jews are almost always Orthodox. The way they live and worship is generally the same since the Second Temple was destroyed in AD 70. (Of course, they use technology... except on the Sabbath. From sundown Friday to sundown Saturday, they will not drive, turn on (or off) any appliance, and do no work whatsoever. Most congregations have a \"Shabbos Goy,\" a non-Jew who will turn things off, lock up the Synagogue, and other little tasks that have to be done.)\n\nReform: this movement does their best to blend in with the surrounding population. They may or may not keep all the dietary or cultural laws, but they still say the prayers and practice Judaism. For a long time, they were the only ones who had female rabbis, but this is slowly starting to change.\n\nConservative: this movement sprang up as an answer to Reform Judaism, and is roughly a happy medium between the two. Many conservative will make small changes to the cultural laws in order to better live in society. There are Conservative female rabbis, now, and women in the congregation are more engaged. You won't see one firing up the barbecue to cook up some pork ribs on Saturday morning, but they may be a little more lax on the laws (on a personal basis) than Orthodox.\n\nEDIT #2: Meant to say that Chabad is *one of the* most popular forms of Chasidism in the US. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15624",
"title": "Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Defining characteristics and principles of faith.:Defining characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism (Kabbalah), Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as \"normal mysticism\", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews. This is played out through the observance of the Halakha (Jewish law) and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "255818",
"title": "Tanya",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "As one of the founding figures of Hasidic mysticism, Schneur Zalman and his approach in the Tanya are venerated by other Hasidic schools, although they tend to avoid its meditative methods. In Chabad, it is called \"the Written Torah of Hasidus\", with the many subsequent Chabad writings being relatively \"Oral Torah\" explanation. In it, Schneur Zalman brings the new interpretations of Jewish mysticism by the Baal Shem Tov, founder of Hasidism, into philosophical articulation and definition. This intellectual form synthesises Hasidic Divine Omnipresence and Jewish soulfulness with other historical components of Rabbinic literature, embodied in the Talmud, Medieval philosophy, Musar (ethical) literature and Lurianic Kabbalah. The Tanya has therefore been seen in Chabad as the defining Hasidic text, and a subsequent stage of Jewish mystical evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142494",
"title": "Yeshiva",
"section": "Section::::Typical schedule.:Ethics, mysticism and philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Hasidic yeshivot study the mystical, spiritual works of Hasidic philosophy (\"Chassidus\"). This draws on the earlier esoteric theology of Kabbalah, but articulates it in terms of inner psychological awareness and personal analogies. This makes Jewish mysticism accessible and tangible, so that it inspires emotional dveikus (cleaving to God) and spiritual contribution to daily Jewish life. This serves some similar purposes to mussar, but through different means and with different contributions to intellectual and emotional life. Chabad yeshivot, for example, study the Tanya, the Likutei Torah, and the voluminous works of the Rebbes of Chabad for an hour and a half each morning, before prayers, and an hour and a half in the evening. Many Yeshivot in Israel belonging to the Religious Zionism study the writings of Rav Kook, who articulated a unique personal blend of mysticism, creative exegesis and philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29174999",
"title": "Mysticism",
"section": "Section::::Variations of mysticism.:Jewish mysticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "In the common era, Judaism has had two main kinds of mysticism: Merkabah mysticism and Kabbalah. The former predated the latter, and was focused on visions, particularly those mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel. It gets its name from the Hebrew word meaning \"chariot\", a reference to Ezekiel's vision of a fiery chariot composed of heavenly beings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6757823",
"title": "Hasidic philosophy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 493,
"text": "Hasidic philosophy or Hasidism (), alternatively transliterated as Hasidut or Chassidus, consists of the teachings of the Hasidic movement, which are the teachings of the Hasidic rebbes, often in the form of commentary on the Torah (the Five books of Moses) and Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism). Hasidism deals with a range of spiritual concepts such as God, the soul, and the Torah, dealing with esoteric matters but often making them understandable, applicable and finding practical expressions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16905",
"title": "Kabbalah",
"section": "Section::::History of Jewish mysticism.:Early modern era: Lurianic Kabbalah.:20th-century influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Jewish mysticism has influenced the thought of some major Jewish theologians in the 20th century, outside of Kabbalistic or Hasidic traditions. The first Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook was a mystical thinker who drew heavily on Kabbalistic notions through his own poetic terminology. His writings are concerned with fusing the false divisions between sacred and secular, rational and mystical, legal and imaginative. Students of Joseph B. Soloveitchik, figurehead of American Modern Orthodox Judaism have read the influence of Kabbalistic symbols in his philosophical works. Neo-Hasidism, rather than Kabbalah, shaped Martin Buber's philosophy of dialogue and Abraham Joshua Heschel's Conservative Judaism. Lurianic symbols of Tzimtzum and Shevirah have informed Holocaust theologians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42151293",
"title": "Herbert Weiner",
"section": "Section::::Impact on Neo-Hasidism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Weiner's writings on Jewish mysticism help shape the Neo-Hasidic impulses among some American Jews. Rabbi Arthur Green, a leader in the Jewish Renewal movement and a proponent of Neo-Hasidism in general, was first exposed to Jewish mysticism by reading Weiner's \"Nine and a Half Mystics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3duro7
|
How do sun rays affect clouds and their changes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, sun is the energy source in the formation of clouds. Actually, sun is the main energy source of all atmospheric movements. But I assume that wasn't your question (if it was, let me know.)\n\nOnce the clouds are formed, sun rays don't affect them **directly** because clouds are poor absorbers of short-wave radiation (which is the lenghtwave in which the sun emits). Most of the incoming solar radiation gets reflected back to the top of the atmosphere by clouds, and they also scatter the visible light in a way that makes clouds appear white, but they don't get heated or evaporated by direct solar radiation. \n\nHope it helps. Sorry for bad english :P\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The prior answer is quite right. The sun provides the energy to the earth system, so in that sense \"energy that came from the sun\" is responsible for heating the Earth and the air above it. This heating is one reason that air rises. When air rises, it cools. If it rises relatively quickly, it cools so fast that the water vapor becomes supersaturated - it then condenses out on small particles in the atmosphere. These small particles come from both natural sources (like sea spray or desert dust) and man-made ones (wildfire smoke, car or power plant exhaust). The droplets that result from water condensing on such particles are cloud droplets. This is essentially how a cloud forms. \n\nSome of these particles are colored (eg desert dust), brown (smoke), or black (soot from combustion). If these particles are at the heart of droplets within a cloud, they can cause the cloud to absorb energy from the sun - just like how wearing a black shirt on a sunny day makes you hotter than wearing a white shirt. The light energy absorbed by such \"atmospheric brown clouds\" can hear the air around them. This can actually cause the cloud to evaporate! \n\nThese types of brown clouds are not everywhere on the Earth - they are very common in South Asia. The clouds there form on particles produced by Asian deserts and also the seasonally common plumes of smoke associated with burning in the region (often controlled burns for agriculture). \n\nThis is definitely a special case, but it does give a real example of how direct sunlight can affect a cloud. The vast majority of the time, clouds reflect sunlight back to space, giving a cooling effect to the Earth. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5042951",
"title": "Global warming",
"section": "Section::::Physical drivers of recent climate change.:Aerosols and soot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, aerosols have indirect effects on the Earth's radiation budget. Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets, a phenomenon known as the \"Twomey effect\". This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight, known as the \"Albrecht effect\". Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224336",
"title": "Cloud base",
"section": "Section::::Weather and climate relevance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Clouds greatly affect the transfer of radiation in the atmosphere. In the thermal spectral domain, water is a strong absorber (and thus emitter, according to Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation); hence clouds exchange thermal radiation between their bases and the underlying planetary surface (land or ocean) by absorbing and re-emitting this infrared radiation at the prevailing temperature – the lower the cloud base, the warmer the cloud particles and the higher the rate of emission. For a synthetic discussion of the impact of clouds (and in particular the role of cloud bases) on climate systems, see the IPCC Third Assessment Report, in particular chapter 7.2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "759071",
"title": "Noctilucent cloud",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun breaks water molecules apart, reducing the amount of water available to form noctilucent clouds. The radiation is known to vary cyclically with the solar cycle and satellites have been tracking the decrease in brightness of the clouds with the increase of ultraviolet radiation for the last two solar cycles. It has been found that changes in the clouds follow changes in the intensity of ultraviolet rays by about a year, but the reason for this long lag is not yet known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5220360",
"title": "Cloud top",
"section": "Section::::Weather and climate relevance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Clouds greatly affect the transfer of radiation in the atmosphere. In the solar spectral domain, cloud albedo is directly related to the nature, size and shape of cloud particles, which themselves are affected by the height of the cloud top. In the thermal domain, water is a strong absorber (and thus emitter, according to Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation). Hence clouds cool down from the top through infrared radiation at the prevailing temperature: the higher the cloud top, the cooler the particles and the lower the rate of emission. For a synthetic discussion of the impact of clouds (and in particular the role of cloud tops) on the climate system, see the IPCC Third Assessment Report, in particular chapter 7.2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20939923",
"title": "Marine cloud brightening",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Most clouds are quite reflective, bouncing incoming solar radiation back into space. Increasing clouds' albedo would increase the portion of incoming solar radiation that is reflected, in turn cooling the planet. Clouds consist of water droplets, and clouds with smaller droplets are more reflective (because of the Twomey effect). Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for water droplet formation. The central idea underlying marine cloud brightening is to add aerosols to atmospheric locations where clouds form. These would then act as cloud condensation nuclei, increasing the cloud albedo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47514",
"title": "Cloud albedo",
"section": "Section::::What can change cloud albedo?:Zenith Angle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The cloud albedo increases with the total water content or depth of the cloud and with the solar zenith angle. The variation of albedo with zenith angle is most rapid when the sun is near the horizon, and least when the sun is overhead. Absorption of solar radiation by plane-parallel clouds decreases with increasing zenith angle because radiation that is reflected to space at the higher zenith angles penetrates less deeply into the cloud and is therefore less likely to be absorbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31464039",
"title": "Albrecht effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), possibly from anthropogenic pollution, may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds. Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation, it has an indirect effect on climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89jpfh
|
Do wolves panic during thunderstorms the way domesticated dogs sometimes do?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dogs panicking during thunderstorms only primarily happens because they aren’t conditioned to the sound before formative development in the brain stops. Dog trainers can suggest playing different sounds—cars honking, trains, thunderstorms, alarms, etc.—while puppies are young so they get used to the sounds and don’t panic when they hear an unfamiliar sound. Since wolves are in the elements 100% of the time, I assume pups hear the sound of a thunderstorm before that brain development cuts off, and are normalized to it. \n\nNot a zoologist or wolf expert—just have a puppy that I’ve done tons of research on so that he doesn’t panic during thunderstorms. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your question is stated in a way which makes it a bit hard to answer correctly. There is most likely a wolf somewhere in the world which panics during thunderstorms. But that is not very helpful. What I think you want to ask is \"Is it common for wild wolves to panic during thunderstorms?\" We restrict it to wild wolves as wolves in captivity tends to have a lot of weird behaviors...\n\nTrying to answer this question, I had a look around. I can't find much data on the behavior of wild wolves during thunderstorms (and I doubt many studies have been done on that subject). No paper I have read mentions wolves panicking, and if it was a common occurrence it would probably be mentioned somewhere. \n\nWhat I can find is that wolves are known to reduce their movements when there is [rain and other bad weather](_URL_0_). Data on howling and other social activities seems to be more [limited on days with bad weather](_URL_1_) (you can't hear them as well, and studying their behavior is harder when the guy collecting the data is cold and wet). But they may also reduce the frequency of howling...\n\nSo my guess from the papers I can dig up, and what I know of wildlife in general, is that most wild wolves don't panic during thunderstorms, but that they may take shelter to avoid the weather. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33702",
"title": "Wolf",
"section": "Section::::Relationships with humans.:Conflicts.:Conflicts with dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "Wolves kill dogs on occasion, with some wolf populations relying on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behavior when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin. The most frequently killed hunting breeds in Scandinavia are harriers, with older animals being most at risk, likely because they are less timid than younger animals, and react to the presence of wolves differently. Large hunting dogs such as Swedish elkhounds are more likely to survive wolf attacks because of their better ability to defend themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11526617",
"title": "Wolf attack",
"section": "Section::::Characteristic.:Habituation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Wolf attacks are more likely to happen when preceded by a long period of habituation, during which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. This was apparent in cases involving habituated North American wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Vargas Island Provincial Park and Ice Bay, as well as 19th century cases involving escaped captive wolves in Sweden and Estonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61366571",
"title": "Wolf communication",
"section": "Section::::Auditory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1788,
"text": "Gray wolves howl to assemble the pack (usually before and after hunts), to pass on an alarm (particularly at a den site), to locate each other during a storm or unfamiliar territory and to communicate across great distances. Wolf howls can under certain conditions be heard over areas of up to . Wolf howls are generally indistinguishable from those of large dogs. Male wolves give voice through an octave, passing to a deep bass with a stress on \"\"O\"\", while females produce a modulated nasal baritone with stress on \"\"U\"\". Pups almost never howl, while yearling wolves produce howls ending in a series of dog-like yelps. Howling consists of a fundamental frequency that may lie between 150 and 780 Hz, and consists of up to 12 harmonically related overtones. The pitch usually remains constant or varies smoothly, and may change direction as many as four or five times. Howls used for calling pack mates to a kill are long, smooth sounds similar to the beginning of the cry of a great horned owl. When pursuing prey, they emit a higher pitched howl, vibrating on two notes. When closing in on their prey, they emit a combination of a short bark and a howl. When howling together, wolves harmonize rather than chorus on the same note, thus creating the illusion of there being more wolves than there actually are. Lone wolves typically avoid howling in areas where other packs are present. Wolves from different geographic locations may howl in different fashions: the howls of European wolves are much more protracted and melodious than those of North American wolves, whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable. The two are however mutually intelligible, as North American wolves have been recorded to respond to European-style howls made by biologists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4269567",
"title": "Dog",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Competitors and predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together. One study reported that in Wisconsin in 1999 more compensation had been paid for losses due to wolves taking dogs than for wolves taking livestock. In Wisconsin wolves will often kill hunting dogs, possibly because the dogs are in the wolf's territory. A strategy has been reported in Russia where one wolf lures a dog into heavy brush where another wolf waits in ambush. In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed. Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves has led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11526617",
"title": "Wolf attack",
"section": "Section::::Characteristic.:Seasonality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock grazing or berry and mushroom picking) increase, though cases of non-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in Belarus, the Kirovsk and Irkutsk districts, in Karelia, and in Ukraine. Wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23502467",
"title": "Wolf hunting with dogs",
"section": "Section::::Reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Accounts as to how wolves react to being attacked by dogs vary, though John James Audubon wrote that young wolves generally show submissive behaviour, while older wolves fight savagely. As wolves are not as fast as smaller canids such as coyotes, they typically run to a low place and wait for the dogs to come over from the top and fight them. Theodore Roosevelt stressed the danger cornered wolves can pose to a pack of dogs in his \"Hunting the Grisly and Other Sketches\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53290717",
"title": "John Goodman (pilgrim)",
"section": "Section::::Life in the New World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "On January 19, while Goodman was recovering from his injuries, two wolves were reported to have run after \"a little spaniel\" that was with him. The dog allegedly took comfort between Goodman's legs while he picked up a stick and threw it, managing to hit one of the wolves and drive them off. However, they soon returned. Goodman picked up a fence-post, ready to utilize it while the wolves sat nearby, \"grinning at him a good while\" before finally departing on their own. This is thought to be one of the earliest recorded wolf attacks in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dauhr
|
why is the ph of water important for plants but not animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "My tomato plants that I'm growing hydroponically (i.e. in water) grow within a pH range of about 5.5-7.0\n\nMy fish grow in a range of about 6.5 - 7.0.\n\nSo I think pH of water is important for both plants and animals, and probably even more important for animals? But it probably depends a lot on which plants and which animals, are they're all likely to have different abilities to cope with different pH levels.\n\nWhich animals and plants were you talking about in your question?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "106001",
"title": "Soil pH",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5; however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4136287",
"title": "Acidophobe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Plants are known to be well-defined with respect to their pH tolerance, and only a small number of species thrive well under a broad range of acidity. Therefore the categorization acidophile/acidophobe is well-defined. Sometimes a complementary classification is used (calcicole/calcifuge, with calcicoles being \"lime-loving\" plants). In gardening, soil pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of soil, with pH=7 indicating the neutral soil. Therefore acydophobes would prefer pH above 7. Acid intolerance of plants may be mitigated by lime addition and by calcium and nitrogen fertilizers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1384354",
"title": "Hydrotropism",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Plants recognize water in their environment in order to absorb it for metabolic purposes. The universally used molecules must be sensed and absorbed in order to be used by these organisms. In plants, water can be sensed and is mainly absorbed through the roots, chiefly through young fine roots as compared to mother roots or older fine roots as shown with maize in Varney and Canny’s research. The direction and rate of growth of these roots towards water are of interest because these affect the efficiency of water acquisition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27200844",
"title": "Wastewater discharge standards in Latin America",
"section": "Section::::Comparison Analysis.:pH.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The pH is a chemical parameter that measures the acidity or basicity of the water and is commonly measured in situ. Distilled water has a pH of 7, where less than 7 is considered acid and greater than 7 is considered basic. In most cases, low pH is due to organic overloading and low oxygen conditions in the water. This characteristic is strictly controlled because it has a direct effect on water ecosystems and sewer systems materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952443",
"title": "Osmoregulation",
"section": "Section::::In plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Plants share with animals the problems of obtaining water but, unlike in animals, the loss of water in plants is crucial to create a driving force to move nutrients from the soil to tissues. Certain plants have evolved methods of water conservation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106001",
"title": "Soil pH",
"section": "Section::::Plant pH preferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "However, a plant may be intolerant of a particular pH in some soils as a result of a particular mechanism, and that mechanism may not apply in other soils. For example, a soil low in molybdenum may not be suitable for soybean plants at pH 5.5, but soils with sufficient molybdenum allow optimal growth at that pH. Similarly, some calcifuges (plants intolerant of high-pH soils) can tolerate calcareous soils if sufficient phosphorus is supplied. Another confounding factor is that different varieties of the same species often have different suitable soil pH ranges. Plant breeders can use this to breed varieties that can tolerate conditions that are otherwise considered unsuitable for that species – examples are projects to breed aluminium-tolerant and manganese-tolerant varieties of cereal crops for food production in strongly acidic soils.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428874",
"title": "Crassulacean acid metabolism",
"section": "Section::::Aquatic CAM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "These plants follow the same nocturnal acid accumulation and daytime deacidification as terrestrial CAM species. However, the reason for CAM in aquatic plants is not due to a lack of available water, but a limited supply of . is limited due to slow diffusion in water, 10000x slower than in air. The problem is especially acute under acid pH, where the only inorganic carbon species present is , with no available bicarbonate or carbonate supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3r7grd
|
why do tomato based foods stain tupperware?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tomatoes contain a compound called lycopene that reflects light strongly in the red portion of the visible spectrum. The lycopene binds to the plastic in the container causing it to take on a reddish tint. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can prevent a great deal of the staining beforehand by using cooking spray to coat the plastic ware before storing the tomato based foods. You can remove some of the stains w/o ruining the containers by using a bleach soak - or a phosphate containing (commercial type) dishwasher detergent.\n\nTL:DR use a glass bowl to store your marinara sauce.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "But the real question is do Italian families just have a shit ton of stained tupperware? Completely serious here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18735",
"title": "Lycopene",
"section": "Section::::Structure and physical properties.:Staining and removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Lycopene is the pigment in tomato-containing sauces, turning plastic cookware orange, and is insoluble in water. It can be dissolved only in organic solvents and oils. Because of its nonpolarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, including most plastics. To remove this staining, the plastics can be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of household bleach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4540439",
"title": "Fried green tomatoes",
"section": "Section::::Traditional preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The sliced tomatoes may be dipped in a liquid before the cornmeal is added. This liquid is usually buttermilk or beaten egg; egg results in a slightly firmer texture than buttermilk. Liquids are used because cornmeal does not readily stick to tomato slices. Adding the liquid helps the cornmeal stay in place during the cooking process. It also results in the coating on the tomato becoming thicker and less crunchy when compared to tomatoes cooked without a liquid wash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17262487",
"title": "Tomato pomace",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Tomato pomace is an inexpensive by-product of tomato manufacturing. Effectively, it is what is left over after processing tomatoes for juice, ketchup, soup, etc. It is sometimes used in pet and livestock food manufacturing as a source of dietary fiber, as well as B vitamins, Lycopene and (to a lesser extent) vitamin A. As the primary component of tomato pomace is the tomato skin, it has the potential for higher amounts of pesticide residues than tomatoes themselves. As tomato pomace tends to be about 75% water, the cost of shipping tends to be very high (due to weight). In California, where 95% of the processing tomatoes in the United States are grown, most of the pomace goes to dairies and is added to cattle feed. In the Midwest, the majority ends up in landfills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1253449",
"title": "Tomato purée",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Tomato purée can be used in soups, stews, sauces, or any other dish where the tomato flavor is desired, but not the texture. It is less often used by professional chefs, who find it to have an overly cooked flavor compared to other forms of canned tomatoes. This is sometimes a non-issue, as in long-cooked dishes, but in quick sauces such as a marinara sauce it is undesirable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1034009",
"title": "Solanine",
"section": "Section::::In tomatoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Some, such as the California Poison Control System, have claimed that tomatoes and tomato leaves contain solanine. However, Mendel Friedman of the United States Department of Agriculture contradicts this claim, stating that tomatine, a relatively benign alkaloid, is the tomato alkaloid while solanine is found in potatoes. Food science writer Harold McGee has found scant evidence for tomato toxicity in the medical and veterinary literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67922",
"title": "Ketchup",
"section": "Section::::Processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "After being sorted, washed and chopped up, they proceed into large steel vats for preservation/precooking and also to destroy any bacteria that could be harmful to the rest of the processing period as well as for the consumer after production. The juice will be extracted out by a juice extraction system. The outer skin, seed, stem, and fiber of fruits would be separated from the liquid in a process known as pulping. Once separated, the juice and the pulp from the tomato get filtered and processed into ketchup. A smoother ketchup consistency is achieved through more filtering and screenings, weeding out any excess pulp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81036",
"title": "Dishwasher",
"section": "Section::::Alternative uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Cleaning vegetables and plastics is controversial, since vegetables can be contaminated by soap and rinse aid from previous cycles, and some plastics which contain BPA or phthalates can emit them in the heat of a dishwasher.. Greasy tools and parts are not recommended, since the grease can clog the dishwasher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10h7zb
|
dust
|
[
{
"answer": "Dust is made of a collection of things: dead skin, dust mites, dust mite feces, pollen, smoke, soil, hair, and other materials. Dust particles are very small and light so they get blown around easily in the air. They spread out to fill a room top-to-bottom like a [cloud in a bottle](_URL_0_) but for your whole house.\n\nSome of the dust settles onto surfaces. Some surfaces, like doorknobs, you constantly touch which wipes the dust off the surface, before it builds up to a point where you can see it. If it's a surface that rarely gets disturbed, like the top of your television, it keeps building up until you grab a washcloth and wipe it down. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How does so much of it wind up on top of and on the sides of my ceiling fan when it's been *on* for the past month?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "162714",
"title": "Dust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Dust is made of fine particles of solid matter. On Earth, it generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from various sources such as soil, dust lifted by wind (an aeolian process), volcanic eruptions, and pollution. Dust in homes, offices, and other human environments contains small amounts of plant pollen, human and animal hairs, textile fibers, paper fibers, minerals from outdoor soil, human skin cells, burnt meteorite particles, and many other materials which may be found in the local environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "842947",
"title": "Dust (His Dark Materials)",
"section": "Section::::Naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "In \"Northern Lights\", Lord Asriel reveals the origins of the term \"Dust\" to be from a passage from the slightly alternative version of the Bible in Lyra's world: \"In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return\" (). Dust was previously known (in Lyra Belacqua's universe) as 'Rusakov particles' named after their discoverer, Boris Mikhailovitch Rusakov. Rusakov discovers a field permeating the universe enabling consciousness; before the discovery of Dust, its existence is predicted, as \"\"the existence of a Rusakov field implies the existence of a related particle\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "585097",
"title": "Psi Corps",
"section": "Section::::Dust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "\"Dust\" is a drug, smuggled from system to system in ways common to high-value/low-weight-and-bulk contraband. It trades at high prices and margins on the black markets, and is as hotly pursued by law enforcers in the way opiates are today. Implications are that if one is caught in possession or dealing, the penalties are quite harsh. Many black market operators refuse to deal dust because of the risks posed by law enforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41737673",
"title": "Dust (Eli Young Band song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "\"Dust\" is a song recorded by American country music group the Eli Young Band. It was released on February 3, 2014 as the second single from their fifth studio album, \"10,000 Towns\". The song was written by Jon Jones, James Young, Kyle Jacobs and Josh Osborne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41773621",
"title": "Collections maintenance",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Control.:Dust and Dirt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Dust can contain a number of materials including skin, mold and inorganic fragments like silica or sulfur. It is important to keep collections free of dust whenever possible because it can become bound to a surface over time, making it that significantly more difficult to remove. Dust is hygroscopic, meaning it is able to attract and hold water molecules creating an ideal climate for mold spores to grow and cause biological damage. This hygroscopic trait can also prompt chemical reactions on a surface, especially upon metals. Inorganic dust particles may have tough sharp edges which can cause a number of types of damage from tearing fibers to abrading softer surfaces if not properly removed. Wiping a clean cloth over a surface dusty with these inorganic particles may result in irreversible abrasions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162714",
"title": "Dust",
"section": "Section::::Atmospheric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Dust in the atmosphere is produced by saltation and sandblasting of sand-sized grains, and it is transported through the troposphere. This airborne dust is considered an aerosol and once in the atmosphere, it can produce strong local radiative forcing. Saharan dust in particular can be transported and deposited as far as the Caribbean and the Amazon basin, and may affect air temperatures, cause ocean cooling, and alter rainfall amounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24443029",
"title": "2009 Australian dust storm",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The dust is believed to have originated from far-western New South Wales and north-east South Australia. This includes an area known as the 'Corner Country', a dry, remote area of far-western New South Wales. In South Australia the dust may also have come from Lake Eyre Basin or the Woomera area, the latter raising concerns that it was radioactive and dangerous since the area contains the Olympic Dam uranium mine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ho54r
|
Before the arrival of the Magyars, who lived in Hungary?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Iazyges were a nomadic Sarmatian tribe located in around where Romania, Ukraine, and Hungary meet today. They were a constant thorn in the side of the Roman Empire from the 1st Century BCE. They constantly resisted assimiliation and were among the last of the Dacian peoples to be quelled. In the late 1st Century CE, they crossed the Danube into Roman Pannonia and defeated Legio XXI Rapax (who were disbanded afterwards). It was only when Trajan took control of the Empire (and the war in Dacia) where the Iazyges were conquered. In fact, future emperor Hadrian was the one that forced them to submit. They were reduced to a client state of the Roman Empire after this (107 CE).\n\nEDIT: Professor pronounced them (ee-uh-zee-gees)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19128312",
"title": "Hungarian Turanism",
"section": "Section::::Its roots, origins, and development.:The beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Hungarians have had a thousand year old, and still living tradition about the Asian origins of Magyars. This tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such as Gesta Hungarorum and Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum) as early as the 13th century. This tradition served as starting point for the scientific research of the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) traveled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kindred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the Uyghurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1915344",
"title": "Glad (duke)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The earliest record of the Magyars (or Hungarians) is connected to their alliance with the Bulgars against a group of Byzantine prisoners who were planning to cross the Lower Danube in an attempt to return to their homeland around 837 AD. They dwelled in the steppes north and northwest of the Black Sea. A group of rebellious subjects of the Khazar Khaganate, known as Kabars, joined them, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "998432",
"title": "Hungarian nobility",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The Magyars (or Hungarians) dwelled in the Pontic steppes when they first appeared in the written sources in the mid-9th century. Muslim merchants described them as wealthy nomadic warriors, but they also noticed that the Magyars had extensive arable lands. Masses of Magyars crossed the Carpathian Mountains after the Pechenegs invaded their lands in 894 or 895. They settled in the lowlands along the Middle Danube, annihilated Moravia and defeated the Bavarians in the 900s. Slovak historians write, at least three Hungarian noble kindreds were descended from Moravian aristocrats. Historians who say that the Vlachs (or Romanians) were already present in the Carpathian Basin in the late 9th century propose that the Vlach \"knezes\" (or chieftains) also survived the Hungarian Conquest. Neither of the two continuity theories is universally accepted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145031",
"title": "Miscegenation",
"section": "Section::::History of ethnoracial admixture and attitudes towards miscegenation.:Europe.:Hungary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 208,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 208,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Hungarians are thought to have originated in an ancient Finno-Ugric population that originally inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains. At the time of the Magyar migration in the 10th century, the present-day Hungary was inhabited by Slavs, numbering about 200,000, who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Magyars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30853",
"title": "Transylvania",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century. According to Gesta Hungarorum, the Vlach voivode Gelou ruled Transylvania before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established partial control over Transylvania in 1003, when king Stephen I, according to legend, defeated the prince named \"Gyula\". Some historians assert Transylvania was settled by Hungarians in several stages between the 10th and 13th centuries, while others claim that it was already settled, since the earliest Hungarian artifacts found in the region are dated to the first half of the 10th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34312179",
"title": "Banat in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "The first recorded invasion of the Magyars (or Hungarians) from the Pontic steppes to Central Europe occurred in 861. The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin started around 894. The contemporaneous Regino of Prüm recorded that the Magyars \"attacked the lands of the Carinthians, Moravians and Bulgars\" shortly after their arrival. The first extant Hungarian chronicle, the \"Gesta Hungarorum\", which was written centuries after the events, contains a more detailed narration of the Hungarian Conquest. The chronicle wrote of one Duke Glad, who had come \"from the castle of Vidin\" in Bulgaria and ruled Banat at the time of the arrival of the Hungarians. Glad's army was \"supported by Cumans, Bulgarians and Vlachs\", according to the same source. Historians debate whether Glad was a historical figure, or the unknown author of the \"Gesta Hungarorum\" invented him and his duchy to be able to write of the Magyars' heroic deeds during the conquest of their new homeland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1143010",
"title": "Hungarian prehistory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Hungarian prehistory () spans the period of history of the Hungarian people, or Magyars, which started with the separation of the Hungarian language from other Finno-Ugric or Ugric languages around , and ended with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around . Based on the earliest records of the Magyars in Byzantine, Western European, and Hungarian chronicles, scholars considered them for centuries to have been the descendants of the ancient Scythians and Huns. This historiographical tradition disappeared from mainstream history after the realization of similarities between the Hungarian language and the Uralic languages in the late . Thereafter, linguistics became the principal source of the study of the Hungarians' ethnogenesis. In addition, chronicles written between the , the results of archaeological research and folklore analogies provide information on the Magyars' early history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
frxto
|
Does the total volume of precipitation in the sky vary? If so, by how much?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unsure what you are asking. Are you asking if the amount of water vapor varies? If so, it clearly does because humidity varies widely over the Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3467933",
"title": "Mont Blanc massif",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Precipitation is distributed fairly evenly over all months of the year, and mostly originates from a westerly airflow. There is significant variation in precipitation with altitude. For example, Chamonix has an elevation of approximately and receives around of annual precipitation, whilst the Col du Midi, which is at above sea level, receives significantly more, totalling . However, at an even higher altitude (near to the summit of Mont Blanc) precipitation is considerably less, with only around recorded, despite the latter measurements being taken at a height of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50525886",
"title": "Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Observed variations in isotope abundance.:Hydrosphere.:Precipitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "The overall mean precipitation is determined by balance between the evaporation of water from the oceans and surface water sources and the condensation of the atmospheric water vapor in the form of rain. The net evaporation should equal the net precipitation, and the δD value for the mean isotopic composition of global precipitation is around −22‰ (global average). The Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP) investigates and monitors the isotopic composition of precipitation at various sites all over the world. The mean precipitation can be estimated by the equation, δH = 8.17(±0.07) δO + 11.27(±0.65)‰ VSMOW. (Rozanski et al., 1993) This equation is the slightly modified version from the general 'Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL)' equation, δH = 8.13δO + 10.8, which provides the average relationship between δH and δO of natural terrestrial waters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567472",
"title": "Cloud condensation nuclei",
"section": "Section::::Size, abundance, and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "A typical raindrop is about 2 mm in diameter, a typical cloud droplet is on the order of 0.02 mm, and a typical cloud condensation nucleus (aerosol) is on the order of 0.0001 mm or 0.1 µm or greater in diameter. The number of cloud condensation nuclei in the air can be measured and ranges between around 100 to 1000 per cubic centimetre. The total mass of CCNs injected into the atmosphere has been estimated at 2x10 kg over a year's time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58103184",
"title": "Raindrop size distribution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The raindrop size distribution (\"DSD\"), or granulometry of rain, is the distribution of the number of raindrops according to their diameter (D). Three processes account for the formation of drops: the accumulation of small drops on large drops and collisions between sizes. According to the time spent in the cloud, the vertical movement in it and the ambient temperature, the drops that have a very varied history and a distribution of diameters from a few micrometers to a few millimeters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "737029",
"title": "Cloudburst",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Rainfall rate equal to or greater than per hour is a cloudburst. However, different definitions are used, e.g. the Swedish weather service SMHI defines the corresponding Swedish term \"skyfall\" as 1 mm/min for short bursts and 50 mm/h for longer rainfalls. The associated convective cloud can extend up to a height of above the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20515376",
"title": "Region of Murcia",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climatology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "With little precipitation of about 300 to 350 mm per year, the region has between 120 and 150 days in the year where the sky is totally clear. April and October are the months with the most precipitation, there being frequent heavy downpours in a single day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93297",
"title": "Henderson County, North Carolina",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Landscape and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Precipitation is also correlated to elevation, with higher precipitation normally occurring at higher elevations and lower precipitation in the valleys. The mean annual precipitation of Henderson County is 56.2 inches, with a mean range of 45.04 to 78.03 inches. March has the highest mean precipitation of 5.1 inches, with a mean range of 3.9 to 6.7 inches. The lowest precipitation occurs in October, with a mean value of 3.9 inches and a mean range of 2.8 to 5.8 inches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30eh70
|
Before photo ID's how did people prove their identity? How would you get a check cashed?
|
[
{
"answer": "More of a legal history perspective, but contracts historically were based on trust. Basically you could cash a check because you said you were the person on the account. You would only need to prove your identity if there was something wrong with the transaction (someone else claimed it, the check was returned, etc.). \n\nIf in court you needed to prove your identity, you would have to do so by a preponderance of the evidence, which is to say that you would prove that it is more likely than not that you are who you say you are. You would use whatever you had at this point, family bible, a deed, a birth certificate if you had one, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While there is always more that can be added, so I don't wish to discourage anyone from answering, you'll find that there are older threads which might interest you as a starting place at least. [Check 'em out here!](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might be interested in *The Return of Martin Guerre* by Natalie Davis. It's a historical analysis/reconstruction of a court case in 16th century France that deals explicitly with the subject of identity. A basic synopsis of the case is that after a man named Martin Guerre left his family, an imposter came and took his identity. After people started to figure him out there was a trial to determine his identity, and as if the whole situation wasn't dramatic enough, the true Martin Guerre returned in the middle of the trial. Davis' analysis reconstructs both the life of Martin Guerre and the trial itself using archival evidence and the papers of the judge who presided over the case and led the investigation. It's been awhile since I've read it so I'm murky on the specifics, nevertheless it should give an interesting perspective on your question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Missing from the comments below are notes, and the letter of credit. If you are a traveler, going from London to Madrid, you would go to a business or bank or even a friend in London who had a contact, branch or associate in Madrid. They could take your money, and provide you a letter for their associate saying, in essence \"this is George, give him 40 reals\". You would have some other documents, even letters of introduction, passes from the Spanish embassy, with you, showing your name was George. There would usually be a discount- i.e., they would give you a little less than your 40 reals, to make a profit. This is how you'd avoid hauling bags of gold with you.\n\nBut for more local transactions, especially with a scarcity of small money, there would be \"notes\". You build a doghouse for George Washington, he pays you with a note saying reimburse the bearer 2 shillings. You can then pay somebody else with that note, when you owe them. Eventually somebody will show up at Washington's house wanting the real cash, and he'd pay them...or tell them to come back Monday.\n\n\nThe important thing is, notes often did not require ID, anymore than money does today. BUT if somebody gave you a note, or letter of credit, and you doubted it was good, you could decline to accept it, or you could discount it heavily- give them much less than the face value. So, your note from Washington would be less discounted than a note from somebody totally unknown. If the note was for a specific person, you; you could sign it over to someone else, and they could then sign it over to someone else; and anyone could also refuse the note, or discount it.\n\nA check was essentially also a note, but instead of eventually presenting it to Washington, someone had to present it to the bank. And the bank itself could simply issue notes- which is where you get paper money being called bank notes. \nFrom here you can see how notes would be used as credit, loans, be traded, used as collateral...and it gets complicated.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "364578",
"title": "Identity document",
"section": "Section::::National policies.:Europe.:European Economic Area.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "For financial transactions, ID cards and passports are almost always accepted as proof of identity. Due to possible forgery, driver's licenses are sometimes refused. For transactions by cheque involving a larger sum, two different ID documents are frequently requested by merchants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364578",
"title": "Identity document",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Photographic identification appeared in 1876 but it did not become widely used until the early 20th century when photographs became part of passports and other ID documents such as driver's licenses, all of which came to be referred to as \"photo IDs\". Both Australia and Great Britain, for example, introduced the requirement for a photographic passport in 1915 after the so-called Lody spy scandal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3209158",
"title": "Photo identification",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Photo identification or photo ID is an identity document that includes a photograph of the holder, usually only their face. The most commonly accepted forms of photo ID are those issued by government authorities, such as driver's licenses, identity cards and passports, but special-purpose photo IDs may be also produced, such as internal security or access control cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "126706",
"title": "Pattern recognition",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The method of signing one's name was captured with stylus and overlay starting in 1990. The strokes, speed, relative min, relative max, acceleration and pressure is used to uniquely identify and confirm identity. Banks were first offered this technology, but were content to collect from the FDIC for any bank fraud and did not want to inconvenience customers..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "627040",
"title": "Electronic signature",
"section": "Section::::In contract law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In the 1980s, many companies and even some individuals began using fax machines for high-priority or time-sensitive delivery of documents. Although the original signature on the original document was on paper, the image of the signature and its transmission was electronic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364578",
"title": "Identity document",
"section": "Section::::National policies.:Asia.:Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Until the mid-1990s, the identification card was considered the only legally reliable document for many actions such as voting or opening a bank account. Since then, the new Israeli driver's licenses which include photos and extra personal information are now considered equally reliable for most of these transactions. In other situations any government-issued photo ID, such as a passport or a military ID, may suffice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12825925",
"title": "Identity documents in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Authorities saw the need of checking identity of people in certain situations, to make sure which personal identity number the person in front of them had. For example, handling payment for sick leave, driver's licence tests or police arrests. For this usually the identity documents accepted by the banks were allowed, because there was no law regarding identity documents and how they were issued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
219vbr
|
Why is Australia so hot even though it is so far south of the equator?
|
[
{
"answer": "Australia isn't that far south - depending on whether you're talking Darwin or Tasmania, you're roughly looking at the same latitudes as northern hemisphere locales such as Syria, Iraq, Spain and Mexico - all fairly warm in their own right.\n\nAustralia's also affected by a strong warm-water current, the Eastern Australia Current (or \"E.A.C. of *Finding Nemo* fame). This is like the analog of the northern Atlantic's Gulf Stream, shunting warm equatorial Pacific water directly down Oz's eastern shore. So just as the Gulf Stream keeps the British Isles several degrees warmer than they would otherwise be (there are even a few palms in southern Ireland), the E.A.C. warms up that part of Australia that most Aussies call home.\n\nFinally, it's notably, remarkably, lacking in mid-continent bodies of water that might ameliorate inland temperatures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To reinforce what Sierrajeff is saying, look at this [map](_URL_1_) or [this smaller one](_URL_0_).\n\nYou will notice that all of Australia is closer to the equator than most of Europe.\n\nIn fact, one of the Tropic lines pass right through the middle of the continent.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950948",
"title": "Geography of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Australia's tropical/subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of western Australia a hot desert with aridity, a marked feature of the greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. The outback covers 70 percent of the continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638490",
"title": "Climate of Australia",
"section": "Section::::States and Territories.:Western Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Australia's tropical/subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of Western Australia a hot desert with aridity a marked feature of a greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce precious little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638490",
"title": "Climate of Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Australia's climate is governed mostly by its size and by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt. This moves north and south with the seasons. The climate is variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons, thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Australia has a wide variety of climates due to its large geographical size. The largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate, varying between tropical rainforests, grasslands and desert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638490",
"title": "Climate of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The tropical savannah zone of Northern Australia is warm to hot all year. Summers are hot in most of the country with average January maximum temperatures exceeding 30 °C over most of the mainland, except for high elevations. Winters are warm in the north and cool in the south, with nightly frosts common in inland areas south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Only at the highly elevated areas do wintertime temperatures approach those found in much of Europe or North America, especially the southern parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611325",
"title": "Australia (continent)",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The Australian landmass's climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Temperatures in Australia have ranged from above to well below . Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14329297",
"title": "Climate change in Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Climate change in Australia has been a critical issue since the beginning of the 21st century. In 2013, the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter, and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change. In 2014, the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia's climate that highlighted several key points, including the significant increase in Australia's temperatures (particularly night-time temperatures) and the increasing frequency of bush fires, droughts and floods, which have all been linked to climate change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4689264",
"title": "Australia",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern; however, \"the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at above the long-term average\". Furthermore, 2014 was Australia's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2r8mu5
|
why is murder always the most severely punishable crime?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's simply the most permanent way to harm someone. I do agree that there are other ways to harm people that should result in harsher sentences. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because once your dead, that's the end of the road. To be taken from a life, no matter how miserable it may seem, or even be, is worse than a life sentence. Even a useless scum bag murderer gets to live, inside of a cage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In some cases Treason may be more serious than murder. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because in a human society, the human life is the most valuable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if reincarnation was proven true would murder still be as severe?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine a society where there are only two capital crimes: murder and robbery. For the sake of argument let us say any crime with a surviving victim has a 75% chance of being \"solved\" and any crime with a dead victim has a 45% chance of being \"solved.\"\n\nIf you murder someone, there is a 45% chance you will be caught, tried, and then executed.\n\nIf you rob someone and then leave them alive, there is a 75% chance you will be caught, tried, and then executed.\n\nIf you rob someone and then murder them, there is a 45% chance you will be caught, tried and then executed. \n\nSee how murder just changed you chances of execution from 75% to 45%? That is exactly what a lawful society should avoid. You never want to make murder attractive for a criminal. You want, if possible, to maximize the chance the victim lives and the criminal is brought to justice. \n\nYour punishments should be tiered to reflect this. You want the criminal to think \"Killing this person isn't worth the smaller risk of much greater punishment.\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your premise is flawed, I've seen plenty of people get convicted of second or 3rd degree murder and serve less time than people that were convicted of treason, kidnapping, arson or rape. You can get very long sentences or even life for those charges, second or 3rd° murder doesn't often mean a life sentence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20171",
"title": "Murder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Most societies consider murder to be an extremely serious crime, and thus believe that the person charged should receive harsh punishments for the purposes of retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, or incapacitation. In most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence; and in a few, the death penalty may be imposed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "991868",
"title": "Torture murder",
"section": "Section::::Punishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Murder laws worldwide vary a great deal, but a murder involving torture will generally attract a harsher penalty than a murder alone. Legal mechanisms of penalty enhancement vary between jurisdictions. In the laws of Italy, Germany, Norway, and many parts of the United States, there are two or more \"degrees\" of murder, with wording such as: \"\"...inflicting torture upon the victim prior to the victim's death\"\" typically used to rule that the highest degree should apply. In other jurisdictions, it may be that even if there was just one crime of murder, the sentencing practices and guidelines are such that the aggravating circumstance of any torture will nevertheless allow for a harsher than normal penalty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123451",
"title": "Homicide",
"section": "Section::::Criminal homicide.:Murder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Murder is the most serious crime that can be charged following a homicide. In many jurisdictions, homicide may be punished by life in prison or even capital punishment. Although categories of murder can vary by jurisdiction, murder charges fall under two broad categories:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24678739",
"title": "List of punishments for murder in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Murder, as defined in common law countries, is the unlawful killing of another human being with intent (or malice aforethought), and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide (such as manslaughter). As the loss of a human being inflicts an enormous amount of grief for individuals close to the victim, as well as the fact that the commission of a murder permanently deprives the victim of their existence, most societies have considered it a very serious crime deserving of the harshest punishment available. Typically a convicted murder suspect is given a life sentence or even the death penalty for such an act. A person who commits murder is called a murderer, and the penalties, as outlined below, vary from state to state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26346214",
"title": "Murder (United States law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "In the United States, the law regarding murder varies by jurisdiction. In most U.S. jurisdictions there is a hierarchy of acts, known collectively as homicide, of which first degree murder and felony murder are the most serious, followed by second degree murder, followed by voluntary manslaughter and involuntary manslaughter which are not as serious, and ending finally in justifiable homicide, which is not a crime at all. However, because there are at least 52 relevant jurisdictions, each with its own criminal code, this is a considerable simplification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20171",
"title": "Murder",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Aggravating circumstances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In the United States and Canada, these murders are referred to as first-degree or aggravated murders. Murder, under English criminal law, always carries a mandatory life sentence, but is not classified into degrees. Penalties for murder committed under aggravating circumstances are often higher, under English law, than the 15-year minimum non-parole period that otherwise serves as a starting point for a murder committed by an adult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "786558",
"title": "Capital and corporal punishment in Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary attitudes towards capital punishment.:Orthodox Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "\"One who murders because the prohibition to kill is meaningless to him, and he is especially cruel, and so too when murderers and evil people proliferate, they [the courts] would [should?] judge [capital punishment] to repair the issue [and] to prevent murder – for this [action of the court] saves the state.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ub0s3
|
airplane formations
|
[
{
"answer": "Different formations serve different purposes. Some just look good for display, and some are designed to maximize the aircraft's effectiveness in combat. \n\nEspecially in the pre-missile-and-radar days it was important for combat aircraft to fly in mutually supporting formations. Bombers flew in tight box formations to maximize the effect of their defensive guns. Fighters generally flew in 2-ship elements. You attack, your wingman watches your back. Other elements of the formation would stay high, to watch for enemy fighters, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "717024",
"title": "Missing man formation",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Several variants of the formation are seen. The formation most commonly used in the United States is based on the “finger-four” aircraft combat formation composed of two pairs of aircraft. The aircraft fly in a V-shape with the flight leader at the point and his wingman on his left. The second element leader and his wingman fly to his right. The formation flies over the ceremony low enough to be clearly seen and the second element leader abruptly pulls up out of the formation while the rest of the formation continues in level flight until all aircraft are out of sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65707",
"title": "Aerobatics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "\"Flight formation aerobatics\" are flown by teams of up to sixteen aircraft, although most teams fly between four and ten aircraft. Some are state funded to reflect pride in the armed forces while others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag. Usually each team will use aircraft similar to one another finished in a special and dramatic colour scheme, thus emphasising their entertainment function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65707",
"title": "Aerobatics",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Teams often fly V-formations (otherwise known as echelon formation)— they will not fly directly behind another aircraft because of danger from wake vortices or engine exhaust. Aircraft will always fly slightly below the aircraft in front, if they have to follow in line (the \"trail formation\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566539",
"title": "1922 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Italian \"Corpo Aeronautico Militare\" (\"Military Aviation Corps\") holds experimental maneuvers in Friuli, Italy, to test the ability of military aircraft to coordinate troop movements on the ground by informing ground commanders of the movements of friendly and enemy ground forces. The experiment is less successful than hoped because of communication difficulties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3669568",
"title": "Portuguese Air Force",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Air Force in the Overseas War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "In Angola and Mozambique, Volunteer Air Formations (FAV, \"Formações Aéreas Voluntárias\") units were formed, composed of civilian volunteer pilots who assisted the Air Force in several missions, mostly transport and reconnaissance, using both civilian and military light aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3961585",
"title": "Wingman (social)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "The term originated in combat aviation in various international military aviation communities shortly before and after the advent of fighter jets. Pilots flying in formation, especially when in combat training or in actual aerial combat, refer to the pilot immediately next to them (traditionally on their right, sometimes on either side) as their \"wingman\" (i.e. the man on their wing). In actual aerial combat pilots are often trained to attack and defend in pairs watching out for each other, thereby making the term even more clearly demonstrated. The term is also very commonly used in combat aviation on longer range aviation patrols which are often carried out by only two fighter planes, sometimes manned by only two pilots depending on the type of aircraft. On these two plane patrols (Air Force) or \"watches\" (Naval Aviators flying protective patterns around surface vessels on timed intervals) referring to the pilot that an aviator is teamed with on patrol as their \"wingman\" is very common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6885226",
"title": "501st Infantry Regiment (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "The troop aircraft formations were widely scattered due to a combination of low clouds, poor visibility and enemy anti-aircraft fire. This caused highly scattered drops and units were widely dispersed across the battlefront. The ensuing action bore little resemblance to their briefing, but because the soldiers were well prepared, the regiment and the division accomplished its multiple missions, but none of them as rehearsed. The success was credited to the initiative, stamina, and daring of individual parachutists, who decided how best to accomplish some part of the overall mission. The capture of a key causeway from Utah Beach at Pouppeville by a scratch force of about 100 officers and men, formed around a nucleus from the 3rd Battalion (division reserve) of the 501st, was typical. Members of this ad hoc force included both General Maxwell Taylor and Assistant Division Commander Gerald Higgins. General Taylor later quipped that, \"Never were so few led by so many.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j8cwm
|
Are there any well written/ researched historical books specifically about the America atomic dread and how it influenced culture and art?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hmm, if you're specifically interested in American art the catalog for the exhibition Under the Big Black Sun should have some material on the topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Indeed, there are!\n\nMy favorite, for its breath and scope, is Spencer Weart's _Nuclear Fear: A History of Images_ (1988). There is a revised/updated edition out recently as well, though I prefer the original. It covers public attitudes (in a number of countries) about radioactivity and nuclear energy from the 19th century through the 1980s. It is very well written and one of my favorite academic books.\n\nThe other big book on this, though its time period and geographical focus is much narrower, is Paul Boyer, _By the Bomb's Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age_ (1985/1994). \n\nThere are other books on this subject as well, though I think most historians would list these at the very top.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Henricksen, Dr. Strangelove's America: Society and culture in the Atomic Age\n\nOakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "169398",
"title": "The Atomic Cafe",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "\"The Atomic Cafe\" was released at the height of nostalgia and cynicism in America. By 1982, Americans lost much of their faith in their government following the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal, and the seemingly never-ending arms race with the Soviet Union. \"The Atomic Cafe\" reflects and reinforces this idea as it exposes how the atomic bomb's dangers were downplayed and how the government used films to shape public opinion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "983717",
"title": "Bless Me, Ultima",
"section": "Section::::Historical Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Tonn reminds us that both the narrated time and the moment of the Novel's first appearance were periods of transition. The United States in the decades of the 1960s and 70's underwent a series of deep societal changes which some scholars deem as apocalyptic to U.S. society as the detonation of the Atomic bomb was to the New Mexican peoples in 1945. Berger(2000:388),cited in Keyword:Apocalypse, outlines two additional areas of post war apocalyptic representation after (1) nuclear war, and (2) the Holocaust. They are (3) apocalypses of liberation (feminist, African American, postcolonial) and (4) what is loosely called \"postmodernity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13149740",
"title": "The Devil's Voyage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The novel postulates that the War Department's interest in \"Astounding Science Fiction Magazine\", because of the publication of fictional stories postulating nuclear research programs similar to the historical Manhattan Project, prompted Russian spies to early knowledge of the US nuclear weapons program, eventually leading to the sinking of the \"Indianapolis\" because of the possibility it was carrying one of the early atomic bombs to use against Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48326568",
"title": "Cultural influence of the September 11 attacks",
"section": "Section::::Media response.:Influence on Comic Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "American comic books have always carried patriotic tones, especially during the cold war—perhaps the most notable example is the character Captain America. 9/11 shifted the political climate and with it re-centered the public's attention on Muslims. Perhaps the most mainstream example of the influence 9/11 had on comic books is Iron Man, who was previously an anti-communist crusader; his canon was rewritten in comics after 9/11 and in the widely popular 2008 film Iron Man. In the film billionaire Tony Stark learns his weapons were sold without his knowledge to various terrorist groups after he was kidnapped and tortured in Afghanistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65308",
"title": "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction",
"section": "Section::::Post-1900 works.:War.:Novels and short stories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Paul Brians' \"\" (1987) is a study that examines atomic war in short stories, novels, and films between 1895 and 1984. Since this measure of destruction was no longer imaginary, some of these new works, such as Nevil Shute's \"On the Beach\" (1957), which was subsequently twice adapted for film (in 1959 and 2000), Mordecai Roshwald's \"Level 7\" (1959), Pat Frank's \"Alas, Babylon\" (1959), and Robert McCammon's \"Swan Song\" (1987), shun the imaginary science and technology that are the identifying traits of general science fiction. Others include more fantastic elements, such as mutants, alien invaders, or exotic future weapons such as James Axler's \"Deathlands\" (1986).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24829752",
"title": "James Thackara",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Thackara explored the making of the first atomic bomb in his first published novel, \"America's Children\". A lightly fictionalised biography of Robert Oppenheimer, it was purchased in 1984 by Chatto and Windus. The commercial success of \"The Book of Kings\" caused \"America's Children\" to be republished in Britain after 19 years, and for it to be published in the US for the first time in 2002. In one of the book's first reviews, \"The Economist\" praised the \"trenchant novel\"...for \"depicting the drama of Oppenheimer torn between lust for scientific achievement and horror of prospective success.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19950728",
"title": "Tom Vanderbilt",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In 2002 he published his first full-length book, \"Survival City: Adventures Among the Ruins of Atomic America\". \"H-Net Reviews\" said of the book, \"Survival City offers an insightful exploration of the ruins of atomic America that demands attention in our current moment. In the poignant aftermath of September 11 the futility of Cold War architecture suggested throughout the book takes on new resonance.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ds72j
|
How did Jefferson Davis get out of treason charges?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is there are a variety of reasons. This actually goes into law a little bit so I will be in uncharted territory.\n\nSo Davis was indicted for treason. But when he went before the judge his team argued that due to the 14th Amendment he was already punished for insurrection against the US, as under the 14th Amendment anyone who takes an oath of public office and commits an insurrection can no longer hold public office.\n\nHowever the chief justice gave him an interesting argument. As Davis was president of another nation, he wasn't technically a citizen and couldn't be tried for treason for that reason.\n\nIn the end, Andrew Johnson pardoned him and all ex-confederates anyways, so any outcome would have been moot due to this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7023",
"title": "Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::History.:Postwar history.:Amnesty and treason issue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Davis was indicted for treason but never tried; he was released from prison on bail in May 1867. The amnesty of December 25, 1868, by President Johnson eliminated any possibility of Jefferson Davis (or anyone else associated with the Confederacy) standing trial for treason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636208",
"title": "President of the Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::Post-presidency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "Jefferson Davis was imprisoned at Fort Monroe, by the Hampton Roads harbor of tidewater Virginia, until his release on bail on May 13, 1867. During his confinement, the United States federal government prepared to bring him to trial for treason and for complicity in the assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln. He could not be tried in the Commonwealth of Virginia until the Federal court was reestablished there, but by the time the U.S. Circuit Court judges were prepared in May 1867, the U.S. Federal government decided the outcome of a trial before a local jury of citizens was far too uncertain and dropped the prosecution proceedings. In November 1868, Davis was brought to trial under a new indictment, but the Federal lower court judges disagreed and the case was referred up to the Supreme Court. 17th President Andrew Johnson issued a general amnesty in December 1868 and the Supreme Court entered a nolle prosequi, thus freeing Davis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2467744",
"title": "List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Jimmy Carter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "BULLET::::- Jefferson Davis – President of the Confederate States of America, was arrested and accused of treason in 1865. Charges were brought in 1868 but was absolved of any guilt for participation in the Civil War by President Andrew Johnson's Fourth Amnesty Proclamation on Christmas Day of that year. Posthumously pardoned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13634853",
"title": "John Curtiss Underwood",
"section": "Section::::Federal judicial service.:Judicial tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "In this position, in May 1866, Underwood presided over the grand jury that indicted Confederate president Jefferson Davis for treason, and later denied him bail because he was in the custody of military authorities. Later, however, Underwood allowed Davis's Northern supporters to post a $100,000 bond, and released him from custody in May 1867 (after delivering a long and vituperative speech). Underwood also presided over a grand jury in Norfolk that indicted Confederate General Robert E. Lee on June 7, 1865, but General Ulysses Grant and other federal government officials ignored the indictment as contrary to the surrender terms at Appomattox Courthouse. Salmon P. Chase, who by that time had become Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, reportedly worried that after Underwood had testified before Congress (the Joint Committee on Reconstruction) about being able to pack a jury, he was incapable of conducting politically sensitive trials of the former Confederate leaders. Other government officials apparently concurred, and failed to press the prosecutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31292",
"title": "Treason",
"section": "Section::::In individual jurisdictions.:United States.:Historical cases.:Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "During the American Civil War, treason trials were held in Indianapolis against Copperheads for conspiring with the Confederacy against the United States. After the war the question was whether the United States government would make indictments for treason against leaders of the Confederate States of America, as many people demanded. Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president, was indicted and held in prison for two years. The indictment was dropped in 1869 when the political scene had changed and it was possible he would be acquitted by a jury in Virginia. When accepting Lee's surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, at Appomattox, in April 1865, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant assured all Confederate soldiers and officers a blanket amnesty, provided they returned to their homes and refrained from any further acts of hostility, and subsequently other Union generals issued similar terms of amnesty when accepting Confederate surrenders. All Confederate officials received a blanket amnesty issued by President Andrew Johnson as he left office in 1869.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24637092",
"title": "William J. Jefferson corruption case",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The corruption case against then Louisiana Representative William J. Jefferson in the United States started on a suspicion of bribery. The FBI raided his Congressional offices in May 2006. He was re-elected to his seat in the fall. On June 4, 2007, a federal grand jury indicted Jefferson on sixteen charges related to corruption. Jefferson was defeated by Republican Joseph Cao on December 6, 2008, and was the most senior Democratic incumbent to lose re-election that year. In 2009 he was tried in the US District Court in Virginia on corruption charges. On August 5, 2009, he was found guilty of 11 of the 16 corruption counts. Jefferson was sentenced to 13 years on November 13, 2009, the longest sentence ever given to a representative for bribery or any charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3973139",
"title": "John H. Clifford",
"section": "Section::::Later political and legal work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "In 1865 Clifford was chosen to act as one of the special counsels prosecuting former Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Davis was to be prosecuted for treason, but for a variety of reasons the charges were eventually dropped after four years of political and legal wrangling. Clifford contributed to a debate in 1866 over the difficulty of prosecuting Davis in Virginia, noting that without essentially packing the jury, a failed prosecution would result in the awkward outcome of a Virginia jury in some sense overturning the outcome of the war. He resigned from these duties in July 1866.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8m527b
|
why does light only penetrate 1000 meters of the ocean and not the entire ocean?
|
[
{
"answer": "Roughly speaking, every metre of water will reduce the light by a fraction. Let's say that after 10m half the light is gone. After 20m, only a quarter would be left. After 100m, only a thousandth of the light would be getting through. (Number pulled out of my thin air.) In practice, presence of creatures/debris/different pressures/etc will affect it, but broadly speaking it will decrease exponentially with depth.\n\nSonar is a wave in the water itself. As it propagates differently, it does not decay exponentially in the same way, allowing it to potentially propagate far longer distances. How it does propagate is rather complicated, and dependant upon a lot of variables, especially the frequency. Most frequencies would not work, sonar uses frequencies specially chosen for how well they function at the task.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light runs into stuff and bounces off stuff. At some point there's no more light to continue.\n\nSame thing happens in space too. Space isn't completely empty, and over a large enough distance, the light can be obscured.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because water isn't 100% clear. it's pretty straightforward. just like paper isn't 100% transparent, or your hands aren't 100% transparent.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one seems to be answering your question with photons:\n\nThink about light from the sun as a hail of lots of photons.\n\nEach photon travels until it hits something. Some things can “bounce” photons off them, some things just suck in the photon.\n\nLots of photons from the sun make it through the air and start travelling into the water. But seawater has stuff floating in it that absorbs photons. For each metre of water, some photons will hit something, and some will make it through without hitting anything.\n\nIf you look for photons 300 metres deep in the sea, you will only find the very lucky photons who made it through 300 metres of water without hitting anything, and hardly any photons are that lucky.\n\nEdit: I just thought of a good analogy – it’s like a crazy guy spraying a machine gun around in a forest. Bullets stop when they hit a tree, but some bullets can go quite far before they hit a tree. If you can get a mile away from the crazy machine gun guy, your chances of getting hit go down to practically zero.\n\nEdit 2: please stop accusing me of being an American.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The spectrum also dissapears in order from lowest to highest frequency. one color every 10 meters or so. \n\nROYGBIV\n\nSO at 50 meters its kind of blue green. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light or visible light is a spectrum, we will call it X.\n\nThe photosynthetic spectrum is a subset, we will call it Y.\n\nIt is possible for X to penetrate far deeper than Y. And for Y to require more energy to occur whereas simply detecting X requires far less energy.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply speaking there's only so many photons per square unit of measure. \n\nAs we travel deeper in the ocean, we pass more things. \n\nEach of those are dodged by photons until they are not.\n\nYou run out of photons eventually.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's something that nobody seems to answer: water isn't completely transparent, it's just very, very translucent. Even if the water was completely free of particles, after about 200-300m you wouldn't be able to see any light. Only a true vacuum can transmit 100% of the light that passes through it. And a true vacuum doesnt actually exist anywhere in nature that we know of. We can get close in a laboratory, but that's it. Even deep space sucks up light, because all of it has a tiny tiny bit of matter floating around in it, like a couple atoms per square foot or something. But that's enough to reduce light, if you look at it with enough space between it and you. That's one reason why, incidentally, that some stars appear brighter than others. If outer space didnt diminish light whatsoever, the entire sky on average would be aapproximately as bright as the sun. Any physical matter sucks up photons, given enough of it. It just takes about 300m of water to see that it's not actually transparent.\n\nAs for photosynthesis, it's a process that requires a minimum threshold of light to make it happen. Without that minimum amount of light, there isn't enough energy to break/create the chemical bonds that are required for that process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Photon energy is determined by the frequency (color). When light get weeker in the ocean, it's the number of photons getting smaller.\n\nThe reduce of photon numbers in water could be scattering (thinking of photons bounced away by particles in water) and absorbtion by either water or other stuff in the water. Scattering and absorbtion are both frequency dependent.\n\n\"significant light is only present at above 200 meters,\" means for most frequencies, the photon numbers are much smaller after 200m.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I felt everyone else is explaining it complicatedly. The sea has lots of particles floating around and they take in some of the light. Now imagine a really fine siv. You can see through it but if you take 3 or 4 of them it makes it really hard to see all the way through. The particles are small but over so many metres of them they add up and crisscross each other that the light can't get through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Easiest way to think about it. Let's say you are walking forward, through a forest and cannot turn left or right. But not just you, you and a million people.\n\nIf the forest is only a few trees thick, then there's a high chance you can make it without hitting a tree. So a few trees thick forest maybe 800k would make it without hitting a tree.\n\nBut add another row of trees. And another. And so on. Eventually the chances that even a single person could walk through the forest becomes 0 because there's too many trees in the way.\n\nSame goes for atoms and light. The light flies through and the atoms of water because there's mostly empty space. But once it goes through enough water the chances of light not hitting an atom becomes 0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The deeper you go, the more dense the water becomes, making it harder for individual photons to travel a clear line to the bottom. Eventually the photons collide, or bounce and reflect and that is where the absence, or lessening of light occurs. Think of it (when there is no light) as throwing pebbles at a fine mesh, the holes are too small and it is to dense (in thsi case, compact) for the larger particles (represented from the pebbles) to penetrate this mesh. This is why clean shallow water is crystal clear and light as opposed to its darker forms in deeper spots. Sorry for bad English.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How does light make the ~93 million mile journey through space without the same thing happening? (There's lots of space dust/debris)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In space it is a tight ray. *makes tube with hands*\n\n\n\nWhen it hits the air, it has to wiggle through it. *Wiggles fingers like rain* That's called 'Diffusion'.\n\n\n\nWater is like 100 times thicker than air, so it diffuses faster. *spirit fingers*\n\n\n\nSONAR is an effective but messy way to detect things underwater. The S in SONAR stands for 'sound'. Light is made of photons. Water is made of Atoms. Photons have to go into an Atom and then warm it up enough to drive another Photon out, if it doesn't then it becomes heat. \n\n\n\n\nSound is a wave of energy that moves many Atoms. It's like with a train, when you push on the rear car it pushes all the ones in front of it. That force works on water Atoms too. If there is enough force it will bounce off solid objects and you can use the speed of sound underwater and the time it took for your sound to get there and back. SONAR can harm living things. There are different types of SONAR to try and make them safer to use. \n\n\n\nLIDAR is a fusion of the two. It uses a high intensity beam that bounces off objects to a receiver. It uses math and triangles to calculate distance. This technology is still young though.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Seawater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun, the weather conditions and the turbidity of the water. Much light gets reflected at the surface, and red light gets absorbed in the top few metres. Yellow and green light reach greater depths, and blue and violet light may penetrate as deep as . There is insufficient light for photosynthesis and plant growth beyond a depth of about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24951890",
"title": "Oceanic zone",
"section": "Section::::Marine life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Oceanographers have divided the ocean into zones based on how far light reaches. All of the light zones can be found in the oceanic zone. The epipelagic zone is the one closest to the surface and is the best lit. It extends to 100 meters and contains both phytoplankton and zooplankton that can support larger organisms like marine mammals and some types of fish. Past 100 meters, not enough light penetrates the water to support life, and no plant life exists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305265",
"title": "Underwater environment",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Penetration of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "With increasing depth underwater, sunlight is absorbed, and the amount of visible light diminishes. Because absorption is greater for long wavelengths (red end of the visible spectrum) than for short wavelengths (blue end of the visible spectrum), the colour spectrum is rapidly altered with increasing depth. White objects at the surface appear bluish underwater, and red objects appear dark, even black. Although light penetration will be less if water is turbid, in the very clear water of the open ocean less than 25% of the surface light reaches a depth of 10 m (33 feet). At 100 m (330 ft) the light present from the sun is normally about 0.5% of that at the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24951890",
"title": "Oceanic zone",
"section": "Section::::Sub zones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "54% of the ocean lies in the bathypelagic (aphotic) zone into which no light penetrates. This is also called the midnight zone and the deep ocean. Due to the complete lack of sunlight, photosynthesis cannot occur and the only light source is bioluminescence. Water pressure is very intense and the temperatures are near freezing (range ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15575",
"title": "Geography of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Oceanography and Seabed of Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Most of the marine resources are invisible when traveling on the surface. Underwater vision is very limited in the ocean. Light penetrates the ocean until about in the sunlight (euphotic) zone. After that sunlight and visibility decreases rapidly in the twilight (dysphotic) zone. The water can also be murky. At a depth of there is perpetual darkness in the midnight (aphotic) zone. So other methods must be used for humans to see in the ocean. Eventually you'll reach the seabed \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8557676",
"title": "Demersal zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Being just above the ocean floor, the demersal zone is variable in depth and can be part of the photic zone where light can penetrate and photosynthetic organisms grow, or the aphotic zone, which begins between depths of roughly and extends to the ocean depths, where no light penetrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62332",
"title": "Deep sea fish",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The epipelagic zone (0–200m) is the area where light penetrates the water and photosynthesis occurs. This is also known as the photic zone. Because this typically extends only a few hundred meters below the water, the deep sea, about 90% of the ocean volume, is in darkness. The deep sea is also an extremely hostile environment, with temperatures that rarely exceed 3 °C (37.4 °F) and fall as low as −1.8 °C (28.76 °F) (with the exception of hydrothermal vent ecosystems that can exceed 350 °C, or 662 °F), low oxygen levels, and pressures between 20 and 1,000 atmospheres (between 2 and 100 megapascals).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15hykv
|
If you have an addiction, and suddenly get amnesia, will you know what you crave, even if you can't remember it consciously?
|
[
{
"answer": "Amnesia, to my knowledge, only affects conscious memory, so you will still have the cravings but you most likely will not remember what you are craving.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40618504",
"title": "Memory erasure",
"section": "Section::::Current research.:Drug-induced amnesia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Drug-induced amnesia is the idea of selectively losing or inhibiting the creation of memories using drugs. Amnesia can be used as a treatment for patients who have experienced psychological trauma or for medical procedures where full anesthesia is not an option. Drug-induced amnesia is also a side-effect of other drugs like alcohol and rohypnol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27927768",
"title": "Organic mental disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Delirium, a mental confusion and emotional disruption, is caused by the sudden change in the brain. Thinking, remembering, sleeping, and paying attention can become difficult during alcohol withdrawal, after surgery, or with dementia. Dementia, a decline in mental ability, can be severe or not, and can interfere with daily life and cause memory loss in most instances. Amnestic pertains to amnesia and is the impairment in ability to learn or recall new information, or recall previously learned information. Although similar, it is not coupled with dementia or delirium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530537",
"title": "Anterograde amnesia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "In the case of drug-induced amnesia, it may be short-lived and patients can recover from it. In the other case, which has been studied extensively since the early 1970s, patients often have permanent damage, although some recovery is possible, depending on the nature of the pathophysiology. Usually, some capacity for learning remains, although it may be very elementary. In cases of pure anterograde amnesia, patients have recollections of events prior to the injury, but cannot recall day-to-day information or new facts presented to them after the injury occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685627",
"title": "Motivated forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Psychogenic amnesia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Psychogenic amnesia is not part of Freud's theoretical framework. The memories still exist buried deeply in the mind, but could be resurfaced at any time on their own or from being exposed to a trigger in the person's surroundings. Psychogenic amnesia is generally found in cases where there is a profound and surprising forgetting of chunks of one's personal life, whereas motivated forgetting includes more day-to-day examples in which people forget unpleasant memories in a way that would not call for clinical evaluation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1042651",
"title": "Retrograde amnesia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Traumatic events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "People experiencing psychogenic amnesia have impaired episodic memory, instances of wandering and traveling, and acceptance of a new identity as a result of inaccessible memories pertaining to their previous identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53116300",
"title": "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons",
"section": "Section::::Contents/Synopsis.:Part V: Consciousness.:Chapter 10: Honest Lying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "While amnesia can be induced very easily, there is the other side of the spectrum: remembering \"everything\". Take Solomon Shereshevsky, who was sent to neurologist Aleksandr Luria by someone at a meeting after noticing Shereshevsky was not taking notes but could repeat everything he had said from that morning verbatim. He could remember things for years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3510370",
"title": "Psychogenic amnesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The atypical clinical syndrome of the memory disorder (as opposed to organic amnesia) is that a person with psychogenic amnesia is profoundly unable to remember personal information about themselves; there is a lack of conscious self-knowledge which affects even simple self-knowledge, such as who they are. Psychogenic amnesia is distinguished from organic amnesia in that it is supposed to result from a nonorganic cause; no structural brain damage or brain lesion should be evident but some form of psychological stress should precipitate the amnesia, however psychogenic amnesia as a memory disorder is controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2arj2i
|
doing x in your life decreases/increases your risk of getting y cancer by z%. how do they determine the percent risk?
|
[
{
"answer": "They look at a sample of the population, made up of varying groups within that sample, and they look at their habits and the outcomes.\n\nIf they notice that some men are not getting cancer while others are, or some men are being hospitalized for similar reasons while others aren't, they then look at the similarities between the men are try to find a cause.\n\nOnce they have that cause, they try and look at why it might be the case.\n\nFor cigarettes they know that people who smoke and inhaling cancerous chemicals, and that's why their risk of cancer is increased.\n\nFor (I'm assuming coffee) drinkers, it might be because the caffeine is A) giving their heart a boost and a little work out by beating faster and therefore minorly improving cardio B) caffeine is a diuretic and therefore may flush stuff out of the body\n\nThey then run more tests to conclusively prove these theories and then release the information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24901799",
"title": "Lagging (epidemiology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "For example, when studying risk factors of cancer, the cancer process may have been triggered long before actual diagnosis of cancer, and that therefore any exposure to risk factors in the \"lag\" time between may be unimportant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25533720",
"title": "Health effects of radon",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Effective dose and cancer risks estimations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The ICPR 65 model follows the same approach, and estimates the relative lifelong risk probability of radon-induced cancer death to 1.23 × 10 per Bq/(m·year). This relative risk is a global indicator; the risk estimation is independent of sex, age, or smoking habit. Thus, if a smoker's chances of dying of lung cancer are 10 times that of a nonsmoker's, the relative risks for a given radon exposure will be the same according to that model, meaning that the absolute risk of a radon-generated cancer for a smoker is (implicitly) tenfold that of a nonsmoker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1223539",
"title": "Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Risk of cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "A large follow up study (3119 patients; average follow up 24 years) has found significant variation in the cancer rates depending on the mutation involved. Up to the age of 75 years the risks of colorectal cancer, endometrial cancer, ovarian cancer, upper gastrointestinal (gastric, duodenal, bile duct or pancreatic), urinary tract cancers, prostate cancer and brain tumours were as follows: for MLH1 mutations the risk was - 46%, 43%, 10%, 21%, 8%, 17% and 1% respectively: for MSH2 mutations the risks were 57%, 17%, 10%, 25%, 32%, and 5% respectively: for MSH6 mutations the risks were 15%, 46%, 13%, 7%, 11%, 18% and 1% respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178197",
"title": "Statin",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Several meta-analyses have found no increased risk of cancer, and some meta-analyses have found a reduced risk. Specifically, statins may reduce the risk of esophageal cancer, colorectal cancer, gastric cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and possibly prostate cancer. They appear to have no effect on the risk of lung cancer, kidney cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, or bladder cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406880",
"title": "Odds ratio",
"section": "Section::::Relation to relative risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "In clinical studies, as well as in some other settings, the parameter of greatest interest is often the relative risk rather than the odds ratio. The relative risk is best estimated using a population sample, but if the rare disease assumption holds, the odds ratio is a good approximation to the relative risk — the odds is \"p\" / (1 − \"p\"), so when \"p\" moves towards zero, 1 − \"p\" moves towards 1, meaning that the odds approaches the risk, and the odds ratio approaches the relative risk. When the rare disease assumption does not hold, the odds ratio can overestimate the relative risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88078",
"title": "Prostate cancer",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 1135,
"text": "Between 2013 and 2015, mortality rates appear to have stabilized. It has been suggested that declines in mortality rates in certain jurisdictions reflect the benefit of PSA screening,[3] but others have noted that these observations may be explained by independent phenomena such as improved treatments. The estimated lifetime risk of a prostate cancer diagnosis is about 14.0%, and the lifetime risk of dying from this disease is 2.6%. Cancer statistics from the American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute (NCI) indicated that between 2005 and 2011, the proportion of disease diagnosed at a locoregional stage was 93% for whites and 92% for African Americans; the proportion of disease diagnosed at a late stage was 4% for whites and 5% for African Americans. An autopsy study of white and Asian men also found an increase in occult prostate cancer with age, reaching nearly 60% in men older than 80 years. More than 50% of cancers in Asian men and 25% of cancers in white men had a Gleason score of 7 or greater, suggesting that Gleason score may be an imprecise indicator of clinically insignificant prostate cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30942180",
"title": "Cancer slope factor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Cancer slope factors (CSF) are used to estimate the risk of cancer associated with exposure to a carcinogenic or potentially carcinogenic substance. A slope factor is an upper bound, approximating a 95% confidence limit, on the increased cancer risk from a lifetime exposure to an agent by ingestion or inhalation. This estimate, usually expressed in units of proportion (of a population) affected per mg of substance/kg body weight-day, is generally reserved for use in the low-dose region of the dose-response relationship, that is, for exposures corresponding to risks less than 1 in 100. Slope factors are also referred to as cancer potency factors (PF).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
151lkv
|
baby boomers and the animosity towards them
|
[
{
"answer": "Copy-Pasta of my comment from [this thread](_URL_0_).\n\n > When the US had crushing debt after WWII, the top marginal tax rate was raised to over 90%(!!!). Our debt was far worse than today and the WWII generation was not willing to pass that debt on to their children. This WWII debt was paid off relatively quickly and responsibly.\n > \n > The boomer generation is very often criticized because they have been hesitant to take similar action in the public sphere. The Cold War again caused national debt to skyrocket, but instead of raising taxes, they lowered them and let the debt balloon. Instead of reforming programs that are on shaky ground, they insist the government not touch them.\n > \n > To many, they just seem awfully close to violating the Boy Scout Rule, not leaving the country better than they found it. The 60s-70s were no utopia, don't get me wrong, but people see problems they definitely could have solved or at least contained which they did not.\n\nTheir stewardship of the country has left a lot to be desired in many peoples' eyes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The United States of America always had a tradition of sacrificing to make sure the world was better for their children. In World War II, for instance, people turned in bits of scrap metal and even tin foil to help the war effort, and dealt with rationing, etc. Example:\n\n_URL_3_\n_URL_2_\n\nThe same sacrifice was true with raising taxes to pay for debts, and so on.\n\nThen came the 1970s and the very bad problem the USA had to deal with was an oil problem. A man named Jimmy Carter was president and saw that we had another huge problem we needed to sacrifice for. He suggested Americans put on a sweater and turn down the thermostat so we could beat our dependence on foreign oil, and gave speeches like this:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThe Boomers tossed him out of office in favor of an aging actor who told them everything was all right.\n\nThe Baby Boomers betrayed that sense of national sacrifice, and so today, we still have a lot of problems with oil dependence, and debt, etc. but compounded so badly they are leaving the world a worse place for their children. Instead of being a major sacrifice, wars are now fought as though they had no effect on the general population except for yellow magnets on cars like this:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe unwillingness to sufficiently address major problems and the betrayal of our traditions is why people feel the Baby Boomers were a dishonorable generation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44132916",
"title": "Generations in the workforce",
"section": "Section::::Baby Boomers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "Baby Boomers, born approximately between 1946 and 1964 were brought up in a healthy post war economy and saw the world revolving around them as the largest generation of the century. Their lifestyle is to live for work and they often expect the same level of dedication and work ethics from the next generations. They are said to prefer face to face communication, are interactive team players and attain personal fulfilment from work. Baby Boomers are often branded workaholics leaving little to no work-life balance which has inevitably led to a breakdown in family values which has influenced the next generation. They are said to be loyal to their organisations, enjoy the notion of lifetime employment and prefer to be valued or needed as opposed to rewarded with recognition or money. An article by Emma Simon in the \"Daily Telegraph\" describes them as the 'post war generation' who have enjoyed an \"unbroken run of good-luck\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51240626",
"title": "Cusper",
"section": "Section::::Notable cusper groups.:Baby Boomers/Generation X.:Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "This population is sometimes referred to as Generation Jones, and less commonly as Tweeners. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21122396",
"title": "Me generation",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "The introspection of the baby boomers and their focus on self-fulfillment has been examined in a serious light in pop culture. Films such as \"An Unmarried Woman\" (1978), \"Kramer vs. Kramer\" (1979), \"Ordinary People\" (1980) and \"The Big Chill\" (1983) brought the inner struggles of baby boomers to a wide audience. The self-absorbed side of 1970s life was given a sharp and sometimes poignant satirization in \"Manhattan\" (1979). More acerbic lampooning came in \"Shampoo\" (1975) and \"Private Benjamin\" (1980). The Me generation has also been satirized in retrospect, as the generation called \"Generation X\" reached adulthood, for example, in \"Parenthood\" (1989). \"Forrest Gump\" (1994) summed up the decade with Gump's cross-country jogging quest for meaning during the 1970s, complete with a tracksuit, which was worn as much as a fashion statement as an athletic necessity during the era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76300",
"title": "Return of the Secaucus 7",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Critic Frederic and Mary Ann Brussat wrote, \"Here's a nice little movie about the baby boom generation...Novelist John Sayles wrote, directed, and edited this movie. It is a labor of love. We watch these laidback individuals share their stories and reminisce about the past...But these baby boomers can't handle tension; the rift between Jeff and Maura sends tremors through the weekend. And although they put up a front of having a good time, one senses that things haven't turned out well for them — either in terms of meaningful relationships or in terms of personal fulfillment. \"Return of the Secaucus Seven\" leaves one with a rueful feeling about this generation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11001506",
"title": "Boomsday (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Boomsday, a 2007 novel by Christopher Buckley, is a political satire about the rivalry between squandering Baby Boomers and younger generations of Americans who do not want to pay high taxes for their elders' retirement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5511299",
"title": "Woodstock Nation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "More generally, however, the term is used as a catch-all phrase for those individuals of the baby boomer generation in the United States who subscribed to the values of the American counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s. The term is often interchangeable with hippie, although the latter term is sometimes used as an oath of derision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8880793",
"title": "Gray ceiling",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "As the children of the baby boomers advance from below, the Gen-Xers, usually with middle management jobs, feel threatened and trapped in a job that is going nowhere and might be given away to the next younger candidate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2meeum
|
Do bent space-time and gravitons both cause objects in space to attract one another?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are different descriptions of the same thing. Changes in the gravitational field propagate as gravitational radiation, and quanta of gravitational radiation are called gravitons. The classical limit of a spin-2 massless (graviton) quantum field theory is general relativity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Feynman's lectures on GR uses the graviton formulation by considering a fun hypothetical scenario: \n\nIn our own history, we discovered the classical forces, and developed classical field theories of electromagnetism and gravity (GR). Then we discovered quantum field theory, and in this context GR does seem like an \"odd man out\" since it's so unnatural to think of spacetime curvature in terms of quantum fields. \n\nFeynman then considers the perspective of a hypothetical alien species (he calls them Venutians from Venus) who discover all of the the quantum forces (quantum field theory) first. They understand the complete Standard Model (I'm updating Feynman here because his book is from the 1960s), and then they discover gravity. They naturally try to fit gravity into their framework of quantum field theory using the methods they know. \n\nIt turns out that they are successful. Feynman considers the measurable experimental consequences of gravity/GR, and then attempts to build up various quantum field theories, showing how certain attempts fail. Eventually he reaches the theory of massless spin-2 particles (gravitons) as the simplest QFT which gives all of the correct predictions, and then uses this as his definition of GR for the rest of the book, which covers the standard material in a GR course from the graviton theory. He later speculates about the Venutians eventually discovering the geometric formulation, which he calls unnecessary but marvelous (and related to gauge invariance).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53037756",
"title": "Dipole repeller",
"section": "Section::::Controversy about the Dipole Repeller and its observed repulsive force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "This is because gravitation is an attractive force, but if there is an underdense region it apparently acts as a gravitational repeller, based on the concept that there may be less attraction in the direction of the underdensity, and the greater attraction due to the higher density in other directions acts to pull objects away from the underdensity; in other words, the apparent repulsion is not an active force, but due simply to the lack of a force counteracting the attraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3071186",
"title": "Gravitational acceleration",
"section": "Section::::General relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In Einstein's theory of general relativity, gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, masses distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. The gravitational force is a fictitious force. There is no gravitational acceleration, in that the proper acceleration and hence four-acceleration of objects in free fall are zero. Rather than undergoing an acceleration, objects in free fall travel along straight lines (geodesics) on the curved spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244611",
"title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Problematic aspects.:Einstein's solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "These objections were explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity, in which gravitation is an attribute of curved spacetime instead of being due to a force propagated between bodies. In Einstein's theory, energy and momentum distort spacetime in their vicinity, and other particles move in trajectories determined by the geometry of spacetime. This allowed a description of the motions of light and mass that was consistent with all available observations. In general relativity, the gravitational force is a fictitious force due to the curvature of spacetime, because the gravitational acceleration of a body in free fall is due to its world line being a geodesic of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "Section::::Centripetal.:Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Coriolis effect gives an apparent force that acts on objects that move relative to a rotating reference frame. This apparent force acts at right angles to the motion and the rotation axis and tends to curve the motion in the opposite sense to the habitat's spin. If an astronaut inside a rotating artificial gravity environment moves towards or away from the axis of rotation, he or she will feel a force pushing him or her towards or away from the direction of spin. These forces act on the inner ear and can cause dizziness, nausea and disorientation. Lengthening the period of rotation (slower spin rate) reduces the Coriolis force and its effects. It is generally believed that at 2 rpm or less, no adverse effects from the Coriolis forces will occur, although humans have been shown to adapt to rates as high as 23 rpm. It is not yet known whether very long exposures to high levels of Coriolis forces can increase the likelihood of becoming accustomed. The nausea-inducing effects of Coriolis forces can also be mitigated by restraining movement of the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890",
"title": "Fundamental interaction",
"section": "Section::::The interactions.:Gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times, Aristotle hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this hypothesis was wrong under certain circumstances — neglecting the friction due to air resistance, and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air-filled balloon vs a water-filled balloon) all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. Isaac Newton's law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Our present-day understanding of gravitation stems from Einstein's General Theory of Relativity of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Of the four fundamental interactions, gravitation is the dominant at astronomical length scales. Gravity's effects are cumulative; by contrast, the effects of positive and negative charges tend to cancel one another, making electromagnetism relatively insignificant on astronomical length scales. The remaining two interactions, the weak and strong nuclear forces, decline very rapidly with distance; their effects are confined mainly to sub-atomic length scales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Introduction to curved spacetime.:Basic propositions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 272,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 272,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "In any analysis of spacetime, evidence of gravitation requires that one observe the relative accelerations of \"two\" bodies or two separated particles. In Fig. 5‑1, two separated particles, free-falling in the gravitational field of the Earth, exhibit tidal accelerations due to local inhomogeneities in the gravitational field such that each particle follows a different path through spacetime. The tidal accelerations that these particles exhibit with respect to each other do not require forces for their explanation. Rather, Einstein described them in terms of the geometry of spacetime, i.e. the curvature of spacetime. These tidal accelerations are strictly local. It is the cumulative total effect of many local manifestations of curvature that result in the \"appearance\" of a gravitational force acting at a long range from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z1kmw
|
what is the purpose of the black paint under the eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "It reduces glare (reflection off your upper cheekbones) from the sun/lights and makes it so that you do not have to squint as much. Besides being used in many sports, it is also used by hunters and military/ warring peoples. As for historical context, it's been done for a very long time because it's copied from nature - many non-human animals like cheetahs and gazelles naturally have the useful glare-reducing darkness under their eyes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35821749",
"title": "Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry of ancient Egyptian cosmetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The two main forms of eye makeup were grepond eye paint and black kohl. The green eye paint was made of malachite, a copper carbonate pigment, and the black kohl was made from galena, a dark grey ore. Crushed charcoal was also used in this process. Mesdemet or Kohl was used for lining the eyes and were revealed to bring along potent health benefits in the form of protection from disease, bugs and sun rays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23134898",
"title": "Anti-graffiti coating",
"section": "Section::::Types of paint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pigment - This is the part of the paint that is seen by the eye. The pigment gives the paint opacity and color. The pigments of all paints contain a white base composed of titanium dioxide (TiO) or zinc oxide (ZnO). Dyes are added to the pigment to attain the desired color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21512200",
"title": "Theatrical makeup",
"section": "Section::::Straight makeup.:Eyes.:Eye shadow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Grease or stick shadow is applied to the eyelids and blended out toward the eyebrow bone before powder is applied; dry eye shadow is used alone or to intensify and touch up the color underneath. Dark eye shadow or grease deepens the eye sockets, creating a skull-like effect. Shades of brown and gray are best for individuals with fair complexions. Individuals with brown complexions use lighter shadows such as toast, mushroom or soft yellows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55072141",
"title": "Low-key photography",
"section": "Section::::Technique.:Painting the human body in black.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Painting the human body in black is also employed in low-key photography using non-toxic dyes or pigments in order to darken and enhance as much as possible the colour of the subjects photographed, and to achieve the desired effects. In order to achieve the effect of reflection of light that creates a white contour of the painted body, as well as a high contrast between black and white, various dyes mixed with body creams are used. These usually include henna, tempera or acrylic paint. Liquid latex, which is composed of natural latex and dyes, is also used with caution to avoid stopping the skin to breathe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31473425",
"title": "Clothing in ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Cosmetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Black kohl, which was used to mark eyes, was obtained from galena. Eye shadow was made from crushed malachite. Red, which was applied to lips, came from ochre. These products were mixed with animal fat to make them compact and to preserve them. They wore galena or crushed malachite not just to enhance beauty, but because they believed it kept dust and dirt from getting into their eyes. For this reason, both men and women wore it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3548906",
"title": "Eye black",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "One of the earliest known instances of a player wearing eye black is baseball legend Babe Ruth, who, in or around the 1930s, used the grease in an attempt to reduce sun glare. According to Paul Lukas of \"ESPN.com\", eye black caught on with American football player Andy Farkas. He also states that the original eye black was made from the ashes of burned cork.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574169",
"title": "Blacklight paint",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Black light paint or black light fluorescent paint is luminous paint that glows under a black light. It is based on pigments that respond to light in the ultraviolet segment of the electromagnetic spectrum. The paint may or may not be colorful under ordinary light. Black light paint should not be confused with phosphorescent (glow-in-the-dark) or daylight fluorescent paint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5d0chz
|
Why can an inner ear infection cause temporary taste loss?
|
[
{
"answer": "Oh so this is SUPER cool. Sorry, probably not for you, but I'm a huge dork.\n\nThere's a nerve called the chorda tympani which passes through the middle ear, and I'm making an assumption here that you actually had a middle ear infection, as they are far more common. It is one of three nerves that carry taste sensation from the tongue to the brain, and my bet is that irritation of this nerve leads to temporary taste loss.\n\nSource: ~~Medical student. But I haven't brushed up on my anatomy in a while. This is, of course, not medical advice.~~ Good 'ol [Netter's Anatomy Atlas](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "196434",
"title": "Olfactory nerve",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Lesions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Lesions to the olfactory nerve can occur because of \"blunt trauma\", such as coup-contrecoup damage, meningitis, and tumors of the frontal lobe of the brain. These injuries often lead to a reduced ability to taste and smell. Lesions of the olfactory nerve do not lead to a reduced ability to sense pain from the nasal epithelium. This is because pain from the nasal epithelium is not carried to the central nervous system by the olfactory nerve - it is carried to the central nervous system by the trigeminal nerve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6110003",
"title": "Mucositis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Dysgeusia, or an alteration in taste perception, is common, especially for those who are receiving concomitant radiation therapy to the neck and mouth area. \"Taste blindness\", or an altered sense of taste, is a temporary condition that occurs because of effects on taste buds that are mostly located in the tongue. Sometimes, only partial recovery of taste occurs. Common complaints are of food tasting too sweet or too bitter or of a continuous metallic taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1741584",
"title": "Ageusia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Other causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Local damage and inflammation that interferes with the taste buds or local nervous system, such as that stemming from radiation therapy, glossitis, tobacco use, or the wearing of dentures, can also cause ageusia. Other known causes include loss of taste sensitivity from aging (causing a difficulty detecting salty or bitter taste), anxiety disorder, cancer, renal failure and liver failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "641177",
"title": "Primary ciliary dyskinesia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "Many affected individuals experience hearing loss and show symptoms of otitis media which demonstrates variable responsiveness to the insertion of myringotomy tubes or grommets. Some patients have a poor sense of smell, which is believed to accompany high mucus production in the sinuses (although others report normal - or even acute - sensitivity to smell and taste). Clinical progression of the disease is variable, with lung transplantation required in severe cases. Susceptibility to infections can be drastically reduced by an early diagnosis. Treatment with various chest physiotherapy techniques has been observed to reduce the incidence of lung infection and to slow the progression of bronchiectasis dramatically. Aggressive treatment of sinus disease beginning at an early age is believed to slow long-term sinus damage (although this has not yet been adequately documented). Aggressive measures to enhance clearance of mucus, prevent respiratory infections, and treat bacterial superinfections have been observed to slow lung-disease progression. Although the true incidence of the disease is unknown, it is estimated to be 1 in 32,000, although the actual incidence may be as high as 1 in 15,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28598",
"title": "Sinusitis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Sinus infections can also cause middle ear problems due to the congestion of the nasal passages. This can be demonstrated by dizziness, \"a pressurized or heavy head\", or vibrating sensations in the head. Post-nasal drip is also a symptom of chronic rhinosinusitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16159527",
"title": "Mouth infection",
"section": "Section::::Complications.:Cavernous sinus thrombosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Although rare, mouth infections may also spread through the nasal and facial veins that drain into a reservoir of deoxygenated blood called the cavernous sinus. Once the infection has spread to the cavernous sinus, it can compress important nerves (cranial nerves III, IV, V1, V2, and VI) within this space and obstruct venous drainage from the upper face. The main symptoms are swelling and pain of both eyes, fever, changes in vision, and headaches. On exam, redness and decreased range of motion of the eyes are present in about 90% of cases. Treatment includes antibiotics and antithrombotics to treat the infection and blood clot. This is a serious complication that leads to death or serious morbidity if not diagnosed within the first week of symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "674639",
"title": "Neophobia",
"section": "Section::::Food neophobia.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Another cause includes being more sensitive than average to bitter tastes, which may be associated with a significant history of middle ear infection or an increased perception of bitter foods, known as a supertaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2514oc
|
Is an insect that lives for 1 hour much faster evolving than humans who reproduce every 657 000 hours? (30 years)
|
[
{
"answer": "My brain is foggy, but there were many studies that get done on fruit flies for mutations because of their quick life span and how many offspring each can create.\n\nEDIT: Here is an example that goes into more details than I could ever remember: _URL_0_\n\nTo quote the article for the lazy:\n\n\"Since the early 1900s, multiplied millions of fruit fly generations have been bred in laboratories across the globe. Scientists performing these experiments have introduced fruit flies to various levels of radiation and countless other factors designed to produce mutations. Sherwin noted that over 3,000 different mutations have been documented in the fruit fly gene pool (n.d.). These mutations have caused such physical characteristics as eyeless flies, flies with different colored eyes, flies with legs growing from their heads, extra pairs of wings, various colored bodies, wingless flies, flies with unusually large wings, flies with useless wings, flies with twisted wings, etc. The list could go on for hundreds of pages.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution is just change in gene frequencies over time. You don't need the environment to change for a species to evolve. Some traits drift, or you might get a mutation that allows them to interact with a pre-existing environmental factor in a novel way. \n\nBut yes, the rate of evolution is heavily dependent on generation time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42607748",
"title": "Paratarsotomus macropalpis",
"section": "Section::::Speed record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The mite has been recorded at a speed of 322 body lengths per second (). This is far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australian tiger beetle \"Cicindela eburneola\", the fastest insect in the world relative to body size, which has been recorded at or 171 body lengths per second. The cheetah, the fastest land animal, which has been clocked at a peak of , scores at only 16 body lengths per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2756",
"title": "Asexual reproduction",
"section": "Section::::Examples in animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Molecular evidence strongly suggests that several species of the stick insect genus \"Timema\" have used only asexual (parthenogenetic) reproduction for millions of years, the longest period known for any insect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2152928",
"title": "Archaeognatha",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Unlike most insects, the adults continue to moult after reaching adulthood, and typically mate once at each instar. Archaeognaths may have a total lifespan of up to four years, longer than most larger insects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9701472",
"title": "Timema",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Five of the twenty-one species of \"Timema\" are parthenogenetic, including two species that have not engaged in sexual reproduction for one million years, the longest known asexual period for any insect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12269001",
"title": "Insect physiology",
"section": "Section::::Reproductive system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Most insects have a high reproductive rate. With a short generation time, they evolve faster and can adjust to environmental changes more rapidly than other slower breeding animals. Although there are many forms of reproductive organs in insects, there remains a basic design and function for each reproductive part. These individual parts may vary in shape (gonads), position (accessory gland attachment), and number (testicular and ovarian glands), with different insect groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11864900",
"title": "Meloidogyne arenaria",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction and life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The length of the life cycle depends on environmental factors mostly temperature and host status. It may take about 1 month to complete the life cycle. The nematodes also have a very high reproductive rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9701472",
"title": "Timema",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Life cycle and reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "According to Tanja Schwander of Simon Fraser University, \"\"Timema\" are indeed the oldest insects for which there is good evidence that they have been asexual for long periods of time.\" She heads a team of researchers who found that five \"Timema\" species (\"T. douglasi\", \"T. monikense\", \"T. shepardi\", \"T. tahoe\" and \"T. genevievae\") have used only asexual reproduction for more than 500,000 years, with \"T. tahoe\" and \"T. genevievae\" reproducing asexually for over one million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d42crs
|
how are people able to salvage data that has been deleted?
|
[
{
"answer": "Data isn't actually deleted when you hit \"delete\". When you hit \"delete\", you're telling the Operating System that it is OK to overwrite the area the data is taking up. If you delete something by mistake, and you don't write anything to the disk, the data is still there, and you can recover the data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Windows (and other operating systems) keep track of where files are on a hard drive through “pointers.” Each file and folder on your hard disk has a pointer that tells Windows where the file’s data begins and ends.\n\nWhen you delete a file, Windows removes the pointer and marks the sectors containing the file’s data as available. From the file system’s point of view, the file is no longer present on your hard drive and the sectors containing its data are considered free space.\n\nHowever, until Windows actually writes new data over the sectors containing the contents of the file, the file is still recoverable. A file recovery program can scan a hard drive for these deleted files and restore them. If the file has been partially overwritten, the file recovery program can only recover part of the data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not entirely certain of the process, but data that you delete doesn't simply \"dissappear\". It just gets marked as unused space and sits there and does nothing until it gets overwritten by something else. Data salvaging is just searching through that unused space to find the data you're looking for. I don't know exactly how they accomplish this though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160183",
"title": "Data recovery",
"section": "Section::::Remote data recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Recovery experts do not always need to have physical access to the damaged hardware. When the lost data can be recovered by software techniques, they can often perform the recovery using remote access software over the Internet, LAN or other connection to the physical location of the damaged media. The process is essentially no different from what the end user could perform by themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28310949",
"title": "SalvageData",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Data recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "SALVAGEDATA works with a wide range of businesses and individual consumers to help them recover lost data from damaged hard drives and other digital devices. Damaged hardware can be dropped off or shipped free of charge to any of the company’s 30+ locations for evaluation and recovery review. The company also offers remote evaluations and recovery review services over the Internet in cases where media is logically, but not physically damaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58506548",
"title": "EaseUS Data Recovery Wizard",
"section": "Section::::Recovery process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "When data is deleted from storage devices, the references to the data are removed from the directory structure. The space can then be used, or overwritten, with data from other files or computer functions. The deleted data itself is not immediately removed from the physical drive and often exists as a number of disconnected fragments. This data, so long as it is not overwritten, can be recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23039636",
"title": "File carving",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160183",
"title": "Data recovery",
"section": "Section::::Physical damage.:Recovery techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Recovering data from physically damaged hardware can involve multiple techniques. Some damage can be repaired by replacing parts in the hard disk. This alone may make the disk usable, but there may still be logical damage. A specialized disk-imaging procedure is used to recover every readable bit from the surface. Once this image is acquired and saved on a reliable medium, the image can be safely analyzed for logical damage and will possibly allow much of the original file system to be reconstructed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19520849",
"title": "Gnolia",
"section": "Section::::January 2009 total data loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Ma.gnolia's Recovery Tools allowed users to recover some data from web caches and from other feeds. However, since the tools rely on external sources to reconstruct users' data, they were limited in how much data they could restore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18889250",
"title": "The Linkup",
"section": "Section::::Failures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "On June 15, 2007 a system administrator's script accidentally misidentified and deleted \"good data\" along with the \"dead data\" of some 3.5 million former user accounts and files. It took until October 2007 to complete a partial restore of the data (much of it being irretrievably lost).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cydkv5
|
After WW2, Hirohito was allowed to remain as a symbolic head, Why?
|
[
{
"answer": "/u/restricteddata previously answered [Why was Emperor Hirohito allowed to keep the throne after Japan's unconditional surrender in WWII?](_URL_1_)\n\n/u/vinco_et_praevaleo previously answered [How did Emperor Hirohito escape trial and death following the Second World War?](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT: fixed typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1176143",
"title": "Act on National Flag and Anthem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "After Japan's defeat in World War II, there were suggestions to legislate the \"hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\" as the official symbols of Japan. However, a law to establish the \"hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\" as official in 1974 failed in the Diet, due to the opposition of the Japan Teachers Union that insists they have a connection with Japanese militarism. It was suggested that both the \"hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\" should be made official after a school principal in Hiroshima committed suicide over a dispute regarding the use of the flag and anthem in a school ceremony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10287",
"title": "Hirohito",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Accountability for Japanese war crimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "The view promoted by both the Japanese Imperial Palace and the American occupation forces immediately after World War II portrayed Emperor Hirohito as a powerless figurehead behaving strictly according to protocol while remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes. This view was endorsed by Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita in a speech on the day of Hirohito's death in which Takeshita asserted that the war \"had broken out against [Hirohito's] wishes.\" Takeshita's statement provoked outrage in nations in East Asia and Commonwealth nations such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. According to historian Fujiwara, \"The thesis that the Emperor, as an organ of responsibility, could not reverse cabinet decision is a myth fabricated after the war.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48209546",
"title": "Death and funeral of Hirohito",
"section": "Section::::Protests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The late emperor's funeral, like the man it honored, was dogged by bitter memories of the past. Many Allied veterans of World War II regarded Hirohito as a war criminal and called upon their countries to boycott the funeral. Nevertheless, of the 166 nations invited to send representatives, all but three accepted. Some Japanese, including a small Christian community, constitutional scholars and opposition politicians, denounced the pomp at the funeral as a return to past exaltation of the emperor and contended that the inclusion of Shinto rites violated Japan's post-war separation of church and state. Some groups, opposed to the Japanese monarchy, also staged small protests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188530",
"title": "Humanity Declaration",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "It is unclear whether this declaration was voluntary or coerced by the Allied powers who occupied Japan. Because the life and fate of Emperor Hirohito was in jeopardy until the 1947 Constitution which formalized a symbolic role as the head of state of Japan. This rescript was not voluntarily written or made by Emperor Hirohito. This rescript is said to have been drafted by Reginald Horace Blyth and Harold Gould Henderson, who also contributed to the popularisation of Zen and the poetic form of haiku outside Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10287",
"title": "Hirohito",
"section": "Section::::Postwar reign.:Imperial status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "For the rest of his life, Hirohito was an active figure in Japanese life and performed many of the duties commonly associated with a constitutional head of state. He and his family maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts and making public appearances on special events and ceremonies. He also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders, including Queen Elizabeth II (1971) and President Gerald Ford (1975).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16906586",
"title": "Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine",
"section": "Section::::Politicians' visits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "This issue first surfaced when Emperor Hirohito refused to visit the shrine from 1978 until his death in 1989. According to a memorandum released in 2006 kept by Imperial Household Agency Grand Steward Tomohiko Tomita, Hirohito stated that the reason he stopped visiting the shrine was because of the decision to enshrine class A war criminals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174187",
"title": "Yasuhiro Nakasone",
"section": "Section::::Premiership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "On 15 August 1985, the fortieth anniversary of Japan's surrender; Yasuhiro and his Cabinet visited the Yasukuni Shrine in full mourning dress. This had great symbolic significance as he visited the shrine in his official capacity and demonstrated that the Japanese government was reasserting its respect for the spirits of the ancestors killed in battle, including those who died in World War II. This was a controversial move and was criticised by the Chinese Communist Party newspaper, \"People's Daily\". It was also attacked by opponents at home for violating the Constitution's separation of religion and state. Yasuhiro defended his actions by saying, \"The true defence of Japan ... becomes possible only through the combination of liberty-loving peoples who are equal to each other ... The manner is desired to be based on self-determination of the race\". He also said, \"It is considered progressive to criticise pre-war Japan for its faults and defects, but I firmly oppose such a notion. A nation is still a nation whether it wins or loses a war\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d70rvp
|
why do some batteries puff up?
|
[
{
"answer": "A swollen battery is the result of progressive degradation of the chemicals that generate power. The reaction that pushes electrons through the circuit can't work the way they were designed to, and part of that failure involves *outgassing,* or the creation of gases and vapors where they're not intended. This swells the battery casing, and might cause a breach and leak of the battery's contents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Corrosion problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "If the battery is over-filled with water and electrolyte, thermal expansion can force some of the liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203197",
"title": "Memory effect",
"section": "Section::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Temporary effects.:Voltage depression due to long-term over-charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Voltage depression is caused by repeated over-charging of a battery, which causes the formation of small crystals of electrolyte on the plates. These can clog the plates, increasing resistance and lowering the voltage of some individual cells in the battery. This causes the battery as a whole to seem to discharge rapidly as those individual cells discharge quickly and the voltage of the battery as a whole suddenly falls. This effect is very common, as consumer trickle chargers typically overcharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Cycles.:Starting batteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Starting batteries are of lighter weight than deep cycle batteries of the same size, because the thinner and lighter cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose disintegrated material to fall off the plates and collect at the bottom of the cell, prolonging the service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises enough it may touch the bottom of the plates and cause failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Stratification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Periodic overcharging creates gaseous reaction products at the plate, causing convection currents which mix the electrolyte and resolve the stratification. Mechanical stirring of the electrolyte would have the same effect. Batteries in moving vehicles are also subject to sloshing and splashing in the cells, as the vehicle accelerates, brakes, and turns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48324366",
"title": "Batteroo Boost",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "A further source of controversy is that the Batteroo Boost will shorten battery life in devices that undergo only intermittent use, because the Batteriser is always drawing power to boost the voltage, even when the device is idle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "655563",
"title": "Ingestion",
"section": "Section::::Foreign objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Disk batteries, also called button cells, are often mistakenly ingested, particularly by children and the elderly. They may be mistaken for a medication pill because of their size and shape, or they may be swallowed after being held in the mouth while the battery is being changed. Battery ingestion can cause medical problems including blocked airway, vomiting, irritability, persistent drooling, and rash (due to nickel metal allergy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726915",
"title": "Alkaline battery",
"section": "Section::::Leaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The reason for leaks is that as batteries discharge — either through usage or gradual self-discharge — the chemistry of the cells changes and some hydrogen gas is generated. This out-gassing increases pressure in the battery. Eventually, the excess pressure either ruptures the insulating seals at the end of the battery, or the outer metal canister, or both. In addition, as the battery ages, its steel outer canister may gradually corrode or rust, which can further contribute to containment failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vnd2t
|
Is there a certain configuration for a wifi router's antennas to give better reception?
|
[
{
"answer": "You want to set up antennas perpendicular to the direction of motion of the signal. So, if you're in the room next door, you would want the antenna to be vertical. If your router was in the basement and you wanted signal directly above it on the roof, you would want the antenna to be perfectly horizontal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13214323",
"title": "Fixed wireless",
"section": "Section::::Antennas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Fixed wireless services typically use a directional radio antenna on each end of the signal (e.g., on each building). These antennas are generally larger than those seen in Wi-Fi setups and are designed for outdoor use. Several types of radio antennas are available that accommodate various weather conditions, signal distances and bandwidths. They are usually selected to make the beam as narrow as possible and thus focus transmit power to their destination, increasing reliability and reducing the chance of eavesdropping or data injection. The links are usually arranged as a point-to-point setup to permit the use of these antennas. This also permits the link to have better speed and or better reach for the same amount of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "672137",
"title": "Base station subsystem",
"section": "Section::::Base transceiver station.:Sectorization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "By using directional antennas on a base station, each pointing in different directions, it is possible to sectorise the base station so that several different cells are served from the same location. Typically these directional antennas have a beamwidth of 65 to 85 degrees. This increases the traffic capacity of the base station (each frequency can carry eight voice channels) whilst not greatly increasing the interference caused to neighboring cells (in any given direction, only a small number of frequencies are being broadcast). Typically two antennas are used per sector, at spacing of ten or more wavelengths apart. This allows the operator to overcome the effects of fading due to physical phenomena such as multipath reception. Some amplification of the received signal as it leaves the antenna is often used to preserve the balance between uplink and downlink signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63973",
"title": "Wi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Antenna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "On wireless routers with detachable antennas, it is possible to improve range by fitting upgraded antennas which have higher gain in particular directions. Outdoor ranges can be improved to many kilometers through the use of high gain directional antennas at the router and remote device(s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8763689",
"title": "Long-range Wi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Increasing range in other ways.:Higher gain antennas and adapter placement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Specially shaped directional antennas can increase the range of a Wi-Fi transmission without a drastic increase in transmission power. High gain antenna may be of many designs, but all allow transmitting a narrow signal beam over greater distance than a non-directional antenna, often nulling out nearby interference sources. Such \"WokFi\" techniques typically yield gains more than 10 dB over the bare system; enough for line of sight (LOS) ranges of several kilometers and improvements in marginal locations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2420922",
"title": "Antenna diversity",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Another common usage is in Wi-Fi networking gear and cordless telephones to compensate for multipath interference. The base station will switch reception to one of two antennas depending on which is currently receiving a stronger signal. For best results, the antennas are usually placed one wavelength apart. For microwave bands, where the wavelengths are under 100 cm, this can often be done with two antennas attached to the same hardware. For lower frequencies and longer wavelengths, the antennas must be several meters apart, making it much less reasonable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17133419",
"title": "Radio over fiber",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Wireless Communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In RoF systems, wireless signals are transported in optical form between a central station and a set of base stations before being radiated through the air. Each base station is adapted to communicate over a radio link with at least one user's mobile station located within the radio range of said base station. The advantage is that the equipment for WiFi, 5G and other protocols can be centralized in one place, with remote antennas attached via fiber optic serving all protocols. It greatly reduces the equipment and maintenance cost of the network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5540651",
"title": "Microwave transmission",
"section": "Section::::Microwave radio relay.:Planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Because the radio waves travel in narrow beams confined to a line-of-sight path from one antenna to the other, they don't interfere with other microwave equipment, so nearby microwave links can use the same frequencies (see Frequency reuse). Antennas must be highly directional (high gain); these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as large radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, which have a diameter of up to 4 meters. Highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mwg90
|
How does sound pass though objects, but light (mostly) cant?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sound waves are a series of uncompressed and compressed molecules. When you slam your book on your table, the molecules of the book pushes the table surface molecules down, which gets them pretty close to the next set of molecules. The first group then retracts since they don't want to be so close to the other molecules, and the same goes for the second set of molecules, except they push further down. This continues until the energy dies out, or when it reaches the other side of the table, except the molecules being pushed are air molecules, which will also continue until the energy is lost. This *is* a sound wave, so it's not the fact that sound waves are traveling through an object, it's that the sound wave is manifested *in* the object(s).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "631336",
"title": "Atmospheric diffraction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "However, if the object has a diameter greater than the acoustic wavelength, a 'sound shadow' is cast behind the object where the sound is inaudible. (Note: some sound may be propagated through the object depending on material).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994087",
"title": "Sound",
"section": "Section::::Physics of sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631336",
"title": "Atmospheric diffraction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sound wave diffraction is the bending of sound waves, as the sound travels around edges of geometric objects. This produces the effect of being able to hear even when the source is blocked by a solid object. The sound waves bend appreciably around the solid object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631336",
"title": "Atmospheric diffraction",
"section": "Section::::Acoustical diffraction near the Earth's surface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "In the case of sound waves travelling near the Earth's surface, the waves are diffracted or bent as they traverse by a geometric edge, such as a wall or building. This phenomenon leads to a very important practical effect: that we can hear \"around corners\". Because of the frequencies involved considerable amount of the sound energy (on the order of ten percent) actually travels into this would be sound \"shadow zone\". Visible light exhibits a similar effect, but, due to its much shorter wavelength, only a minute amount of light energy travels around a corner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1387051",
"title": "SOFAR channel",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Sound propagates in the channel by refraction of sound, which makes sound travel near the depth of slowest speed. If a sound wave propagates away from this horizontal channel, the part of the wave furthest from the channel axis travels faster, so the wave turns back toward the channel axis. As a result, the sound waves trace a path that oscillates across the SOFAR channel axis. This principle is similar to long distance transmission of light in an optical fibre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5758721",
"title": "Rayl",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Specific acoustic impedance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "When sound waves pass through any physical substance the pressure of the waves causes the particles of the substance to move. The sound specific impedance is the ratio between the sound pressure and the particle velocity it produces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1328522",
"title": "Cherenkov detector",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "A particle passing through a material at a velocity greater than that at which light can travel through the material emits light. This is similar to the production of a sonic boom when an airplane is traveling through the air faster than sound waves can move through the air. The direction this light is emitted is on a cone with angle θ about the direction in which the particle is moving, with cos(θ) = (c = the vacuum speed of light, n = the refractive index of the medium, and v is the speed of the particle). The angle of the cone θ thus is a direct measure of the particle's speed. The Frank–Tamm formula = sinθ gives the number of photons produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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