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7rvcpq
|
choice theory
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, which choice theory are you referring to? There's a few out there.\n\nPersonally I study criminology, meaning the Rational Choice Theory is by far the most well known, so I'll explain that one:\n\nThe rational choice theory explains us how people choose to do things or take actions that might go against the social norm. It's based on the fact that we are all individuals making our own choices in life. The RCT states that we make these decisions based on our own idea about the problem, looking at the pay-off and the possible consquences.\n\nExample: You are in a store and you see a chocolate bar, but you don't have money to pay for it. The RTC states that you will, by yourself, decide if it is worth it to steal the chocolate bar or not, based on the pay off (being able to eat a chocolate bar) and the possible consequence (being caught and possibly paying a fine or spending a day in jail). So in your head you'll make a cost-benefit scheme, and then decide to either take the risk or not.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "446216",
"title": "Decision theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory) is the study of an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes \"how\" agents actually make the decisions they do.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50336055",
"title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence",
"section": "Section::::D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "BULLET::::- Decision theory – (or the theory of choice) is the study of the reasoning underlying an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which gives advice on how to make the best decisions given a set of uncertain beliefs and a set of values, and descriptive decision theory which analyzes how existing, possibly irrational agents actually make decisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1294888",
"title": "Glasser's choice theory",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Choice theory suggests the existence of a \"Quality World\". Glasser's idea of a \"Quality World\" restates the Jungian idea of archetypes but Glasser never acknowledged this. Nonetheless, Glasser's \"Quality World\" and what Jung would call healthy archetypes are indistinguishable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51256",
"title": "Public choice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Public choice, or public choice theory, is \"the use of economic tools to deal with traditional problems of political science\". Its content includes the study of political behavior. In political science, it is the subset of positive political theory that studies self-interested agents (voters, politicians, bureaucrats) and their interactions, which can be represented in a number of ways – using (for example) standard constrained utility maximization, game theory, or decision theory. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17805869",
"title": "Dennis Mueller",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "On public choice approach, he said, \"Public choice approach is the economic study of non-market decision making or an application of economics to political science and to politico-administrative process of collective decision making.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1294888",
"title": "Glasser's choice theory",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "A typical example of choice theory and education are Sudbury Model schools, where students decide for themselves how to spend their days. In these schools, students of all ages determine what they will do, as well as when, how, and where they will do it. This freedom is at the heart of the school and it belongs to the students as their right, not to be violated. The fundamental premises of the school are: that all people are curious by nature; that the most efficient, long-lasting, and profound learning takes place when started and pursued by the learner; that all people are creative if they are allowed to develop their unique talents; that age-mixing among students promotes growth in all members of the group; and that freedom is essential to the development of personal responsibility. In practice this means that students initiate all their own activities and create their own environments. The physical plant, the staff, and the equipment are there for the students to use as the need arises. The school provides a setting in which students are independent, are trusted, and are treated as responsible people; and a community in which students are exposed to the complexities of life in the framework of a participatory democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690278",
"title": "Choice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Choice involves decision making. It can include judging the merits of multiple options and selecting one or more of them. One can make a choice between imagined options or between real options followed by the corresponding action. For example, a traveler might choose a route for a journey based on the preference of arriving at a given destination as soon as possible. The preferred (and therefore chosen) route can then follow from information such as the length of each of the possible routes, traffic conditions, etc. The arrival at a choice can include more complex motivators such as cognition, instinct, and feeling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zekmx
|
why hasn't there been prosecution for the corruption on wall street?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, because Wall Street has a shitload of money, which buys them political clout.\n\nSecond, because taxpayers got nearly all of the bailout money back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the laws they can use against them are very vague, and the evidence against them is very small, hard to pin on a single person. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Will anyone be held accountable for the ~~trillions~~ *billions* of dollars the US government has ~~shoveled into~~ *lent at above market interest rates (which has since been paid back) to* Wall Street in the past ~~decade~~ *four and a half years*?\n\nFTFY\n\nThe simple answer is that, for the most part, nobody broke the law.\n\n[As I’ve posted before]( _URL_0_):\n\nFor the most part, it wasn’t corruption but herd mentality, blinders to being in a bubble and an underestimation of risk. \n\nIt wasn't just Wall Street but the entire system. (In the interest of full disclosure, I’m an AVP at one of the TARP “To Big to Fail” banks) With the real estate bubble, a lot of wealth was overstated – in other words, if your house’s true value is X but is valued by the market as X+Y (where Y is the overvaluation due to the bubble) then your assets are overstated by Y. You have less real wealth than you think you have.\n\nOn top of this people had easier access to credit because of loan securitization. This is where loans (mortgages mostly) are bundled together and sold on the stock market as tradable securities. In the past, banks wouldn’t lend to people who were credit risks because they didn’t want to lose their investment (traditional banking has a very low margin – Bank holds your money for interest and lends it for a slightly higher amount. All operating expenses and everything come out of the differences. Loan defaults are a real issue in this model – remember the old joke that banks would only lend money to people who didn’t need it?) But with securitization there’s less risk to the bank (or so they thought) as the bank is selling the loan off to the market. So these Mortgage Backed Securities (MBS) were bundles of mortgages, most of which were low risk but with some risky ones peppered throughout. The ratings agencies gave them all high ratings even though there was a little bit of risk. Like a food inspector allowing only a few rat hairs in the sausage. Everybody thought that they were eating rat-hair-free sausage.\n\nOn top of this came Credit Default Swaps (CDS), which are Over The Counter (OTC) Derivatives that, for the sake of simplicity, are essentially insurance on loans. Look at it this way: Person A lends money to Person B at 5% interest. Person C comes along and sells a CDS to A at 1% offering to pay off the loan if B defaults. A is happy because he gets the loan at 4% risk free. C is happy because he gets 1% without having to pony up the cash to B. And B gets his loan. So then…\n\nHere’s where it gets messy. So now C can sell his CDS on the market (and bundle them up as CDO’s but that may be too advanced for a five year old) to Person D. And D can sell it to E and so on. Now, did you catch where I called them “Over the counter”? What this means is that they’re not traded on an exchange – they’re basically back of the envelope deals. And there was no agreement as to how to account for them on General Ledgers or how to price them. So you end up with a Lehman or AIG that is trading in many multiples of these and, well…\n\nBubble bursts. A lot of Person B’s start defaulting on their loans. All the C’s and D’s and E’s have to start ponying up the cash… Which leads to selling assets… Which leads to stock price drops… Which leads to lay off’s and more defaults and more CDS’s getting called and, well, you get the idea.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wall Street bankers donate many millions of dollars to both parties, and Wall Street banks and their law firms often offer seven-figure jobs to retiring politicians, so very few politicians want to risk alienating donors and potential post-politics employers by cracking down on Wall Street.\n\nThe DOJ, SEC, and other government agencies responsible for policing Wall Street have trouble bringing criminal cases against Wall Street. Except in the most clear-cut cases (Madoff, Enron, etc.), criminal cases against Wall Street banks and bankers are very complicated, and difficult to explain to a jury. It is easy for a good defense lawyer to muddy the waters enough to avoid a guilty verdict.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fundamental problem with Wall Street is not that they break the laws, it's that they make sure that the laws are so soft that they don't *need* to break them to rip people off. See also: [regulatory capture](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37274",
"title": "Wall Street",
"section": "Section::::Importance.:In the public imagination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "When large firms such as Enron, WorldCom and Global Crossing were found guilty of fraud, Wall Street was often blamed, even though these firms had headquarters around the nation and not in Wall Street. Many complained that the resulting Sarbanes-Oxley legislation dampened the business climate with regulations that were \"overly burdensome\". Interest groups seeking favor with Washington lawmakers, such as car dealers, have often sought to portray their interests as allied with \"Main Street\" rather than \"Wall Street\", although analyst Peter Overby on \"National Public Radio\" suggested that car dealers have written over $250 billion in consumer loans and have real ties with \"Wall Street\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2600365",
"title": "Sheldon Whitehouse",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Senate.:Tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Whitehouse has faced some criticism for alleged insider trading, avoiding big losses by trading stocks after top federal officials warned congressional leaders of \"the coming economic cataclysm\" in September 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50941047",
"title": "McDonnell v. United States",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "According to \"Bloomberg News\", the ruling \"appears to have opened the floodgates for reversals of high-profile public corruption cases, including William Jefferson, a former Louisiana congressman. Former New York State Assembly Speaker Sheldon Silver; Dean Skelos, a former majority leader of the New York state senate; and Skelos’s son, Adam Skelos, have also had corruption convictions overturned over the past few months on similar grounds.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30969724",
"title": "Gary J. Aguirre",
"section": "Section::::Predicted the 2008 financial collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "In 2006, while testifying before Senator Arlen Specter and the Senate Judiciary Committee about Mack, Pequot Capital and the SEC lack of oversight, he warned that SEC enforcement was dangerously lax. He said that the SEC had recovered a mere $110,000 from hedge fund insider trading over one year when the Committee itself had found evidence that over a one-year period, more than 41% of all mergers and acquisitions of over a billion dollars involved insider trading. Aguirre warned that lack of effective oversight of rampant corruption was allowing Wall Street the same unregulated market abuse and leveraging that caused the Wall Street crash of 1929. In 2008, he delivered a similar message at the Sibos conference in Vienna. Just prior to the collapse of Bear Stearns, he wrote a letter to the Senate Banking Committee that the nation's banks, and particularly Bear Stearns, were at risk because of subprime debt exposure and credit default swaps. In September 2008, during the debate on the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), Aguirre's projections on the costs of the taxpayer bailout were cited on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37274",
"title": "Wall Street",
"section": "Section::::Importance.:In the public imagination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Wall Street has become synonymous with financial interests, often used negatively. During the subprime mortgage crisis from 2007–10, Wall Street financing was blamed as one of the causes, although most commentators blame an interplay of factors. The U.S. government with the Troubled Asset Relief Program bailed out the banks and financial backers with billions of taxpayer dollars, but the bailout was often criticized as politically motivated, and was criticized by journalists as well as the public. Analyst Robert Kuttner in the \"Huffington Post\" criticized the bailout as helping large Wall Street firms such as Citigroup while neglecting to help smaller community development banks such as Chicago's ShoreBank. One writer in the \"Huffington Post\" looked at FBI statistics on robbery, fraud, and crime and concluded that Wall Street was the \"most dangerous neighborhood in the United States\" if one factored in the $50 billion fraud perpetrated by Bernie Madoff.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1521454",
"title": "Greenwood, Tulsa",
"section": "Section::::History.:Foundation of Resentment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1344,
"text": "When evaluating the prosperity of Black Wall Street, one angle to take into consideration is this perceived threat to the status quo and how this perceived threat may have eventually led Black Wall Street to its ultimate demise. In the specific example of Greenwood, Oklahoma, this perceived economic threat led to the eventual downfall of Black Wall Street. For instance, many white residents felt intimidated by the growth and expansion of Black Wall Street. Not only was Greenwood, Tulsa expanding in population growth but it was also expanding its physical boundaries, which eventually collided with the boundaries of white residents. According to several newspapers and articles at the time, there were reports of hateful letters sent to prominent business leaders within Black Wall Street, which demanded that they stop overstepping their boundaries into the white segregated portion of Tulsa. Paradoxically, the economic success and prosperity of Black Wall Street also contributed to its eventual downfall as white residents grew increasingly frustrated and anxious of the wealth of the Greenwood community. Although White Americans enacted acts of violence against blacks frequently in the early 20th century, there was no justification until an allegation surfaced about an African-American male allegedly “assaulting” a white woman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42610278",
"title": "Benjamin Wey",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1187,
"text": "Wey's Wall Street offices had been searched by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in January 2012 as part of a continuing investigation. According to David Barboza writing in the \"New York Times\", it was the \"strongest indication yet\" that US federal investigators may have started to probe the advisers and promoters involved in \"so-called backdoor listings of Chinese companies.\" In September 2015, Wey was indicted by a U.S. federal grand jury on eight counts of conspiracy, securities and wire fraud, and money laundering in connection with his reverse merger scheme and involving the companies SmartHeat, Deer Consumer Products, and CleanTech Innovations. Wey was accused of using the offshore accounts to cloak transactions between Chinese operating companies and American shell companies. In addition to the criminal charges, the SEC filed a parallel civil lawsuit against Wey which also included as defendants Wey's wife, his sister, and two of his attorneys, all of whom were alleged by SEC complaint to have committed \"violations or the aiding and abetting of violations of the antifraud provisions and the disclosure and reporting provisions of the federal securities laws\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5khr81
|
if for all of pre-human history and most of human history we were scavengers that relied on fruits and nuts, how are there so many humans today that have nut allergies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Back in the day, they would have died off, leaving people without allergies to continue on.\n\nNow, we save those people's lives. Also, we probably know more about allergies and how to deal with them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a pretty interesting concept! Hunters/gatherers had to subside off of the land and with what they had. As of such, individuals with potentially fatal reactions to things like nuts seemingly would have been weeded out of the gene pool.\n\nOne of the main theories behind the concept as to why there are so many people with nut allergies pertains to the idea of hygiene. In ancient times, people were constantly exposed to all sorts of microbes and pathogens and as of such, built up immunity to them. Nowadays, kids are way less dirty and sick than they used to be. While this generally seen as a good thing, it means that our bodies don't have to work as hard to protect us and are subsequently weaker defenders against future problems and are more likely to make mistakes with inflammatory responses. In recent studies, mothers that passed on good microbes (through breast feeding) had children that were less likely to have severe allergies than children who were raised exclusively on formula.\n\nSomething else to keep in mind is that cultures plays a big role in this as well. Cultures like those found in East Asia have more occurrences in milk allergies (and lactose intolerance) than the rest of the world and they don't really consume milk. Naturally, since milk was never a large part of their culture, they never really started drinking it like people in Europe did. So, the fact that they consume it was less noticeable and those individuals survived to pass on their genes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of the probelm, with peanuts and tree nuts, comes from 2000 when women were advised to avoid peanuts and tree nuts while pregnant and nursing and to avoid feeding nuts and peanuts to children under the age of 3. In 2008, the recommendation was reversed. There is some indication that avoiding peanuts and tree nuts may have increased allergies to these foods. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "210098",
"title": "Hunter-gatherer",
"section": "Section::::Archaeological evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "During the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that early humans obtained food via scavenging, not hunting. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view, they used carcasses of such animals that had either been killed by predators or that had died of natural causes. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "482629",
"title": "Scavenger",
"section": "Section::::In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In the 1970s Lewis Binford suggested that early humans primarily obtained meat via scavenging, not through hunting. In 2010, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman proposed that early carnivorous human ancestors subsequently developed long-distance running behaviors which improved the ability to scavenge and hunt: they could reach scavenging sites more quickly and also pursue a single animal until it could be safely killed at close range due to exhaustion and hyperthermia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15760517",
"title": "Sociology of food",
"section": "Section::::Food Distribution.:Early History and Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Since the beginning of mankind, food was important simply for the purpose of nourishment. As primates walked the Earth, they solely consumed food for a source of energy as they had to hunt and forage because food was not easily on hand. By early humans fending for themselves, they had figured out that they needed a high energy diet to keep going on a daily basis to survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37893411",
"title": "Hidden Cave",
"section": "Section::::The discoveries.:Human latrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "A human latrine was discovered in the cave 1951 that contained coprolites. Their contents help prove that people during this time ate both pinon nuts and bulrush fruits at the same time even though they were not located near each other. The contents were used to infer the possibility that a 'second harvest' strategy was employed as a way to obtain undigested seeds from feces. This is a survival strategy used in times where little food resources were available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, \"Homo sapiens\" employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of \"Homo erectus\". Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults. Agriculture led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22860",
"title": "Paleolithic",
"section": "Section::::Human way of life.:Diet and nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "Another view is that until the Upper Paleolithic, humans were frugivores (fruit eaters) who supplemented their meals with carrion, eggs, and small prey such as baby birds and mussels, and only on rare occasions managed to kill and consume big game such as antelopes. This view is supported by studies of higher apes, particularly chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are the closest to humans genetically, sharing more than 96% of their DNA code with humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar to that of humans. Chimpanzees are primarily frugivores, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh, given the opportunity. In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95% plant-based, with the remaining 5% filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals. In some ecosystems, however, chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt monkeys. Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445918",
"title": "Prunus spinosa",
"section": "Section::::Economic uses and consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The fruit stones have been found in Swiss lake dwellings. Early human use of sloes as food is evidenced in the case of a 5,300-year-old human mummy (nick-named Ötzi), discovered in the Ötztal Alps along the Austrian-Italian border in 1991: a sloe was found near the remains, evidently with the intent to eat it before the man died.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7zmgqa
|
what is an apr?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the price of money. If you want 100 dollars, I'll give it to you for 120$ a year from now. That's a 20% APR, give some not ELI5 assumptions,imo. ",
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{
"answer": "APR is annual percentage rate, or otherwise, simple interest. For example, if you have a $10 loan for the year with 50% APR, that is 50% of $10 = $5. So you owe both the principal amount ($10) plus interest ($5) = $15. \n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Its a specific way of calculating interest to permit fair comparisons. It's often mandated by governments that is should be quoted alongside any other interest statement as otherwise a loan can be made to look a better deal than it actually is. It usually also has to incorporate any fees charged.\n\nTake /u/squadm-nkey's example but you had to pay back the $120 in 12 monthly payments of $10. That might be advertised as 20% interest. However you only had the first $10 for 1 month, the second for 2 and so on. Averaging it out You borrowed $100 for only 6 months. So its closer to 40% (41.3) when calculated as the APR.\n ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You've got the complete answer already, but split up over multiple posts so I'll just collate things into one coherent story.\n\nAPR stands for annual percentage rate, and its purpose is to provide a standardized way of comparing compound interest rates with different periods. \n\nThe way compound interest works is that you start with an initial amount, an annual interest rate is specified (a percentage), an a compounding rate is specified (a length of time called a period), and then once per period, the initial amount is increased by the annual rate divided by the compounding rate. Importantly, the higher the compounding rate is, the faster interest with a given rate accrues.\n\nFor example, if you start with $100 and get 30% interest compounded monthly, each month you get 30/12=2.5% interest, so at the end of a year you'll have $100 increased by 2.5% twelve times, or a total of $134.49.\n\nIf I asked if whether you'd rather get 30% interest compounded monthly or 30.5% interest compounded monthly, obviously you'd take the 30.5%. But what if the alternative wasn't 30.5% compounded monthly but 30.5% compounded *quarterly*? Is that still better?\n\nIf you punch in the numbers from the example above, that would be $100 increased by 30.5/4=7.625% four times, which is only $134.17 -- a higher interest rate, but the lower compounding rate makes it pay out less in the long run.\n\nOkay, what about 29.5% compounded weekly, or daily, or any number of tiny tweaks to both the interest rate and the compounding rate? How can people possibly expect you to do this kind of calculation every time just to figure out when one interest rate/schedule is better than another?\n\nThey don't -- you just look at the total percentage each one would return over the course of a year, which is exactly what APR measures. For example, the APR of the two examples given above are approximately 34.49% and 34.17%, so obviously the first one is better. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mortgage Banking Professional here. Lots of misinformation about this floating around. It is not the rate your interest compounds. It is the total cost of a loan including any fees incurred. This is why you are generally given an interest rate and an APR. If a loan or credit card has no fees attached the APR and rate would be the same. \n\nIt is very important to know what both numbers are. One of the most underhanded tactics I see in my industry is giving a great low rate, and attaching a ton of fees. So typically you would see a Rate of 4% and an APR of 4.457% or something like that. You could compare that to a Rate of 4.375 and an APR of 4.505. Logic would say the lower APR is a better loan right? Not really. What you should be analyzing is the difference between the rate and the APR. That difference is the cost in up front fees and it gets added to your loan amount, which means you start out with a higher loan balance and thus end up paying interest on those fees. \n\nIdeally you want the APR and the interest rate to be as close as possible. This would indicate you aren't getting a huge upfront charge to borrow the money.\n\ntl:dr APR is a calculation of all fees *and* interest expressed as a rate percentile\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "857766",
"title": "Annual percentage rate",
"section": "Section::::Failings in the United States.:Dependence on loan period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "APR is dependent on the time period for which the loan is calculated. That is, the APR for a 30-year loan cannot be compared to the APR for a 20-year loan. APR \"can\" be used to show the relative impact of different payment schedules (such as balloon payments or biweekly payments instead of straight monthly payments), but most standard APR calculators have difficulty with those calculations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25957483",
"title": "Race to the Top",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "APR's are created for each state to document the progress toward the annual and four-year targets set forth in the grantees' applications. Because the performance measures included in the applications are indicators of success in improving student outcomes, the APR is one way to hold states accountable for meeting targets in improving student outcomes. An APR also includes reports and updates on laws, statutes, regulations, and/or guidelines that impact reform plans, as well as progress in meeting the \"absolute priority\" and \"competitive preference priority\", which emphasize a comprehensive focus on reform and an emphasis on STEM education. The APR includes updates on progress in meeting the invitation priorities in the approved plans (innovations for improving early learning outcomes; expansiouun and adaptation of statewide longitudinal data systems; P-20 coordination, vertical and horizontal alignment; and school-level conditions for reform, innovation, and learning).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "550823",
"title": "Australian Prudential Regulation Authority",
"section": "Section::::Regulatory scope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "APRA oversees banks, credit unions, building societies, friendly societies, general insurance, health insurance, reinsurance, and life insurance companies, and most members of the superannuation industry. It ensures that these institutions keep their financial promises; that is, that they will remain financially sound and able to meet their obligations to depositors, fund members and policy holders. It was established on 1 July 1998. APRA is funded largely by the industries that it supervises. APRA currently supervises institutions holding A$5.4 trillion in assets for Australian depositors, policyholders and superannuation fund members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857766",
"title": "Annual percentage rate",
"section": "Section::::Multiple definitions of effective APR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The nominal APR is calculated as: the rate, for a payment period, multiplied by the number of payment periods in a year. However, the exact legal definition of \"effective APR\", or EAR, can vary greatly in each jurisdiction, depending on the type of fees included, such as participation fees, loan origination fees, monthly service charges, or late fees. The effective APR has been called the \"mathematically-true\" interest rate for each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2903621",
"title": "African Peer Review Mechanism",
"section": "Section::::Africa's Self- Assessment for Good Governance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "APRM is a tool for sharing experiences, reinforcing best practices, identifying deficiencies, and assessing capacity-building needs to foster policies, standards and practices that lead to political stability, high economic growth, sustainable development and accelerated sub-regional and continental economic integration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857766",
"title": "Annual percentage rate",
"section": "Section::::Multiple definitions of effective APR.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "In the U.S., the calculation and disclosure of APR is governed by the Truth in Lending Act (which is implemented by the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) in Regulation Z of the Act). In general, APR in the United States is expressed as the periodic (for instance, monthly) interest rate times the number of compounding periods in a year (also known as the nominal interest rate); since the APR must include certain non-interest charges and fees, it requires more detailed calculation. The APR must be disclosed to the borrower within 3 days of applying for a mortgage. This information is typically mailed to the borrower and the APR is found on the truth in lending disclosure statement, which also includes an amortization schedule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489450",
"title": "Automatic Packet Reporting System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "APRS has been developed since the late 1980s by Bob Bruninga, call sign WB4APR, currently a senior research engineer at the United States Naval Academy. He still maintains the main APRS Web site. The initialism \"APRS\" was derived from his call sign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bfmoiu
|
The validity of Hong Xiuquan's visions?- Taiping Rebellion
|
[
{
"answer": "EDIT: For an answer to the main question, please see [my subsequent Saturday Showcase post.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe answer to your main question is something that will require me to do a little digging into source material that I can't access till I get back from holiday tomorrow, but on the matter of the Triads, what is important to note is that Hong appears to have succeeded in gathering a following *despite* the Triads, rather than including them. Spence's later *God's Chinese Son* brings this up in more detail, but of around 10 known Triad-associated river pirate chiefs who joined the Taiping in their early years, only two – Su Sanniang and Luo Dagang – actually converted to Taiping Christianity and joined long-term, whereas the others either deserted or, most prominently in the case of 'Big-Head' Yang, switched sides entirely and supported Qing forces against the nascent uprising.\n\nIndeed, Hong's early proclamations actively antagonised the Triads to an extent. He publicly proclaimed that he had no time for Triad pretensions of destroying the Qing and restoring the old Ming dynasty, for one becaue by that stage the Ming imperial line had effectively vanished, and for another because Hong believed that the imperial system as it then existed was inherently corrupt and blasphemous, and so a change in ruling dynasty would make no difference. Indeed, he reserved similar vitriol for the Chinese emperor Qin Shi Huang has he did for the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty, due to the Qin emperor having been the first to usurp the apparently divine attribute of *di* 帝 from the Heavenly Father *Shangdi* 上帝 by calling himself emperor – *Huangdi* 皇帝. \n\nFor the most part, Hong presented himself not as a Triad ally, but a Triad alternative, emphasising not the comparatively mundane issue of dynastic renewal, but rather a spiritual revolution and the promise of cleansing China of (Qing Manchu) devils and demonic influences. His spiritual programme explicitly opposed Confucian, Daoist and, crucially, Buddhist 'idolatry', and his organisation was itself committed to fighting bandits, which put it in competition with the Triads, who were similarly operating as a local defence force. What would have further contributed was the Taiping's initial focus on protecting the Hakka-speaking minority population, whereas the Triads were generally more associated with the Cantonese-speaking Punti majority. So the Taiping were hardly successful in winning over Triads. Rather, they won over the Triads' potential support base.\n\nSources and Further Reading:\n\n* Jonathan D. Spence, *God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan* (1996)\n* Jonathan D. Spence, *The Taiping Vision of a Christian China, 1836-1864* (1998)\n* Thomas H. Reilly, *The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Religion and the Blasphemy of Empire* (2004)\n* Jen Yu-Wen, *The Taiping Revolutionary Movement* (1973)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "80895",
"title": "Taiping Rebellion",
"section": "Section::::History.:Concurrent rebellions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Du Wenxiu, who led the Panthay Rebellion, was in contact with the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He was not aiming his rebellion at Han Chinese, but was anti-Qing and wanted to destroy the Qing government. Du's forces led multiple non-Muslim forces, including Han Chinese, Li, Bai, and Hani peoples. They were assisted by non-Muslim Shan and Kakhyen and other hill tribes in the revolt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80895",
"title": "Taiping Rebellion",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Some of the triads collaborated with the Taiping rebels at this stage. One triad leader, Hong Daquan or Tian De, may have exerted a political influence comparable to that of Hong Xiuquan in the early years of the rebellion, but his historicity is a matter of dispute. Rumours at the time suggested that the Taipings had found a descendant of the Ming dynasty and crowned him king. In 1852, the Qing government published a possibly spurious confession by a captured rebel claiming to be Tian De, who said that Hong Xiuquan had made him co-sovereign of the Heavenly Kingdom. Reports of Tian De ceased in 1853, and the fall of Nanjing that year led to a deterioration of relations between the Taiping rebels and the triads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2465001",
"title": "Zhang Yue (Tang dynasty)",
"section": "Section::::During Wu Zetian's reign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1245,
"text": "In 703, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were apprehensive that if Wu Zetian, who was ill at the time, died, they would be killed by the senior chancellor Wei Yuanzhong. They therefore falsely accused Wei and the official Gao Jian (高戩) of having said that Wu Zetian was too old and that it was better to support her son and crown prince, Li Xian. Wu Zetian, in anger, arrested Wei and Gao, who proclaimed their innocence. Zhang Changzong promised Zhang Yue a promotion if he would corroborate the accusations against Wei, who was Zhang Yue's superior. Zhang Yue initially agreed, but as he entered the palace, several fellow junior officials, Song Jing, Zhang Tinggui (張廷珪), and Liu Zhiji, pointed out to him that it was important for him to leave a clean name in history. After he entered Wu Zetian's presence, instead of corroborating Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong's accusations against Wei, he proclaimed Wei's innocence and accused Zhang Changzong of suborning perjury. Wu Zetian, while angry at Zhang Yue, spared Wei and Gao as a result, exiling them and Zhang Yue instead to the Lingnan region—in Zhang Yue's case, to Qin Prefecture (欽州, roughly modern Qinzhou, Guangdong). Zhang Yue would remain there for the rest of Wu Zetian's reign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8739701",
"title": "Zhu Yuyue",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Both regimes claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Ming Dynasty, and war broke out shortly afterwards. Initially, forces of the Shaowu regime enjoyed victory over the Yongli forces. This ultimately led to the overconfidence of the Shaowu Emperor. Corruption and lack of defense doomed the government. Just 40 days after the establishment of the Shaowu regime, Qing forces successfully invaded Guangzhou. The Shaowu Emperor was captured in January 1647 and immediately committed suicide. According to the history book, he has no temple name. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61331578",
"title": "Hong Daquan",
"section": "Section::::Later historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Among later Western historians, William Hail and Têng Ssu-yü argued in favour of Hong Daquan's existence and leading role in the rebellion. Hail accepted the authenticity of the confession. According to his 1927 analysis, Daquan was a more competent leader than Xiuquan, well-connected and perhaps a Ming descendant who could rely on the loyalty of the triads, and characterised by a strategic and political rather than a religious sensibility. With his capture, Hail suggested, the Taiping movement came under the uncontested control of the religious faction led by Xiuquan, who was subsequently deserted by the triads, dealing a critical blow to the rebellion's power. In 1950, Têng stated in his \"New Light on the History of the Taiping Rebellion\" that Daquan was considered emperor by the triads, and was a more popular leader than Xiuquan in the period immediately after 1849.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2041767",
"title": "Bak Mei",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins of Bai Mei.:Bak Mei according to the lineage of Jie Kon Siew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "During the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (1662–1722), the warriors of the Xilufan rebellion were so feared that the two ministers whom Kangxi ordered to quell the revolt fled China rather than face the mercilessness of the Xilu warriors, which often involved beheading. In 1673, over a period of three months, the 128 monks of the southern Shaolin Temple defeated the Xilu army without suffering a single casualty. However, by doing so they had made enemies of some Qing officers who were embarrassed by how easily the Shaolin monks had succeeded where they had failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850701",
"title": "Yuchi Gong",
"section": "Section::::Involvement at the Incident at Xuanwu Gate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "In summer 626, Li Shimin, fearing that Li jiancheng would kill him, was considering acting against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji preemptively but was hesitating. Yuchi, in particular, was a major advocate for preemptive action, and when rumor was reported to Li Shimin that Li Yuanji was planning to first kill Yuchi, Cheng, Duan Zhixuan (段志玄), and Qin, Yuchi stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8eweu2
|
What was the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis ?
|
[
{
"answer": "*\"Post Soviet Russia\"* by Roy Medvedev contains a day-by-day breakdown of the events. The crisis was that the congress ruled to impeach Yeltsin after Yeltsin attempted to introduce rule by decree. Now Yeltsin attempted to dissolve the congress which was something he explicitly wasn't entitled to by the Russian constitution.\n\nAt that point the approval ratings of both Yeltsin and of the Russian parliament were below 25%. Millions of Russians were disappointed by the shock therapy liberalization and wouldn't take sides in the resultant stand-off.\n\nGiven whole army units (along with left and right wing radicals) came to the support of the congress while it was under siege the events can well be said to have been a real civil war.\n\nAs for the long run, it is not something not covered by this subreddit. The supporters of Yeltsin feared his fall would have resulted in a roll back to the soviet times or a in new right wing dictatorship (and these opinions were especially popular abroad.) Today it's his critics who note that his refusal to share or cede power resulted in a centralized and not extremely democratic system. The Russian politician Xenia Sobchak had noted the liberals in Poland had no qualms about ceding power to communists after unpopular reforms and it, if anything, made Poland more democratic.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "192803",
"title": "Constitutional crisis",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1333,
"text": "BULLET::::- The constitutional crisis of 1993: a conflict between Russian President Boris Yeltsin and the Russian parliament led by Ruslan Khasbulatov. It emerged due to disagreements regarding the demarcation of political authority. Russian leaders agreed to hold a referendum in April 1993 that would determine whether the presidency or the parliament would be the dominant institution in the Russian political system. The parliament temporarily reneged on its commitment to a referendum and it prompted Yeltsin to issue a decree giving the president more authority. This was met with resistance even from among figures within the executive department such as Yurii Shokov, chair of the president's Security Council and Aleksandr Rutskoy, Yeltsin's Vice President. Anticipating impeachment, Yeltsin dissolved the parliament in September 21, 1993 and called for fresh elections. The president did not have the constitutional authority to do this and the Constitutional Court promptly ruled that the decree was unconstitutional. This resulted to ten days of street fighting between the police, pro-parliamentary demonstrators, and groups loyal to the president. Aleksandr Rutskoy was sworn as the acting President of Russia for a few days. The crisis ended after a military siege of the parliament building, which claimed 187 lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "737701",
"title": "1993 Russian constitutional crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "The constitutional crisis of 1993 was a political stand-off between the Russian president Boris Yeltsin and the Russian parliament that was resolved by military force. The relations between the president and the parliament had been deteriorating for some time. The power struggle reached its crisis on September 21, 1993, when President Yeltsin aimed to dissolve the country's legislature (the Congress of People's Deputies and its Supreme Soviet), although the constitution did not give the president the power to do so. Yeltsin justified his orders by the results of the referendum of April 1993. In response, the parliament declared the president's decision null and void, impeached Yeltsin and proclaimed vice president Aleksandr Rutskoy to be acting president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39795594",
"title": "April Crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The April Crisis, which occurred in Russia in April 1917, broke out in response to a series of political and public controversies. Conflict over Russia's foreign policy goals tested the Dual Power arrangement between the Petrograd Soviet and the Russian Provisional Government. The Executive Committee and the full Soviet endorsed N.N. Sukhanov's \"An Appeal to All the Peoples of the World,\" which renounced war and \"acquisitionist ambitions.\" This appeal conflicted with the Provisional Government's position on annexations, and Foreign Minister Pavel Milyukov responded with the Milyukov note on 18 April, declaring Russia's right to Constantinople and the Dardanelles. Newspapers printed Milyukov's note on 20 April. Milyukov's note united disparate groups of Russians against the Provisional Government, and against Russian involvement in World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34598",
"title": "1993",
"section": "Section::::Events.:October.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- October 4 – The Russian constitutional crisis culminates with Russian military and security forces clearing the White House of Russia Parliament building by force, quashing a mass uprising against President Boris Yeltsin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19267671",
"title": "2008 Ukrainian political crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Foreign media reported that the political crisis was sparked by the armed conflict between Russia and Georgia that started in early August 2008 and began with a dispute between President Viktor Yushchenko and Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko over Ukraine's reaction to that conflict. The President gave his support for Georgia and strong criticism of Russia whereas other parties professed more balanced positions towards the two parties of that conflict. On 16 September, the collapse of the BYuT/NU-NS coalition was officially announced. Following the failure to re-create the coalition, the Ukrainian parliament was dissolved by president Yushchenko on 8 October 2008, giving way to the third parliamentary election in three years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206530",
"title": "Rule by decree",
"section": "Section::::Decrees in non-dictatorial regimes.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "From 23 September (given actual effect from 4 October after the armed disbanding of the Supreme Soviet) to 12 December 1993, rule by decree (ukase) was imposed in Russia by President Boris Yeltsin, during transition from the Russian Constitution of 1978 (which was modelled after the obsolete Soviet Constitution of 1977) to the current 1993 Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10022693",
"title": "1993 Russian legislative election",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The 1993 general election was taking place in the aftermath of the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, a violent confrontation on the streets of Moscow which resulted in the dissolution of the previous Russian parliament by military force. Yeltsin hoped to resolve the political turmoil by decreeing for the election to the new Russian parliament and the constitutional referendum to take place on 12 December 1993.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9rk686
|
In England 1700s(?) How did the trend of caked face paint, absurdly large dresses and wigs come about?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may be interested in [a recent answer of mine](_URL_1_) that begins to answer a little part of this question. To crib from the end of it,\n\n > One thing is that hooped petticoats have a long history in western fashion, and the more extreme versions developed out of ones that looked roughly like someone wearing many petticoats. I assume the period of interest to you is the 1760s-1770s (which is the segment of this rundown that gets the most attention in film) - by that point, two or three generations of wealthy women had grown up accepting them as a normal part of dress. \n\nFashions do not come out of nowhere, any more than any other aspect of historical life. Full skirts are still understood as attractive today: couturiers like [Oscar de la Renta](_URL_6_) still use them in ball gowns and wedding dresses, and even the more down-market David's Bridal carries them. We achieve these looks now largely on the backs of seamstresses who came before, who made us of new materials and techniques that stiffen or hold out fabric, but for quite some time, the only way to manage this was to wear multiple petticoats. Full-body images from [before the widespread adoption of the farthingale](_URL_2_) don't show an extreme width, but there is enough fullness there that several would have been needed to make the skirt fall this way. We see something similar [in the years before the return of the hoop in the eighteenth century](_URL_3_) (as discussed in the linked answer). So, the fashion for a full skirt happens, and then someone - in this case, it seems to have been an English person - develops a way to create a larger full skirt with an under-structure. To quote myself again,\n\n > Hoops did not come back into fashion until the eighteenth century. Around 1700, some women were wearing heavily starched or glue-stiffened petticoats in order to help hold out their skirts, but by 1710, something rather like the farthingale was back in style. This hooped petticoat was more of a [domed shape](_URL_5_), and provoked tremendous public comment relating to women taking up too much space on the city streets, flaunting their vanity, etc. etc. In the late 1730s it took on a shape that was [flatter in the front and back](_URL_9_), but still fairly rounded, which went on to develop into the stereotypical [flatness and breadth](_URL_4_) people often think of when they think of eighteenth-century hoops by about 1750. From there, they became [more rounded and narrow](_URL_0_) by about 1760, and eventually morphed into [a bustle situation](_URL_8_), with volume at the sides and back, before fading away in the very early nineteenth century.\n\nIt looks like the fashion suddenly appeared because the common pop-cultural perception of the entire eighteenth century is, boom, broad hoops from start to finish - but looking at the full progression shows the way that they started as a \"reasonable\" device and became an aspect of fashion that existed regardless of necessity.\n\nWigs and hair powder are similar. Longer hair was fashionable for men in the early seventeenth century, and by the 1660s it needed to be so thick, long, and curly that it was much easier to make use of a wig instead. Around 1700, a pale-colored wig was worn with high peaks of hair on either side of a center part; the peaks came down in height over the 1710s, and the color became grey over the 1720s. More conservative or professional men often continued to wear a \"bob wig\" through the middle of the century, but most fashionable wig-wearing men began to tie theirs back into a queue in the 1730s, with only minor stylistic changes occurring until the return to natural hair in the 1780s-90s. Women, on the other hand, tended not to wear wigs. On parts of the Continent, fashionable women began using powder in the 1710s, but it did not catch on in Britain until the 1750s. Their hair was actually worn rather close to the head until the late 1750s and 1760s, when a slight rise at the top became fashionable, which morphed into quite a tall hairstyle in the 1770s; by the end of that decade, it widened, and then it lowered in the 1780s while still keeping the width. As with men, a more natural, though sometimes still powdered look became fashionable in the 1790s.\n\nCosmetics I can't discuss in great detail, because I haven't done as thorough a study of it as I have hair and clothing, and to my knowledge nobody else has looked at how these changed over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But it would be a mistake to think of makeup as \"caked on\". As with big wigs and big gowns, the pop-cultural idea reflects our modern feelings that our standards are ideal and old ones are ludicrous, even though the current Instagram look requires an incredible amount of makeup and time to apply it. Eighteenth-century beauty for men and women required pale skin, but a \"naturally\" pale look caused by being indoors and having a clear complexion (still quite important), with pink cheeks and lips. Portraiture does not show thick, dead white makeup covered with red blotches. It's probable that - then as now - some people put it on without skill and looked awkward, but the goal was clearly to look \"born with it\".\n\n > Was there any contemporary decenters? Or was it just a minority of the wealthy wearing that fashion?\n\nFashion could only be fully followed by the wealthy, but there was not a stark line between them and everyone else. Fashion is not just fashion, it is a paradigm for what looks normal to people (particularly before the invention of modern art-couture). In general, people dressed as well as they could afford to. John Collet's *High Life Below Stairs* (which you can see [here](_URL_7_)) shows the difference between the upper servants like the lady's maid, who dresses about as well as her unseen mistress, and the lower servants, who wear no corsetry and have unstyled and unpowdered hair. Dressing above your station could result in gossip, but dressing below it would do the same. For the most part, people tried to conform to standards for their particular spot on the social scale.\n\n > It just all seems so inconvenient, so so so much time and effort.\n\nConvenience above all other considerations is a very modern idea. They simply didn't even think about having a \"wash and wear\" hairstyle and stretchy clothes that didn't require much fitting, any more than they thought about having gas-powered automobiles or telephones; people who couldn't afford to style their hair beyond the very basics or wear anything but loose jackets or bedgowns were pitied.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233763",
"title": "Wig",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Among women in the French court of Versailles in the mid-to-late 18th century, large, elaborate and often themed wigs (such as the stereotypical \"boat poufs\") were in vogue for women. These combed-up hair extensions were often very heavy, weighted down with pomades, powders, and other ornamentation. In the late 18th century these coiffures (along with many other indulgences in court life) became symbolic of the decadence of the French nobility, and for that reason quickly became out of fashion from the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory and history.:Early modern history.:Male styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Late 17th-century wigs were very long and wavy (see George I below), but became shorter in the mid-18th century, by which time they were normally white (George II). A very common style had a single stiff curl running round the head at the end of the hair. By the late 18th century the natural hair was often powdered to achieve the impression of a short wig, tied into a small tail or \"queue\" behind (George III).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "The male wig was pioneered by King Louis XIII of France (1601–1643) in 1624. Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles in 1660. Late 17th-century wigs were very long and wavy, but became shorter in the mid-18th century, by which time they were normally white. Short hair for fashionable men was a product of the Neoclassical movement. In the early 19th century the male beard, and also moustaches and sideburns, made a strong reappearance. From the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller. In the middle of the 18th century the pouf style developed. During the First World War, women around the world started to shift to shorter hairstyles that were easier to manage. In the early 1950s women's hair was generally curled and worn in a variety of styles and lengths. In the 1960s, many women began to wear their hair in short modern cuts such as the pixie cut, while in the 1970s, hair tended to be longer and looser. In both the 1960s and 1970s many men and women wore their hair very long and straight. In the 1980s, women pulled back their hair with scrunchies. During the 1980s, punk hairstyles were adopted by many people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224101",
"title": "Moustache",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence and perceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1453,
"text": "Like many other fashion trends, the moustache is subject to shifting popularity through time. Though modern culture often associates moustaches with men of the Victorian Era, Susan Walton shows that at the start of the Victorian Era facial hair was \"viewed with distaste\" and that the moustache was considered the mark of an artist or revolutionary, both of which remained on the social fringe at the time. This is supported by the fact that only one Member of Parliament sported facial hair from the years 1841-47. However, by the 1860s, this had changed and moustaches become wildly popular, even among distinguished men, but by the end of the century, facial hair became passé once more. Though one cannot be entirely sure as to the cause of such changes, Walton speculates that the rise of the facial hair trend was due largely in part because the impending war against Russia, and the belief that moustaches and beards projected a more 'manly' image, which was brought about by the so-called 'rebranding' of the British military and the rehabilitation of military virtues. Moustaches became a defining trait of the British soldier, and until 1916, no enlisted soldier was permitted to shave his upper lip. However, the next generation of men perceived facial hair, such as moustaches, to be an outdated emblem of masculinity and therefore there was a dramatic decline in the moustache trend and a clean-shaven face became the mark of a modern man.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233763",
"title": "Wig",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "Powdered wigs (men) and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces (women) became essential for full dress occasions and continued in use until almost the end of the 18th century. The elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of George III in 1761 was lampooned by William Hogarth in his engraving \"Five Orders of Periwigs\". Powdering wigs and extensions was messy and inconvenient, and the development of the naturally white or off-white powderless wig (made of horsehair) for men made the retention of wigs in everyday court dress a practical possibility. By the 1780s, young men were setting a fashion trend by lightly powdering their natural hair, as women had already done from the 1770s onwards. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more conservative men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court. After 1790, English women seldom powdered their hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233763",
"title": "Wig",
"section": "Section::::History.:16th and 17th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig. Queen Elizabeth I of England famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a \"Roman\" style, while among men King Louis XIII of France (1601–1643) started to pioneer wig-wearing in 1624 when he had prematurely begun to bald. This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France (1638–1715), which contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233763",
"title": "Wig",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th and 20th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century hairdressers in England and France did a brisk business supplying \"postiches\", or pre-made small wiglets, curls, and false buns to be incorporated into the hairstyle. The use of postiches did not diminish even as women's hair grew shorter in the decade between 1910 and 1920, but they seem to have gone out of fashion during the 1920s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1127su
|
Trig Expression Confusion
|
[
{
"answer": "You have a right triangle. You know the hypotenuse and one angle. How do you find the lengths of the two legs? Using the rules for cosine and sine:\n\ncos(θ) = (adjacent length) / (hypotenuse length)\n\nsin(θ) = (opposite length) / (hypotenuse length)\n\nSo if you want to find the length of the side adjacent to your angle, you use\n\n(adjacent length) = (hypotenuse length) \\* cos(θ)\n\nwhile for the side opposite your angle you use\n\n(opposite length) = (hypotenuse length) \\* sin(θ)\n\n[Here's a picture](_URL_0_).\n\nSo now, you have this force pointing in some direction, and you want to decompose it into a horizontal and vertical components. If you know the magnitude of the force and the angle it makes with the horizontal (or vertical) axis, you can use those rules to find the horizontal and vertical bits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2210835",
"title": "Attentional blink",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1262,
"text": "A possible explanation for lag-1 sparing is that this phenomenon is heavily interconnected with attentional blink, but does not operate on the same cognitive mechanisms and requires different stimuli to occur. Specifically, for lag-1 sparing to occur, it needs visual input as practice targets. These targets can be numbers or letters presented in rapid succession. When the first target, T1, is presented, it creates an attentional window because of its novelty, meaning that it attracts and holds more attention by the participant. The novelty that wears off between T1 and T2 creates a “boost” in attention and opens a metaphorical window for faster cognition. Participants now know what and how to look for targets, so they find targets more quickly. This attentional widow remains open long enough for T2 to be presented and processed at a much higher rate because of shared characteristics to T1. Targets are normally presented in less than .5 of a second from each other. Lag-1 sparing also occurred regardless of how information was visually presented. Of two RSVP streams— where T1 location was known in the first stream and unknown in the second stream, lag-1 sparing occurred whether T2 was in the same stream as T1, or in a different stream than T1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26247",
"title": "Received Pronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Vowels.:Diphthongs and triphthongs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "The diphthong /əʊ/ is pronounced by some RP speakers in a noticeably different way when it occurs before /l/, if that consonant is syllable-final and not followed by a vowel (the context in which /l/ is pronounced as a \"dark l\"). The realization of /əʊ/ in this case begins with a more back, rounded and sometimes more open vowel quality; it may be transcribed as [ɔʊ] or [ɒʊ]. It is likely that the backness of the diphthong onset is the result of allophonic variation caused by the raising of the back of the tongue for the /l/. If the speaker has \"l-vocalization\" the /l/ is realized as a back rounded vowel, which again is likely to cause backing and rounding in a preceding vowel as coarticulation effects. This phenomenon has been discussed in several blogs by John C. Wells. In the recording included in this article the phrase 'fold his cloak' contains examples of the /əʊ/ diphthong in the two different contexts. The onset of the pre-/l/ diphthong in 'fold' is slightly more back and rounded than that in 'cloak', though the allophonic transcription does not at present indicate this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "716756",
"title": "Atong language (Sino-Tibetan)",
"section": "Section::::Glottalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Glottalization, or glottal prosody (linguistics), in Atong is a feature that operates on the level of the syllable, and that manifests itself as a glottal stop at the end of the syllable. Glottalization only affects open syllables and syllables ending in a continuant or a vowel. In the following examples, glottalized syllables are indicated by a following bullet. The pronunciation is given between square brackets where the symbol represents the glottal stop and the full stop represents the syllable boundary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5583235",
"title": "Sonnet 11",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The tenth-line irregularity alluded to by Atkins consists of two quite ordinary pentameter variations: a midline reversal, and a final extrametrical syllable (or \"feminine ending\"). However, their coincidence, together with their context, makes them stand out:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59348",
"title": "Question mark",
"section": "Section::::Rhetorical question mark.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The rhetorical question mark or percontation point was invented by Henry Dunham in the 1580s and was used at the end of a rhetorical question; however, its use died out in the 17th century. It was the reverse of an ordinary question mark, so that instead of the main opening pointing back into the sentence, it opened away from it. This character can be represented using the reversed question mark (⸮) found in Unicode as U+2E2E. The percontation point is analogous to the irony mark, but those are even more rarely seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14761",
"title": "International Phonetic Alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Letters.:Vowels.:Diphthongs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Diphthongs are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in or , or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in or . Sometimes a tie bar is used, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable: .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3167944",
"title": "Crasis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Crasis (; from the Greek , \"mixing\", \"blending\") is a type of contraction in which two vowels or diphthongs merge into one new vowel or diphthong, making one word out of two. Crasis occurs in Portuguese, French and Arabic as well as in Ancient Greek, for which it was first described.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4jr6ty
|
why was nafta so supported in the beginning but ended up failing as a policy
|
[
{
"answer": "What do you mean by \"failed\"? The goal was to increase trade among Mexico, the US and Canada and it has succeeded in those goals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, let's start out by explaining what NAFTA is. This is the so-called 'North American Free Trade Agreement', and was designed as a management of liberalizing trade relations between Canada, the US, and Mexico. Said agreement was designed to lower tariffs (import and export taxes) and work to eliminate or liberalize quotas regarding how much of various products can be traded between different countries.\n\nThis is generally regarded as a net positive, at least at the aggregate level. Trade works based on the Ricardian idea of comparative advantage - the global economy can maximize its production by having countries specialize in the products and services it is best at producing, and importing goods that it can't produce, or can only do so inefficiently. The idea is that if the world as a whole can produce more stuff, then people will be better off.\n\nThe problem, is that 'free' trade has winners and losers, and American manufacturing workers were big losers from a distributional perspective. When capital and goods are allowed to freely move between nations, labor prices (wages) tend to rise in areas that previously had a lot of labor relative to physical capital - machines, factories, equipment, etc., and fall in places where labor was relatively scarce compared with capital. The US is a prime example of the latter, and so manufacturing jobs were largely outsourced overseas. The global economy as a whole might be better off, but there were a lot of displaced workers left behind as a result, and these workers weren't given the resources and training to readjust to a changing economy. This in turn tends, at least within the US, to enrich capital at the expense of labor, and to exacerbate the widening income and wealth inequality gap.\n\nIn addition, these 'free' trade deals often aren't just about trade. A lot of these deals include provisions to coerce foreign nations to adopt strict copyright and patent provisions at the behest of American multinationals, which has its own share of potential issues. There are also issues about Investor-State Dispute Settlement provisions, that empower international tribunals to allow investors to sue governments for alleged trade violations, which are then used by Phillip Morris to sue nations that implement plain-packaging laws on cigarettes, claiming lost profits due to damage to their brand.\n\nSo, to call NAFTA a 'failed policy' is a bit of a stretch. It did do a lot of what it set out to do, but there were flaws in the way the treaty and other trade treaties in this country have been implemented, and these deals don't lead to a universally-better outcome for everyone involved.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53255183",
"title": "Effects of NAFTA on Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "When NAFTA was being developed to include Mexico, the developers of the deal presented it as way to create more middle class jobs in Mexico by increasing development and investment in Mexico. This deal followed a trend of increased neo-liberal policies in Mexico that ultimately made the implementation of NAFTA possible. Placed in the larger context of Mexican economic liberalization, NAFTA represents another step in the historic transformation of the Mexican economy from protectionist to open to trade. The passage of NAFTA represented an important moment for Mexico and the United States, as it represented a tying together of the two economies in a way that had never been done before between two relatively economically unequal countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22050",
"title": "North American Free Trade Agreement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Passage of NAFTA resulted in the elimination or reduction of barriers to trade and investment between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. The effects of the agreement regarding issues such as employment, the environment, and economic growth have been the subject of political disputes. Most economic analyses indicate that NAFTA has been beneficial to the North American economies and the average citizen, but has harmed a small minority of workers in industries exposed to trade competition. Economists hold that withdrawing from NAFTA or renegotiating NAFTA in a way that reestablishes trade barriers would adversely affect the U.S. economy and cost jobs. However, Mexico would be much more severely affected by job loss and reduction of economic growth in both the short term and long term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23074252",
"title": "NAFTA's effect on United States employment",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The economic impacts of NAFTA have been modest. In a 2015 report, the Congressional Research Service summarized multiple studies as follows: \"In reality, NAFTA did not cause the huge job losses feared by the critics or the large economic gains predicted by supporters. The net overall effect of NAFTA on the U.S. economy appears to have been relatively modest, primarily because trade with Canada and Mexico accounts for a small percentage of U.S. GDP. However, there were worker and firm adjustment costs as the three countries adjusted to more open trade and investment among their economies.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22050",
"title": "North American Free Trade Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Economists generally agree that the United States economy benefited overall from NAFTA as it increased trade. In a 2012 survey of top economists, 95% said that, on average, U.S. citizens benefited from NAFTA while no economist surveyed said that NAFTA hurt US citizens, on average. A 2001 \"Journal of Economic Perspectives\" review found that NAFTA was a net benefit to the United States. A 2015 study found that US welfare increased by 0.08% as a result of NAFTA tariff reductions, and that US intra-bloc trade increased by 41%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22050",
"title": "North American Free Trade Agreement",
"section": "Section::::American public opinion on NAFTA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "After President Trump's election in 2016, support for NAFTA has become very polarized between Republicans and Democrats. Donald Trump expressed negative views of NAFTA, calling it \"the single worst trade deal ever approved in this country\". Republican support for NAFTA has decreased from 43% support in 2008 to 34% in 2017. Meanwhile, Democrat support for NAFTA has increased from 41% support in 2008 to 71% in 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57213603",
"title": "US public opinion on the North American Free Trade Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of Public Opinion on NAFTA (1999-2015).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In scope, the evolution of public opinion on NAFTA from 1999 to 2015 frequently switched between support and opposition to the policy. Results from a study done by the Program on International Policy Attitudes in the fall of 1999 illustrated that a plurality of Americans (44%) thought that NAFTA was good for the U.S. In contrast, by 2004, a Newsweek Poll indicated that a plurality of Americans (35%) thought that NAFTA was bad for the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37032556",
"title": "Protectionism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public Opinion on Protectionism and Free Trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "From 2005 to 2018, American favorability towards NAFTA increased at a relatively stable rate, with 48% of people believing the deal has been good for the United States in 2018 compared to only 38% in 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
54oui7
|
if the goal of an experiment is to be unbiased, why even form a hypothesis in certain studies?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the points of good experimental design (not to mention good statistical methods) is to filter out those effects. It's one of the reasons why \"Double-blind\" studies are the gold standard as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To construct an experiment, you have to ask a question that needs to be answered.\n\nAnd often that question takes the form of a hypothesis that needs to be either confirmed or refuted.\n\nThe hypothesis is the question you want to ask the universe. But the universe has a habit of being kind of secretive and not very obvious a lot of the time. Since you can't ask directly, you design an experiment to interrogate the universe and if you are clever, you can find gaps and clues from how the universe reacts.\n\nOf course it is also possible to ask questions without having a hypothesis, but those questions often tend to not have much predictive and explanatory power. That's questions like \"How far is the distance between A and B?\" But sometimes such question also yield highly unexpected results that then need to be explained. With a hypothesis. And then that hypothesis needs to be checked by asking the universe again in another experiment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the main ideas behind Science is to be predictive, not investigative. By forming a hypothesis you formed a theory about how something might work, experiments will then tell you when your theory is wrong. Simply testing at random only generates data, which may be useful, but also you can draw incorrect conclusions finding patterns in the data that was only random in reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Forming a thesis helps you determine what to research and what factors to take into account.\n\nAdditional a thesis is required to get any kind of funding, especially for a big complicated trial. Few organizations are going to throw money at \"I just want to see what happens.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Process.:Testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1874,
"text": "This is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the hypothesis. Scientists (and other people) test hypotheses by conducting experiments. The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations of the real world agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. If they agree, confidence in the hypothesis increases; otherwise, it decreases. Agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true; future experiments may reveal problems. Karl Popper advised scientists to try to falsify hypotheses, i.e., to search for and test those experiments that seem most doubtful. Large numbers of successful confirmations are not convincing if they arise from experiments that avoid risk. Experiments should be designed to minimize possible errors, especially through the use of appropriate scientific controls. For example, tests of medical treatments are commonly run as double-blind tests. Test personnel, who might unwittingly reveal to test subjects which samples are the desired test drugs and which are placebos, are kept ignorant of which are which. Such hints can bias the responses of the test subjects. Furthermore, failure of an experiment does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is false. Experiments always depend on several hypotheses, e.g., that the test equipment is working properly, and a failure may be a failure of one of the auxiliary hypotheses. (See the Duhem–Quine thesis.) Experiments can be conducted in a college lab, on a kitchen table, at CERN's Large Hadron Collider, at the bottom of an ocean, on Mars (using one of the working rovers), and so on. Astronomers do experiments, searching for planets around distant stars. Finally, most individual experiments address highly specific topics for reasons of practicality. As a result, evidence about broader topics is usually accumulated gradually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Process.:Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "This involves determining what the results of the experiment show and deciding on the next actions to take. The predictions of the hypothesis are compared to those of the null hypothesis, to determine which is better able to explain the data. In cases where an experiment is repeated many times, a statistical analysis such as a chi-squared test may be required. If the evidence has falsified the hypothesis, a new hypothesis is required; if the experiment supports the hypothesis but the evidence is not strong enough for high confidence, other predictions from the hypothesis must be tested. Once a hypothesis is strongly supported by evidence, a new question can be asked to provide further insight on the same topic. Evidence from other scientists and experience are frequently incorporated at any stage in the process. Depending on the complexity of the experiment, many iterations may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer a question with confidence, or to build up many answers to highly specific questions in order to answer a single broader question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21073209",
"title": "Hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a \"consequence\" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21073209",
"title": "Hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1092,
"text": "Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypothesis. A thought experiment might also be used to test the hypothesis as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Elements of the scientific method.:Predictions from the hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. For example, while a hypothesis on the existence of other intelligent species may be convincing with scientifically based speculation, there is no known experiment that can test this hypothesis. Therefore, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In the future, a new technique may allow for an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Elements of the scientific method.:Predictions from the hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by reasoning including deductive reasoning. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25524",
"title": "Research",
"section": "Section::::Forms of research.:Scientific research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, null hypothesis). Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cwtc6v
|
why can't we generate electricity by positioning magnets around turbines?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is how we generate electricity.\n\nUse something to spin a turbine, use the turbine output to spin some magnets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something has to drive the turbines though.\nWhat kind of turbine are you thinking about?\nYou don't get something for nothing.\nHydro dams will make energy from the potential weight of the water spinning turbines in huge spinners driven by the water.\nWhere do you get free spinning turbines that are not being driven by some force?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8309537",
"title": "Wind turbine design",
"section": "Section::::Connection to the electric grid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "A useful technique to connect a permanent magnet synchronous generator to the grid is by using a back-to-back converter. Also, we can have control schemes so as to achieve unity power factor in the connection to the grid. In that way the wind turbine will not consume reactive power, which is the most common problem with wind turbines that use induction machines. This leads to a more stable power system. Moreover, with different control schemes a wind turbine with a permanent magnet synchronous generator can provide or consume reactive power. So, it can work as a dynamic capacitor/inductor bank so as to help with the power systems' stability. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32266248",
"title": "Magneto",
"section": "Section::::Future possibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The development of modern rare earth magnets makes the simple magneto alternator a more practical proposition as a power generator, as these permit a greatly increased field strength. As the magnets are compact and of light weight, they generally form the rotor, so the output windings can be placed on the stator, avoiding the need for brushgear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1175180",
"title": "Three-phase",
"section": "Section::::Revolving magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Any polyphase system, by virtue of the time displacement of the currents in the phases, makes it possible to easily generate a magnetic field that revolves at the line frequency. Such a revolving magnetic field makes polyphase induction motors possible. Indeed, where induction motors must run on single-phase power (such as is usually distributed in homes), the motor must contain some mechanism to produce a revolving field, otherwise the motor cannot generate any stand-still torque and will not start. The field produced by a single-phase winding can provide energy to a motor already rotating, but without auxiliary mechanisms the motor will not accelerate from a stop when energized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9331066",
"title": "Induction generator",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.:Excitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "A source of excitation current for magnetizing flux (reactive power) for the stator is still required, to induce rotor current. This can be supplied from the electrical grid or, once it starts producing power, from the generator itself. The generating mode for induction motors is complicated by the need to excite the rotor, which begins with only residual magnetization. In some cases, that residual magnetization is enough to self-excite the motor under load. Therefore, it is necessary to either snap the motor and connect it momentarily to a live grid or to add capacitors charged initially by residual magnetism and providing the required reactive power during operation. Similar is the operation of the induction motor in parallel with a synchronous motor serving as a power factor compensator. A feature in the generator mode in parallel to the grid is that the rotor speed is higher than in the driving mode. Then active energy is being given to the grid.Another disadvantage of induction motor generator is that it consumes a significant magnetizing current I0 = (20-35)%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18713565",
"title": "Low voltage ride through",
"section": "Section::::General concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Many generator designs use electric current flowing through windings to produce the magnetic field on which the motor or generator operates. This is in contrast to designs that use permanent magnets to generate this field instead. Such devices may have a minimum working voltage, below which the device does not work correctly, or does so at greatly reduced efficiency. Some will disconnect themselves from the circuit when these conditions apply. The effect is more pronounced in doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG), which have two sets of powered magnetic windings, than in squirrel-cage induction generators which have only one. Synchronous generators may slip and become unstable, if the voltage of the stator winding goes below a certain threshold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9540",
"title": "Electricity generation",
"section": "Section::::Methods of generating electricity.:Generators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be seen experimentally by rotating a magnet within closed loops of conducting material (e.g. copper wire). Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251075",
"title": "Induction motor",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. The generating mode for induction motors is complicated by the need to excite the rotor, which begins with only residual magnetization. In some cases, that residual magnetization is enough to self-excite the motor under load. Therefore, it is necessary to either snap the motor and connect it momentarily to a live grid or to add capacitors charged initially by residual magnetism and providing the required reactive power during operation. Similar is the operation of the induction motor in parallel with a synchronous motor serving as a power factor compensator. A feature in the generator mode in parallel to the grid is that the rotor speed is higher than in the driving mode. Then active energy is being given to the grid. Another disadvantage of induction motor generator is that it consumes a significant magnetizing current I0 = (20-35)%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61yqd6
|
how do zipline and cablecar wires get laid out long distances?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you can get one line across the gap, you can use that to pull across larger and larger lines until you have the final cable in place. \n\nIn the case of cable cars, it's simpler because it has pylons with known distances between them, and there are different ways to do it e.g. use a crane or a helicopter to lift the end of the cable over each pylon bearing wheel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "665543",
"title": "Zip line",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Professional versions of zip-lines used as an outdoor adventure activity are usually operated at high speeds, covering long distances and sometimes at considerable heights. Cables can be very high, starting at a height of over , and traveling well over . Riders are physically attached to the cable by a harness that attaches to a removable trolley. A helmet is required on almost all courses of any size. All zip-line cables have some degree of sag, so the proper tensioning of a cable is important and allows the ability to tune the ride of a zip-line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1848431",
"title": "Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Design and construction.:SAS main suspension cable.:Cable placement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "The cable construction technique differed significantly from that used for the earlier western spans and similar conventional suspension bridges. In that method, the cables were spun only a few wires at a time, with bundles made up as the wires were spun by pulling a loop along the cable's route. The SAS used a different technique, with the wire strands pre-fabricated into mile-long cable bundles with bundle terminations already in place, pulled by dragging one end through the route. After attachment to the termination, a tensioning operation was performed on each bundle at the eastern anchor point, and the bundles were suspended a few feet above the catwalk. A total of 137 such bundles were installed. As bundles were positioned, they were temporarily tied together to form the cable. The cable was completely in place in late May 2012. It was later compacted into a circular shape, and then wrapped with a protective wire jacket. In mid-March 2013, the western portion was completed and the catwalks were removed. Wire wrapping was still in progress on the eastern portion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91180",
"title": "Tsing Ma Bridge",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Major components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The cables were constructed by an aerial spinning process. The process involved drawing wires from a constant-tension supply, and pulling loops of these wires from one anchorage to the other, passing through a 500-tonne cast-iron saddle on top of each bridge tower seating the cable. A total of 70,000 galvanised wires of diameter were placed and adjusted to form the two diameter main cables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216282",
"title": "Ribbon cable",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "A ribbon cable (also known as multi-wire planar cable) is a cable with many conducting wires running parallel to each other on the same flat plane. As a result the cable is wide and flat. Its name comes from its resemblance to a piece of ribbon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665543",
"title": "Zip line",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "A zip line (or zip-line, zipline, zip wire, aerial runway (UK), flying fox (Australia and New Zealand), or foefie slide (South Africa)) consists of a pulley suspended on a cable, usually made of stainless steel, mounted on a slope. It is designed to enable cargo or a person propelled by gravity to travel from the top to the bottom of the inclined cable by holding on to or being attached to the freely moving pulley. It has been described as essentially a Tyrolean traverse that engages gravity to assist its speed of movement. Its use is not confined to adventure sport, recreation, or tourism, but current usage tends to favour these meanings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1807656",
"title": "Cable tie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A cable tie (also known as a hose tie, or zip tie, and by the brand names Ty-Rap) is a type of fastener, for holding items together, primarily electrical cables or wires. Because of their low cost and ease of use, cable ties are ubiquitous, finding use in a wide range of other applications. Stainless steel versions, either naked or coated with a rugged plastic, cater for exterior applications and hazardous environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3372377",
"title": "Optical fiber",
"section": "Section::::Practical issues.:Cable construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, high voltage isolation, dual use as power lines, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine installation, and insertion in paved streets. Multi-fiber cable usually uses colored coatings and/or buffers to identify each strand. The cost of small fiber-count pole-mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high demand for fiber to the home (FTTH) installations in Japan and South Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68v8y4
|
why can a company ship me a package from sweden to us for free, but if i try to ship it back to their address it costs me $100?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing is \"free\". The cost is covered by you. You've paid shipping, it's simply buried in the cost of the goods you purchased.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So two things. The company pays for the shipping, they're just including it as part of the price of the item you're paying for. Large companies can get really good deal on shipping because they buy it in bulk. Individuals can't get those deals. \n\nLikewise, large companies often are able to save money on international shipping by loading up shipping containers with their products, which then get shipped locally. You can't get that sort of deal as an individual. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46510938",
"title": "Twice (online retailer)",
"section": "Section::::Buying & Selling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Users can sell clothing, shoes and handbags in two ways: request a prepaid selling kit or print out a shipping label. Twice processes the items and sends an all-or-nothing offer to the user within days, which users accept or reject. If accepted, Twice offers multiple options for immediate payout including PayPal and Venmo. If rejected, Twice charges $4.95 for return shipping. Items that are not returned are donated or recycled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18356725",
"title": "Not sold in stores",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "BULLET::::- The purchaser is generally required to pay at least a portion of the cost of shipping, partially negating the cost advantages. Furthermore, a product purchased remotely will spend a number of days in the shipping system, as opposed to retail purchases in stores which can be claimed at the point of purchase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43355689",
"title": "Package forwarding",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "There are several obstacles towards a successful cross-border online shopping, and these include shipping and paying for orders. For instance, US online stores are popular worldwide, but some of them only ship to US addresses or they ask for high shipping international rate. So the package forwarding service helps international shoppers in shipping their purchases from the US to their home addressed or helps them place a direct order with the US retailers if they do not have a US billing address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118379",
"title": "Online shopping",
"section": "Section::::Payment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Some online shops will not accept international credit cards. Some require both the purchaser's billing and shipping address to be in the same country as the online shop's base of operation. Other online shops allow customers from any country to send gifts anywhere. The financial part of a transaction may be processed in real time (e.g. letting the consumer know their credit card was declined before they log off), or may be done later as part of the fulfillment process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8965447",
"title": "Deal of the day",
"section": "Section::::Business model overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Once the minimum number of deals have been sold, customers' credit cards are charged, and the deal is delivered as an electronic voucher redeemable at the retailer or service provider's location. The promotional value of the vouchers purchased from deal-of-the-day websites typically expire after a certain period but maintain the original value paid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30461034",
"title": "Free Shipping Day",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Free Shipping Day is a one-day event held annually in mid-December. On the promotional holiday, consumers can shop from both large and small online merchants that offer free shipping with guaranteed delivery by Christmas Eve. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18265957",
"title": "Documentary collection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The buyer may obtain possession of goods and clear them through customs, if the buyer has the shipping documents (original bill of lading, certificate of origin, etc.). The documents, however, are only released to the buyer after payment has been made (\"Documents against Payment\") or payment undertaking has been given - the buyer has accepted a bill of exchange issued by the seller and payable at a certain date in the future (maturity date) (\"Documents against Acceptance\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3snwge
|
why can't task manager instantly stop a process?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's always best if you can give tasks a chance to quit nicely. A task might be in the middle of writing data to disk, for example. If you can give a task a bit of warning that it's being killed, the task might have the chance to finish what it's doing and exit gracefully without losing data.\n\nSometimes that doesn't work, and tasks have to be forced to stop regardless of the consequences.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This gets asked often enough ...\n\nBasically you have two levels programs run at. Kernel level [ring 0 on x86] where device drivers/filesystems/etc are running and user level where applications like Firefox and what not run.\n\nWhen a user task needs to perform a function on data outside of their process (e.g. reading a file) they perform a \"system call\" (syscall) that is a means of calling into the kernel to do operations like open files, read/write, close, map memory, listen for events, etc...\n\nWhen a syscall occurs the user process halts [blocks] and waits for the syscall to return.\n\nSome syscalls are interruptible and others are non-interruptible. If a syscall is interruptible sending an interrupt (SIGINT like hitting CTRL+C) then the kernel will abort the syscall and return control to the user process. If it isn't then the syscall will run for as long as the routine in the kernel is waiting. This can happen if you're say reading from a networked filesystem that is disconnected and the timeout is long.\n\nWhen you try to kill a process the task manager is sending a SIGKILL (or equiv for windows) to the process but the process is blocked in a syscall and isn't interruptible. The result is you can't kill the process.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "966244",
"title": "Burroughs MCP",
"section": "Section::::Process management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Tasks waiting on user input or file reads would not normally be listed as waiting entries for operator attention. Another reason for a task to be waiting is waiting on a file. When a process opens a file, and the file is not present, the task is placed in the waiting entries, noting that it is waiting on a certain file. An operator (or the user that owns the process) has the opportunity either to copy the file to the expected place, or to redirect the task to read the file from another place, or the file might even be created by an independent process that hasn't yet completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6988540",
"title": "Task Management Function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "In computer storage software, a task management function is an error recovery mechanism implemented by the software to influence and alter processing of certain commands, their sequence and so on. Typically if a command is timed out this functionality is invoked to initiate a recovery for the affected command by means of Retry, abort or reset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2311336",
"title": "Mode (user interface)",
"section": "Section::::Design recommendations.:Quasimodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The application enters into that mode as long as the user is performing a conscious action, like pressing a key and keeping it pressed while invoking a command. If the sustaining action is stopped without executing a command, the application returns to a neutral status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21391870",
"title": "Halting problem",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Common pitfalls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The difficulty in the halting problem lies in the requirement that the decision procedure must work for all programs and inputs. A particular program either halts on a given input or does not halt. Consider one algorithm that always answers \"halts\" and another that always answers \"doesn't halt\". For any specific program and input, one of these two algorithms answers correctly, even though nobody may know which one. Yet neither algorithm solves the halting problem generally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16161443",
"title": "IOS",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Multitasking.:Task completion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Task completion allows apps to continue a certain task after the app has been suspended. As of iOS 4.0, apps can request up to ten minutes to complete a task in the background. This doesn't extend to background up- and downloads though (e.g. if you start a download in one application, it won't finish if you switch away from the application).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144625",
"title": "Graphics Device Interface",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "For example, forcing a frozen process to end using the Task Manager normally makes an \"Are you sure\" alert window appear. With no free GDI, Windows beeps an error and the alert choice does not appear, so the GDI-overflowing processes cannot be terminated (unless the user uses taskkill command).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1350138",
"title": "Micro-Controller Operating Systems",
"section": "Section::::µC/OS-III.:Managing tasks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "A task can be implemented via run to completion scheduling, in which the task deletes itself when it is finished, or more typically as an infinite loop, waiting for events to occur and processing those events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4oonx7
|
how bedsores develop
|
[
{
"answer": "They typically occur on areas where soft tissue lie over bones. When the person is immobile, the prolonged pressure between the chair and the bone causes the blood flow in the soft tissue to be decreased which leads to tissue death (necrosis). Also if there is a pull/shearing force on the soft tissue, that can break the blood vessels in the tissue leading to further damage to blood flow and oxygenation. \n\nRisk factors for pressure ulcers are immobility but also diseases that already affect good blood flow like diabetes, hypotension, and other vascular diseases. Also malnutrition will make it generally harder for the body to repair itself from that damage. \n\nThe lack of blood flow and tissue death will ultimately be affected by infection as the white blood cells will not be able to access the site to fight infection. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12020581",
"title": "Rhizophydiales",
"section": "Section::::Life history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Sexual reproduction is more rarely reported and occurs when two adjacent sporangia function as gametangia with one transferring all of its cytoplasmic contents into the other, resulting in the development of a thick-walled, lipid-laden resting spore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21869935",
"title": "Ancylistaceae",
"section": "Section::::Sexual Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Sexual reproduction results in the formation of a zygospore that functions as a resting spore. The zygospore is formed by the fusion of gametangial cells or the scalariform fusion of hyphae. Little is known about the zygospores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2394288",
"title": "Gynoecium",
"section": "Section::::The ovule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "In flowering plants, the \"ovule\" (from Latin \"ovulum\" meaning small egg) is a complex structure born inside ovaries. The ovule initially consists of a stalked, integumented \"megasporangium\" (also called the \"nucellus\"). Typically, one cell in the megasporangium undergoes meiosis resulting in one to four megaspores. These develop into a megagametophyte (often called the embryo sac) within the ovule. The megagametophyte typically develops a small number of cells, including two special cells, an egg cell and a binucleate central cell, which are the gametes involved in double fertilization. The central cell, once fertilized by a sperm cell from the pollen becomes the first cell of the endosperm, and the egg cell once fertilized become the zygote that develops into the embryo. The gap in the integuments through which the pollen tube enters to deliver sperm to the egg is called the micropyle. The stalk attaching the ovule to the placenta is called the funiculus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51470",
"title": "Mycelium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a homokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible homokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extensive, as in Armillaria ostoyae:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41642217",
"title": "Zoobotryon verticillatum",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Expansion of the colony is by budding and new colonies can also be formed by fragmentation. It has been shown that one end of a cut piece of stolon will develop attachment structures to anchor it to the substrate within about twenty-four hours. This bryozoan is a hermaphrodite and reproduction also takes place sexually. The larva is planktonic, settles on a hard surface and develops into a heterozooid which attaches itself to the substrate with an adhesive disc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32476",
"title": "Vagina",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Microanatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "The epithelium of the ectocervix (the portion the uterine cervix extending into the vagina) is an extension of, and shares a border with, the vaginal epithelium. The vaginal epithelium is made up of layers of cells, including the basal cells, the parabasal cells, the superficial squamous flat cells, and the intermediate cells. The basal layer of the epithelium is the most mitotically active and reproduces new cells. The superficial cells shed continuously and basal cells replace them. Estrogen induces the intermediate and superficial cells to fill with glycogen. Cells from the lower basal layer transition from active metabolic activity to death (apoptosis). In these mid-layers of the epithelia, the cells begin to lose their mitochondria and other organelles. The cells retain a usually high level of glycogen compared to other epithelial tissue in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5279059",
"title": "Dothideomycetes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1116,
"text": "The designation loculoascomycetes was first proposed for all fungi which have ascolocular development. This type of development refers to the way in which the sexual structure, bearing the sexual spores (ascospores) forms. Dothideomycetes mostly produce flask-like structures referred to as pseudothecia, although other shape variations do exist (e.g. see structures found in Hysteriales). During ascolocular development pockets (locules) form first within the vegetative cells of the fungus and then all the subsequent structures form. These include the asci which, superficially, have a thicker outer layer through which a thinner inner layer ‘bursts’, like a jack-in-a-box to release the spores. These asci are therefore referred to as bitunicate (superficially, two layers) or fissitunicate (referring to spore release). After several DNA sequence comparisons it is now clear that another group of fungi which share these characteristics are distantly related. These are the \"black yeasts\" in subclass Chaetothyriomycetidae (Eurotiomycetes). This means that loculoascomycetes did not constitute a natural group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
spzv9
|
Is it possible to run out of tunes in music at some point?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are really only a limited number of progressions that make any \"sense\" to us musically, like a V-I cadence [you'd know it when you hear it...] or open ones like I-V or I-IV ...\n\nThings like [say] V-ii-I might sound nice [depending on the key and melody] but wouldn't function as say the end of a piece. In this way we have only so many ways to really begin/end things in a logically consistent way. Keep in mind the # of ways [specially to begin] are huge. \n\nThe middle of pieces is a lot more flexible you can throw in a I-ii-IV-V-I sequence and not assume that's the end of the piece. Inside that sequence the melody can very quite a bit, so can the rhythm inside the meter, etc...\n\nThink of musical chords as words and their progressions as sentences. The vocabulary of music [how many different chords/presentations] is huge but it is finite. I doubt we've seen everything yet.\n\nA lot of \"pop\" tunes are actually very trivial musically speaking. They often only have a few progressions and just vary the words over top. Think of it like a play with only a few unique sentences in the entire piece but each time you say the same sentence you dance around on stage differently.\n\nIf you want to experience a variety of music sadly you have to go to the past. Classical, Romantic, and early 20th century music often had complicated progressions/structure/theory and in many cases they invented forms we take for granted today. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15177106",
"title": "Irish traditional music",
"section": "Section::::Musical characteristics.:Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Tunes are typically binary in form, divided into two (or sometimes more) parts, each with four to eight bars. The parts are referred to as the A-part, B-part, and so on. Each part is played twice, and the entire tune is played three times; AABB, AABB, AABB. Many tunes have similar ending phrases for both A and B parts; it is common for hornpipes to have the second half of each part be identical. Additionally, hornpipes often have three quavers or quarternotes at the end of each part, followed by pickup notes to lead back to the beginning of the A part of onto the B part. Many airs have an AABA form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14943",
"title": "Irish traditional music session",
"section": "Section::::Musical aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Typically, the first tune is followed by another two or three tunes in a \"set\". The art of putting together a set is hard to put into words, but the tunes must flow from one to another in terms of key and melodic structure, without being so similar as to all sound the same. The tunes of a set will usually all be of the same sort, i.e. all jigs or all reels, although on rare occasions and amongst a more skilled group of players a complementary tune of a different sort will be included, such as a slip jig amongst the jigs. Although stage performers sometimes arrange sets of reels and jigs together, this is uncommon in an Irish session context. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5953518",
"title": "Drei Chinesen mit dem Kontrabass",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origin of lyrics and tune.:Tune.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The basic tunes noted above have been in use virtually since the very first records. In some instances, the melody combines elements of both; for instance, the early Estonian and Pomeranian versions are closer to today's \"Swiss\" tune, while further west the \"German\" tune seems to have prevailed from the start. Most of the older versions exhibit a more complex harmonic and rhythmic structure than the extant two tunes, though; some demanded a triadic arpeggio or other more complex chords at some points, others covered wider intervals. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27921776",
"title": "Five-limit tuning",
"section": "Section::::Diatonic scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Assuming we restrict ourselves to seven pitch classes (seven notes per octave), it is possible to tune the familiar diatonic scale using 5-limit tuning in a number of ways, all of which make most of the triads ideally tuned and as consonant and stable as possible, but leave some triads in less-stable intervalic configurations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12736962",
"title": "William Dixon manuscript",
"section": "Section::::The music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "They are all (except for a single minuet) 'long variation sets'; sets of four or more strains, based on the same underlying harmonic pattern as the first, (typically only 2 chords), and all variations ending in a common melodic 'tag'. The tags of different tunes are clearly recognisable, and a feature of the harmonic scheme is how the underlying chords fit with the drones, and the rhythm of the resulting concord and dissonance. As an example, in \"Gingling Geordie\", typically for smallpipe tunes, the underlying chords are the tonic, A major, and supertonic, B minor – the latter is dissonant against drones sounding in A, and here each strain reaches this chord at its midpoint. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1603789",
"title": "Harmonica techniques",
"section": "Section::::Positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "The terminology for other positions is slightly more varied. It is possible, of course, to play in any of the modes and, using overblows and bends, it is possible to play in all 12 keys on a single diatonic harmonica, though this is very rarely done on a diatonic. Even if a player is capable of playing multiple keys on a single harmonica, they will usually switch harmonicas for different songs, choosing the right \"position\" for the right song so as to achieve the best sound. Even when the same notes can be achieved on a different key of harmonica, choosing different keys of harmonicas will offer a variety of options such as slides, bends, trills, overblows, overbends, and tongue splits. Breathing patterns are changed position to position, changing the difficulty of the transitions between one note to the next, and altering the ratio of blow notes and draw notes. The different starting place for each position limits or extends note options for the bottom and top octaves. Changing positions will allow the player to create a different sound overall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2839647",
"title": "Traditional Nordic dance music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "The majority of the tunes are in minor keys. Traditionally, there were many tunes in keys that can not be classified as either minor or major (Modes). Traces of this still exist, but most of that disappeared when the accordion became popular. The majority of the dances that go with this music are partner dances, though exceptions do exist. Such exceptions include the minuets that are common in some parts of Finland and that can also be found in parts of Sweden, the solo-dance halling, generally considered typically Norwegian but also found in parts of Sweden, and the Finnish quadrille danced by several couples in formation. The most common dance rhythm is the polska. It is in 3/4 (three beats to the bar). In the most common polskas, the third beat is accentuated as well as the first. There are many local versions of the polska rhythm, and generally local variations of the accompanying dance correspond to these differences, though many of these local dances have disappeared. The schottische, also known as reinlender, polka and waltz are other common dance rhythms. In addition there are many other more uncommon dance rhythms (e.g. the anglais), despite a small number of surviving tunes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4txeuc
|
elon musk's 'master plans'
|
[
{
"answer": "As a company that have a goal to eliminate our demands for fossil fuel it opens them up for critique when they are doing things that seams contradictory to their primary goal. For instance Tesla started making race cars and then luxury sedans, neither are known for being eco-friendly, and thus providing a means to increase the energy consumption of personal transport and increase the power usage which is largely based on fossil fuel. Elon decided to counter these critiques early by making his master plan public at an early stage. This showed that the early cars were only stepping stones to a better future. As Tesla completed their first master plan he have now made the current plan public again. It includes several things that by itself can be considered unhealthy for the environment but makes sense in the bigger picture. He is also doing similar plans for SpaceX public.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47190535",
"title": "Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future is Ashlee Vance's biography of Elon Musk, published in 2015. The book traces Elon Musk's life from his childhood up to the time he spent at Zip2 and PayPal, and then onto SpaceX, Tesla, and SolarCity. In the book, Vance managed to get regular interviews with Musk, those close to him, and those who were with him at the most important points of his life; Musk had no control over the biography's contents. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909036",
"title": "Elon Musk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "In addition to his primary business pursuits, Musk has envisioned a high-speed transportation system known as the Hyperloop, and has proposed a vertical take-off and landing supersonic jet electric aircraft with electric fan propulsion, known as the Musk electric jet. Musk has stated that the goals of SpaceX, Tesla, and SolarCity revolve around his vision to change the world and humanity. His goals include reducing global warming through sustainable energy production and consumption, and reducing the risk of human extinction by establishing a human colony on Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909036",
"title": "Elon Musk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Elon Reeve Musk (; born June 28, 1971) is a technology entrepreneur, investor, and engineer. He holds South African, Canadian, and U.S. citizenship and is the founder, CEO, and lead designer of SpaceX; co-founder, CEO, and product architect of Tesla, Inc.; co-founder and CEO of Neuralink; founder of The Boring Company; co-founder and co-chairman of OpenAI; and co-founder of PayPal. In December 2016, he was ranked 21st on the \"Forbes\" list of The World's Most Powerful People. He has a net worth of $22.3 billion and is listed by \"Forbes\" as the 40th-richest person in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909036",
"title": "Elon Musk",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Tesla.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Both men played active roles in the company's early development prior to Elon Musk's involvement. Musk led the Series A round of investment in February 2004, joining Tesla's board of directors as its chairman. Musk took an active role within the company and oversaw Roadster product design at a detailed level, but was not deeply involved in day-to-day business operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "887476",
"title": "Adnan Khashoggi",
"section": "Section::::Business career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Khashoggi headed a company called Triad International Holding Company, which among other things built the Triad Center in Salt Lake City, which later went bankrupt. He was famed as an arms dealer, brokering deals between US firms and the Saudi government, most actively in the 1960s and 1970s. In the documentary series \"The Mayfair Set\", Saudi author Said Aburish states that one of Khashoggi's first weapons deals was providing David Stirling with weapons for a covert mission in Yemen during the Aden Emergency in 1963. Among his overseas clients were defense contractors Lockheed Corporation (now Lockheed Martin Corporation), Raytheon, Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation and Northrop Corporation (the last two of which have now merged into Northrop Grumman).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25393280",
"title": "List of The Emperor's New Groove characters",
"section": "Section::::Kronk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "In the animated television series, Kronk plays the role of hero, sidekick, villain, or a combination of these roles in varying episodes. He is Yzma's henchman and also Kuzco's classmate and close friend. Though he frequently helps Yzma with her schemes, he just as often helps Kuzco out of them. As a running gag, he can never remember that Principal Amzy is really Yzma, and as a result, thinks he is in trouble when Yzma calls for him. In the last episode, he tells Yzma how obvious her disguise is, but when asked how long he has known, he replies \"About three episodes back.\" Also a running gag, whenever Yzma tells Kronk to pull the lever to access the secret lab, he constantly pulls the wrong one and as a result, Yzma constantly gets hit by random objects. In a rather fitting irony of the show's outcome, Kuzco appoints Kronk his new advisor (since he sometimes gives thoughtful, eloquent advice), while Yzma is his assistant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4238968",
"title": "Gakuen Heaven",
"section": "Section::::Anime.:Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Meanwhile, Kazuki is involved in a power struggle with the Vice Chairman of the board. The Vice Chairman (Kuganuma) is distinctly annoyed that the former chairman chose to leave his position to Kazuki. He views Kazuki as a young and incompetent despot incapable of running BL Academy, much less the Suzubishi Group, the business group that owns BL Academy and many scientific research and development companies. Indeed, Kazuki rejects many of Kuganuma's proposals and seemingly \"abuses\" his power by admitting a student of no particular skill — in this case, Itō Keita — to BL Academy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5g8sys
|
if you get a blood transfusion and your blood is found at the scene of a crime and tested, how does it effect the results?
|
[
{
"answer": "As others have said, red blood cells have no DNA. Rather, it's other cells, such as white blood cells, that are present in blood and are the source of DNA evidence in \"blood\". \n\nWhat you may not know is that when you donate blood (or receive donated blood), that blood is filtered and separated into its constituent components. White cells, red cells, and platelets are all sold off as separate products for different purposes. The red cells you receive are essentially \"pure\" red cells and have no DNA. \n\nSo, short answer is that getting or giving blood doesn't result in a transfer of DNA. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "986871",
"title": "Drug test",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Blood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Drug-testing a blood sample measures whether or not a drug or a metabolite is in the body at a particular time. These types of tests are considered to be the most accurate way of telling if a person is intoxicated. Blood drug tests are not used very often because they need specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28000588",
"title": "Forensic serology",
"section": "Section::::Blood detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1156,
"text": "Blood is composed of liquid plasma and serum with solid components consisting of red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). To detect blood at a crime scene an array of tests can be used. The most publicized test by crime shows is the Luminol process in which a chemical is sprayed onto a surface where blood is suspected to be. The chemical reacts with traces of blood, and fluoresces under UV light. However, this technique can produce false positives because metals and strong chemicals such as bleach will also fluoresce. Another common presumptive test is the Kastle-Meyer or Phenolphthalein test. This is a catalytic test that detects the heme group in blood that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. It is a two step reaction where one drop of phenolphthalein reagent is added to the suspected blood sample, followed by a drop of hydrogen peroxide. A positive result induces a color change to pink. Similar to the Kastle-Meyer test, a hemastix is also a catalytic test simplified to a specialized strip where the blood sample is added and a positive result induces a color change to a dark green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1227456",
"title": "Forensic toxicology",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Blood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "A blood sample of approximately is usually sufficient to screen and confirm most common toxic substances. A blood sample provides the toxicologist with a profile of the substance that the subject was influenced by at the time of collection; for this reason, it is the sample of choice for measuring blood alcohol content in drunk driving cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10445054",
"title": "Packed red blood cells",
"section": "Section::::Compatibility testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "There are many other human blood group systems and most of them are only rarely associated with transfusion problems. A screening test is used to identify if the recipient has any antibodies to any of these other blood group systems. If the screening test is positive, a complex set of tests must follow to identify which antibody the recipient has by process of elimination. Finding suitable blood for transfusion when a recipient has multiple antibodies or antibodies to extremely common antigens can be very difficult and time-consuming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10445054",
"title": "Packed red blood cells",
"section": "Section::::Compatibility testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Because this testing can take time, doctors will sometimes order a unit of blood transfused before it can be completed if the recipient is in critical condition. Typically two to four units of O negative blood are used in these situations, since they are unlikely to cause a reaction. A potentially fatal reaction is possible if the recipient has pre-existing antibodies, and uncrossmatched blood is only used in dire circumstances. Since O negative blood is not common, other blood types may be used if the situation is desperate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24286297",
"title": "Blood residue",
"section": "Section::::Forensic significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Laboratory testing can reveal whether a substance is indeed blood, whether the blood is of animal or human origin, and the blood group to which it belongs. This allows investigators to include or exclude persons as perpetrators or victims. The antigens that allow blood group testing, however, deteriorate with age or improper storage. The DNA contained in blood, on the other hand, is less subject to deterioration, and allows near-certain matching of blood residue to individuals with DNA profiling techniques. Through bloodstain pattern analysis, information about events can also be gained from the spatial distribution of bloodstains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2087922",
"title": "Blood doping",
"section": "Section::::Detection of blood doping.:Detection for homologous blood doping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "In 2004, a test for detection allogeneic/homologous blood transfusion doping was implemented. Flow Cytometry is the method of choice. By examining markers on the surface of blood cells, the method can determine whether blood from more than one person is present in an athlete’s circulation. The test utilizes 12 antisera directed against the blood group antigens, obtained from donor plasma. The antigens are labeled with secondary antibodies, which are conjugated with phycoerythrin to label IgG or IgM-coated RBCs and enhance the detection by flow cytometry The flow cytometry is able to detect minor variance in blood group antigens. The assessment was able to distinguish the blood of subjects who had earlier received at least one unit of allogeneic blood. This technique is able to detect small (5%) populations of cells that are antigenically distinct from an individual’s own RBCs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tuueh
|
what happens when you raise a number to the power of i (the imaginary number)?
|
[
{
"answer": "I thought this was explain it like I'm 5, not explain it like I'm in my fifth year of graduate school... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1161104",
"title": "Power of 10",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In mathematics, a power of 10 is any of the integer powers of the number ten; in other words, ten multiplied by itself a certain number of times (when the power is a positive integer). By definition, the number one is a power (the zeroth power) of ten. The first few non-negative powers of ten are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254364",
"title": "Mathematical fallacy",
"section": "Section::::Power and root.:Complex exponents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "When a number is raised to a complex power, the result is not uniquely defined (see Failure of power and logarithm identities). If this property is not recognized, then errors such as the following can result:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99491",
"title": "Exponentiation",
"section": "Section::::Powers of complex numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Integer powers of nonzero complex numbers are defined by repeated multiplication or division as above. If \"i\" is the imaginary unit and \"n\" is an integer, then \"i\" equals 1, \"i\", −1, or −\"i\", according to whether the integer \"n\" is congruent to 0, 1, 2, or 3 modulo 4. Because of this, the powers of \"i\" are useful for expressing sequences of period 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187750",
"title": "Large numbers",
"section": "Section::::Standardized system of writing very large numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "I.e., if a number \"x\" is too large for a representation formula_32 we can make the power tower one higher, replacing \"x\" by log\"x\", or find \"x\" from the lower-tower representation of the log of the whole number. If the power tower would contain one or more numbers different from 10, the two approaches would lead to different results, corresponding to the fact that extending the power tower with a 10 at the bottom is then not the same as extending it with a 10 at the top (but, of course, similar remarks apply if the whole power tower consists of copies of the same number, different from 10).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60187666",
"title": "Sums of three cubes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In the mathematics of sums of powers, it is an open problem to characterize the numbers that can be expressed as a sum of three cubes of integers, allowing both positive and negative cubes in the sum. An obvious necessary condition for formula_1 to equal such a sum is that formula_1 cannot equal 4 or 5 modulo 9, because the cubes modulo 9 are 0, 1, and −1, and no three of these numbers can sum to 4 or 5 modulo 9. It is unknown whether this necessary condition is sufficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "499002",
"title": "Zenzizenzizenzic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Therefore, a number raised to the power of six would be \"zenzicubic\", a number raised to the power of seven would be the second sursolid, hence \"bissursolid\" (not a multiple of two and three), a number raised to the twelfth power would be the \"zenzizenzicubic\" and a number raised to the power of ten would be \"the square of the (first) sursolid\". The fourteenth power was the square of the second sursolid, and the twenty-second was the square of the third sursolid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99491",
"title": "Exponentiation",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The word \"raised\" is usually omitted, and sometimes \"power\" as well, so can also be read \"3 to the 5th\" or \"3 to the 5\". Therefore, the exponentiation can be expressed as \"\"b\" to the power of \"n\"\", \"\"b\" to the \"n\"th power\", \"\"b\" to the \"n\"th\", or most briefly as \"\"b\" to the \"n\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6k0hgb
|
why is it okay for actors to impersonate police officers when filming in public locations? are there special laws that govern filming?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not like there is just the one actor and a hidden camera. \n\nThere is generally a full crew sound/light/camera crews, the director and all that jazz. They aren't going to be mistaken for real police officers. Plus inn public areas the have too get permits to film and generally type off the area they are filming inn to keep random people out of the way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't doing it with the intent of deceiving the public. Even when filming in public locations the filming area is often closed off to public foot and vehicle traffic. No one is going to reasonably confuse them for a real officer. And if they did, the actors and other film crew would correct them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Laws vary by jurisdiction. However, laws against impersonating a public official will usually have language like the following, which prohibits impersonating a public official:\n\n > ...with purpose to induce another to submit to such pretended official authority or otherwise to act in reliance upon that pretense.\n\nIn other words, the law that I borrowed that language from says that it's only a crime to impersonate a police officer if your purpose is to make other people believe that you're a police officer, and act accordingly. So if your state uses that same language, it's not illegal to impersonate a police officer as an actor, or a stripper, or at a Halloween party. It's only illegal if you're trying to trick people. \n\nMost or all states in the US use very similar language in their laws. \n\nOn the other hand, the use of an official police *badge* may be a crime, even in a theatrical setting, unless the use of that badge is approved by the relevant law enforcement authority. Again, this will depend on state and local law. \n\nEdit: clarity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The crime of impersonating a public official, police officer, or anyone else requires more than just dressing up and pretending. Each state's laws are different, but they hinge on the intent to cause others to believe you are an officer, or intent to use your purported authority to deprive someone of something. \n\nFor example, Arizona's statute says:\n\n[13-2411](_URL_0_). **Impersonating a peace officer; classification; definition**\n\nA. A person commits impersonating a peace officer if the person, without lawful authority, pretends to be a peace officer and engages in any conduct with the intent to induce another to submit to the person's pretended authority or to rely on the person's pretended acts. \n\nActors, people dressed in costumes, and others who wear the uniform of an official don't use that costue as a tool to convince others that they really are those people, nor do they use it to deprive others of something of value. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just dressing like a police officer isn't what's illegal... it's doing so in order to convince somebody that you are one for the purpose of deceiving them into doing something or otherwise benefiting from the deception.\n\nSo dressing like a cop for a film is OK. Dressing like one for Halloween is OK. Dressing as one and trying to get free doughnuts from the local doughnut shop, NOT OK. Dressing like one and stopping people pretending to be an officer is NOT OK.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37762002",
"title": "Photography is Not a Crime",
"section": "Section::::First Amendment issues.:Homeland security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "In addition, there have been numerous examples in which police or security officers have erroneously told civilians that filming or taking pictures of a particular building is unlawful and a violation, due to either national security or homeland security reasons. Examples covered in the blog include a police officer advising that photographing the National Laboratory at the University of Texas Medical Branch was prohibited, and similar examples involving photographing an art exhibit in downtown Indianapolis, and a train station in New York City.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5566666",
"title": "Friday Night Lights (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Performances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "This freedom was complemented by filming without rehearsal and without extensive blocking. Camera operators were trained to follow the actors, rather than having the actors stand in one place with cameras fixed around them. The actors knew that the filming would work around them. Executive producer Jeffrey Reiner described this method as \"no rehearsal, no blocking, just three cameras and we shoot.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2139989",
"title": "The Junkman",
"section": "Section::::Cast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Many locals were used as extras in the movie. Most of the San Luis Obispo County sheriff deputies, Paso Robles, and Atascadero police officers in the movie were officers at the time of filming. All of the California Highway Patrol officers were professional stunt drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21551129",
"title": "Organization of the New York City Police Department",
"section": "Section::::Other units.:Movie and Television Unit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 263,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 263,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Whether it conducts filming on bridges, highways, or busy intersections, the unit controls traffic to ensure that companies can get shots that may otherwise be impossible. Also, the city's many police related shows, such as \"Law & Order\" and \"Third Watch\", generate \"crime scenes\" which are supervised by the Movie/TV Unit. The unit's responsibilities do not end there; the unit also monitors child work permits, stunts, prop firearms, placement of equipment, pedestrian safety, and parking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14871469",
"title": "Photography and the law",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Private property.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- Some jurisdictions have laws regarding filming while in a hospital or health care facility. Where permitted, such filming may be useful in gathering evidence in cases of abuse, neglect, or malpractice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51623628",
"title": "The Siege of Jadotville (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The actors were put through a training camp in South Africa before filming. \"There's nothing worse than watching actors acting like they're in an action movie, pretending to run upstairs with guns and look serious,\" said director Ritchie Smythe. \"The best way to get them to do that realistically is just to train them to be soldiers, so I did.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58422088",
"title": "First Amendment audits",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The conflict with law enforcement officers generally arises because officers sometimes deem photography, in and of itself, \"suspicious behavior\" and use that as a reason to detain an Auditor and demand identification. Universally, Courts that have reviewed this specific issue have held that the fact that a person takes a photograph or makes an audio or video recording in a public place or in a place he or she has the right to be, does not constitute, in and of itself, a reasonable suspicion to detain the person, probable cause to arrest the person, or a sufficient justification to demand identification. Some states have even revised their penal code to reflect that issue. Nonetheless, officers frequently illegally detain or arrest auditors for \"suspicious behavior.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jf6fp
|
the reason for supermarket membership card and coupon
|
[
{
"answer": "1. Loyalty. As in \"I have a card in this store, I might save some money, so lets go back there to get groceries\"\n\n2. Purchase tracking. The store can tell exactly what you bought in the last 6 months. They can deduce marketing campaigns and product stocking strategies depending on what sort of customers buy what at what time of the day etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The purpose of coupons is tiered pricing. Because coupons take work and planning not everyone uses them. This allows a store to charge two different prices for items.\n\n* A higher, normal price for people that are not overly concerned about prices enough to look for and use coupons\n* A lower price for those that are more price conscious so are willing to put the time in to using coupons\n\nIf they lowered the price for everyone they would make less money. If they got rid of coupons they would sell less product. \n\nCoupons also do a couple of other things\n\n* Bring people into the store. I have a coupon for $1 off at Safeway I'll go there instead of Fred Meyer next week.\n* Introduce new items. $2 off chicken fried broccoli finger?! I'll have to get some of those.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "504897",
"title": "Coupon",
"section": "Section::::Types and uses.:Grocery coupons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Store coupons are coupon-based discounts offered for a particular item or group of items. The issuing store will accept its own \"store coupons\", but some stores will also accept store coupons that are issued by competitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18624",
"title": "Loyalty program",
"section": "Section::::By continent and country.:Europe.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Of the \"big four\" supermarkets, Sainsburys and Tesco and Morrisons operate loyalty cards for general supermarket shopping.Tesco's Clubcard scheme have been criticised for not offering value for money. When Clubcard or Nectar points are used for money off supermarket shopping, they roughly equate to a 0.5% discount, although offers can increase this discount by as much as four times for certain rewards. Some retailers with banking operations also award points for every pound spent on their credit cards, and bonus points for purchasing financial services. A report in \"The Economist\" suggested that the real benefit of loyalty cards to UK outlets is the massive marketing research database potential they offer. Since 2015 Morrisons operates a \"More\" reward scheme which replaces the \"Morrisons Miles\" fuel purchases reward scheme. Unusually, customers' personal details are not collected so purchases appear not to be tracked. Vouchers are delivered at point of sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504897",
"title": "Coupon",
"section": "Section::::Types and uses.:Grocery coupons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Some grocery stores regularly double the value of a grocery coupon as an incentive to bring customers into their stores. Additionally, stores might hold special events where they will double or triple coupon values on certain days or weeks. Whether or not a specific grocery chain will double or triple coupons usually depends on the original coupon value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "386090",
"title": "Waitrose & Partners",
"section": "Section::::Brand and marketing.:myWaitrose loyalty card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In late 2011 the supermarket introduced its first loyalty card scheme, \"myWaitrose\". It differed from supermarket loyalty schemes like Tesco Clubcard and Nectar, giving cardholders access to exclusive competitions and offers instead of allowing them to collect points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504897",
"title": "Coupon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of consumer packaged goods or by retailers, to be used in retail stores as a part of sales promotions. They are often widely distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet (social media, email newsletter), directly from the retailer, and mobile devices such as cell phones. Since only price conscious consumers are likely to spend the time to claim the savings, coupons function as a form of price discrimination, enabling retailers to offer a lower price only to those consumers who would otherwise go elsewhere. In addition, coupons can also be targeted selectively to regional markets in which price competition is great.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504897",
"title": "Coupon",
"section": "Section::::Delivery methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Customers may get these coupons from various sources, including national newspapers and the Internet, with web sites offering free printable grocery coupons can be printed at home and use them at retail store. Some major grocery chains also produce digital coupons that may be loaded onto the retailer's loyalty card at home, or at a coupon dispensing machine located in store. In 2011, the top five vehicles for distributing consumer packaged goods coupons in the U.S. were: the Free Standing Insert, a coupon booklet distributed through newspapers and other sources (89.4%); in-store distribution (4.2.%); direct mail (2.3%); magazines (1.5%); and coupons distributed on or in product packaging (1.3%). Other distribution methods together accounted for less than 2% of all coupons distributed. There are coupon-providing websites that provide customers with coupons of various stores. These sites accumulate coupons from various sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25567496",
"title": "GS1 DataBar Coupon",
"section": "Section::::Common usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In the United States, GS1 DataBar Coupon barcodes are often placed on grocery coupons issued by product manufacturers (so-called Manufacturer Coupons). These grocery coupons are typically used to advertise products by offering discounts to the consumer at the time of purchase. For example, a coupon may offer a $1.00 discount when the consumer purchases a specific brand and flavor of toothpaste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mnm8y
|
why, in the entirety of both the Islamic and Christian world, do we have a 7 day week? is there an astronomical or other historical significance to a 7 day time period? Are any European or Middle Eastern cultures in history known to have had a concept of a week of any other length than 7 days?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would like to clarify that I mean to ask: if there is a significance outside of the biblical context? does the 7 day week predate the Torah, or did the concept originate purely from the Torah and spread through Abrahamic religious cultures?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FYI there's a section on this in the FAQ*\n\n[Weeks, weekdays, and weekends](_URL_0_)\n\n*see the \"popular questions\" link on the sidebar, or the \"wiki\" tab above",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The lunar calendar throughout history is based on a 28 day lunar cycle. These 28 days were divided evenly in to seven day weeks. Different civilizations used different ways of expanding the lunar calendar to take the sun in to account. The Chinese would, during the Shang Dynasty, every few years, add a 13th month. I would provide sources but I'm on my phone in class, I'm sure someone on here will be able to provide a more detailed and sufficient answer than I. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44100110",
"title": "Adoption of the Gregorian calendar",
"section": "Section::::Islamic calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The Islamic calendar is a lunar one, so that there are twelve lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days, being 11 days shorter than a solar year. Consequently, holy days in Islam migrate around the solar year on a 32-year cycle. Some countries in the Islamic world use the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes, while retaining the Islamic calendar for religious purposes. For example, Saudi Arabia adopted the Gregorian calendar as its civil calendar at the end of 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33086851",
"title": "Ali Manikfan",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Technical and agricultural experiments.:Calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The Islamic calendar (Hijri calendar) is a purely lunar calendar. It contains 12 months that are based on the visible new moon of every month, and because 12 synodic months is only 12 x 29.53059=354.3671 days, the Islamic calendar is consistently shorter than a tropical year, and therefore it shifts with respect to the Christian calendar. The calendar is based on the Qur'an (Sura IX, 36-37) and its proper observance is a sacred duty for Muslims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39066560",
"title": "Somali calendar",
"section": "Section::::Traditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "This indigenous week represents the pastoralist version that can be expected from ancient Somalis, and it is further evidence for the existence of pre-Islamic calendar. The seven-day week owes its origin to a reverence for the number seven in the religion of the prophets, the monotheistic messengers such as Noah and Abraham. For instance, seven days, seven heavens and seven earths, are found in the divine religions. In fact, as far as we know, the Israelites were the only people who were using a seven-day week prior to Christianity. All traditional societies, be they African, Asian, Middle Eastern or European, including Greeks and Romans, were using other intervals, that is from 4 to 10 days, or were counting months rather than days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14810",
"title": "Islamic calendar",
"section": "Section::::Days of the week.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In Arabic, the \"first day\" of the week corresponds with Sunday of the planetary week. The Islamic weekdays, like those in the Hebrew and Bahá'í calendars, begin at sunset. The Christian liturgical day, kept in monasteries, begins with vespers (see vesper), which is evening, in line with the other Abrahamic traditions. Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight. Muslims gather for worship at a mosque at noon on \"gathering day\" (, meaning \"day\") which corresponds with Friday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5377",
"title": "Calendar",
"section": "Section::::Calendars in use.:Religious calendars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The Islamic calendar or Hijri calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in most of the Muslim countries (concurrently with the Gregorian calendar), and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days and festivals. Its epoch is the Hijra (corresponding to AD 622)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9758",
"title": "Era",
"section": "Section::::Use in chronology.:Calendar eras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The Islamic calendar, which also has variants, counts years from the Hijra or emigration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, which occurred in 622 CE. The Islamic year is some days shorter than 365; January 2012 fell in 1433 AH (\"After Hijra\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14810",
"title": "Islamic calendar",
"section": "Section::::Astronomical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1238,
"text": "The Islamic calendar, however, is based on a different set of conventions being used for the determination of the month-start-dates. Each month still has either 29 or 30 days, but due to the variable method of observations employed, there is usually no discernible order in the sequencing of either 29 or 30 day month lengths. Traditionally, the first day of each month is the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of the hilal (crescent moon) shortly after sunset. If the hilal is not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month (either because clouds block its view or because the western sky is still too bright when the moon sets), then the day that begins at that sunset is the 30th. Such a sighting has to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that the hilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in astronomy, which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. Still, due to the fact that both lunar reckoning systems are ultimately based on the lunar cycle itself, both systems still do roughly correspond to one another, never being more than three days out of synchronisation with one another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9ze0ci
|
how does general anxiety disorder actually work, and why is it thought to occur? is it "all mental" or chemical?
|
[
{
"answer": "there is no difference between mental and chemical. there is no difference between physical illness and mental illness, they all take place in this physical world made of chemicals.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nas to how it works: we don't exactly know. we don't understand the brain enough to explain most mental illnesses or their medications. we just know that some things help and some things don't. why? we have theories, but they are all big question-marks that can be completely outdated next year. we estimate that about 1/3 of it is genetical 'weakness' that gets activated by something you experience. what that something is depends wildly per person. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33784314",
"title": "Social stress",
"section": "Section::::Mental health.:Anxiety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The biological basis for anxiety disorders is rooted in the consistent activation of the stress response. Fear, which is the defining emotion of an anxiety disorder, occurs when someone perceives a situation (a stressor) as threatening. This activates the stress response. If a person has difficulty regulating this stress response, it may activate inappropriately. Stress can therefore arise when a real stressor is not present or when something isn't actually threatening. This can lead to the development of an anxiety disorder (panic attacks, social anxiety, OCD, etc.). Social anxiety disorder is defined as the fear of being judged or evaluated by others, even if no such threat is actually present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Anxiety disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by exaggerated feelings of anxiety and fear responses. Anxiety is a worry about future events and fear is a reaction to current events. These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. There are a number of anxiety disorders: including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. People often have more than one anxiety disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57688",
"title": "Anxiety disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by significant feelings of anxiety and fear. Anxiety is a worry about future events, and fear is a reaction to current events. These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. There are several anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. People often have more than one anxiety disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20448627",
"title": "Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder (MADD) is a diagnostic category defining patients who have both anxiety and depressive symptoms of limited and equal intensity accompanied by at least some autonomic features. Autonomic features are involuntary physical symptoms usually caused by an overactive nervous system, such as panic attacks or intestinal distress. The World Health Organization's ICD-10 describes \"Mixed anxiety and depressive disorder\": \"...when symptoms of anxiety and depression are both present, but neither is clearly predominant, and neither type of symptom is present to the extent that justifies a diagnosis if considered separately. When both anxiety and depressive symptoms are present and severe enough to justify individual diagnoses, both diagnoses should be recorded and this category should not be used.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57688",
"title": "Anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The diagnosis of an anxiety disorder requires first ruling out an underlying medical cause. Diseases that may present similar to an anxiety disorder, including certain endocrine diseases (hypo- and hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia), metabolic disorders (diabetes), deficiency states (low levels of vitamin D, B2, B12, folic acid), gastrointestinal diseases (celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, inflammatory bowel disease), heart diseases, blood diseases (anemia), and brain degenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19356",
"title": "Mental disorder",
"section": "Section::::Classifications.:Disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Anxiety or fear that interferes with normal functioning may be classified as an anxiety disorder. Commonly recognized categories include specific phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20449321",
"title": "Communication apprehension",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Situation anxiety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Situational anxiety is a psychological reaction of a person due to a specific situation that may not have any relation with the person or context. This anxiety is triggered by a special combination of audience and context that involves different dimensions and creates a unique scenario. As an example we can see a first date. Although a person may not suffer from communication apprehension; the situation of being with a person that they have feelings for, on a new environment, and being the first time they experience this situation, can increase the stress levels and create communication apprehension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hon0f
|
Why did football overtake baseball in popularity in the U.S. during the 1950s and 1960s?
|
[
{
"answer": "One thing that should be established is that until the 60' or so College Football was much more popular then the multiple Pro leagues out there, and thus when many schools had to suspend play during WW2 that accounts for the downturn seen in the 40's.\n\nBut then when everyone comes back and tons more can go to college on the GI Bill, then all of a sudden you have more players, and more fans, and you see it take off. With more schools competitive, more Bowls popping up, and the spread of more NCAA controlled games showing up on TV.\n\nAnd with more quality players coming out of college the quality of the pro game began to improve, and of course once the AFL and NFL merged and the Superbowl began it was a perfect made for TV event that could drive viewership. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19333610",
"title": "History of the National Football League",
"section": "Section::::Birth of a new league.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1061,
"text": "College football was the bigger attraction, but by the end of World War II, pro football began to rival the college game for fans' attention. Rule changes and innovations such as the T formation led to a faster-paced, higher-scoring game. The league also expanded out of its eastern and midwestern cradle; in 1945, the Cleveland Rams moved to Los Angeles, becoming the first big-league sports franchise on the West Coast. In 1950, the NFL accepted three teams – the Cleveland Browns, San Francisco 49ers, and Baltimore Colts – from the defunct All-America Football Conference, expanding to thirteen clubs. For a three-month period in 1950 the league was renamed the National-American Football League, that was subsequently changed back. In 1958, the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants played \"The Greatest Game Ever Played\" for the championship. Being the first nationally televised football game, along with its thrilling ending greatly increased the popularity of the NFL. Through these breakthroughs, pro football finally earned its place as a major sport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1546965",
"title": "National Football League on television",
"section": "Section::::Broadcasting history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The NFL, along with boxing and professional wrestling (before the latter publicly became known as a staged sport), was a pioneer of sports broadcasting during a time when baseball and college football were more popular than professional football. Due to the NFL understanding television at an earlier time, they were able to surpass Major League Baseball in the 1960s as the most popular sport in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2257795",
"title": "Sports in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Other team sports.:Cricket.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "the United States. One reason was the 19th-century-rise of the summer time bat and ball sport now called baseball, which seems to have displaced cricket as a popular pastime. Another reason was that in 1909 when the ICC was originally organized as the\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20836188",
"title": "Cricket in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cricket in American culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "the United States. One reason was the 19th-century-rise of the summer time bat and ball sport now called baseball, which seems to have displaced cricket as a popular pastime. Another reason was that in 1909 when the ICC was originally organized as the\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179553",
"title": "Southern United States",
"section": "Section::::Sports.:Baseball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Baseball has been played in the Southern United States since at least the years leading up to the American Civil War. It was traditionally more popular than American football until the 1980s, and still accounts for the largest annual attendance amongst sports played in the South. The first mention of a baseball team in Houston was on April 11, 1861. 19th century and early 20th century games were common, especially once the professional leagues such as the Texas League, the Dixie League, and the Southern League were organized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26854068",
"title": "Major League Baseball relocation of 1950s–60s",
"section": "Section::::Economic factors.:External factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The expansion of baseball is also accompanied by the increase in popularity of television. Baseball expanded, in large part, because interest in the sport grew leading up to and during the 1950s and 1960s. In home televisions allowed for this increase in popularity and helped make New York's pastime, America's pastime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2813570",
"title": "1958 NFL season",
"section": "Section::::Season in review.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The 1958 season is regarded as a watershed year in which the popularity of professional football in the United States began to rival that of baseball in the public imagination. \"Professional football was beyond coming of age in 1958,\" one writer enthused, \"it was on an even plane with baseball as the game of the people.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tu2b3
|
I just mixed some Acetone and Water and the beaker warmed up. Why?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the answer to this question is going to be complicated, depend on the ratio of water and acetone, and ultimately have to do with the thermodynamics of how the acetone and water molecules arrange themselves. But to be overly simplified, I think you could just state that the acetone/H2O molecules fit together better and exist at a lower energy state together than they do by themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "850697",
"title": "J-B Weld",
"section": "Section::::Products.:J-B Weld epoxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The mixture will set up, for handling, within 4–6 hours, but requires 15 hours (at cool temperatures) to fully cure and harden. When first mixed, J-B Weld is subject to sagging or running (slow dripping), more so at warmer temperatures. After about 20 minutes the mixture begins to thicken into a putty that can be shaped, which becomes hard after 4–6 hours. Within 3 hours (in cool temperatures), the putty can be shaped (with a putty knife or wooden paddle) into a weld bead or extruded shape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38602520",
"title": "Ōgonkan",
"section": "Section::::Fruit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The rind's cold-pressed oil has been studied for fragrance factors, and was found to contain limonene (roughly 80%), followed by the monoterpene Gamma-terpinene (10%), trans beta-farnesene, and myrcene, showing similarity to Hyuganatsu's peel profile, though with quantitative differences in concentrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1187792",
"title": "Deviled egg",
"section": "Section::::Preparation and ingredients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Cooled hard-boiled eggs are peeled and halved lengthwise, with the yolks then removed. The yolk matter is then mashed and mixed with a variety of other ingredients, such as mayonnaise and mustard. Tartar sauce or Worcestershire sauce are also sometimes used. Other common flavorings include: diced pickle or pickle relish, salt, ground black pepper, powdered cayenne pepper or chipotle chilies, turmeric, vinegar, ketchup, green olives, pimentos, poppyseed, thyme, cilantro, minced onion, pickle brine, caviar, cream, capers, and sour cream. Contemporary versions of deviled eggs tend to include a wider range of seasonings and added ingredients, such as garlic, horseradish, wasabi, sliced jalapeños, cheese, chutney, capers, salsa, hot sauce, ham, mushrooms, spinach, sour cream, caviar, shrimp, smoked salmon or other seafood, and sardines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61933",
"title": "Mayonnaise",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "Modern mayonnaise can be made by hand with a whisk, a fork, or with the aid of an electric mixer or blender. It is made by slowly adding oil to an egg yolk, while whisking vigorously to disperse the oil. The oil and the water in the yolk form a base of the emulsion, while lecithin and protein from the yolk is the emulsifier that stabilizes it. A combination of van der Waals interactions and electrostatic repulsion determine the bond strength among oil droplets. The high viscosity of mayonnaise is attributed to the total strength created by these two intermolecular forces. Addition of mustard contributes to the taste and further stabilizes the emulsion, as mustard contains small amounts of lecithin. If vinegar is added directly to the yolk, it can emulsify more oil, thus making more mayonnaise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346865",
"title": "Basil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Basil is most commonly used fresh in recipes. In general, it is added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavor, and what little flavor remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavor, like hay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210458",
"title": "Waffle",
"section": "Section::::Shelf stability and staling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1156,
"text": "Mixing is a critical step in batter preparation since overmixing causes the gluten to develop excessively and create a batter with too high of a viscosity that is difficult to pour and does not expand easily. A thick batter that is difficult spreading in the baking iron has an increased water activity of around 0.85. The increased viscosity made it harder for water to evaporate from the waffle causing an increase in water activity. The control waffles with a softer texture had a water activity of 0.74 after cooking. The Aw is less because the softer texture allows the water to evaporate. With an increased storage time, waffle physical and textural properties changes regardless of the batter viscosity. Aged waffles shrink because air bubbles leak out and the structure starts to condense. Hardness and viscosity also increases as time goes by. Aged waffle samples displayed a starch retrogradation peak that increased with storage time due to the fact that more crystalline structures were present. Starch retrogradation is mentioned previously in this paper. The enthalpy value for melting of starch crystals increased with storage time as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55125362",
"title": "Ice drilling",
"section": "Section::::Hand-operated mechanical drills.:Coring augers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1395,
"text": "Modern coring augers have changed little in decades: an ice coring auger patented in the US in 1932 closely resembles coring augers in use eighty years later. The US military's Frost Effects Laboratory (FEL) developed an ice mechanics testing kit that included a coring auger in the late 1940s; the Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment (SIPRE), a successor organization, refined the design in the early 1950s, and the resulting auger, known as the SIPRE auger, is still in wide use. It was modified slightly by the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL), another successor organization, in the 1960s, and is sometimes known as the CRREL auger for that reason. An auger developed in the 1970s by the Polar Ice Core Office (PICO), then based in Lincoln, Nebraska, is also still widely used. A coring auger designed at the University of Copenhagen in the 1980s was used for the first time at Camp Century, and since then has been frequently used in Greenland. In 2009, the US Ice Drilling Design and Operations group (IDDO) began work on an improved hand auger design and a version was successfully tested in the field during the 2012–2013 field season at WAIS Divide. As of 2017 IDDO maintains both 3-inch and 4-inch diameter versions of the new auger for the use of US ice drilling research programs, and these are now the most-requested hand auger provided by IDDO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jaz1x
|
why do so many people think prostitution is bad?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many of those against legal prostitution would believe that every prostitute was forced into it, including those that might appear to have entered voluntarily. \n\nMany psychologists also have shown how prostitution is damaging to the prostitute.\n\nEDIT: Also, I, until recently, believed the best way to help the workers would be to legalize and regulate it, but then I found out what Sweden and other European countries had started doing. Their laws have it so that the Johns (clients) are the only ones breaking the law, allowing the workers to feel safer seeking help. From what I've read it seems to be working quite well in favour of the women (and a few men). \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "STD's are also a big concern. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh, the classic society sex is taboo bit. The selling your body bit. The fear of STDs and shady things. Honestly, it would be infinitely better if the government would legalize and regulate prostitution. They'd make tons of money, prevent the spread of STDs, and minimize the list of things people have to get pissed off about, or argue about.\n\n\nEDIT: to a five year old would go something like this. \"Let's say you want candy because it makes you happy, but don't want to work for it. Instead, you let others play with your teddy bear/blanky; and they give you candy for it. Now some kids wouldn't understand what you are doing, they don't get how you could let someone else play with your teddy. You get it, and you don't care because you have the candy. Prostitution is like that, but in an adult way.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's basically not very high on most people's laundry-list of social changes desired and no politician is going to come within 1000 feet of any pro-prostitution legislation if they don't have to.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a couple reasons people think it is bad.\n\n* Sexual slavery is where adults and children are forced into prostitution. Often the slavers take advantage of people who are very poor and uneducated, or those who are trying to get out of their country. Little children are often \"groomed\" or taught to be prostitutes from a very young age. People in sexual slavery sometimes don't know any other kind of life, and are often afraid to ask anyone for help. Sometimes they don't even speak the language of the country they are in. So it is often difficult to tell the difference between someone who is a prostitute by choice and someone who is being forced into it. \n* There is a bigger risk of catching diseases from anyone who has sex with a lot of people, especially because some prostitutes don't go to see doctors for fear of being arrested.\n* A lot of people are very religious and think prostitution is immoral. They think that sex is special and should not be traded for money. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because honest discussions about prostitution are so hard to come by. Media portrayals of prostitutes tend to fall into one of three categories: trafficked women forced into prostitution against their will, drug addicts walking the streets, and the happy hooker with a phd earning $1000s a night.\n\nThe reality is that most prostitutes do not fall into any of these categories (especially in countries where prostitution is legal, like the UK) - they're just ordinary women doing what they do for their own individual reasons. But their stories are never told because their stories have no extreme angle that supports one person's or group's point of view.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Originally, prostitution led to illegitimate children. These children grew up poor and fatherless and were likely to become criminals. Making laws to prevent prostitution was a way to decrease the crime rate.\n\nSociety has advanced a lot since then. Our views on morality haven't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since a 5-year-old isn't going to know about prostitution, I'll explain as though to a 14-year-old (who may understand the idea more instinctively).\n\nCurrently most relationships between boyfriends and girlfriends or husbands and wives are based on the exchange of time, goods, and services, amongst them being particularly close. Like all barter exchanges, this is hard to negotiate.\n\nMoney exchanges, however, are very easy to negotiate. That's why we have money. Prostitution is simply making a money exchange for sex instead of a barter (time-for-time) exchange for sex.\n\nSociety doesn't like that. We view men that choose to use money as a replacement for the ability to attract a sexual partner as defective, and women that choose to accept money instead of time for sex as somehow evil and/or immoral, as they're short-circuiting the normal relationship development process by using money.\n\nThere's also the problem of human trafficking: a lot of the people working as prostitutes aren't doing so willingly. I don't have figures, but I've seen estimates ranging between 5% and 85% of the prostitutes out there are actually working as prostitutes because another person is using force and/or drugs to keep them working as such. Of course a prostitute can't go to the cops, as being a prostitute is illegal. \n\nSo why don't we legalize prostitution, which would make it possible for prostitutes to report abusive behavior by customers and those forcing them to work in the sex industry? Well, the fact is that not many places allow prostitution right now, so smuggling people to work as prostitutes in those areas where prostitution is legal is still lucrative. \n\nWhat has worked is criminalizing pimping, running brothels/parlors/whatever, and being a John, but not being a prostitute itself. This dries up the demand for prostitution, reducing the profits to be made for it, and increases the penalties if you get caught as a smuggler/pimp, while still making it possible for prostitutes to go to the authorities to report wrongdoing by Johns or pimps--as being either of those *is* illegal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many of those against legal prostitution would believe that every prostitute was forced into it, including those that might appear to have entered voluntarily. \n\nMany psychologists also have shown how prostitution is damaging to the prostitute.\n\nEDIT: Also, I, until recently, believed the best way to help the workers would be to legalize and regulate it, but then I found out what Sweden and other European countries had started doing. Their laws have it so that the Johns (clients) are the only ones breaking the law, allowing the workers to feel safer seeking help. From what I've read it seems to be working quite well in favour of the women (and a few men). \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "STD's are also a big concern. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh, the classic society sex is taboo bit. The selling your body bit. The fear of STDs and shady things. Honestly, it would be infinitely better if the government would legalize and regulate prostitution. They'd make tons of money, prevent the spread of STDs, and minimize the list of things people have to get pissed off about, or argue about.\n\n\nEDIT: to a five year old would go something like this. \"Let's say you want candy because it makes you happy, but don't want to work for it. Instead, you let others play with your teddy bear/blanky; and they give you candy for it. Now some kids wouldn't understand what you are doing, they don't get how you could let someone else play with your teddy. You get it, and you don't care because you have the candy. Prostitution is like that, but in an adult way.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's basically not very high on most people's laundry-list of social changes desired and no politician is going to come within 1000 feet of any pro-prostitution legislation if they don't have to.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a couple reasons people think it is bad.\n\n* Sexual slavery is where adults and children are forced into prostitution. Often the slavers take advantage of people who are very poor and uneducated, or those who are trying to get out of their country. Little children are often \"groomed\" or taught to be prostitutes from a very young age. People in sexual slavery sometimes don't know any other kind of life, and are often afraid to ask anyone for help. Sometimes they don't even speak the language of the country they are in. So it is often difficult to tell the difference between someone who is a prostitute by choice and someone who is being forced into it. \n* There is a bigger risk of catching diseases from anyone who has sex with a lot of people, especially because some prostitutes don't go to see doctors for fear of being arrested.\n* A lot of people are very religious and think prostitution is immoral. They think that sex is special and should not be traded for money. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because honest discussions about prostitution are so hard to come by. Media portrayals of prostitutes tend to fall into one of three categories: trafficked women forced into prostitution against their will, drug addicts walking the streets, and the happy hooker with a phd earning $1000s a night.\n\nThe reality is that most prostitutes do not fall into any of these categories (especially in countries where prostitution is legal, like the UK) - they're just ordinary women doing what they do for their own individual reasons. But their stories are never told because their stories have no extreme angle that supports one person's or group's point of view.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Originally, prostitution led to illegitimate children. These children grew up poor and fatherless and were likely to become criminals. Making laws to prevent prostitution was a way to decrease the crime rate.\n\nSociety has advanced a lot since then. Our views on morality haven't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since a 5-year-old isn't going to know about prostitution, I'll explain as though to a 14-year-old (who may understand the idea more instinctively).\n\nCurrently most relationships between boyfriends and girlfriends or husbands and wives are based on the exchange of time, goods, and services, amongst them being particularly close. Like all barter exchanges, this is hard to negotiate.\n\nMoney exchanges, however, are very easy to negotiate. That's why we have money. Prostitution is simply making a money exchange for sex instead of a barter (time-for-time) exchange for sex.\n\nSociety doesn't like that. We view men that choose to use money as a replacement for the ability to attract a sexual partner as defective, and women that choose to accept money instead of time for sex as somehow evil and/or immoral, as they're short-circuiting the normal relationship development process by using money.\n\nThere's also the problem of human trafficking: a lot of the people working as prostitutes aren't doing so willingly. I don't have figures, but I've seen estimates ranging between 5% and 85% of the prostitutes out there are actually working as prostitutes because another person is using force and/or drugs to keep them working as such. Of course a prostitute can't go to the cops, as being a prostitute is illegal. \n\nSo why don't we legalize prostitution, which would make it possible for prostitutes to report abusive behavior by customers and those forcing them to work in the sex industry? Well, the fact is that not many places allow prostitution right now, so smuggling people to work as prostitutes in those areas where prostitution is legal is still lucrative. \n\nWhat has worked is criminalizing pimping, running brothels/parlors/whatever, and being a John, but not being a prostitute itself. This dries up the demand for prostitution, reducing the profits to be made for it, and increases the penalties if you get caught as a smuggler/pimp, while still making it possible for prostitutes to go to the authorities to report wrongdoing by Johns or pimps--as being either of those *is* illegal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14130977",
"title": "Women in China",
"section": "Section::::Crimes against women.:Prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Prostitution has also become associated with a number of problems, including organized crime, government corruption and sexually transmitted diseases. Due to China's history of favoring sons over daughters in the family, there has been a disproportionately larger number of marriageable aged men unable to find available women, so some turn to prostitutes instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7481282",
"title": "Zi Teng",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Problems faced by sex workers in Hong Kong.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Normally, people regard prostitution as an abnormal career and will show no respect towards this career. However, due to their low educational level and some personal reasons, it is always uneasy for them to change to other job fields or stop working as sex workers. Because of all these, they may suffer from short-term emotional instability. If they are not able to find ways out, some of them may even suffer from depression. The above-mentioned problem that faced by the sex workers really urge for help and concern for the general public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23845151",
"title": "Feminist views on prostitution",
"section": "Section::::Arguments against prostitution.:Coercion and poverty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "These feminists do argue that, in most cases, prostitution is not a conscious and calculated choice. They say that most women who become prostitutes do so because they were forced or coerced by a pimp or by human trafficking, or, when it is an independent decision, it is generally the result of extreme poverty and lack of opportunity, or of serious underlying problems, such as drug addiction, past trauma (such as child sexual abuse) and other unfortunate circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14461798",
"title": "Prostitution in Norway",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nineteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The media, the church, and social commentators started to express concerns about prostitution which was labelled as \"The Great Social Evil\". Various institutions stated a desire to rescue 'fallen women', and help them exit their trade and 're-enter society', training them for positions such as domestic servants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1309790",
"title": "Prostitution in Thailand",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for prevalence and toleration.:Social views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Another reason contributing to this issue is that ordinary Thais deem themselves tolerant of other people, especially those whom they perceive as downtrodden. This acceptance has allowed prostitution to flourish without much of the extreme social stigma found in other countries. According to a 1996 study, people in Thailand generally disapprove of prostitution, but the stigma for prostitutes is not lasting or severe, especially since many prostitutes support their parents through their work. Some men do not mind marrying former prostitutes. A 2009 study of subjective well-being of prostitutes found that among the sex workers surveyed, sex work had become normalized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26905272",
"title": "Deborah R. Brock",
"section": "Section::::Major works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "In this chapter Deborah Brock looks at how some people see prostitution as women who are victimized by patriarchy, others see prostitution as women who will not be confined by the moral rules of sexuality. Other people see prostitutes as workers, some of which work is less favorable conditions than others but they are still workers. She examines how prostitution is often seen as symbolic of patriarchal oppression however many women use their bodies as a source of income. Sex workers are not able to participate in the discussions about the issues that directly affect them. They do not have a voice in the legislation being put forth to regulate their jobs and they do not have a say in the solutions that could decrease prostitution. She examines how laws have been in place to govern sex work since 1839 and is either seen as a public nuisance or a morality problem. The law continues to distinguish between good women and bad women and sex workers are often the scapegoat for other incidents or problems in the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15461919",
"title": "Sex workers' rights",
"section": "Section::::Legality of prostitution.:Abolitionism or criminalization.:Support for criminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Prostitution increases clandestine, illegal, and street prostitution because many women do not participate in health checks or registration and do not want to be controlled by businessmen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mr3qd
|
What was the ratio between fighter planes and reconnaissance planes in WW1?
|
[
{
"answer": "My copy of Amber Books' *The Essential Aircraft Identification Guide: Aircraft of WWI* gives numbers in August 1918 as being:\n\n* France: 34% fighter, 51% observer, 15% bomber\n* Britain: 55%, 23%, 22%\n* Italy: 46%, 45%, 9%\n* USA: 46.5%, 46.5%, 7%\n* Germany: 42%, 50%, 8%\n* Austria-Hungary: 63%, 28%, 9%\n\nhope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30961913",
"title": "The Hardest Day",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Sorties and losses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Only 403 (45 percent) of the total number of sorties flown by Fighter Command were directed at the three major German raids. A further 56 (or just over 6 per cent) were standing patrols to protect shipping off the coast. Most of the remaining 427 sorties (nearly 50 per cent) were made to engage the reconnaissance aircraft. Usually several half-squadrons were committed. This was not excessive. But by sending more units to counter the flights, German aircraft were forced to fly higher and were denied the opportunity to drop to low altitude to take higher resolution photographs. This contributed to a lack of German intelligence which often failed to distinguish fighter, bomber and naval airfields from each other. Much of the time their strength was directed at non-fighter airfields on this date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530494",
"title": "Lavochkin La-5",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Flying the La-5.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "The La-5 was found to have a top speed and acceleration at low altitude that were comparable to Luftwaffe fighters. The La-5FN possessed a slightly higher roll rate than the Bf-109. However, the Bf-109 was slightly faster and had the advantage of a higher rate of climb and better turn rate. The La-5FN had a slightly better climb rate and smaller turn radius than the Fw 190A-8. However, the Fw 190A-8 was faster at all altitudes and had significantly better dive performance and a superior roll-rate. As a result, Lerche's recommendations for Fw 190 pilots were to attempt to draw the La-5FN to higher altitudes, to escape attacks in a dive followed by a high-speed shallow climb, and to avoid prolonged turning engagements. Utilizing MW 50 both German fighters had superior performance at all altitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7211",
"title": "Curtiss P-40 Warhawk",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:British and Commonwealth.:Combat performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of momentum in the Allies' favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the \"Luftwaffe\" accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite \"Luftwaffe\" units, such as \"Jagdgeschwader\" 27 (JG27), in North Africa. The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to the Bf 109 at low altitude but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F. Most air combat in North Africa took place well below , negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in horizontal maneuvers (turning), dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7211",
"title": "Curtiss P-40 Warhawk",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Royal New Zealand Air Force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "RNZAF P-40 squadrons were successful in air combat against the Japanese between 1942 and 1944. Their pilots claimed 100 aerial victories in P-40s, whilst losing 20 aircraft in combat Geoff Fisken, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific, flew P-40s with 15 Squadron, although half of his victories were claimed with the Brewster Buffalo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7594239",
"title": "357th Fighter Group",
"section": "Section::::Combat operations and tactics.:VIII Fighter Command, Eighth Air Force.:Invasion preparation and support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Because of the extended range of the P-51, the primary mission of the 357th continued to be heavy bomber escort. On 11 April 1944, 917 heavy bombers and 819 escort fighters of the Eighth Air Force attacked aviation industry targets in Saxony-Anhalt resulting in a severe fighter reaction by the Jagdverbände. A total of 64 bombers were shot down in one of the heaviest losses to the Eighth, but strong escort support kept the losses from being worse. Three Mustangs from the 364th Fighter Squadron were also shot down but the group as a whole was credited with 23 of the 51 aerial victories scored. Another 22 were credited during the 24 April operations against Bavarian airfields and aircraft factories, with 70 total for the month resulting in eight additional aces in the group. While scoring 174 kills in April and May 1944, the 357th also lost 33 Mustangs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3669568",
"title": "Portuguese Air Force",
"section": "Section::::General organization.:Elements of the operational component of the system of forces.:Squadrons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 228,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 228,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In theory, each squadron would have 25, 12 or 6 aircraft, depending if it was, respectively, a unit of light, medium or heavy aircraft. In practice, the number of aircraft of each squadron depends on the available materiel. Due to the trend for the reduction of the size of the FAP, presently each model of aircraft is concentrated in a single squadron, the exception being the F-16 that are divided by two squadrons (one with air defense and the other with attack missions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1934083",
"title": "4th Fighter Group",
"section": "Section::::European theatre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The group was credited by VIII Fighter Command as having the most combined victories over German aircraft (583 air, 469 ground against 248 combat losses) of any group in the Eighth Air Force, and scoring the fourth highest number of air-to-air victories in Europe. Aircraft losses totaled 248 planes: 8 Spitfire VB, 28 P-47C and P-47D, and 212 P-51B and P-51D. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rtaf4
|
Are Ultraviolet rays more powerful on cloudy days?
|
[
{
"answer": "Absolutely not. There is no physical reason why a cloud would increase the intensity of an incoming flux of ultraviolet photons. Even if [fluorescence](_URL_0_), the process by which material \"processes\" high energy photons into more lower energy ones, could occur inside a cloud in our atmosphere, our Sun does not produce enough photons with energies greater than UV for a measurable effect. Our atmosphere, even cloud-free, absorbs most incoming ultraviolet radiation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5059741",
"title": "Ultraviolet photography",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Sunlight is the most available free UV radiation source for use in reflected UV photography, but the quality and quantity of the radiation depends on atmospheric conditions. A bright and dry day is much richer in UV radiation and is preferable to a cloudy or rainy day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4968799",
"title": "Sky brightness",
"section": "Section::::Airglow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In daytime, sodium and red oxygen emissions are dominant and roughly 1,000 times as bright as nighttime emissions because in daytime, the upper atmosphere is fully exposed to solar UV radiation. The effect is however not noticeable to the human eye, since the glare of directly scattered sunlight outshines and obscures it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470084",
"title": "Cholecalciferol",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry.:Biosynthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The active UVB wavelengths are present in sunlight, and sufficient amounts of cholecalciferol can be produced with moderate exposure of the skin, depending on the strength of the sun. Time of day, season, and altitude affect the strength of the sun, and pollution, cloud cover or glass all reduce the amount of UVB exposure. Exposure of face, arms and legs, averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week, may be sufficient, but the darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25669714",
"title": "Health effects of sunlight exposure",
"section": "Section::::Synthesis of vitamin D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1163,
"text": " UVB radiation with a wavelength of 290–315 nanometers penetrates uncovered skin and converts cutaneous 7-dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D, which in turn becomes vitamin D. UVB radiation does not penetrate glass, so exposure to sunshine indoors through a window does not produce vitamin D. Time of day, time of year, geographic latitude, ground altitude, cloud cover, smog, skin melanin content, and sunscreen are among the factors that greatly affect UV intensity and vitamin D synthesis, making it difficult to provide general guidelines. It has been suggested by some researchers, for example, that adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs, averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week without sunscreen. (The darker the complexion, or the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed, approximating 25% of the time for minimal sunburn. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.) Individuals with limited sun exposure need to include good sources of vitamin D in their diet or take a supplement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5253627",
"title": "Sun protective clothing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "UPF (Ultraviolet Protection Factor) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. While standard summer fabrics have UPF ~6, sun protective clothing typically has UPF ~30, which means that only 1 out of ~30 units of UV will pass through (~3%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25669714",
"title": "Health effects of sunlight exposure",
"section": "Section::::Risks to skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Several countries (such as Australia) provide public forecasts of UV irradiation in the form of the UV Index. The index can be used as a guide to the public of dangers from over-exposure to sunlight, especially at noon, when direct sunlight is at its most intense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "Section::::Blockers and absorbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "For clothing, the Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPF of approximately 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9isfne
|
why is there so many different kinds of pain medication? they all seem to do the same thing (according to their descriptions), but why does tylenol work for some headaches and ibuprofen (naproxen, aspirin, etc.) work for other headaches?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some reduce inflammation which helps relieve pain, and some block pain receptors in your cells, so you don’t feel the pain. Different drugs perform different chemical actions that help with pain in different ways. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This gets asked a lot... \" Differences between Pain Relievers\"\n\n* [2018 - June 26th](_URL_1_)\n* [2017 - March 11th](_URL_2_)\n* [2015 - April 19th](_URL_0_)\n* [2014 - January 13th](_URL_3_)\n* [2013 - November 26th](_URL_4_)\n* [2012 - March 23](_URL_5_)\n* [2011 - December 31st](_URL_6_)\n\nThe simple answer is different compounds affect the body in different ways. Every person also responds a little differently, and you should use what works for you. Just don't over do it.\n\nThe doctor might have some more details about your bodies chemistry, blood pressure, heart rate, and the kind of headache. This can help properly assess if the headache is driven by something being out of sync or unbalanced, or if it just needs to be relieved on a chemical level. After considering the side affects and how well a treatment plan fits your condition. It's really a judgement call, combined with experience and research on the problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are differences in how they treat pain, as well as other differences. Some types of pain-medications are very effective at blocking pain, but come with high risk of addiction, can make you very drowsy and unable to work/drive/etc - Obviously you won't be getting a shot of morphine for a minor headache, but if you just came out of an operation then morphine (or some potent opiate) might be the only thing strong enough to really provide relief from the pain you're in (and since you're stuck in a hospital bed, it is okay to be drowsy)\n\nThere are also other considerations, like what other medication a person is on, or if they have conditions that disallow them to use certain medications. For example, aspirin and asthma don't mix very well, so it's better an asthmatic use something with paracetomol.\n\nAs someone has mentioned already there are different causes for pain which certain meds are better at treating. Ibuprofen is a good anti-inflammatory and would probably be best for someone with muscle pain / pinched nerve pain etc.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEven though all the pain meds ultimately do the same thing (relieve pain) it's necessary to have a variety of options for the variety of patients and causes and severity of pain",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has to do with the [mechanism of action](_URL_1_), which \"refers to the specific biochemical [interaction](_URL_0_) through which a [drug](_URL_2_)substance produces its pharmacological effect.\"\n\n \n\n\nEssentially, there are different classes and sub-classes of drug. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is a COX-2 inhibitor which reduces the release of a fatty acid and an enzyme known to cause inflammation and pain.\n\n \n\n\nNaproxen (Aleve), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), are NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug) which use a pathway in the body similar to acetaminophen, but are classified differently because of the way they interact with the body.\n\n \n\n\nSame goes for acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin). Aspirin is in yet a different class because eof it's added effect of being an anti-platelet (blood thinner).\n\n \n\n\nIn practice doctors, and other practitioners (myself) use a combination of practical experience with past patients and scholarly journals. It's all about understanding where the pain is and what caused it. For example, joint pain I'm giving Tylenol, muscle pain I'm giving Aleve, or headache I'm giving Excedrin which is Aspirin with Tylenol and caffeine.\n\n \n\n\nNarcotics are a different discussion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like another comment suggested, these medications act on the body in different ways. But! I will explain the differences. \n\n\n* Tylenol \\*acetaminophen\\* - helps to prevent your body from making making certain chemicals that promote fever and pain (but it works best for fevers)\n* Ibuprofen - Helps your body by reducing inflammation, which eases pain. \n* Naproxen - Imagine if Tylen and Ibuprofen had a baby. These drugs reduce both inflammation and fever.\n* Opioids - drugs that are made to bind to receptors on your cells (think of a lock and a key) and prevent other chemicals from binding there and causing you to feel pain. \n\nA doctor will prescribe the medication you need based on several factors; what is causing your pain (surgery, broken bone, sprain, infection, etc). If the cause will respond well to OTC meds then they will give you those. However, if your pain cannot be properly relieved by the mechanisms of the drugs mentioned above and you need to actually have those pain receptors blocked off he may prescribe something stronger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "322197",
"title": "Tension headache",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Pain medication, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are effective for the treatment of tension headache. Tricyclic antidepressants appear to be useful for prevention. Evidence is poor for SSRIs, propranolol and muscle relaxants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69893",
"title": "Headache",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Tension-type headaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Tension-type headaches can usually be managed with NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen, aspirin), or acetaminophen. Triptans are not helpful in tension-type headaches unless the person also has migraines. For chronic tension type headaches, amitriptyline is the only medication proven to help. Amitriptyline is a medication which treats depression and also independently treats pain. It works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, and also reduces muscle tenderness by a separate mechanism. Studies evaluating acupuncture for tension-type headaches have been mixed. Overall, they show that acupuncture is probably not helpful for tension-type headaches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322197",
"title": "Tension headache",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Medications.:Treatment of ETTH.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Over-the-counter drugs, like acetaminophen, aspirin, or NSAIDs(ibuprofen, Naproxen, Ketoprofen), can be effective but tend to only be helpful as a treatment for a few times in a week at most. For those with gastrointestinal problems (ulcers and bleeding) acetaminophen is the better choice over aspirin, however both provide roughly equivalent pain relief. It is important to note that large daily doses of acetaminophen should be avoided as it may cause liver damage especially in those that consume 3 or more drinks/day and those with pre-existing liver disease. Ibuprofen, one of the NSAIDs listed above, is a common choice for pain relief but may also lead to gastrointestinal discomfort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Aspirin is an effective analgesic for acute pain, although it is generally considered inferior to ibuprofen because aspirin is more likely to cause gastrointestinal bleeding. Aspirin is generally ineffective for those pains caused by muscle cramps, bloating, gastric distension, or acute skin irritation. As with other NSAIDs, combinations of aspirin and caffeine provide slightly greater pain relief than aspirin alone. Effervescent formulations of aspirin relieve pain faster than aspirin in tablets, which makes them useful for the treatment of migraines. Topical aspirin may be effective for treating some types of neuropathic pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "260578",
"title": "Muscle relaxant",
"section": "Section::::Spasmolytics.:Clinical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "Spasmolytics such as carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, and methocarbamol are commonly prescribed for low back pain or neck pain, fibromyalgia, tension headaches and myofascial pain syndrome. However, they are not recommended as first-line agents; in acute low back pain, they are not more effective than paracetamol or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and in fibromyalgia they are not more effective than antidepressants. Nevertheless, some (low-quality) evidence suggests muscle relaxants can add benefit to treatment with NSAIDs. In general, no high-quality evidence supports their use. No drug has been shown to be better than another, and all of them have adverse effects, particularly dizziness and drowsiness. Concerns about possible abuse and interaction with other drugs, especially if increased sedation is a risk, further limit their use. A muscle relaxant is chosen based on its adverse-effect profile, tolerability, and cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2246",
"title": "Analgesic",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Combinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion that arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417111",
"title": "Pain management",
"section": "Section::::Medications.:Moderate to severe pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Drugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain, for example, amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it and/or with an NSAID.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iuugl
|
if the tongue is a muscle, and muscles grow after the fibers are torn, why doesn't your tongue grow after being bitten?
|
[
{
"answer": "The tongue is actually controlled by eight different muscles. The part you bite is just the fleshy exterior.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not the same type of tear. Otherwise, bodybuilders would go to the gym and cut themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I thought I was reading /r/shittyaskscience for a second there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More important question: Will my tongue get jacked from cunnilingus?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think you might be confusing torn with removed. When you say bite your tongue do you mean bitten off? If your tongue is bitten off then, yes, that part will not grow back just like a leg that's cut off won't grow back. If you're talking about biting your tongue so it isn't removed but the muscles are just slightly torn then it will heal just like any slightly torn muscle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53977520",
"title": "Oral manifestations of systemic disease",
"section": "Section::::Tongue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Mineral and vitamin deficiencies can cause the tongue to appear beefy red and feel sore. Those deficiencies are iron, folate, and vitamin B12. A hairy tongue may be an indication of Epstein Barr virus infection and is usually seen in those infected with HIV. Other systemic diseases that can cause the tongue to form aphthous ulcers are: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, Behcet's Syndrome, pemphigus vulgaris, herpes simplex, histoplasmosis, and reactive arthritis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6843660",
"title": "Pallas's long-tongued bat",
"section": "Section::::Tongue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "A 2013 study determined that their tongues have a mopping ability that is powered by blood, a phenomenon unique in nature. Elongated hairs at the tongue's tip, which normally lie flat, become engorged with blood when the tongue is protruded. As a result, the hairs stand in erect rows, perpendicular to the tongue. The tongue tip increases by over 50 percent in length, contracting its width to squeeze enlarged vascular sinuses along the tongue's length, that are directly connected to the hairs. During this process tissue capillaries turn from pink (little blood) to dark red. The blood vessel networks that enter the tip of the tongue are fringed by muscle fibers, which contract to compress the blood vessels and displace blood towards the tip. The efficiency of this feeding mechanism is believed to enable the bats' survival on limited food sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2382764",
"title": "Black hairy tongue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Transient surface discoloration of the tongue and other soft tissues in the mouth can occur in the absence of hairy tongue. Causes include smoking (or betel chewing), some foods and beverages (e.g., coffee, tea or liquorice), and certain medications (e.g., chlorhexidine, iron salts, or bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol)).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39242947",
"title": "Sleep surgery",
"section": "Section::::Genioglossus advancement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, the surgeon cuts a small window or bone cut in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle where the genioglossus muscle attaches. This piece of bone, along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate and screws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1299663",
"title": "Dorsal consonant",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Because the tip of the tongue can curl back to also contact the hard palate for retroflex consonants (\"subapical-palatal\"), consonants produced by contact between the dorsum and the palate are sometimes called \"dorso-palatal.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4511687",
"title": "Edentulism",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Facial support and aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The tongue, which consists of a very dynamic group of muscles, tends to fill the space it is allowed, and in the absence of teeth, will broaden out. This makes it initially difficult to fabricate both complete dentures and removable partial dentures for patients exhibiting complete and partial edentulism, respectively; however, once the space is \"taken back\" by the prosthetic teeth, the tongue will return to a narrower body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3105992",
"title": "Genioglossus advancement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, a small window or bone cut is made in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle which is where the genioglossus muscle is attached. This piece of bone along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and is subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate(s) and screws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
517n3a
|
kneeling during/sitting in national anthem disrespect to armed forces?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's only disrespecting the armed forces in a super roundabout way. In the US, we stand to pay respect to the flag, which represents the US. If you're in uniform (military) you also salute. Maybe other professions as well, like police and firefighters, but I don't know for sure. Our military fights for the US, and in some cases comes home covered by that same flag. I don't consider it as disrespecting our armed forces personally. I just think he's a dickhead. I don't think ANYONE is super proud of America right now, what with the candidates we've chosen for ourselves, but the courtesy is to stand and remove any headgear. \n\nPersonally speaking, there's lots of things I think are atrocious about America, but that's why we need to strive always to make America better. I still manage to stand on my feet when the anthem is played, because America is imperfect, but I work to make it more so. \n\nEssentially, the dude acted like a teenager getting punished, acting out because he didn't like a situation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Colin Kapernick decided he wanted to make a political point, and did it in kind of a dickish manner. He is now backtracking after realizing that being a dick might cost him a big 'ol pile of money.\n\nThat said, anyone who's dragging the military into this is an idiot. Not standing for the national anthem doesn't have anything specifically to do with the armed forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20403870",
"title": "St. Paul's Episcopal Church (Alexandria, Virginia)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "During the Litany, Dr. Stewart was ordered by an attending Union officer to say the Prayer for the President of the United States that Dr. Stewart had omitted without saying any other prayer in its place. Dr. Stewart proceeded without paying any attention to the interruption; but a captain and six of his soldiers, who were present in the congregation to provoke an incident, drew their swords and pistols, strode into the chancel, seized the clergyman while he was still kneeling, held pistols to his head, and forced him out of the church, and through the streets, just as he was, in his surplice and stole, and committed him to the guard-house of the 8th Illinois Cavalry. Dr. Stewart was soon released, but was not allowed to continue to officiate at services. Immediately thereafter, the St. Paul's sanctuary was closed and was used for the duration of the War as a hospital for the wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385688",
"title": "National Anthem of Peru",
"section": "Section::::History.:Officialization of the sung verse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The \"stand at attention\" posture is done when it is played for civilians while military, police and fire personnel must render hand salutes when out of formation. Some people do the \"hand on heart\" p In ceremonies and concerts, the following shout is done when the anthem's performance is over:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83943",
"title": "Indonesia Raya",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "During the rendition or singing of the national anthem, all present except those in uniform should stand, face toward the music, and pay respect. Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; those not should stand still.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876661",
"title": "Negaraku",
"section": "Section::::Etiquette.:Individual conduct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Whenever the National Anthem is played or sung or whenever the abridged or short version is played, all persons present shall stand to attention as a mark of respect except where it is played or sung as part of a radio or television broadcast or newsreels. All headgear (except religious and military ones) must be removed and all those in attendance must face the \"Jalur Gemilang\", if it is present. Servicemen in uniform must give a salute when the Anthem plays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "536874",
"title": "Flag desecration",
"section": "Section::::By jurisdiction.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Article 30 states that, when in the flag is being marched or paraded (for example, when the national anthem is being played), everyone present must take a respectful attitude, standing in silence. Males must remove any head coverings. Military personnel must salute or present arms according to their corps' internal regulations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51676196",
"title": "U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "By labelling the action of kneeling as anthem protest, critics have been successful at switching the topic of discussion to anything except about police brutality. Right after Kaepernick started his campaign to create awareness about excess police brutality towards minorities, especially African-Americans, yet commentators have mainly focus of the patriotic aspect of kneeling rather than the meaning behind it; thus weakening Kaepernick's primary goal. One political person that players believe completely misinterpreted the act of kneeling was President Trump since he believes that players are protesting the flag and the national anthem; however, players are for the most part protesting the lack of accountability in the judicial system, and the way police officer can easily get away with police brutality towards African-Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31064",
"title": "The Star-Spangled Banner",
"section": "Section::::Customs and federal law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1278,
"text": "Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code ) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6zlqcz
|
How did Tenant Farmers get paid in Medieval England? Did they farm for a season, sell, then run down their savings until next season, or did they have some type of reliable income?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't have a substantive answer for you but I would suggest reading David Howarth's 1066: Year of the Invasion because he goes over a lot of the details of the medieval English social and political structure and documents changes after the Norman take over. It may have some of the answers you are looking for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have not heard any specific English form of tenancies, but tenant farming followed was broadly similar across Europe. That is not to say to say that European farming was similar everywhere, rather that tenant farming was just one of many different forms of farming. \n\nSo, tenant farming was the practice where landowners who owned more land than they themselves could cultivate, but did not legally control other people to do the farming for them (no slaves or serfs). So the hired tenant freemen are given parcels of the land to cultivate, and then pay the landowner with a part of the harvest, the land rent. The tenants would live and work at the farms all year round. And their pay would have been the rest of the agrarian surplus they were not obligated to pay their landowner or taxed away, which they then lived off of for the rest of the year. As for off season work, there was always work to be done at a farm, but winter was undoubtedly the low-intensity season. But it was then that the animals were butchered, wood collected from the forest, and most of the agricultural equipment maintained for the new year (fences, ploughs, etc)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39922677",
"title": "Agriculture in Scotland in the Middle Ages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "By the late Medieval period, most farming was based on the Lowland fermtoun or Highland baile, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams, allocated in run rigs to tenant farmers, known as husbandmen. Runrigs usually ran downhill so that they included both wet and dry land. Most ploughing was done with a heavy wooden plough with an iron coulter, pulled by oxen, which were more effective and cheaper to feed than horses. Key crops included kale, hemp and flax. Sheep and goats were probably the main sources of milk, while cattle were raised for meat. The rural economy appears to have boomed in the thirteenth century and in the immediate aftermath of the Black Death was still buoyant, but by the 1360s there was a severe falling off in incomes to be followed by a slow recovery in the fifteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39910597",
"title": "History of agriculture in Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "By the late Medieval period, most farming was based on the Lowland fermtoun or Highland baile, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams, allocated in run rigs to tenant farmers, known as husbandmen. The average amount of land used by a husbandman in Scotland might have been . Below the husbandmen, lesser landholders and free tenants were the cottars, who often shared rights to common pasture, occupied small portions of land and participated in joint farming as hired labour. Farms also might have grassmen, who had rights only to grazing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390149",
"title": "Medieval technology",
"section": "Section::::Civil technologies.:Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "While the two-field system was used by medieval farmers, there was also a different system that was being developed at the same time. Around each village in medieval Europe there were three fields that could be used to grow food. One part holds a spring crop, such as barley or oats, another part holds a winter crop, such as wheat or rye, and the third part is an off-field that is left alone to grow and is used to help feed livestock. By rotating the three crops to a new part of the land after each year, the off-field regains some of the nutrients lost during the growing of the two crops. This system increases agricultural productivity over the two-field system by only having one-third of the field not being used instead of one half. Another advantage of crop rotation is that many scholars believe it helped increase yields by up to 50%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445914",
"title": "Sharecropping",
"section": "Section::::Regions.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Croppers were assigned a plot of land to work, and in exchange owed the owner a share of the crop at the end of the season, usually one half. The owner provided the tools and farm animals. Farmers who owned their own mule and plow were at a higher stage, and were called tenant farmers: They paid the landowner less, usually only a third of each crop. In both cases, the farmer kept the produce of gardens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10049603",
"title": "Dußlingen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Like other villages in medieval times, the income from the church and from the farms was distributed to a series of nobles, typically as rewards or in payment for fealty and service. It is often difficult for us to understand these times because things were so different from today in terms of property ownership, political and church organization, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1139913",
"title": "History of Worcestershire",
"section": "Section::::Medieval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Farming in the early middle ages tended to increase production through expanding the area of land cultivated, particularly from the forested and waste areas. Surplus production was quite limited, especially after feudal dues were given or paid, leaving peasant farmers making only slightly more than subsistence levels in most of the county. Poor harvests in 1315, 1316 and 1322 pushed food prices up and probably weakened the population's resistance to disease. The Black Death arrived in Worcestershire in 1348-9. Outbreaks in 1361, 1369 and 1375 together reduced the population by around a third, as in other parts of England. Some villages were abandoned entirely, sometimes leaving churches alone with no supporting settlement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1375681",
"title": "Ground rent",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "In early Norman England, tenants could lease their title to land so that the land-owning lords did not have any power over the sub-tenant to collect taxes. In 1290 King Edward I passed the Statute of \"Quia Emptores\" that prevented tenants from leasing their lands to others through subinfeudation. This created a system of substitution, where the tenant's full interest would be transferred to the purchaser or donee, who would pay a rentcharge. This system later passed into common law in England and was adopted by many nations which trace their legal heritage to Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1733ar
|
Since modern OS's store the hashes of passwords, not the passwords themselves, is it possible for there to be another password that would also work because it has the same hash?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is known as a [collision.](_URL_0_) The answer is yes, though in practice this is incredibly rare. They're suitably rare so as to not be a problem unless you're deliberately trying to exploit the vulnerability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, there are an infinite amount of passwords that would work. (ignoring size constraints of the system's implementation itself)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure the answer is as clear-cut as the responses so far imply. Collisions are only guaranteed to exist if the number of possible inputs is greater than the number of possible outputs. Assuming approximately 6 bits per character (64 possible characters, seems reasonable for upper/lower case, numbers and symbols), the 128-bit output length of even a short hash like MD5 is equivalent to more than 21 characters.\n\nSo if you restrict the question to passwords of a reasonable length that people actually use then a collision is not guaranteed to exist. Salting wouldn't change the situation unless the combined length of the password plus salt exceeded the output length.\n\nThis raises an interesting question which I do not know the answer to: If you restrict the input to be the same length as the output do common hash algorithms generate a unique output for each input? If the answer is yes then for passwords of reasonable length there would not be any other password that would work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24304",
"title": "Password",
"section": "Section::::Factors in the security of a password system.:Form of stored passwords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Roger Needham invented the now common approach of storing only a \"hashed\" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password handling software runs through a cryptographic hash algorithm, and if the hash value generated from the user's entry matches the hash stored in the password database, the user is permitted access. The hash value is created by applying a cryptographic hash function to a string consisting of the submitted password and, in many implementations, another value known as a salt. A salt prevents attackers from easily building a list of hash values for common passwords and prevents password cracking efforts from scaling across all users. MD5 and SHA1 are frequently used cryptographic hash functions but they are not recommended for password hashing unless they are used as part of a larger construction such as in PBKDF2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41697650",
"title": "Salted Challenge Response Authentication Mechanism",
"section": "Section::::Strengths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::- Because only the salted and hashed version of a password is used in the whole login process, and the salt on the server doesn't change, a client storing passwords can store the hashed versions, and not expose the clear text password to attackers. Such hashed versions are bound to one server, which makes this useful on password reuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "412627",
"title": "Challenge–response authentication",
"section": "Section::::Password storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "To avoid storage of passwords, some operating systems (e.g. Unix-type) store a hash of the password rather than storing the password itself. During authentication, the system need only verify that the hash of the password entered matches the hash stored in the password database. This makes it more difficult for an intruder to get the passwords, since the password itself is not stored, and it is very difficult to determine a password that matches a given hash. However, this presents a problem for many (but not all) challenge-response algorithms, which require both the client and the server to have a shared secret. Since the password itself is not stored, a challenge-response algorithm will usually have to use the hash of the password as the secret instead of the password itself. In this case, an intruder can use the actual hash, rather than the password, which makes the stored hashes just as sensitive as the actual passwords. SCRAM is a challenge-response algorithm that avoids this problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3049527",
"title": "Keychain (software)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The passwords were not easily retrievable due to the encryption, yet the simplicity of the interface allowed the user to select a different password for every system without fear of forgetting them, as a single password would open the file and return them all. At the time, implementations of this concept were not available on other platforms. Keychain was one of the few parts of PowerTalk that was obviously useful \"on its own\", which suggested it should be promoted to become a part of the basic Mac OS. But due to internal politics, it was kept inside the PowerTalk system and, therefore, available to very few Mac users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "701756",
"title": "Salt (cryptography)",
"section": "Section::::Unix implementations.:1970s–1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Earlier versions of Unix used a password file codice_1 to store the hashes of salted passwords (passwords prefixed with two-character random salts). In these older versions of Unix, the salt was also stored in the passwd file (as cleartext) together with the hash of the salted password. The password file was publicly readable for all users of the system. This was necessary so that user-privileged software tools could find user names and other information. The security of passwords is therefore protected only by the one-way functions (enciphering or hashing) used for the purpose. Early Unix implementations limited passwords to eight characters and used a 12-bit salt, which allowed for 4,096 possible salt values. This was an appropriate balance for 1970s computational and storage costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1209826",
"title": "Security token",
"section": "Section::::Password types.:One-time passwords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Another type of one-time password uses a complex mathematical algorithm, such as a hash chain, to generate a series of one-time passwords from a secret shared key. Each password is unguessable, even when previous passwords are known. The open source OAuth algorithm is standardized; other algorithms are covered by US patents. Each password is observably unpredictable and independent of previous ones, wherefore an adversary would be unable to guess what the next password may be, even with knowledge of all previous passwords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1123994",
"title": "LAN Manager",
"section": "Section::::Security weaknesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Although it is based on DES, a well-studied and formerly secure block cipher, the LM hash is not a true one-way function as the password can be determined from the hash because of several weaknesses in its design: Firstly, passwords are limited to a maximum of only 14 characters, giving a theoretical maximum keyspace of formula_3 with the 95 ASCII printable characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ab9nc
|
what happens in a free falling elevator? will you go to the ceiling or stay on the floor?
|
[
{
"answer": "If the elevator is free falling then you too are free falling inside the elevator. So you would be neither in the ceiling or on the floor. However there are a few practical concerns. First of all you most likely start off standing on the floor. So when the elevator starts to fall you will be pushed slightly upwards by the elastic forces. So you will fall a bit slower then the elevator and likely go up to the ceiling. Then as the elevator picks up speed it is going to encounter air resistance from the bottom of the elevator shaft and slow down the acceleration. However as you are inside you do not get the air resistance and will still fall with the same acceleration and will therefore fall down to the ground. However the forces involved here that send you to the ceiling and then to the floor is very tiny compared to the forces of gravity you are used to so it is unlikely that you will get any injuries. Even if you land on your finger it is not enough to break it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "719340",
"title": "The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror",
"section": "Section::::Disney's Hollywood Studios version.:Ride experience.:Drop sequence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "On the last word of Serling's narration, the elevator starts its drop sequence. Rather than a simple gravity-powered drop, however, the elevator is pulled downwards, causing most riders to rise off their seats, held down by their seat belt. At least once during the drop sequence, wide elevator doors in front of the riders open to reveal a view of the park from a height of ; however, the drop is only , the height of a 13-story building. The elevator drops at a top speed of . In the Hollywood Studios version, the back of the \"Hollywood Tower Hotel\" sign partially obstructs the view (the on-ride camera is located here, recording the ride for video or a photograph to be purchased later).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365441",
"title": "Elevator paradox",
"section": "Section::::Modeling the elevator problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Simply, if one is on the top floor of a building, \"all\" elevators will come from below (none can come from above), and then depart going down, while if one is on the second from top floor, an elevator going to the top floor will pass first on the way up, and then shortly afterward on the way down – thus, while an equal number will pass going up as going down, downwards elevators will generally shortly follow upwards elevators (unless the elevator idles on the top floor), and thus the \"first\" elevator observed will usually be going up. The first elevator observed will be going down only if one begins observing in the short interval after an elevator has passed going up, while the rest of the time the first elevator observed will be going up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "401936",
"title": "Leo Frank",
"section": "Section::::Commutation of sentence.:Hearing.:Transport of the body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "During the commutation hearing, Slaton asked Dorsey to address this issue. Dorsey said that the elevator did not always go all the way to the bottom and could be stopped anywhere. Frank's attorney rebutted this by quoting Conley, who said that the elevator stops when it hits the bottom. Slaton interviewed others and conducted his own tests on his visit to the factory, concluding that every time the elevator made the trip to the basement it touched the bottom. Slaton said, \"If the elevator was not used by Conley and Frank in taking the body to the basement, then the explanation of Conley cannot be accepted.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365441",
"title": "Elevator paradox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The elevator paradox is a paradox first noted by Marvin Stern and George Gamow, physicists who had offices on different floors of a multi-story building. Gamow, who had an office near the bottom of the building noticed that the first elevator to stop at his floor was most often going down, while Stern, who had an office near the top, noticed that the first elevator to stop at his floor was most often going up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27784393",
"title": "The Elevator (1974 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "An elevator carrying a diverse group of people becomes stuck between floors in a high-rise office building. The tension inside the stalled elevator is exacerbated by one passenger: a claustrophobic armed robber trying to flee from his latest hit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4354025",
"title": "On All Floors",
"section": "Section::::Plot and characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Suddenly and without warning, the elevator finally breaks free of its cables and hurtles to the ground floor. There is darkness, followed by the flickering of lights as the elevator doors open. Stuart is lying on his back as Michael and Melanie step over him and exit the elevator. Matthew and Glen leave the elevator holding hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "719340",
"title": "The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror",
"section": "Section::::Disney California Adventure and Walt Disney Studios Park versions.:Ride experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "The distant guests fall, then the distant elevator, followed by the ride elevator. This version of the ride does not have a randomized drop sequence, so the ride experience is identical in every drop shaft, regardless of which floor passengers board on. Two small drops occur in pitch-black darkness, followed by a rise to the top of the tower as in-cabin lights flicker. The doors then open out to reveal the view from the top floor before the car drops briefly, pauses, and drops along the remainder of the shaft. The elevator then raises almost to the top, and immediately drops without stopping, in complete darkness. The elevator then ascends all the way to the top of the tower, shudders, and falls to the bottom of the shaft, to the area in between the two loading floors (to assure each ride is identical), with the elevator being finally returned to its load level and horizontally pushed back into place at the boiler room service doors. The height of the ride is and the elevator drop in total.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ra295
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Kathryn Bywaters and I am an astrobiologist at SETI working on developing new ways to look for life! Ask me anything!
|
[
{
"answer": "Did that screen saver that everyone used to run on their windows 98 box at the end of the last century help much?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Does SETI@Home actually help you guys?\n\nFollow up, do you expect the Very Large Array to help at all?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On earth, microbes, as do all living things, have self generated actions regulated by molecules called nucleic acids. So, how will you look for evidence of self generated actions and precursors to nucleic acid type molecules that may or may not be carbon based ? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How likely is it that a signal you might detect comes from a civilization long dead?\n\nIf every nuclear weapon were detonated on earth within the span of a day, would a signal be produced that could be detected by an alien civilization within our galaxy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do we have enough knowledge of extraterrestrial bodies within the solar system to predict or simulate steady state conditions? Could atmospheric sampling (or spectroscopic analysis) detect potential metabolic products and distinguish them from compounds produced without some kind of biotic catalysis?\n\nHow does the solar energy (and geothermal energy) of earth compare to the sum of energies received by Jupiter's moons through tidal and other forces?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What kind of data will you be receiving and how will that tell you if there's other life forms on/or habitable planets?\n\nSpace is so exciting; I wish you all the best in your search! x",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What sort of tests do you do to find life? How do you tell life apart from rare, but still possible abiotic reactions that create complex molecules?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Hello and thanks for this AMA, I was wondering what was your opinion (and other people working in your field) about humanity spreading around on other planets?\n\nIs there a debate about whether we should leave other planets/satellites in pristine condition or get out there, after the exploratory phase?\n\nWhat kind of indicators did you adopt recently and that wasn't used beforehand to look for life?\n\nWhat kind of indicators do you know could be used but can't be as of now because of technological limitations?\n\nThank you for your time!",
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},
{
"answer": "Are there any methods being used to look for life that may not necessarily require water to survive?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How plausible to you is life that is not based on DNA and how does this influence your search?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the unlikely scenario that you find life, how will you determine it is not contamination from earth?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So many approaches I hear use a goldilocks approach to look for life. I have also heard that there is a shift away from water-based, carbon-containing life. Can you comment on what some of these might be?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How sure are we that life in general needs what we needed to form? (Water, goldilocks zone, magnetosphere, etc) If I remember correctly, both sulfur and carbon can form chains to create life, but carbon-based life is much more common. Does the possibility of sulfur-based life open up your search to places you wouldn't otherwise look? Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the goal, or what will you do once you find something? I don't see much point in searching for microbes but curious as to your reason for doing so. Also are you searching for intelligent life and does your methods change for that?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you discovered intelligent life on another planet, what would you offer them as a gift of peace? And why?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just watched a think deep video where this guy said that life here on earth likely started from bacteria being trapped in meteors. Is this a real thing? He said that the pockets (books and crannies) can hold them and help them survive. He also said that some bacteria dehydrate themselves until conditions are favorable to resume life. Is this true too? Thanks homie. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What would you personally say is a realistic timeframe for detecting extraterrestrial life? Another decade? A century?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Beyond putting extraterrestrial samples under a microscope. What are the other new ways to look for life?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If its possible for microbes to migrate to other planets and solar systems using asteroids, do you think its possible we may find earth's microbes in other planets that can support that life? and if we do find them, how would we know if they were Earthlings or just evolved there in the same ways our microbes did here?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What other types of life besides carbon-based can we look for on other planets?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's your opinion on the Fermi paradox?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are your thoughts about human exploration of Mars in regard to any life that might exist on Mars?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Greetings Dr. Bywaters,\n\nis there any potential or ongoing effort for the detection of the more heavily fractionnated stable isotope signatures we commonly associate with life on Earth when looking for signs of life elsewhere in the universe? If I refer to known geological environments, heavily fractionnated sulphur or carbon isotope signatures are commonly considered to be a sign of biological processes; perhaps these might be detectable in some way?\n\nIn the event where such signatures would be identified, say for instance in the absorption spectrum of an exoplanets atmosphere, how significant might they be?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you have a SOP should you find life that resembles a humanoid? ",
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},
{
"answer": "Is there any reasonable chance that there could be any form of complex life in Europa's ocean? As in more than simple microbes. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Hello Dr. Bywaters!\n\nI look forward to reading all of the answers later! My question is where did you study to be an astrobiologist?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some possible life forms could be active emitters in producing detectable electromagnetic signals i.e. radio waves. What more can we do to detect these type civilizations?\n\nChances are significantly higher that life on some worlds will not be producing detectable signals, but will modify their environment in ways we can detect. This could include carbon monoxide/dioxide in a reducing atmosphere or other chemical signatures that can be detected using advanced telescopes with spectography. What more should we be doing to build the equipment to detect these life forms?\n\nAs a biologist, how do you feel about contaminating other planets with human microorganisms?\n\nThere is some possibility of non-oxygen consuming life forms. How do we detect for example a silicon based life form that metabolizes sulphuric acid?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What sort of finding would excite you most?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think its possible to find intelligent life that doesnt rely on h2o? Or is all search for intelligent life limited to finding planets with water in the goldie lock zone?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What inspired you are a kid ( < 18yo) to go into the field of AstroBiology? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How likely do you think it is that we have just missed spotting life on other planets due to our current understanding of what defines life? / Are our pre-defined criteria for what constitutes Life on other planets hindering our ability to discover them?\n\nHow credible is - we just don't understand what form life could be like on other planets?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi Dr. Kathryn, thanks for doing this! How was your career progression like to be working on astrobiology at SETI? How did you get into the field? I'm studying astrophysics at the masters level now and am interested in this. Any suggestions on where to go from here?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi,\nIm a student at the University of Edinburgh and had the opportunity to take the Astrobiology course run by Charles Cockell.\nWould just like to say it was an absolutely fascinating course and has inspired me to seek out how to get further involved with the subject.\n\nSo i guess my question is, what are your recommendations (general or specific) for pursuing a career in astrobiology?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think that capillary electrophoresis is an effective method for seeking life on other planets? What are its limitations in your field?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the off chance that the first life you find is the alien equivalent of SETI, what will you talk about? Who will get to ask the first question?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What would be the definition of life to you guys and girls? Is it as \"easy\" as microorganisms or are you looking for some form of intelligence? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think astro botany is a field that would boom anytime soon?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you actually find something, what's the procedure? Who do you call first?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's important about looking for life beyond Earth?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do you determine life in a different planet without being there?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hello, why are we not looking for life on the clouds of Venus? I read that there are possible bio signatures there and Venus clouds are likely the best candidate in our solar system for life. (I am reffering to bacterial life and not \"E.T.\" life). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As someone who is going to university next year,which degree did you take and where,and which degrees do you think people can take to become an astrobiologist?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess I've always wondered, if we do actually find life. What then? What are our next steps?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can we think through a worst-case scenario? Suppose we continue *not* finding evidence of life elsewhere. Is there a point at which society should consider scaling back SETI?\n\nNot suggesting it be eliminated altogether. It just seems that SETI continues to underscore Fermi's Paradox, am wondering what an end game would be if that only continues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > But what if it doesn't look like life on Earth-how will we know when we find it? \n\nWhat are the leading theories on what non-Earth-like life might look like? What are the bases for those theories? What makes some theories more likely (or more widely accepted) than others? In other words, is there something about these theories (or any theories) that distinguishes them from a layman’s wild-ass-guess? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the closest thing you’ve found to life on other planets?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So here's a question I've always wondered on. Why are scientists so dead set on water being absolutely essential for any kind of like? Why can't there be an unexpected kind of life? Like one that feeds on iron or something",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have such a cool job! And thank you for doing this AMA.\n\nFirst off, how do you determine how a planet in our solar system has life? Does it have to do with biophysics in some way? \n\nSecond, any chances of life in Enceladus? There's no way a geothermally active body like that wouldn't have something in that 67mi deep ocean. But I am not sure if I can trust documentaries and various YouTube videos' take on it. \n\nHave a great day!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If we don't find life in the places identified, do you think we should seed the place to gain information about whether or not life would definitely grow? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As some one that studied biology and is finishing a masters in biotech, how could I get into astrobiology? I'm from Spain and haven't found a lot about it and most masters I couldn't afford. I'm willing to move to other countries if that helps",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If we assume that there is extraterrestrial life that's carbon based, water dependent, and at least complex enough to be large enough that we could see it with the naked eye, what do you think are the odds that we'd be able to eat it? As in have our digestive system be able to extract usable energy/nutrients from it.\n\nI may have skipped breakfast this morning. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Was there any moments in SETI ' I thought that was the signal, but it wasn't '?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you so much for taking the time. I would like to ask a few personal questions and some astrobiology related questions:\n\n1. What is the significance of finding new life forms?\n\n2. How can finding new life forms benefit humans and earth?\n\n3. Will, and if so, how can finding new life forms affect other species besides humans?\n\n4. What are the current methods used to find new life forms, and what are some potential technologies that can be used to find life?\n\nThank you so much for doing this AMA!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the likelyhood that an intelligent extraterrestrial species does not use the EM spectrum to communicate over distances? And if thats the case, how likely is is that we are just missing each other's communications like ships passing in the night?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are some upcoming 'breakthroughs' or discoveries we will soon see?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is your favorite work of science fiction?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What definition of life do you use? In all seriousness, could a star be considered intelligent if enough of its atoms had entangled electrons, forming a pseudo-neural network?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Assuming we found life, how would a xenobiologist begin to do his or her job?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read somewhere that if we were to find another life form, it would be completely different than what we look like. as in, it could be a blob of jelly instead of the little green/grey men. how true or false is that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you have a personal prediction for when we might find extra-terrestrial life?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you been keeping up with the recent spate of UFO/\"anomalous aerial vehicle\" intercept footage and reports released by the Pentagon and in particular the US Navy? Do these things get talked about in the SETI community? What do people think? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I love what you're doing, and I hope to be alive when we find hard evidence of life on another planet, however... What do you think of Nick Bostrom's writings about the \"Great Filter\". If we find life it means humanity will likely not pass a certain technological stage because we have not yet detected it, so intelligent life in the universe must be either a) extremely rare (great, then we have a chance) or b) there's something common that will prevent a civilization from reaching the point of technology detectable by other alien civilizations (so whatever prevented all/most of the other life in the universe from will eventually cause our demise). \n\nIf we find life on another planet, (b) becomes much more likely. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's the most exciting discovery you've made in your career? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you find it difficult to work in a field that has no tangible gratification as a result of the work or effort you put in? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is in your opinion supposed to be done in case we/you actually where to stumble upon a life form where we/you can tell that they are more developed than us?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lets just say for a hypothetical situation you suddenly became aware of 100 other intelligent beings with civilizations all inhabiting their own world and know nothing of eachother. \n\n\nIn your guesstimate, how many could we “get along with”?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unfortunately, my main questions are a bit speculative, so I'll ask a different one. When SETI broadcast signals into space to see if intelligent life will pick up on them, do we aim in random directions, or do we try to broadcast them at a directed target we think might contain life, i.e Kepler-62f? Additionally, SETI accounts for relativity when broadcasting right? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What would be the actual steps that SETI would take if you guys did find Life? Like how would you reveal this to the public?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you actually believe there is life within a detectable range of Earth? If so, does this belief motivate you to search more thoroughly?\n\nSimply put, do you believe life can be found within your life time?\n\nRegardless, I love what you do!\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. What would silicon life really look like?\n2. What solution do you believe is the best at solving the Fermi paradox?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do you become an “astrobiologist”?? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What ways can we detect life through a telescope rather than going to the planet?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the SETI community, is the 1977 \"WOW!\" signal still considered worth investigating? How has the SETI@Home Network contributed to SETI searches. Has any other science come out of the SETI@Home computation, not specific to SETI?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hello everyone! Just got online and I'm thrilled to see how many comments there are already :-) I'll try and get to all of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi Dr. Bywaters. I was wondering if there was a procedure at SETI in the event of the discovery of a form of intelligent life?\nAlso, how plausible (or not) is the plot of the Three Body Problem books?\nThank you for doing this!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have to take a break for the moment but I will come back. I'm so thrilled with all of your great questions and interest in the subject. Thank you all so very very much. I have to work but I could talk to you guys all day!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With the technology we have right now, how far away from the Earth could you be with all of your instruments, and be able to determine there is probably life, even intelligent life, upon it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Has there ever been a moment where you thought you found other life out there? \nIf yes, what did that feel like? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "51761578",
"title": "Sara Imari Walker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Sara Imari Walker is an American theoretical physicist and astrobiologist with research interests in the origins of life, astrobiology, physics of life, emergence, complex and dynamical systems, and artificial life. Walker is currently a fellow at the ASU-SFI Center for Biosocial Complex Systems and an assistant professor at Arizona State University (ASU). She is a co-founder of the astrobiology social network SAGANet.org, and on the board of directors for Blue Marble Space a nonprofit education and science organization. She has appeared on multiple media sources, such as \"Through the Wormhole with Morgan Freeman\", to communicate science to the public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "26501301",
"title": "Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Beyond the practice of new technologies, ASTEP strives to learn more about astrobiology through observation and study on the field campaigns. Analyzing the collected samples helps researchers determine the thermal, photonic, pressure, and chemical boundary conditions for living organisms. Understanding how these organisms adapt and evolve in these extreme conditions may be similar to the methods used by extraterrestrial organisms, and thus offers clues about where life may be found. Another area of study is the environmental footprint that extremophile life leaves behind, biomolecules or biosignatures such as chemical trails, geological formations, etc. Identifying these clues often inspires new biology searching techniques, and simplifies mission planning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41170351",
"title": "Heather Dewey-Hagborg",
"section": "Section::::Selected projects.:\"Stranger Visions\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "As part of her research for \"Stranger Visions\", Dewey-Hagborg took a three-week crash-course in biotechnology at Genspace, a non-profit, community-based biotechnology laboratory in New York. She was astonished to learn how much an amateur biologist could learn about someone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29404109",
"title": "Lynn J. Rothschild",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 836,
"text": "Lynn Justine Rothschild (born May 11, 1957) is an evolutionary biologist and astrobiologist at NASA's Ames Research Center, and was a consulting Professor at Stanford University, where she taught Astrobiology and Space Exploration. She is an adjunct professor at Brown University. At Ames, her research has focused on how life, particularly microbes, has evolved in the context of the physical environment, both on Earth and potentially beyond our planet's boundaries. Since 2007 she has studied the effect of UV radiation on DNA synthesis, carbon metabolism and mutation/DNA repair in the Rift Valley of Kenya and the Bolivian Andes, and also in high altitude experiments atop Mt. Everest, in balloon payloads with BioLaunch. Currently she is the principal investigator of a synthetic biology payload on an upcoming satellite mission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12592636",
"title": "Gregory Petsko",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "As of 2019 Petsko's research interests are understanding the biochemical bases of neurological diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS, discovering drugs (especially by using structure-based drug design) and biologics, especially gene therapy, that could therapeutically affect those biochemical targets, and seeing any resulting clinical candidates tested in humans. He has made key contributions to the fields of protein crystallography, biochemistry, biophysics, enzymology, and neuroscience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59227670",
"title": "Darlene Lim",
"section": "Section::::Research and exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Lim has taken a decidedly nontraditional path, choosing government labs and public-facing space research over a traditional academic career. As an exobiologist, Lim has explored extreme environments worldwide, from Hawaii and Florida to the Arctic and Antarctic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54104963",
"title": "Goldstone-Apple Valley Radio Telescope",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Current campaigns include studying black holes, planets, search for extraterrestrial life (SETI) and helping monitor the health of a space probes such as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Cassini-Huygens space probe and the Juno space probe. This provides an opportunity for students to experience real science, to learn that science is an ongoing process, not just memorizing facts (Lewis, 2017). \n",
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"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
n6zm1
|
Is there any reason 2 unflavored vodkas should taste any different?
|
[
{
"answer": "The perfect \"pure\" vodka is an ethanol grain-neutral-spirit diluted with pure water to a palatable level. The differences in flavor between vodkas come from impurities or contaminants, since no process is perfect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Mythbusters](_URL_0_) actually covered this in an episode where they filtered low grade vodka through a Brita Filter to try to increase its quality and it more or less turned out to be true (check video for the nuance).\nGiven that, any *actual* differences you taste in equal proof vodka is likely impurities leftover from the distilling process. Of course it is well known the effect clever manipulation of psychology i.e. marketing, can have on your senses so there is no accounting for good taste =P",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ignore my tag for right now. (replace Pharmacy with Bartender)\n\nThe amount of distillation varies. The more it is distilled and filtered, the fewer impurities there are. There are other techniques used, such as chilling it below 0C to increase the density to remove the impurities. \n\nThe 'taste' you experience with vodka is often due to impurities such as glycols, aldehydes, acetone, methanol, and other alcohols. These are compounds either left over from the base ingredient or produced by the yeast during fermentation. Distillation and filtration are used to remove these compounds. The more you distill and filter, the more the price of the vodka goes up (generally). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water is a huge variable however. You can't just assume all water is the same. There are some companies who take cores of icebergs in the north arctic ocean and melt that down for their water because the ice is so old the atmosphere had a different composition when it froze.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The perfect \"pure\" vodka is an ethanol grain-neutral-spirit diluted with pure water to a palatable level. The differences in flavor between vodkas come from impurities or contaminants, since no process is perfect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Mythbusters](_URL_0_) actually covered this in an episode where they filtered low grade vodka through a Brita Filter to try to increase its quality and it more or less turned out to be true (check video for the nuance).\nGiven that, any *actual* differences you taste in equal proof vodka is likely impurities leftover from the distilling process. Of course it is well known the effect clever manipulation of psychology i.e. marketing, can have on your senses so there is no accounting for good taste =P",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ignore my tag for right now. (replace Pharmacy with Bartender)\n\nThe amount of distillation varies. The more it is distilled and filtered, the fewer impurities there are. There are other techniques used, such as chilling it below 0C to increase the density to remove the impurities. \n\nThe 'taste' you experience with vodka is often due to impurities such as glycols, aldehydes, acetone, methanol, and other alcohols. These are compounds either left over from the base ingredient or produced by the yeast during fermentation. Distillation and filtration are used to remove these compounds. The more you distill and filter, the more the price of the vodka goes up (generally). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water is a huge variable however. You can't just assume all water is the same. There are some companies who take cores of icebergs in the north arctic ocean and melt that down for their water because the ice is so old the atmosphere had a different composition when it froze.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32787",
"title": "Vodka",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "A study conducted on NPR's \"Planet Money\" podcast revealed negligible differences in taste between various brands of vodka, leading to speculation as to how much branding contributes to the concept of \"super premium vodkas\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32787",
"title": "Vodka",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Vodka is traditionally drunk \"neat\" or \"straight\" (not mixed with water, ice, or other mixer), although it is often served \"freezer chilled\" in the vodka belt of Belarus, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Lithuania, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Ukraine. It is also used in cocktails and mixed drinks, such as the Vodka martini, Cosmopolitan, Vodka Tonic, Screwdriver, Greyhound, Black or White Russian, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary, and Bloody Caesar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "672961",
"title": "Monopolowa",
"section": "Section::::Tasting Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Taste tests from the Beverage Testing Institute describe the vodka as follows: \"clear, [with] mild aromas of buttercream, candied citrus peel and anise follow through on a round, silky entry to a dryish medium body with notes of banana taffy and minerals. Finishes with long, very smooth fade. A pristine, poised vodka for sipping neat or in martinis.\" Vodka Monopolowa is suited for usage in mixed drinks of all kinds, and is sometimes served with a squeeze of lemon juice to \"further enhance the flavour and texture.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32787",
"title": "Vodka",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Flavoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "While most vodkas are unflavored, many flavored vodkas have been produced in traditional vodka-drinking areas, often as home-made recipes to improve vodka's taste or for medicinal purposes. Flavorings include red pepper, ginger, fruit flavors, vanilla, chocolate (without sweetener), and cinnamon. In Russia, vodka flavored with honey and pepper, \"pertsovka\" in Russian, is also very popular. In Poland and Belarus, the leaves of the local bison grass are added to produce \"żubrówka\" (Polish) and \"zubrovka\" (Belarusian) vodka, with slightly sweet flavors and light amber colors. In Lithuania and Poland, a famous vodka containing honey is called \"krupnik\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32787",
"title": "Vodka",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Flavoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "In most cases, vodka flavoring comes from a post-distillation infusion of flavors. Through the fermentation process, grain mash is transformed into a neutral alcohol beverage that is unflavored. The process of flavoring vodka so that it tastes like fruits, chocolate, and other foods occurs after fermentation and distillation. Various chemicals that reproduce the flavor profiles of foods are added into vodka to give it a specific taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15731809",
"title": "Frïs Vodka",
"section": "Section::::Freeze distillation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "FRÏS Vodka is distilled four times and undergoes a freeze filtration process which removes impurities. Once distilled, the spirit is then blended with water that has been naturally filtered. This creates a clean, crisp taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11141177",
"title": "Anyżówka",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Various flavors of anyżówka or anise-flavoured vodkas if not so popular in Polish noble manors in the 17th CE as other well-known nalewkas, still were popularised probably until the beginning of the 20th CE. Because of their typical sweet taste (as Poles prefer vodkas to be more on the dry side) other brands were preferred over them. After the Great War they have not been re-introduced by commercial producers and nowadays if exquisite, remain forgotten and no one has decided to produce them apart from \"Nalewki i inne\" (link below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xhdg5
|
How did the Europeans manage to pull of the First Crusade?
|
[
{
"answer": "A combination of factors.\n\na) Right after leaving byzantine territory, the crusading armies found themselves on the brink of disaster. At Dorylaeum (July, 1097), the vanguard was surrounded by the Turks and only lived another day thanks to the quick judgement of Raymond of Toulouse and Godfrey of Bouillon, who arrived with the main host in the nick of time. The green troops of 1097 had become by 1099 a hardened force: most of the troops had adjusted to a life of self-sufficiency in food, equipment and horses and took at heart the communitarian, militant, religious character of the enterprise. Feudal loyalties gave way to military necessities - Godfrey of Bouillon began the campaign as head of the Lotharingian hosts - he ended it as leader of all northern french troops, a sign that his leadership had succeeded in creating a true esprit de corps.\n\nb) When crusaders arrived from the West, they were profficient in what historians call \"the charge and skirmish\" type of warfare. They quickly discovered that Easterners did it differently, by employing light cavalry (usually mounted archers) and the rapid tactics of the feint and ambush. By 1098 they were able to successfully counter such tactics; by 1099 they were using them successfully in the march towards Jerusalem.\n\nc) The political situation was a key factor in their success. After the death of Malik-Shah, the Seljuk dominion had fractured beyond repair. Tutush, the emir of Damascus, had taken all of Syria in 1094; in 1095 his realm split between his two sons, that were more interested in fighting each other than making an united front against the invading armies. Worse yet, the Fatimids took Jerusalem in 1098, even by going as far as offering the Crusaders an alliance. A perfect storm.\n\nd) I would add a fourth reason: true religious fervor. While good, cynical opportunists like Baldwin or Bohemond preferred to maintain power over the realms that they had obtained in 1098 (Edessa and Antioch), the rest of the army took down Jerusalem in a haze of religious symbolism and imagery. \"Army of God\", \"Blessed Journey\", \"Dead Martyrs\" were some of the phrases you can find in the letters that participants sent back home. This militant piety, enforced by pope Urban and their past victories, had achieved wonders at the siege of Antioch and would prove invaluable at Jerusalem.\n\nSource: \"God's War\" (Christopher Tyerman).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1061749",
"title": "Battle of Nicopolis",
"section": "Section::::Journey.:To Buda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The crusade set forth from Dijon on 30 April 1396, heading across Bavaria by way of Strasbourg to the upper Danube, from where they used river transport to join with Sigismund in Buda. From there the crusader goals, though lacking details of planning, were to expel the Turks from the Balkans and then go to the aid of Constantinople, cross the Hellespont, and march through Turkey and Syria to liberate Palestine and the Holy Sepulchre, before returning in triumph to Europe by sea. Arrangements were made for a fleet of Venetian vessels to blockade the Turks in the Sea of Marmara and for the Venetians to sail up the Danube to meet the crusaders in Wallachia in July.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10769179",
"title": "Crusade of Varna",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by their victory in the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448, deterred the European states from sending substantial military assistance to the Byzantines during the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Although Pius II officially declared a three-year crusade at the Council of Mantua to recapture Constantinople from the Ottomans, the leaders who promised 80,000 soldiers to it reneged on their commitment. The Ottoman Empire was free, for several decades, from any further serious attempts to push it out of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106132",
"title": "Fourth Crusade",
"section": "Section::::Outcome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, \"crusades\" on a limited scale were organised by the Kingdoms of Hungary, Poland, Wallachia, and Serbia. These were not the traditional expeditions aimed at the recovery of Jerusalem but rather defensive campaigns intended to prevent further expansion to the west by the Ottoman Empire. During the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453, up to 2,000 Venetian and Genoese volunteers formed part of the approximately 9,000 defenders of the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106130",
"title": "Second Crusade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1015,
"text": "The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus. The crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a great victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435268",
"title": "History of the world",
"section": "Section::::Post-classical history.:Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, European leaders launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land. The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful and served more to weaken the Byzantine Empire, especially with the 1204 sack of Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Turks. Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the Mongol Empire, swept through the region but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in modern-day Turkey around 1280.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20836075",
"title": "History of Palestine",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Ayyubid, Mamluk, Bahri and Mamluk Burji period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The defeat of the Europeans provoked further crusades from Europe, varying in size and success. In 1192, after preventing the Third Crusade under Richard the Lionheart from recapturing Jerusalem, Saladin entered into the Treaty of Ramla in which he agreed that Western Christian pilgrims could worship freely in Jerusalem. The threat remained, however, and Ayyubid Emir Al-Mu'azzam destroyed Jerusalem's city walls in 1219 to prevent the Crusaders from capturing a fortified city. To end the Sixth Crusade, a 10-year treaty was signed between Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, allowing Christians freedom to live in the unfortified Jerusalem, as well as Nazareth and Bethlehem, although the Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16822",
"title": "Kingdom of Jerusalem",
"section": "Section::::History.:First Crusade and the foundation of the kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "The First Crusade was preached at the Council of Clermont in 1095 by Pope Urban II, with the goal of assisting the Byzantine Empire against the invasions of the Seljuk Turks. However, the main objective quickly became the control of the Holy Land. The Byzantines were frequently at war with the Seljuks and other Turkish dynasties for control of Anatolia and Syria. The Sunni Seljuks had formerly ruled the Great Seljuk Empire, but this empire had collapsed into several smaller states after the death of Malik-Shah I in 1092. Malik-Shah was succeeded in the Anatolian Sultanate of Rûm by Kilij Arslan I, and in Syria by his brother Tutush I, who died in 1095. Tutush's sons Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other, as well as Kerbogha, the atabeg of Mosul. This disunity among the Anatolian and Syrian emirs allowed the crusaders to overcome any military opposition they faced on the way to Jerusalem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hwsor
|
why the depth matters with water resistant devices?
|
[
{
"answer": "The deeper you dive in water, the more pressure is applied across the entire exposed surface of an object. Gaskets (rubber components designed to keep water out) in a device can only stand so much pressure before they're breached and water begins to flood in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Pressure of the water against the gaskets or seal used to \"waterproof\" or, make water resistant, the device.\n\n2. Condensation. Water molecules will get past glass and plastics pretty easily given enough time/temperature difference. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It matters because the deeper an item is, the more pressure is being pushed on it, causing water to go inside of it. The reason they are water proof to start with is because water cant get into it to mess up the electronics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8649012",
"title": "Layered clothing",
"section": "Section::::Layers.:Shell layer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "BULLET::::- Water resistant (soft shell) most materials block water only partially, however as technology in the outdoor industry moves forward more fully waterproof soft shells are emerging such as polartec neoshell or DryQ Elite. On the other hand, they are usually more breathable and comfortable, thinner, and cheaper than completely waterproof materials. Water-repellent coatings are often used. Before waterproof-breathable shells were invented, the \"60/40\" (60% cotton, 40% nylon) parka was widely used. Soft shells are not water \"proof\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28825",
"title": "Submarine",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Submersion and trimming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks, called Main Ballast Tanks (MBT), which are filled with water to submerge or with air to surface. Submerged, MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Depth Control Tanks (DCT) – also called hard tanks (due to their ability to withstand higher pressure), or trim tanks. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be controlled to change depth or to maintain a constant depth as outside conditions (chiefly water density) change. Depth control tanks may be located either near the submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the submarine body to prevent affecting trim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4655583",
"title": "Submarine hull",
"section": "Section::::Dive depth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of the weight of onboard equipment, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is affordable for civilian research submersibles, but not military submarines, so their dive depth was always bounded by current technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51596362",
"title": "Defence in depth (non-military)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "A defence in depth uses multi-layered protections, similar to redundant protections. The intention is to create a reliable system using the multiple layers, rather than making any one layer perfectly reliable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2099543",
"title": "Waterproofing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater to specified depths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43362985",
"title": "Perforene",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The most promising application is seawater desalination. With holes as small as one nanometer in diameter, the membranes would trap sodium, chlorine and other ions, while allowing water molecules to pass through easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13789881",
"title": "Electro-optical MASINT",
"section": "Section::::Shallow water operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Several new technologies will be needed for shallow-water naval operations. Since acoustic sensors (i.e., passive hydrophones and active sonar) perform less effectively in shallow waters than in the open seas, there is a strong pressure to develop additional sensors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ih13t
|
What happens if a GPS satellite gets KO'd?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparently, the minimum amount for the GPS system to be operational is 24 satellites. However, as at the moment 31 are operational, there is small chance of harm to the GPS system. If one satellite were to fail, there are enough others to keep the system working. Satellites do age and get decommissioned all the time (see [wikipedia list](_URL_0_) ), and new ones (with updated technology) are launched to take their places. \nIf a satellite were to fail right now due to a meteoroid strike or any other problem, it wouldn't get replaced immediately, although if a few satellites were to fail at the same time, it's well possible the GPS satellite production gets a boost from the US gov to get the full constellation up to speed again. \nEdit: added [source](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "GPS satellites can actually be moved/re-positioned shooting one down will not make a big difference and we can actually drop to bellow 24 satellites and still have a very operational GPS network with a high precision. \n\nThis is due to history correction process and implementation of differential GPS on the ground. With the current setup on any point on earth you are in range of 7 satellites with earth acting at (4th or 8th). \nYou could take that number all the way down to 3 satellites at any given time and combined with differential GPS and earth acting as 4th satellite along with know acceleration and orientation you would still have a very high positioning precision. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Background: systems engineer for GPS receivers used in aviation.\n\nThe GPS constellation was originally designed with 24 satellites. They were placed in 6 different orbits each containing 4 satellites each. The Keplerian parameters of these 6 orbits have been thoroughly researched to provide maximum coverage at any point on the earth. Over time the DoD has released 7 more satellites to improve coverage, leading to a little bit of overpopulation of the constellation.\n\nModern Navigational GPS need 4 satellites to solve for receiver x,y,z co-ordinates and t (time). \"In order to calculate real-time and accurate positions\", we have to solve for time since the receiver clock always has an offset to the satellite clocks (practical solutions will never have them synced exactly) causing it to be an unknown in the position equations.\n\nHowever, if you look up and plot the visible satellites there are always around 8-10 satellites above the horizon (at least over the equator) which is more than enough. So one satellite being KO'd is no big deal from the user's perspective.\nMoreover, over the North American continent we have 5 more geo-stationary WAAS satellites that provide enhanced position accuracy and can be used to compute position / time. \n\nMoreover, manufacturers are already working on new receivers that can ALSO track and use satellites from other constellations (ex: GLONASS, EGNOS) released by Europeans and Russians to compute position / time.\n\nAlso, the control centers are always servicing one or more satellites at a given time so we rarely have a fully operational constellation.\n\nIn my knowledge, a satellite has never been KO'd by a meteor but if it happened, the user will notice no difference. The satellite will either be knocked out of orbit or if it is still in orbit I don't think anyone is going up to fix it( too expensive). We would just release a new satellite to take it's place if the DoD feels the need to improve coverage. \n\nI hope I have quelled a bit of your curiosity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "351365",
"title": "RoadShow",
"section": "Section::::Programming.:Future development on programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "However, in dense urban areas with congested high-rise buildings, the satellite signals to the GPS receiver are often blocked and the accuracy of the results adversely affected. KMB claims that GPS would only be installed to the whole fleet until the problem is solved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2015018",
"title": "Broadband Global Area Network",
"section": "Section::::Details.:Signal acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "The actual process of connecting a BGAN terminal to the satellite is fairly straightforward. The BGAN terminal needs to find its position using GPS, before it can negotiate with the satellite, so a clear view of the sky is necessary to begin with. Once the GPS position is obtained, it does not need to do that again unless it is moved to a different region. Obtaining the initial GPS position can take a few minutes. The terminal then needs a line-of-sight to the geostationary satellite so a user would normally be outside, and have a general idea of what direction the satellite would be (with a compass if necessary). Turning the terminal slowly by hand, it will give some indication when the satellite is found. Then usually with the touch of one button, the terminal auto-negotiates with the satellite and connects. The average pointing time for a BGAN unit is 2 minutes, under a minute with an experienced user and a good signal. BGAN is being used in the world today for disaster response, telemedicine, business continuity, remote site monitoring (telemetry), military use, and recreational use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "793435",
"title": "Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "GPS does not include any internal information about the integrity of its signals. It is possible for a GPS satellite to broadcast slightly incorrect information that will cause navigation information to be incorrect, but there is no way for the receiver to determine this using the standard techniques. RAIM uses redundant signals to produce several GPS position fixes and compare them, and a statistical function determines whether or not a fault can be associated with any of the signals. RAIM is considered available if 24 GPS satellites or more are operative. If the number of GPS satellites is 23 or fewer, RAIM availability must be checked using approved ground-based prediction software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18376",
"title": "Loran-C",
"section": "Section::::The future of LORAN.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Also on 7 May 2009, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), the investigative arm of Congress, released a report citing the very real potential for the GPS system to degrade or fail in light of program delays which have resulted in scheduled GPS satellite launches slipping by up to three years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "862061",
"title": "Wide Area Augmentation System",
"section": "Section::::History and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "This inaccuracy in GPS is mostly due to large \"billows\" in the ionosphere, which slow the radio signal from the satellites by a random amount. Since GPS relies on timing the signals to measure distances, this slowing of the signal makes the satellite appear farther away. The billows move slowly, and can be characterized using a variety of methods from the ground, or by examining the GPS signals themselves. By broadcasting this information to GPS receivers every minute or so, this source of error can be significantly reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11866",
"title": "Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Control segment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards—so to change a satellite's orbit, the satellite must be marked \"unhealthy\", so receivers don't use it. After the satellite maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground, upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043414",
"title": "International Cospas-Sarsat Programme",
"section": "Section::::System architecture.:GEOSAR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Because their geostationary orbit does not provide a relative motion between a distress beacon and a GEOSAR (Geostationary Search And Rescue) satellite, there is no opportunity to use the Doppler effect to calculate the location of a beacon. Therefore, the GEOSAR satellites only can relay a beacon's distress message. If the beacon is a model with a feature to report its location (e.g., from an on-board GPS receiver) then that location is relayed to SAR authorities. While the inability to independently locate a beacon is a drawback of GEOSAR satellites, those satellites have an advantage in that the present constellation well covers the entire Earth in real time, except for the polar regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yaxgq
|
Danish / Norwegian resistance during World War II
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know too much about the Danes, but my impression is that they were pretty much overrun before they had time to react.\n\nIn Norway, the government had time to get out of Oslo before the Germans could capture them. One thing I believe was important was the attitude of Haakon VI, king of Norway. He refused to cooperate with the Germans or capitulate.\n\nIt might also be a factor that the battle for Norway was still on for a couple of months before the military capitulation.\n\nAs far as I know, the major difference was simply that the Norwegian government had the opportunity to flee while the Danish did not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "981069",
"title": "Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Danish residency and exodus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1132,
"text": "Neutral Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany on 9 April 1940, and was occupied for the remainder of World War II. Food shortages, communication restrictions, and transport closures followed. As Olga's sons, Tikhon and Guri, served as officers in the Danish Army, they were interned as prisoners of war, but their imprisonment in a Copenhagen hotel lasted less than two months. Tikhon was imprisoned for a further month in 1943 after being arrested on charges of espionage. Other Russian émigrés, keen to fight against the Soviets, enlisted in the German forces. Despite her sons' internment and her mother's Danish origins, Olga was implicated in her compatriots' collusion with German forces, as she continued to meet and extend help to Russian émigrés fighting against communism. On 4 May 1945, German forces in Denmark surrendered to the British. When economic and social conditions for Russian exiles failed to improve, General Pyotr Krasnov wrote to the Grand Duchess, detailing the wretched conditions affecting Russian immigrants in Denmark. She in turn asked Prince Axel of Denmark to help them, but her request was refused.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22054442",
"title": "Nikolai Kulikovsky",
"section": "Section::::Danish residency and exodus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "On 9 April 1940, neutral Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany and was occupied for the rest of World War II. As Olga's sons, Tikhon and Guri, served as officers in the Danish Army, they were interned as prisoners of war, but their imprisonment in a Copenhagen hotel lasted less than two months. Other Russian émigrés, keen to fight against the Soviets, enlisted in the German forces. Despite her sons' internment and her mother's Danish origins, Olga was implicated in her compatriots' collusion with German forces, as she continued to meet and extend help to Russian émigrés fighting against communism. After the surrender of Germany in 1945, the Soviet Union wrote to the Danish government accusing the Grand Duchess of conspiracy against the Soviet authorities. With the end of the war, Soviet troops occupied the easternmost part of Denmark, and Olga grew fearful of an assassination or kidnap attempt. She decided to move her family across the Atlantic to the relative safety of rural Canada, a decision with which Kulikovsky complied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22235683",
"title": "Jutland",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I and Battle of Jutland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Denmark was neutral throughout the First World War. However, Danes living in North Slesvig, since it was part of the German Empire from 1864 to 1920, were conscripted for the imperial German army. 5000 Danish South Jutlanders are estimated to have fallen in German military service during the War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55793751",
"title": "Operation Safari",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "During the early years of the war, Denmark had been known as the model protectorate, earning the nickname \"the Cream Front\" (), due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious amount of dairy products. General Hermann von Hanneken, the head of German land forces in Denmark, had wanted the Danish Army to be disarmed; if the Allies invadec, Danish forces could interfere with German supplies and communications. Plans to disarm the Danish Army were initially drafted in June 1943 and by July they were nearly ready. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470962",
"title": "Danish resistance movement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The Danish resistance movements () were an underground insurgency to resist the German occupation of Denmark during World War II. Due to the initially lenient arrangements, in which the Nazi occupation authority allowed the democratic government to stay in power, the resistance movement was slower to develop effective tactics on a wide scale than in some other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76972",
"title": "Denmark",
"section": "Section::::History.:Constitutional monarchy (1849–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "In 1939 Denmark signed a 10-year non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany but Germany invaded Denmark on 9 April 1940 and the Danish government quickly surrendered. World War II in Denmark was characterised by economic co-operation with Germany until 1943, when the Danish government refused further co-operation and its navy scuttled most of its ships and sent many of its officers to Sweden, which was neutral. The Danish resistance performed a rescue operation that managed to evacuate several thousand Jews and their families to safety in Sweden before the Germans could send them to death camps. Some Danes supported Nazism by joining the Danish Nazi Party or volunteering to fight with Germany as part of the Frikorps Danmark. Iceland severed ties with Denmark and became an independent republic in 1944; Germany surrendered in May 1945; in 1948, the Faroe Islands gained home rule; in 1949, Denmark became a founding member of NATO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43507",
"title": "Axis powers",
"section": "Section::::Controversial cases.:Denmark.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 257,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 257,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "In 1941 Danish Nazis set up the \"Frikorps Danmark\". Thousands of volunteers fought and many died as part of the German Army on the Eastern Front. Denmark sold agricultural and industrial products to Germany and made loans for armaments and fortifications. The German presence in Denmark, including the construction of the Danish paid for part of the Atlantic Wall fortifications and was never reimbursed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q4q9d
|
Why did the Guild system collapse?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simple answer: emergence of routinized labor in a factory. Call it Taylorization, [division of labor,](_URL_0_) or whatever you like, it was the change from craft control of labor to factory-based production that ended most guilds. \n\nLonger answer is *very* long. Involves immigration, changes in technology, populism, anti-unionism, \"robber-barons,\" and a whole dissertation's worth of stuff. \n\nThere are some professions that still resemble guilds: medicine, academia, and the legal profession maintain near-complete control over their own work. They select, train, employ and regulate their professional members, much as guilds did.\n\nEDIT: Missed the last part of your question. Strengths of the system depend on whose point of view. From the worker's POV, they could control their output, regulate the price for that output, control entry to the profession, and control the conditions of their work. For example, a cigar roller's daily \"stint\" was to roll X cigars. If he rolled fewer, he was a poor worker. If he rolled more, he was a poor union/guild member. Rolling too many would mean that fewer people would be employed. From the point of view of a shop owner, the guilds guaranteed quality (usually,) and that there would always be a certain number of workers available. Shop owner laments would include: resistance to change, more-or-less fixed labor costs (not always bad,) and a complicated hiring system. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most guilds died out in the Early Modern Period, and not because of routinized labor in a factory, as Cosmic-Charlie claims. In the sixteenth century a few things happend that triggered the Commercial Expansion. These are the steady population growth, the slow gradual inflation and the rise of long-distance trade. In the old guild system there was little profit, little risk or loss and not much innovation. All this changed with the widening of the trading area or market. The rising amount of long-distance trade, where goods were produced to be sold at some time in the future, in faraway places, to persons unknown, the local guildmaster could not manage this operation. He lacked the money and knowlegde for this proces. In this long-distance business new kinds of entrepreneurs bacame promient in the European commercial life. They usually started out as merchants and ended up as bankers, like the german Fuggers.\n\nOther dealers in cloth broke away from the town-and-guild framework in other ways. In the fiftheenth century certain English entrepreneurs began to develop the spinning, weaving and dyeing of wool in England. To avoid the restrictive practices of the towns and guilds they 'put out' the work to people in the country, providing them with looms and other equipment for this process. This putting out system spread very widely outside the guild system and by the early modern period this typically depended on a gendered division of labor. This proved to be a start for the division of labor as we see in the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century.\nAnother aspect of the commercial revolution was mercantilism. Rulers were hard pressed for money and needed more of it as it fell in value. \n\nThe New Monarchs started building up a strong and self-sufficient system. The means adopted was to set the poor on work, to turn the country into a hive of industry, to discourage idleness, begging, vagabondage and unemployment. This went along nicely with the idea of the entrepreneurs, who put the poor on the countryside to work. Mercantilists frowned upon the localistic and conservatite outlook of the guilds. In 1563 England broke with the guildsystem, regulating with the Statute of Artificers the admission to apprenticeship and level of wages in various trades. In France the guilds lost influence and importance aswell. In both countries the government assisted merchants who wished to set up domestic or cottage industry in the country, against the protests of the town guilds, which in their heyday had forbidden rural people to engage in crafts. Government tried to suppres idleness to increase taxincome. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12369",
"title": "Guild",
"section": "Section::::History of guilds.:Post-classical guild.:Fall of the guilds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The guild system became a target of much criticism towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Critics argued that they hindered free trade and technological innovation, technology transfer and business development. According to several accounts of this time, guilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12369",
"title": "Guild",
"section": "Section::::History of guilds.:Post-classical guild.:Fall of the guilds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Because of industrialization and modernization of the trade and industry, and the rise of powerful nation-states that could directly issue patent and copyright protections — often revealing the trade secrets — the guilds' power faded. After the French Revolution they gradually fell in most European nations over the course of the 19th century, as the guild system was disbanded and replaced by laws that promoted free trade. As a consequence of the decline of guilds, many former handicraft workers were forced to seek employment in the emerging manufacturing industries, using not closely guarded techniques formerly protected by guilds, but rather the standardized methods controlled by corporations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3129856",
"title": "Economic history of the Ottoman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.:Late 18th century onwards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Guilds operating prior to the 18th century did see a decline through the 18th and 19th centuries. Guilds provided some form of security in prices, restricting production and controlling quality and provided support to members who hit hard times. However, with market forces driving down prices their importance declined, and with the Janissaries as their backers, being disbanded by Mahmut II in 1826, their fate was sealed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12369",
"title": "Guild",
"section": "Section::::History of guilds.:Post-classical guild.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "The guild system survived the emergence of early capitalists, which began to divide guild members into \"haves\" and dependent \"have-nots\". The civil struggles that characterize the 14th-century towns and cities were struggles in part between the greater guilds and the lesser artisanal guilds, which depended on piecework. \"In Florence, they were openly distinguished: the \"Arti maggiori\" and the \"Arti minori\"—already there was a \"popolo grasso\" and a \"popolo magro\"\". Fiercer struggles were those between essentially conservative guilds and the merchant class, which increasingly came to control the means of production and the capital that could be ventured in expansive schemes, often under the rules of guilds of their own. German social historians trace the \"Zunftrevolution\", the urban revolution of guildmembers against a controlling urban patriciate, sometimes reading into them, however, perceived foretastes of the class struggles of the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15940997",
"title": "Pacte de Famine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Guild and grain regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The guild dissolution prompted workers to riot, and social unruliness became a normal state of affairs. Guild members argued that this shift would lead to a more corporate system that would cause people to lose their sense of social identity, and that chaos and instability would result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28714419",
"title": "Economy of England in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Mid-medieval growth (1100–1290).:Trade, manufacturing and the towns.:Rise of the guilds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The craft guilds required relatively stable markets and a relative equality of income and opportunity amongst their members to function effectively. By the 14th century these conditions were increasingly uncommon. The first strains were seen in London, where the old guild system began to collapse – more trade was being conducted at a national level, making it hard for craftsmen to both manufacture goods and trade in them, and there were growing disparities in incomes between the richer and poorer craftsmen. As a result, under Edward III many guilds became companies or livery companies, chartered companies focusing on trade and finance, leaving the guild structures to represent the interests of the smaller, poorer manufacturers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29227373",
"title": "Economics of English towns and trade in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Mid-medieval growth (1100-1290).:Trade, manufacturing and the towns.:Rise of the guilds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "The craft guilds required relatively stable markets and a relative equality of income and opportunity amongst their members to function effectively. By the 14th century these conditions were increasingly uncommon. The first strains were seen in London, where the old guild system began to collapse - more trade was being conducted at a national level, making it hard for craftsmen to both manufacture goods and trade in them, and there were growing disparities in incomes between the richer and poor craftsmen. As a result, under Edward III many guilds became companies or livery companies, chartered companies focusing on trade and finance (the management of large amounts of money), leaving the guild structures to represent the interests of the smaller, poorer manufacturers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d62rxx
|
if the single use plastic is already made, how is my refusal to buy these items helping the planet? they are already made and someone else will buy them?
|
[
{
"answer": "If not as many single use plastic items get bought, companies will cut back on how many more they make in the future. That's important too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The idea is that gradually, consumption of the product will decline to the point that they will no longer be produced, in favor of more marketable products. If fewer people are apt to purchase an item because it is single-use plastic, then companies will reduce their production of single-use plastic because they want to sell more items, not less.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Decreasing demand will reduce the number produced next time. Yes the existing inventory will sell eventually, but if it takes forever and requires a deep discount there won't be much financial incentive to produce more.\n\nIt's not like suddenly nobody bought horses or typewriters one day, demand trickled away to nothing and producers decreased their future supply to match and eventually left the market entirely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ah, but by eliminating the demand for MORE single use plastics, we make sure that noone makes any more of them. \n\n_Well, but other countries will just buy them_. Yes, but after a bunch of the hip cool kids ban them, then say \"sorry Thailand we won't do business with you unless you get rid of the plastics too\", then economic peer pressure kicks in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Businessmen normally will only produce items that customers are willing to buy; if there’s something that more and more customers refuse to buy, it will be produced in lower amounts. \n\nIt’s being said, demand creates supply, not the opposite.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These items are being mass produced daily. If that stopped, we would run out of them in a few weeks, or months. But the hope is that those companies producing them will see a loss in sales, thereby requiring that they reduce production. At the same time, the demand for compostable/biodegradable products rises dramatically, making the manufacturers see the market will support their shift to the new products. The effect is an eventual changeover to the eco-friendly products.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243426",
"title": "Environmental issues in Thailand",
"section": "Section::::Waste management.:Plastic waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "In 2017, the Thai government said that it might tax plastic bags. An \"endless debate\" has ensued in government, but no action. One reason might be the interests of powerful petrochemical firms. They maintain that plastic is not an issue if it is reused and recycled. Thai exports of polyethylene pellets and plastic goods amounted to 430 billion baht or five percent of total Thai exports in 2017 according to the Thai Plastic Industries Association.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "967372",
"title": "Drinking straw",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.:Plastic straw bans and proposals.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "On April 19, 2018, ahead of Earth Day, a proposal to phase out single-use plastics was announced during the meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of Government. This will include plastic drinking straws, which cannot be recycled and contribute to ocean deterioration, damaging ecosystems and wildlife. It is estimated that as of 2018, about 23 million straws are used and discarded daily in the UK. Plastic straws will be banned in England from April 2020. However, there will be exemptions for those who require plastic straws due to disability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36080727",
"title": "Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags",
"section": "Section::::Legislation around the world.:North America.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The Canadian government has plans to ban single-use plastics as early as 2021, the list of items to be banned includes plastic straws, cotton swabs, stirrers, plates, cutlery as well as balloon sticks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60803494",
"title": "China waste import ban",
"section": "Section::::Chinese plastic history.:Plastic recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "It was reported that roughly 50% of plastics are being utilized in disposable manufacturing processes such as packaging, agricultural films, and disposables, while 20 to 25 % was used for long-term infrastructure like pipes, coating for cables and structured materials and the remainder is used for durable moderate life consumer goods such as electronics, furniture, and vehicles. In general, plastic is considered to be durable and non-biodegradable hence making them difficult to decompose for at least a few decades with some lasting over hundreds or thousands of years. Judging from the domestic environmental factors, even some degradable plastics may still exist for a considerable period of time due to their degradation rate which is also influenced by factors such as the exposure of UV, oxygen, and temperature, whereas biodegradable plastics require the need of adequate microorganisms. Therefore, the rate of degradation in landfills and terrestrial, marine environments would tend to vary. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827851",
"title": "Marine debris",
"section": "Section::::Debris removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Another issue is that removing marine debris from our oceans can potentially cause more harm than good. Cleaning up micro-plastics could also accidentally take out plankton, which are the main lower level food group for the marine food chain and over half of the photosynthesis on earth. One of the most efficient and cost effective ways to help reduce the amount of plastic entering our oceans is to not participate in using single use plastics, avoid plastic bottled drinks such as water bottles, use reusable shopping bags, and to buy products with reusable packaging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60939825",
"title": "Waste management in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Current management system.:Production.:Single use plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 95% of the plastic packaging is discarded after a single use. In March 2019 the organisation published \"Solving Plastic pollution through accountability\", a report issued on an international basis and which urged governments to stop accepting projects contemplating the use of virgin materials. Additionally, it supported a global ban to single use plastics and requested the producers to be considered responsible for how their products are ultimately disposed of, and recycled. The single use plastics have been already banned in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60756821",
"title": "Waste management in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Recent challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "China has been the dumping ground for the world's plastic for the longest time. In the 1990s, China saw discarded plastic as profitable, and the Chinese recreated the plastic into smaller, exportable bits and pieces. It was also cheaper for countries to export their plastic to China than discard it themselves. In November 2017, China stopped accepting contaminated plastic. This rejected plastic becomes absorbed by neighbouring countries like Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and South Korea. Now, Southeast Asian countries are starting to reject this waste as well. In August 2018, Vietnam introduced strict restrictions on plastic scrap imports. Thailand followed suit, announcing a ban on electronic parts. In October 2018, Malaysia also announced a ban on imports of plastic scraps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2v2yqb
|
islands like hawaii seem to very quickly get diverse vegetation even though they pop up in the middle of the ocean, so where do the first seeds come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "Seeds travel in many ways. Some get there by water, traveling on air currents (think dandelion) or by animals (bird eats seed, undigested seed from excrement finds new home), and by humans. \n\nIn Hawaii's case, many of their trees and plants were brought to the island by early settlers. \nEdit: removed inaccurate information about the quantity of native flora and fauna. Thanks for correct info!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coconuts float all across the world. It's safe to say that a coconut landed on Hawaiian Shores before the migration of people from the south Pacific. That, and bird poop. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd like to know how the hell did mosquitoes get there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coconut palms are amazing plants. The coconut can remain at sea for months. That is why on beaches, coconut palms seem to reach out, slanted over the ocean. My favorite plant (palms are not trees but rather freakishly large grasses).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So perhaps a swallow could carry a coconut's seeds, bypassing the simple issue of weight ratios. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was watching a nature documentary on hawaii once and they said that it took 2000 years for each new species to wind up in hawaii.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "346439",
"title": "Bidens",
"section": "Section::::Propagation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The plants are zoochorous; their seeds will stick to clothing, fur or feathers, and be carried to new habitat. This has enabled them to colonize a wide range, including many oceanic islands. Some of these species occur only in a very restricted range and several are now threatened with extinction, notably in the Hawaiian Islands. Due to the absence of native mammals on these islands, some of the oceanic island taxa have reduced burrs, evolving features that seem to aid in dispersal by the wind instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60772038",
"title": "Flora of French Polynesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The flora of these islands is relatively poor in terms of diversity of species, due to their geographical isolation. However, most of the islands are covered by tropical forest. That is because the soil of volcanic origin is very fertile, and the climate is warm and humid. Among the trees of these islands that stand out are the coconut tree, the breadfruit , the casuarina, the banana, the ceiba, the banyan, the ilang-ilang, the polynesian chestnut, the flamboyant and the Caribbean pine. Among the bushes that stand out are the tiaré flower (emblem of Tahiti), the hibiscus, the plumeria, the bougainvillea, the gardenia, the jasmine and the oleander.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "329743",
"title": "Mariana Islands",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "All the islands, except Farallon de Medinilla and Uracas or Farallon de Pajaros (in the northern group), are more or less densely wooded, and the vegetation is dense, much resembling that of the Carolines and also of the Philippines, from where species of plants have been introduced. Owing to the moistness of the soil cryptogams are numerous, as are also most kinds of grasses. On most of the islands there is a plentiful supply of water.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "13270",
"title": "Hawaii",
"section": "Section::::Geography and environment.:Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
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"text": "Because the islands of Hawaii are distant from other land habitats, life is thought to have arrived there by wind, waves (i.e. by ocean currents) and wings (i.e. birds, insects, and any seeds they may have carried on their feathers). This isolation, in combination with the diverse environment (including extreme altitudes, tropical climates, and arid shorelines), allowed for the evolution of new endemic flora and fauna. Hawaii has more endangered species and has lost a higher percentage of its endemic species than any other U.S. state. One endemic plant, \"Brighamia\", now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of \"Brighamia\"—\"B. rockii\" and \"B. insignis\"—are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "25072414",
"title": "Geography of Tristan da Cunha",
"section": "Section::::Flora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
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"text": "Even the smaller islands have some plant cover, with the larger ones dominated by ferns and moss. Flora on the archiplego includes many endemic species and many that have a broad circumpolar distribution in the South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans. Thus many of the species that occur in Tristan da Cunha occur as far away as New Zealand. For example, the species \"Nertera depressa\" was first collected in Tristan da Cunha, but has since been recorded in occurrence as far distant as New Zealand.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "758636",
"title": "National Park of American Samoa",
"section": "Section::::Biodiversity.:Flora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
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"text": "The islands are mostly covered by tropical rainforest, including cloud forest on Ta'u and lowland ridge forest on Tutuila. Most plants arrived by chance from Southeast Asia. There are 343 flowering plants, 135 ferns and about 30% are endemic plant species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "6825728",
"title": "Banyak Islands",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The islands vary in their land cover; most are sandy with limited vegetation, while the larger islands have deep rainforests and are fringed by intertidal mangroves. The Pulau Banyak area contains many varieties of stony Heliopora and branching Acropora types of coral . However, crown-of-thorns starfish are a significant problem. The fringing coral reefs are habitat to diverse species, including green and leatherback sea turtles, pelagic and coral fish, and varieties of octopus, lobster, and other sea life. The weather is tropical; August to January are the rainy season, followed by a dry season from approximately February to July. \n",
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6itg5p
|
In popular culture and meme posts there's a stereotype correlating living in Southern states and incest. Is there any historical reason why this stereotype is a thing? Why aren't Northern American states associated with this stereotype instead?
|
[
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"answer": "Hello everyone, \n\nIf you are a first time visitor, welcome! This thread is trending high right now and getting a lot of attention, but it's important to remember that those upvotes represent interest in the question itself, and [it can often take time for a good answer to be written](_URL_6_). The mission of /r/AskHistorians is to provide users with **in-depth and comprehensive responses**, and our [rules](_URL_4_) are intended to facilitate that purpose. *We remove comments which don't follow them for reasons including unfounded speculation, shallowness, and of course, inaccuracy*. We also remove them when they misunderstand the question, so please note: **the OP asked about the stereotype of incestuousness, not other stereotypes relating to southern America.** So please, before you try your hand at posting, check out the [rules](_URL_4_), as we don't want to have to warn you further. (Making comments asking about the removed comments will simply compound this issue, so please don't do that either.) \n\nOf course, we know that it can be frustrating to come in here from your frontpage or /r/all and see only *[removed]*, but we ask for your patience and understanding. Great content is produced on this subreddit every day though, and we hope that while you wait, you will check out places they are featured, including [Twitter](_URL_1_), the [Sunday Digest](_URL_2_), the [Monthly \"Best Of\"](_URL_9_) feature, and now, [Facebook](_URL_3_). It is very rare that a decent answer doesn't result in due time, so please do come check back on this thread in a few hours. If you think you might forget, send a [Private Message](_URL_7_!) to the [Remind-Me bot](_URL_0_), and it will ensure you don't!\n\nFinally, while we always appreciate feedback, it would be unfair to the OP to derail this thread with META conversation, so if anyone has further questions or concerns, I would ask that they be directed to [modmail](_URL_5_), or a [META thread](_URL_8_[META]). Thank you!",
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"answer": "The word \"hillbilly\" had spread far enough to make its first known appearance in print in 1900, though perhaps not quite far enough that it didn't need defining:\n\n > A hill-billie is a free and untrammelled white citizen of Alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him.\n\nThis is useful for two reasons. First, it sets out 1900 as the point by which the image of the hillbilly/redneck/poor white southerner had gelled in the American imagination (the quote is from a New York publication). Second, it focuses our attention on a particular sub-region of the American South, that is, on [Appalachia](_URL_1_) (and as John Otto points out, the oft-overlooked/morphed into 'western Appalachia' [Ozarks](_URL_0_)). The place of Appalachia in American settlement and economic history, and its function in 19th century literature, roll into the stereotypes we know today--including the myth of rampant incest.\n\nAlready by the early 19th century, Appalachia was developing a reputation as the \"backwoods\" of America from the eastern seaboard. Part of this was emotional: as white Americans geared up to force Native Americans further and further west, the backwoods served as a buffer zone or no man's land of protection. Part of this was geographic: duh. But part of this was economic, and on its way to becoming an enduring culture.\n\nScholars following Otto use the term \"plain folk\", and sometimes \"plain folk agriculture\" to stress its economic origins. Characteristics included small-scale farming in forest clearings, free-ranging pastoralism, and geographically isolated homesteads. But not socially isolated:\n\n > Each farmstead\n belonged to a dispersed rural neighborhood, or community, whose members\n were united by friendship, marriage, and kinship. Though dispersed over\n several square miles, the members of a community called on their friends,\n relatives, and in-laws for aid in clearing land, gathering crops, shucking corn,\n collecting livestock, slaughtering animals, and building log houses. \n\n > Frequently, a church was the focus of a community, and many communities adopted such Biblical place names as Pisgah, Hebron, and Gilead. The county seat towns, the churches, the schools, and the rural\n neighborhoods were the physical setting for social and recreational life. The\n simple pleasures of court sessions, church meetings, and neighborly socializ-\n ing did much to overcome the spartan material conditions of life. Folks owned\n modest amounts of property and pursued a self-sufficient life style which left\n little room for material luxuries. They fashioned their own agricultural tools,\n household furnishings, and clothing, and they bought little more than salt, ammunition, ironware, and the occasional book.\n\nThis is rather a vision or a version of the \"yeoman farmer\" stereotype, almost pioneer-like, and before the Civil War its presence was hardly limited to Appalachia (and, again, the Ozarks). But by 1820, eastern writers were recognizing that the urbanizing North and turn towards plantations in the south were crafting a divide. As Anne Newport Royall, editor of the Maryland proto-feminist magazine *The Huntress* wrote in 1826:\n\n > On the bosom of this vast mass of mountains . . . of Virginia . . . there is as much difference between the people of the western states and those in the east as there is between any two people in the union...these present a district republic of their own, every way different from any people.\n\nThe impression of difference was being communicated eastward by the pens of travelers, but even more so by the propaganda of revivalist missionaries seeing the backwoods as fertile ground for evangelization. As America spiraled towards civil war, too, northern antislavery writers crafted an view of Appalachia as a bastion of white abolitionism. Not entirely unrooted in reality, at least through the 1830s, this highly charged image depended on Appalachians as poor white people either victimized by slavery or opposed to it with fiery religious zeal. (To say nothing of, you know, black Appalachians and slave-owning whites...)\n\nAround and after the Civil War, two economic developments isolated the Appalachian backwoods both physically and culturally. First, the construction of railroads created, you might say, \"winners and losers\" out of Appalachian towns. Where the tracks went, David Hsiung argues, residents stayed both economically and *emotionally* connected to both Northern and deeper-Southern culture. In the deeper South, plain folk agriculture evaporated with the evolution into larger cotton-farming \"post-plantation\" plantations, essentially. But the *mountains* of Appalachia are not conducive to that pattern of planting. Plain folk agriculture *and the society/culture that accompanied it*, described above, lived on in the mountains.\n\nThe over 100 known accounts of outsiders Describing And Defining Appalachia from before the Civil War show their influence in the fiction of the day, and even the titles are revealing: *Wooing and Warring in the Wilderness*, *Fallen Pink, or a Mountain Girl’s Love*, *Sut Lovingood’s Yarns.* By 1860, writers are already trafficking quite profitably in the uneducated, backwoods, raw, yokel stereotype.\n\nOne thing that almost never comes up on AskHistorians is the impact of the Civil War on American *culture*. In fact, the expanding rift leading up to the war and then the war itself caused Americans to pretty seriously reassess what \"America\" was in all its (white) diversity and regional cultural pride. (You can tie this into the broader nationalist-imperialist movements in the late 19th century west, too). Literary scholars call one result of this, awesomely, the \"Local Color\" body of literature; Mark Twain is probably the most famous writer who gets retroactively caught in this net, but you can also think of all the pioneer literature, too. *Sut Lovingood's Yarns* and its ilk paved the way for the particularly Appalachian vein of Local Color.\n\nJohn Fox and Mary Murfree (writing, of course, as Charles Egbert Craddock; a *lot* of Local Color authors are women writing under men's names) were two of the major names driving home the culture of backwoods Appalachia at the end of the 19th century. In 1800, plain folk and their isolated homesteads with a strong central community had been somewhat distinctive but also normal. By 1900, railroads and changing economy had not only made the way of life an aberration, but had highlighted the *isolation* of it all. Geographically (railroads bypassed; terrain hard to travel), economically, and culturally isolated from the rest of the US...which focused even more attention on the isolation of individual farmsteads from each other. Fox's enormously popular body of work, in particular, highlighted the effects of this isolation enduring over time: depravity, drunkenness, slovenly personal hygiene, and incest.\n\nWriters told stories of large, isolated families struggling through romanticized but dire poverty that audiences across the rest of the U.S. ate right up. Allen Batteau's *The Invention of Appalachia*, sees this time period--leading up to that first mention of \"hillbilly\" in eastern print--as the rest of America using the (white) poverty, perceived simplicity, and lack of morality in backwoods Appalachia to define itself against: *this is what we don't want to be*.\n\nThe evolution of Appalachia and the Ozarks into the internal white American other was long in the making. And once fully formed, it managed to revitalize with each generation. 1910s-30s scholarship on the folklore, religion, lifestyle that painted Appalachia as almost a foreign land sometimes. The resulting Depression-era turn to Appalachian music, arts and crafts, dancing, old women's wisdom, as America's \"old-fashioned, original\" folk tradition that modernity had wiped away elsewhere. Complaints about white migrants' \"strangeness,\" their too-tight family ties and inability to integrate into wider communities, and their inability to understand laws and how to follow them arose with major migration north after World War II. The war on poverty from the late 1960s highlighted the \"white working class\" of Appalachia as its balance on the \"inner city.\" In the early 1970s, CBS had the sterling lineup of Beverly Hillbillies, Green Acres, and Hee-Haw to communicate the (more family-friendly) stereotypes of Appalachia to audiences on an unprecedented scale. \n\nBy the 1990s, Anne Shelby argues, the descent of the Appalachian stereotype (including that *other* type of \"family friendly\") into mass-comedy derived its staying appeal both inside and outside Appalachia from four basic points:\n\n* It's okay to be a redneck\n* I used to be a redneck and thank goodness I'm not anymore\n* I'm okay because I'm not like *those* rednecks\n* At least someone is worse off than me\n* \"If it wasn't funny, it would be scary as hell\"\n\nAnd so the stereotypes consolidated in the late 19th century of backwoods Appalachia as isolated, poor, too-close families live on as the nonexistent white America that makes actual white America feel a little bit better.",
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"wikipedia_id": "43094",
"title": "Gender role",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
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"text": "Through such tests, it is known that American southerners exhibit less egalitarian gender views than their northern counterparts, demonstrating that gender views are inevitably affected by an individual's culture. This also may differ among compatriots whose 'cultures' are a few hundred miles apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18717037",
"title": "Society of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Regional variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
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"text": "Strong cultural differences have a long history in the US with the southern slave society in the antebellum period serving as a prime example. Not only social, but also economic tensions between the Northern and Southern states were so severe that they eventually caused the South to declare itself an independent nation, the Confederate States of America; thus provoking the American Civil War. One example of regional variations is the attitude towards the discussion of sex, often sexual discussions would have less restrictions in the Northeastern United States, but yet is seen as taboo in the Southern United States.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "61296215",
"title": "Perpetual foreigner",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The perpetual foreigner stereotype is a racialized form of nativist xenophobia in the United States in which naturalized and even native-born citizens (including families which have lived in the country for generations) are perceived as non-American because they belong to minority groups. It has been particularly applied as a negative stereotype of Asian Americans, but it has also affected other Americans who have been considered the \"the other\" and therefore legally unassimilable (either historically or socially). \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3569998",
"title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The culture of the Southern United States, or Southern culture, is a subculture of the United States. The combination of its unique history and the fact that many Southerners maintain—and even nurture—an identity separate from the rest of the country has led to its being the most studied and written-about region of the U.S.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "4519053",
"title": "Gender binary",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "According to Thomas Keith in \"Masculinities in Contemporary American Culture\", the longstanding cultural assumption that male–female dualities are \"natural and immutable\" partly explains the persistence of systems of patriarchy and male privilege in modern society.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18985287",
"title": "Culture of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Origins, development, and spread.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "The United States has traditionally been thought of as a melting pot, with immigrants contributing to but eventually assimilating with mainstream American culture. However, beginning in the 1960s and continuing on in the present day, the country trends towards cultural diversity, pluralism, and the image of a salad bowl instead. Throughout the country's history, certain subcultures (whether based on ethnicity or other commonality, such as the gay village) have dominated certain neighborhoods, only partially melded with the broader culture. Due to the extent of American culture, there are many integrated but unique social subcultures within the United States, some not tied to any particular geography. The cultural affiliations an individual in the United States may have commonly depend on social class, political orientation and a multitude of demographic characteristics such as religious background, occupation, and ethnic group membership.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "16973885",
"title": "Culture of honor (Southern United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The traditional culture of the Southern United States has been called a \"culture of honor\", that is, a culture where people avoid intentionally offending others, and maintain a reputation for not accepting improper conduct by others. A theory as to why the American South had or may have this culture is an assumed regional belief in retribution to enforce one's rights and deter predation against one’s family, home and possessions. The concept was tested by social scientists Richard Nisbett and Dov Cohen in their book \"Culture of Honor\" and repopularized by a discussion in Chapter Six of \"Outliers\" by Malcolm Gladwell.\n",
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1gy5p0
|
From 1000 to 1500 CE, how centralized were European countries? Which country was the most centralized? Most decentralized?
|
[
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"answer": "1000CE to 1500CE was an exceptionally formative period for the rise of the nation-state, especially emerging out of the destablization and fragmentation of the Byzantine (Late Roman) Empire. Byzantium is an excellent example of the condition of empires and states at the time. From approximately the 7th century CE to the 10th century CE, the Byzantines had been consumed by conflict concerning interpretation of Christianity: Trinitarians of the Western Church clashed extensively with Monophysites of the Eastern Church-- the former being foundational to the modern Catholic Church and the latter the Eastern Orthodox. \n\n\nOne of the biggest problems with this protracted religious conflict within Byzantium was its effect on taxation, particularly as pertaining to taxation because of religion. In the 11th CE, Emperor Alexius I Comnenus instituted a tax system called \"pronoairios,\" designed to avail himself and his emperorship to the largely Monophysite landowners in the Eastern part of what was left of the Empire. (It was [greatly reduced] (_URL_0_) by 1000 from its size during the rule of Constantine.) Essentially, landowners had the sole ability to tax the peasants who worked their land; the Emperor sold lifelong \"passes\" which enabled the owner to be tax-emept for the duration of his life, but not his descendants'. Landowners got a discount, but they were free to tax their \"employees\" with impunity-- which wasn't terribly popular among the peasants for obvious reasons. Conversely, Muslim rulers emerging out of Syria and Egypt charged all non-Muslim Christians and Jews, peasant or not, a flat 10% as \"people of the book.\" As a result many Byzantine lands were lost through the 11th century, not through war but through deliberate selection. \n\n\nWhile his lands shrunk continuously, the Byzantine Emperor had absolute authority over his empire... At least in theory. Increasingly, the Byzantine Emperor was unable to hold power outside of Constantinople, the capital, and perhaps Adrianople. The other communities remaining in the Empire were rural and didn't see much imperial influence, if at all.\n\n\nMeanwhile, the Venetian merchant city-state (The Most Serene Republic of Venice) was rising to prominence in the wake of the formative constitution and its near-singular grip on trade. Venice was governed by an elected figure called a \"Doge.\" He was given power of governance over the city-state until his death. Initially, at the establishment of the position at the inception of the Republic in 697CE, the Doge was a representative of Byzantium; by 1000CE, he was completely divorced from the Empire, as was Venice. It was a completely, or at least largely, independent state. It was about as centralized as a European state would be, its trade providing it with leverage enough for independence, even though its navy was mostly mercantile and not militarized. The Most Serene Republic existed largely unchanged constitutionally for a full 1000 years, and began a model for the European city-state, and later the secular state in general.\n\n\nIts fleet of ships transported goods across both the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim Caliphates of the [Fatimids] (_URL_1_) from the 10th through 12th centuries and the Mamluks from the 13th to 16th centuries. These Caliphates functioned somewhat like empires, and acted as the predecessors to the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the region from the 16th century to the 20th.\n\n\nThere were also some fascinating things occurring in Eastern Europe, with the establishment of the Russians following the downfall of the Slavs and the emergence of Christianity, but unfortunately I am not an expert in this area. I would recommend that you look up Rastislav of Moravia and Photius for the relationship between Russia and the Byzantine Empire. In Western Europe the rise of feudal kingdoms was noteworthy too, but unfortunately that is not my area of expertise either! Only Byzantium, hahaha.\n\n\nSo, the long and short of your question: those five centuries were integral to two historical processes-- the downfall of the Western Empire and the rise of the Western City-State, the spiritual and political predecessor to the state. There was regional variance, but during this period both types of political structures existed across Europe and Central Asia/North Africa. \n\n\nSOURCES:\n\n* Anna Comnena, The Alexiad (contemporary text: 11th c)\n\n* Alexander Kazhdan, “Latins and Franks in Byzantine perception and reality from the 11th to the 12th century” in Angeliki Laiou & Roy Mottahedeh, eds., The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks (1997): 83-100\n\n* James Howard Johnston, “The two great powers in late antiquity: a comparison” in Averil Cameron (ed.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East III: States, Resources, Armies, Princeton: Princeton UP (1995): 157-226\n\nEDIT: Fixed formatting",
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"answer": "From Maurice Keen, The Pelican History of Medieval Europe (1968), p. 106: [Sicily and England were] the most highly organized governments in the west.... Their precocious development owed much to the fact that both their ruling dynasties established themselves by conquest in the eleventh century. Thei vassals, owing their authority to the same conquests, did not enjoy the same entrenched independence as those of, say, the king of France.",
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"answer": "European countries were feudal and decentralized during this period. Central Europe (Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, the Baltic states, western Poland, the Netherlands and Belgium) and northern Italy were part of the Holy Roman Empire, which was technically a confederation of member states, but these same members were often at odds with one another and very irregular. England was probably the most centralized kingdom during this time, partly because of reorganizations under the Anglo-Saxon Kings and partly because of consolidation efforts by the Norman conquerors. \n\nFrance was a larger kingdom than England (and Paris considerably larger than London at this time), which would normally provide strong impetus for centralization, but nobles had considerable autonomy, most prominently in the case of William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy and King of England. Although William the Conqueror owed fealty to the French King as a French Duke, he became the King of England through his own means, which really muddied the waters. I think it's telling that the French monarchy did not attempt to exert authority in England, although the sovereign of England was a French vassal, until Charles the IV, with the disastrous result of the 100 Years War.\n\nThere are other examples of English centralization that don't exist elsewhere in medieval Europe. The Domesday Book is effectively an accounting of all taxable properties and goods that was created after the Norman Conquest so William could account for all of his new holdings. To be able to attempt such a feat required an extensive bureaucracy capable of accounting for the different domains and estates. I think most telling of the kind of centralization going on in England that isn't present elsewhere is the division of England into administratives Shires rather than solely into noble estates. Sherriffs and their administrative domain, a Shire or Sherriffdom, had existed under the Anglo-Saxons, but gained additional prominence under the Normans as a means of establishing control over the conquered territories.",
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"wikipedia_id": "1582335",
"title": "World-systems theory",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation of world history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
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"text": "According to Wallerstein there have only been three periods in which a core nation dominated in the modern world-system, with each lasting less than one hundred years. In the initial centuries of the rise of Europe, Northwestern Europe constituted the core, Mediterranean Europe the semiperiphery, and Eastern Europe and the Western hemisphere (and parts of Asia) the periphery. Around 1450, Spain and Portugal took the early lead when conditions became right for a capitalist world-economy. They led the way in establishing overseas colonies. However, Portugal and Spain lost their lead, primarily by becoming overextended with empire-building. It became too expensive to dominate and protect so many colonial territories around the world.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1582335",
"title": "World-systems theory",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation of world history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
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"end_paragraph_id": 102,
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"text": "By 1900, the modern world system appeared very different from that of a century earlier in that most of the periphery societies had already been colonised by one of the older core nations. In 1800, the old European core claimed 35% of the world's territory, but by 1914, it claimed 85% of the world's territory, with the Scramble for Africa closing out the imperial era. If a core nation wanted periphery areas to exploit as had done the Dutch and British, these periphery areas had to be taken from another core nation, which the US did by way of the Spanish–American War, and Germany, and then Japan and Italy, attempted to do in the leadup to World War II. The modern world system was thus geographically global, and even the most remote regions of the world had all been integrated into the global economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16985133",
"title": "Periphery countries",
"section": "Section::::History.:15th century and 16th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "The world system at this time was much different from the world system of today. Several areas were beginning to develop into trading powers but none were able to gain total control. For this reason, a core and periphery developed in each region as opposed to a global scale. Cities began to become the \"core\" with the more agricultural countryside becoming a sort of \"periphery\". The most underdeveloped region that was still involved in trade at the time was Europe. It had the weakest core and periphery areas.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::End of the Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
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"text": "There has been attempt by scholars to connect European Late Antiquity to other areas in Eurasia. To an extent most centralized kingdoms within proximity to Steppe grasslands faced major challenges or in some cases complete destruction in the 5th–6th century in the case of nomadic invasions and political fragmentation. The Western Roman Empire in Europe and the Gupta Empire in India, and the Jin in North China were overwhelmed by tribal invasions. Nomadic invasions along with worldwide natural climate change, the Plague of Justinian and the rise of proselytizing religions changed the face of the Old World. Still disconnected was the New World who also built complex societies but at a separate and different pace. By 500 the world era of Post-classical history had begun. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "435268",
"title": "History of the world",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:Early modern period.:European expansion.\n",
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"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences. For most of their histories, China, India, and the Middle East were each unified under a single dominant power that expanded until it reached the surrounding mountains and deserts. In 1600 the Ottoman Empire controlled almost all the Middle East, the Ming dynasty ruled China, and the Mughal Empire held sway over India. By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states. Pan-European empires, with the notable exception of the Roman Empire, tended to collapse soon after they arose. Another doubtless important geographic factor in the rise of Europe was the Mediterranean Sea, which, for millennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering the exchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1582312",
"title": "Core countries",
"section": "Section::::Throughout history.:15th–18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "The feudal crisis lead to the development of the world economic system. The world economic system came about during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The most dominant of Northwestern Europe were England, France, and the Netherlands (see map of Western Europe on the right). These countries took on the definition of a core country. They developed a strong central government, bureaucracies, and grew their military power. These countries were then able to control the international commerce and create a profit for themselves. All of western Europe attempted bureaucratization, homogenization of the local population, development of a stronger military, and involvement of the country in a vast number of different economic activities. After these attempts to gain the \"core\" status, north-western European states locked in their positions as core states by 1640. England dominated the pack, as Spain and Italy fell to semi-peripheral status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3340845",
"title": "Dashanami Sampradaya",
"section": "Section::::History.:Establishment of the Dasanami Sampradaya.:Late-Classical Hinduism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralized in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with \"countless vassal states\": in the east the Pala Empire (770-1125 CE), in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara (7th-10th century), in the southwest the Rashtrakuta dynasty (752-973), in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty (7th-8th century), and in the south the Pallava dynasty (7th-9th century) and the Chola dynasty (9th century).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b62kq6
|
Are there any other purposes of there being so much nitrogen composition in the air, other then to provide an inert atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\n*All* species need the element nitrogen, it's a building block of proteins. It was discovered that some species can use nitrogen gas and \"fix\" it from the air in the 19th Century. Most species however obtain their nitrogen from compounds.\n\nThe atmospheric composition doesn't have any \"purpose\", but Earth's atmosphere and life influence each other. Unlike carbon dioxide, life hasn't used nitrogen to the point of mostly removing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "435335",
"title": "Plant nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Functions of nutrients.:Macronutrients (primary).:Nitrogen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "There is an abundant supply of nitrogen in the earth's atmosphere — N gas comprises nearly 79% of air. However, N is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule, making it almost inert. In order for nitrogen to be used for growth it must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonium (NH) or nitrate (NO) ions. The weathering of rocks releases these ions so slowly that it has a negligible effect on the availability of fixed nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is often the limiting factor for growth and biomass production in all environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52796143",
"title": "Reference materials for stable isotope analysis",
"section": "Section::::Isotopic reference materials.:Traditional isotope systems.:Nitrogen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Nitrogen gas (N) makes up 78% of the atmosphere and is extremely well mixed over short time-scales, resulting in a homogenous isotopic distribution ideal for use as a reference material. Atmospheric N is commonly called AIR when being used as an isotopic reference. In addition to atmospheric N there are multiple N isotopic reference materials. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17633222",
"title": "Chemically inert",
"section": "Section::::Inert gas.:Main uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Inert atmospheres consisting of gases such as argon, nitrogen, or helium are commonly used in chemical reaction chambers and in storage containers for oxygen-sensitive or water-sensitive substances, to prevent unwanted reactions of these substances with oxygen or water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21175",
"title": "Nitrogen",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Gas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The applications of nitrogen compounds are naturally extremely widely varied due to the huge size of this class: hence, only applications of pure nitrogen itself will be considered here. Two-thirds of nitrogen produced by industry is sold as the gas and the remaining one-third as the liquid. The gas is mostly used as an inert atmosphere whenever the oxygen in the air would pose a fire, explosion, or oxidising hazard. Some examples include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18995926",
"title": "Lifting gas",
"section": "Section::::Gases theoretically suitable for lifting.:Nitrogen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Pure nitrogen has the advantage that it is inert and abundantly available, because it is the major component of air. However, because nitrogen is only 3% lighter than air, it is not an obvious choice for a lifting gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "440535",
"title": "El Tatio",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:Fumaroles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Additional components include argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, neon, nitrogen and oxygen. Characteristically for fumarole gases on convergent plate boundaries, much of this nitrogen is non-atmospheric, although atmospheric air is also involved in generating the chemistry of the El Tatio fumarole gases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54840",
"title": "Eutrophication",
"section": "Section::::Sources of high nutrient runoff.:Nonpoint sources.:Atmospheric deposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Nitrogen is released into the air because of ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide production. The combustion of fossil fuels is a large human-initiated contributor to atmospheric nitrogen pollution. Atmospheric nitrogen reaches the ground by two different processes, the first being wet deposition such as rain or snow, and the second being dry deposition which is particles and gases found in the air. Atmospheric deposition (e.g., in the form of acid rain) can also affect nutrient concentration in water, especially in highly industrialized regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6gexjc
|
what causes extreme heat on atmosphere re-entry and was this discovered prior to the first mission or a lesson learned later?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not exactly air friction. Friction would be the air rubbing against the body so much as to raise the temperature to extremes. But what happens is different. \n\nIn the upper atmosphere air is very thin - is not dense at all. As a body falls through that atmosphere at staggering speeds, the few air particles there are literally can't get out of the way fast enough. As the air density increases, that same issue causes the air to compress until, much like a diesel engine, it heats to the point of combustion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "192926",
"title": "Vostok 2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The flight was an almost complete success, marred only by a heater that had inadvertently been turned off prior to liftoff and that allowed the inside temperature to drop to , a bout of space sickness, and a troublesome re-entry when the reentry module failed to separate cleanly from its service module.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455201",
"title": "Spaceplane",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.:Atmospheric reentry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as , well above the melting point of steel. Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37167420",
"title": "Sharp Edge Flight Experiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000 °C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6890573",
"title": "Liquid cooling and ventilation garment",
"section": "Section::::Space applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Because the space environment is essentially a vacuum, heat cannot be lost through heat convection, and can only be directly dissipated through thermal radiation, a much slower process. Thus, even though the environment of space can be extremely cold, excessive heat build-up is inevitable. Without an LCVG, there would be no means by which to expel this heat, and it would affect not only EVA performance, but the health of the suit occupant as well. The LCVG used with the Apollo/Skylab A7L suit could remove heat at a rate of approximately 586 watts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "403717",
"title": "Space Shuttle Challenger disaster",
"section": "Section::::Pre-launch conditions.:Ice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "The Thiokol engineers had also argued that the low overnight temperatures of the evening prior to launch would almost certainly result in SRB temperatures below their redline of . Ice had accumulated all over the launch pad, raising concerns that ice could damage the shuttle upon lift-off. The Kennedy Ice Team inadvertently pointed an infrared camera at the aft field joint of the right SRB and found the temperature to be only . This was believed to be the result of supercooled air blowing on the joint from the liquid oxygen (LOX) tank vent. It was much lower than the air temperature and far below the design specifications for the O-rings. The low reading was later determined to be erroneous, the error caused by not following the temperature probe manufacturer's instructions. Tests and adjusted calculations later confirmed that the temperature of the joint was not substantially different from the ambient temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56437",
"title": "Infrared astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Infrared technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Low temperature is often achieved by a coolant, which can run out. Space missions have either ended or shifted to \"warm\" observations when the coolant supply used up. For example, WISE ran out of coolant in October 2010, about ten months after being launched. (See also NICMOS, Spitzer Space Telescope)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1852572",
"title": "Marangoni effect",
"section": "Section::::Significance to transport phenomena.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "Under earth conditions, the effect of gravity causing natural convection in a system with a temperature gradient along a fluid/fluid interface is usually much stronger than the Marangoni effect. Many experiments (ESA MASER 1-3) have been conducted under microgravity conditions aboard sounding rockets to observe the Marangoni effect without the influence of gravity. Research on heat pipes performed on the International Space Station revealed that whilst heat pipes exposed to a temperature gradient on Earth cause the inner fluid to evaporate at one end and migrate along the pipe, thus drying the hot end, in space (where the effects of gravity can be ignored) the opposite happens and the hot end of the pipe is flooded with liquid. This is due to the Marangoni effect, together with capillary action. The fluid is drawn to the hot end of the tube by capillary action. But the bulk of the liquid still ends up as a droplet a short distance away from the hottest part of the tube, explained by Marangoni flow. The temperature gradients in axial and radial directions makes the fluid flow away from the hot end and the walls of the tube, towards the center axis. The liquid forms a droplet with a small contact area with the tube walls, a thin film circulating liquid between the cooler droplet and the liquid at the hot end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ga5j4
|
Would firing something like a Star Trek phaser create recoil? How about a real life military weapon that uses lasers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Realistic answer: No.\n\nActual answer: Yes, a tiny, tiny, stupidly minuscule bit of recoil. The emission of photons (light) will have a bit of recoil but this will be so small, it would be very difficult to detect this. An example of this phenomenon is the potential usage of [solar sails](_URL_0_) to move spacecraft via the interaction with solar radiation of high energy light and particles.\n\nEven though phasers / military laser weapons emit much more energy per unit area than would be on a solar sail, it is over a very short period of time whereas on a solar sail, these effects are calculated over months/years of exposure.\n\n*Edit: As we went through below, a 10 MJ laser would produce a roughly 0.03 Newton recoil for one second if the laser emitted this much energy over one second, which is roughly the force applied by gravity to 3 grams, 3 mL of water, or a bit less than a teaspoon of water for one second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The number of photons in a laser pulse is the energy of the pulse divided by the energy of each photon:\n\nNp = El / E_photon\n\nThe momentum of each photon is h/lambda where h is Planck's constant and lambda is the wavelength. The total momentum of the pulse is\n\np = E * h / (E_photon * lambda)\n\nCombine this with the formula for the energy of a photon (h*c/lambda) and you find that the total momentum of a laser pulse is\n\np = E / c\n\nA really good laser weapon pulse might contain 30 megajoules of energy and weigh 1000kg ([we don't have this weapon yet, but we're getting close](_URL_0_)).\n\nIf you ignore friction (imagine the laser is fired from space) the recoil would accelerate the laser to about 0.1 mm/s. That means that the laser would move the width of a human hair every second.\n\nTL;DR Yes laser weapons have recoil but until we make one that's incredibly light weight and powerful you aren't likely to be able to measure it let alone feel it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would super-heated gases at the front of the phaser cause recoil?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2224150",
"title": "MARAUDER",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The plasma projectiles would be shot at a speed expected to be 3000 km/s in 1995 and 10,000 km/s (3% of the speed of light) by 2000. A shot has the energy of 5 pounds of TNT exploding. Doughnut-shaped rings of plasma and balls of lightning exploded with devastating thermal and mechanical effects when hitting their target and produced pulse of electromagnetic radiation that could scramble electronics, the energy would shower the interior of the target with high-energy x-rays that would potentially destroy the electronics inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20035375",
"title": "List of technology in the Dune universe",
"section": "Section::::Lasgun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "The interaction of a lasgun beam and a Holtzman field results in subatomic fusion and a nuclear explosion. The magnitude of this blast is unpredictable; sometimes it destroys only the shielded target and gunner, sometimes the explosion is more powerful than atomics. Using lasguns in a shielded environment can result in military and environmental catastrophe, though at one point in \"Dune\" Duncan Idaho deliberately allows shield-lasgun contact as a discouragement to his enemies. In \"God Emperor of Dune\" (1981), lasgun fire is described as \"blue arcs\"; a lasgun is noted to be \"heavy\" in \"\" (1985). A cutteray is described in \"Dune\" as a \"Short-range version of a lasgun used mostly as a cutting tool and surgeon's scalpel\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608915",
"title": "Starfury",
"section": "Section::::Origin and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Another example of the more scientifically grounded approach which Foundation Imaging introduced to the series was the weaponry of the \"Starfury\" and other Earth vessels. Ejecting ball bearings into the flight paths of enemy vessels or using regular gunfire was considered, and subsequently rejected, on the grounds of it not being visually compelling. It was supervising animator Adam “Mojo” Lebowitz who theorised that plasma fire would have a similar appearance to the laser fire used in various movies and other television shows, but as it would not travel at the speed of light (as would be the case with lasers), it would lend credulity to the idea of the viewer seeing a burst of light move across the screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10128205",
"title": "Weapon effects simulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Weapon Effects Simulation (WES) is the creation of artificial weapons effects such as flashes, bangs and smoke during military training exercises. It is used in combination with Tactical engagement simulation (TES), which uses laser projection for training purposes instead of bullets and missiles. Typically, an accurate laser \"shot\" hitting a target such as a tank, will trigger cartridge-based WES equipment fitted to the tank which will give a flash, bang and smoke, signifying a hit in the exercise scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1997197",
"title": "Spheromak",
"section": "Section::::History.:Defence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Hammer, Hartman et al. showed that spheromaks could be accelerated to extremely high velocities using a railgun, which led to several proposed uses. Among these was the use of such plasmas as \"bullets\" to fire at incoming warheads with the hope that the associated electric currents would disrupt their electronics. This led to experiments on the Shiva Star system, although these were cancelled in the mid-1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21300173",
"title": "Raygun",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ray guns in movies are often shown as shooting discrete pulses of energy visible from off-axis, traveling slowly enough for people to see them emerge, or even for the target to evade them, although real-life laser light is invisible from off-axis and travels at the speed of light. This effect could sometimes be attributed to the beam heating atmosphere that it was passing through. A possible evasion tactic is dodging the firing axis of the gun, theorized in the early story of \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" by the character Char Aznable when he first encountered the series protagonist's machine's beam rifle and seemingly dodging it without any difficulty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21788902",
"title": "Virtual Army Experience",
"section": "Section::::Exhibit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The simulator features effects such as the HMMWV pitching, shaking and vibrations as it moves over the virtual terrain, simulated explosions caused by enemy fire and IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices). Players fire air-pressured guns that mimic the recoil and kickback of real ones. The simulated weapons do not mimic the heat or smell of the real guns, however, and never jam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1clgz6
|
Why do some viruses stay in the body forever and others not?
|
[
{
"answer": "It usually depends on the life cycle of the virus. Most viruses that you think of as being \"beatable\" reproduce in a highly active life cycle. They invade a cell, hijack its machinery to replicate, and then burst out when the cell can no longer hold all the virus particles. Those viruses then spread to new cells.\n\nThe other family of viruses, however, have a second latent portion of the life cycle. These viruses can do the same steps as above (which is what you'll notice with a herpes outbreak, for instance), but they can also remain dormant inside cells. If a virus can remain dormant, without replicating and without its host cell signaling that it's infected, it can live in the host indefinitely. That last bit is also important, because some cells can signal that they're infected, and can recruit immune cells to kill them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4395348",
"title": "Viral life cycle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Viruses are only able to replicate themselves by commandeering the reproductive apparatus of cells and making them reproduce the virus's genetic structure instead. Thus, a virus cannot function or reproduce outside a cell, thereby being totally dependent on a host cell in order to survive. Most viruses are species specific, and related viruses typically only infect a narrow range of plants, animals, bacteria, or fungi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Role in human disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which depends largely on the viral species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In multicellular organisms, if enough cells die, the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although viruses cause disruption of healthy homeostasis, resulting in disease, they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the herpes simplex virus, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses, including Epstein–Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and varicella zoster virus, which causes chickenpox and shingles. Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus. These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens, such as \"Yersinia pestis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Biology.:Viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Whether or not viruses should be considered as alive is controversial. They are most often considered as just replicators rather than forms of life. They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\" because they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and replicate by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. However, viruses do not metabolize and they require a host cell to make new products. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it may support the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39256418",
"title": "Human virome",
"section": "Section::::Impact on human health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The human virome is a part of our bodies and will not always cause harm. Many latent and asymptomatic viruses are present in the human body all the time. Viruses infect all life forms; therefore the bacterial, plant, and animal cells and material in our gut also carry viruses. When viruses cause harm by infecting the cells in the body, a symptomatic disease may develop. Contrary to common belief, harmful viruses may be in the minority compared to benign viruses in the human body. It is much harder to identify viruses than it is to identify bacteria, therefore our understanding of benign viruses in the human body is very rudimentary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2056572",
"title": "Marine life",
"section": "Section::::Microorganisms.:Marine viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life or organic structures that interact with living organisms. They are considered by some to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly, and evolve through natural selection. However they lack key characteristics such as a cellular structure generally considered necessary to count as life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as replicators and as \"organisms at the edge of life\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Infection in other species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Viruses infect all cellular life and, although viruses occur universally, each cellular species has its own specific range that often infect only that species. Some viruses, called satellites, can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411682",
"title": "Molluscum contagiosum",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Unlike herpesviruses, which can remain inactive in the body for months or years before reappearing, molluscum contagiosum does not remain in the body when the growths are gone from the skin and will not reappear on their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
43yc6b
|
Was there any benefit to Hitler going to war with the USSR?
|
[
{
"answer": " > But that got me thinking, was there any benefits to him going to war with The USSR that helped his efforts on the western fronts and semi-neglected the loss of manpower?\n\nNo, not really. Hitler's arrangement with the Soviet Union provided Germany with valuable oil and raw materials, allowing Germany to bypass the Blockade of the continent. With the Invasion of the USSR, the Blockade was now truly effective. There were certainly resources in the USSR worth taking, but what little industry and agricultural produce came into German hands was hardly compensation for the losses in manpower, and the tightening of the Blockade, as well as steadily declining strategic options from 1941 onwards. \n\nDavid Stahel's books on the Battles of Moscow and Kiev, and Operations Bagration and Typhoon are good reads. Alexander Hill also has a document reader on the Great Patriotic War, which is valuable as a concise account of the Eastern Front. For economic, Adam Tooze's *Wages of Destruction* is the best book I'm aware of.\n\n > no I do not wish that the Germans won WWII, WWI maybe, but not WWII\n\nFrankly, history is better off that they lost both\n\nEDIT:\n\n > Like, if Hitler ignored the east and focused on the west, do you think he could've won or at the very least faired better\n\nIt's hard to imagine Hitler 'ignoring' the East; it was the center piece of his aims, the lebensraum for the Aryan race and the source of the resources that would allow Germany to achieve autarky and challenge Britain and America. With the Royal Navy still very much in control of Britain's territorial waters at least, and with RAF Fighter Command preventing the Luftwaffe from attaining the control of the air needed to launch Operation Sea Lion (to say nothing of how ersatz German preparations were for that invasion), there was nowhere else to look. North Africa was Italy's sphere, and Rommel was only sent there to assist the Italians in retaining their positions in Libya. After the defeat of France, the Soviet Union was the next logical (using that term relatively) step in Hitler's \"programme\" as Andreas Hillgruber or Gerhard Weinberg would put it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22618",
"title": "Operation Barbarossa",
"section": "Section::::Background.:German invasion plans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1283,
"text": "In autumn 1940, high-ranking German officials drafted a memorandum on the dangers of an invasion of the Soviet Union. They said Ukraine, Belorussia and the Baltic States would end up as only a further economic burden for Germany. It was argued that the Soviets in their current bureaucratic form were harmless and that the occupation would not benefit Germany. Hitler disagreed with economists about the risks and told his right-hand man Hermann Göring, the chief of the Luftwaffe, that he would no longer listen to misgivings about the economic dangers of a war with Russia. It is speculated that this was passed on to General Georg Thomas, who had produced reports that predicted a net economic drain for Germany in the event of an invasion of the Soviet Union unless its economy was captured intact and the Caucasus oilfields seized in the first blow, and he consequently revised his future report to fit Hitler's wishes. The Red Army's ineptitude in the Winter War against Finland in 1939–40 convinced Hitler of a quick victory within a few months. Neither Hitler nor the General Staff anticipated a long campaign lasting into the winter, and therefore adequate preparations, such as the distribution of warm clothing and winterization of vehicles and lubricants, were not made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30671838",
"title": "Themes in Nazi propaganda",
"section": "Section::::Enemies.:Russians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Hitler believed that after the invasion of the Soviet Union, the war in the East was to destroy Bolshevism, as well as aiming to ruin the Great Russian Empire, and a war for German expansion and economic exploitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913170",
"title": "Command & Conquer: Red Alert",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Hitler's death prevents him from rising to power as leader of Nazi Germany, which creates a new timeline. Without Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union grows powerful under the rule of Joseph Stalin. The USSR seizes land from China and then invades Eastern Europe, to achieve Joseph Stalin's vision of a Soviet Union stretching across the entire Eurasian landmass. In response, the U.S. and the countries of Europe form the Allied Nations start a guerrilla war against the invading Soviet Army. Over the course of the game's story, the Allies and Soviets fight for control over the European mainland in an alternate World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465971",
"title": "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Great Patriotic War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "On June 22, 1941, Adolf Hitler abruptly broke the non-aggression pact and invaded the Soviet Union. Stalin had made no preparations. Soviet intelligence was fooled by German disinformation and the invasion caught the Soviet military unprepared. In the larger sense, Stalin expected invasion but not so soon. The Army had been decimated by the Purges; time was needed for a recovery of competence. As such, mobilization did not occur and the Soviet Army was tactically unprepared as of the invasion. The initial weeks of the war were a disaster, with tens of thousands of men being killed, wounded, or captured. Whole divisions disintegrated against the German onslaught.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21333013",
"title": "German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1940)",
"section": "Section::::Trade and assistance during the Agreement's operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1262,
"text": "Hitler had been considering war with the Soviet Union since July 1940. Regarding a potential Soviet Axis entry, Ribbentrop wrote a letter promising Stalin that \"in the opinion of the Führer … it appears to be the historical mission of the Four Powers-the Soviet Union, Italy, Japan and Germany-to adopt a long range-policy and to direct the future development of their peoples into the right channels by delimitation of their interests in a worldwide scale.\" On November 12, 1940, Hitler issued secret \"Instruction No. 18\", directing his forces to prepare for war in the east \"irrespective of the results yielded by these discussions\", while Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop conferenced in Berlin to discuss a potential Soviet entry as a fourth Axis power. Hitler wanted an additional economic deal to get what he could from the Soviet Union before the invasion, while other German officials wanted such a deal in the hopes that it could change the current anti-Soviet direction of German policy. In November, Germany and the Soviet Union began negotiations on enlarging the 1940 German–Soviet Commercial Agreement, and discussed border disputes and other issues, culminating in the execution of the January 10, 1941 German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46724824",
"title": "March 1941",
"section": "Section::::March 30, 1941 (Sunday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hitler held a conference with his generals in which he said that the upcoming war with Russia would be a race war in which communist commissars and Jews would be exterminated by SS \"Einsatzgruppen\" following behind the advancing armies. Hitler expected the Soviet Union to be defeated in a matter of weeks and declared, \"We have only to kick in the door and the whole rotten structure will come crashing down.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41670479",
"title": "Erich Raeder during World War II",
"section": "Section::::1941: Going to war with America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 4249,
"text": "Until the war with the Soviet Union was finished, Hitler was reluctant to have a war with the United States, and insisted upon avoiding \"incidents\" with the U.S. Navy as much as possible, whereas Raeder was all for a war with the United States. Hitler had cancelled the Z Plan again in late 1940, only to order it restarted in the middle of 1941 when it seemed that the war against the Soviet Union would soon be over and again cancelled the Z Plan in late 1941. When Hitler cancelled the Z Plan for the final time, Raeder forgot to cancel a contact he had placed with engineering firms for the engines of the first four of the planned H-class super battleships. As a result of that oversight, in June 1944 the \"Kriegsmarine\" had to accept and pay for four gigantic engines that were meant to power battleships that did not exist. From Hitler's viewpoint, it was better to wait until the Z Plan was complete before going to war with the United States. Raeder by contrast thought only of the \"immediate operational advantages\" that would accrue to Germany if the \"Reich\" went to war with the United States. On 11 December 1941, Germany declared war on the United States, which was at least in part due to the pressure of Raeder, who was very pleased with going to war with America. Even before the declaration of war on 11 December, Hitler had given orders to Raeder on 8 December 1941 that the \"Kriegsmarine\" could now sink on sight American warships and warships of all the Latin American republics except Argentina as well. Raeder gave orders that \"Kriegsmarine\" was now to begin Operation Drumbeat, the plan to defeat the United States by sending \"wolf-packs\" of submarines off the Atlantic coast of the United States to destroy all American shipping. On 12 December 1941, Raeder told Hitler that prospects for victory over the United States were good and that \"The situation in the Atlantic will be eased by Japan's successful intervention\". Continuing his analysis of the naval situation, Raeder told Hitler: \"Reports have already been received of the transfer of some [American] battleships from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is certain that light forces, especially destroyers will be required in increased numbers in the Pacific. The need for transport ships will be very great, so that a withdrawal of American merchant ships from the Atlantic can be expected. The strain on British merchant shipping will increase ... The U.S will have to concentrate all her strength in the Pacific during the next few months. Britain will not to run any risks after her severe losses of big ships [Raeder is referring to sinkings of and ]. It is hardly likely that transport tonnage is available for such occupation tasks or bringing up supplies ... It is improbable that the enemy will give up East Asia even temporarily; by so doing Britain will endanger India very seriously, and the U.S. cannot withdraw her fleet from the Pacific as long as the Japanese fleet has the upper hand\". Much to Raeder's annoyance, Hitler followed up declaring war on the U.S. by sending 23 U-boats to the Mediterranean to attack British shipping and another 16 to Norway to guard against a phantom British invasion instead of focusing the U-boat fleet off the eastern United States. Because the United States Navy under the leadership of Admiral Ernest King was not ready for anti-submarine warfare, U-boat operations off the east coast of America in the first half of 1942 were very successful, and only the diversion of the U-boat fleet to the Mediterranean and Norway kept them from being more successful. The entry of the United States into the war meant the ultimate defeat of the \"Kriegsmarine\" as the tremendous productive capacity of American industry meant that the Allies could replace every ship sunk by the U-boats, and then build some more. In 1943, American shipyards turned out enough ships to almost equal the number of all the ships sunk by U-boats between 1939 and 1942. Murray and Millet accused Raeder and the rest of the \"Seekriegsleitung\" of wanting war with America because the United States was an \"easy target\" and of \"taking the easiest tactical and operational path without the slightest thought to the strategic or long-range consequences\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qhvf5
|
Primary source from the Rape of Nanking?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Try this digital exhibit from Yale, a collection of materials from Christian missionaries who witnessed the Rape of Nanking.](_URL_0_) \n\nFor the future: If you're trying to find primary sources with Google, don't use the term \"primary sources,\" this is a \"schoolroom\" history phrase and it's not used outside of teaching settings. Sometimes if you google \"thing primary resources\" they will turn up, but usually because a teacher has already gathered them and labeled them that. Some search terms you can try are \"[subject] + archives,\" \"[subject] + digital collections,\" \"[subject] + oral history\" or \"[subject] + interviews.\" Also try different words for the subject - for instance, Rape of Nanking is also called the Nanking Massacre. It depends on what the topic is, but in general try to think what people would title the things you're looking for if they were listing them in a library catalog, and try lots and lots of different searches. \n\nGood luck with your paper. :) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65735",
"title": "The Rape of Nanking (book)",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "\"The Rape of Nanking\" is structured into three main parts. The first uses a technique that Chang called \"the Rashomon perspective\" to narrate the events of the Nanking Massacre, from three different perspectives: that of the Japanese military, the Chinese victims, and the Westerners who tried to help Chinese civilians. The second part concerns the postwar reaction to the massacre, especially that of the American and European governments. The third part of the book examines the circumstances that, Chang believed, have kept knowledge of the massacre out of public consciousness decades after the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65735",
"title": "The Rape of Nanking (book)",
"section": "Section::::Reaction in Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Following the publication of \"The Rape of Nanking\", Japanese critic Masaaki Tanaka had his 1987 book on Nanking translated into English. Entitled \"What Really Happened in Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth\", Tanaka stated in his introduction \"I am convinced that [American researchers] will arrive at the realization that violations of international law of the magnitude alleged by Iris Chang in \"The Rape of Nanking\" (more than 300,000 murders and 80,000 rapes) never took place.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65735",
"title": "The Rape of Nanking (book)",
"section": "Section::::Acclaim.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "\"The Rape of Nanking\" sold more than half a million copies when it was first published in the U. S., and according to \"The New York Times\", received general critical acclaim. Iris Chang became an instant celebrity in the U. S.; she was awarded honorary degrees, invited to give lectures and to discuss the Nanking Massacre on shows such as \"Good Morning America\", \"Nightline\", and \"The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer\", and was profiled by \"The New York Times\" and featured on the cover of \"Reader's Digest\". The book was on the \"New York Times\"' Best Seller list for 10 weeks and sold more than 125,000 copies in four months. Hillary Clinton invited her to the White House, U. S. historian Stephen Ambrose described her as \"maybe the best young historian we've got\", and the Organization of Chinese Americans named her National Woman of the Year. The book's popularity prompted a lengthy book tour, with Chang visiting 65 cities in over a year and a half.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21414068",
"title": "Shūdō Higashinakano",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Higashinakano came to public attention when he attacked Iris Chang's 1997 book \"The Rape of Nanking\". He argued in an opinion column that appeared in \"Sankei Shimbun\" that the book was \"pure baloney\", asserting that there was \"no witness of illegal executions or murders\". Referring to the war crimes trial in Tokyo after World War II, he opined that \"there existed no 'Rape of Nanking' as alleged by the Tokyo Trial.\" He claimed to have identified 90 historical factual errors in the first 64 pages of \"The Rape of Nanking\", some of which were corrected in the 1998 Penguin Books edition of the book.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40242024",
"title": "Genocidal rape",
"section": "Section::::Documented instances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "During the Second Sino-Japanese War the Imperial Japanese Army during the Battle of Nanking carried out what has come to be known as the Rape of Nanking, which has been described by Adam Jones as \"one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape\". The violence saw tens of thousands of women gang raped and killed. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East estimated that 20,000 women were raped, including infants and the elderly. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55066",
"title": "Nanjing Massacre",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 255,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 255,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Nanking Massacre Project: A Digital Archive of Documents & Photographs from American Missionaries Who Witnessed the Rape of Nanking From the Special Collections of the Yale Divinity School Library\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456056",
"title": "Iris Chang",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Iris Shun-Ru Chang (March 28, 1968November 9, 2004) was an American journalist, author of historical books and political activist. She is best known for her best-selling 1997 account of the Nanking Massacre, \"The Rape of Nanking\". Chang is the subject of the 2007 biography, \"Finding Iris Chang\", and the 2007 documentary film \"Iris Chang: The Rape of Nanking\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dteps
|
Why is Belarus?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to discourage other answers, but you might be interested in this post:\n\n[How did Belorussians and Ukrainians evolve as distinct national identities from Russia?](_URL_0_) with the top answer from /u/cheapwowgold4u.\n\nIt's an older post from when AskHistorians allowed wikipedia as a source, but it's a well thought out answer. I'd link more posts but I'm on mobile, but if you search 'Belarus' in the search bar, a good amount of relevant posts come up. Hope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3457",
"title": "Belarus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Belarus (; , ), officially the Republic of Belarus (, ), formerly known by its Russian name Byelorussia or Belorussia (), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital and most populous city is Minsk. Over 40% of its is forested. Its major economic sectors are service industries and manufacturing. Until the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including the Principality of Polotsk (11th to 14th centuries), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2411958",
"title": "Constitution of Belarus",
"section": "Section::::Section One: Principles of the Constitutional System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "The territory of Belarus is divided into discrete regions, called oblasts. The oblasts are further divided into districts which are in turn subdivided into cities. The Constitution also allows for special regions to be created, which are to be controlled by legislation. Citizens of Belarus are also promised protection and sponsorship, regardless of whether they are inside Belarusian borders or in a foreign country. With some exceptions, those who do not have a nationality and foreigners are, under the Constitution, granted the same status and rights as citizens of Belarus. Belarus also has the power to grant asylum to those who have been subject to persecution due to their ethnic background, political ideology or religious affiliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58106052",
"title": "Geology of Belarus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "The geology of Belarus began to form more than 2.5 billion years ago in the Precambrian, although many overlying sedimentary units deposited during the Paleozoic and the current Quaternary. Belarus is located in the eastern European plain. From east to west it covers about 650 kilometers while from north to south it covers about 560 kilometers, and the total area is about 207,600 square kilometers. It borders Poland in the north, Lithuania in the northwest, Latvia and Russia in the north, and Ukraine in the south. Belarus has a planar topography with a height of about 160 m above sea level. The highest elevation at 346 meters above sea level is Mt. Dzerzhinskaya, and the lowest point at the height of 80 m is in the Neman River valley. Belarus has a temperate continental climate with the warmest month (temperatures can be as high as 38 °C) being July, while the coldest month is January with temperatures plunging to as low as −36 °C to −44 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2616735",
"title": "Culture of Belarus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The culture of Belarus is the product of a millennium of development under the impact of a number of diverse factors. These include the physical environment; the ethnographic background of Belarusians (the merger of Slavic newcomers with Baltic natives); the paganism of the early settlers and their hosts; Eastern Orthodox Christianity as a link to the Byzantine literary and cultural traditions; the country's lack of natural borders; the flow of rivers toward both the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea; and the variety of religions in the region (Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Islam).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2411958",
"title": "Constitution of Belarus",
"section": "Section::::Preamble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "In the preamble of the Constitution, Belarus assumes the responsibility for its destiny as a member of the international community. To execute this responsibility, the government undertakes to show \"\"adherence to values common to all mankind, founding ourselves on our inalienable right to self-determination,\"\" which is \"\"supported by the centuries-long history of development of Belarusian statehood.\"\" Belarus also pledges to honor the rights and freedoms of its citizens and to maintain a stable government that is run by the people and based on the rule of law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24189286",
"title": "Prostitution in Belarus",
"section": "Section::::Sex trafficking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Belarus is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children subjected to sex trafficking. Belarusian victims are primarily subjected to trafficking in Russia and Belarus, as well as in Poland, Turkey, and other countries in Eurasia and the Middle East. Some Belarusian women travelling for foreign employment in the adult entertainment and hotel industries are subjected to sex trafficking. The government has identified Belarusian, Moldovan, Russian, Ukrainian, and Vietnamese victims exploited in Belarus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68948",
"title": "Politics of Belarus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "The politics of Belarus takes place in a framework of a presidential republic with a bicameral parliament. The President of Belarus is the head of state. Executive power is exercised by the government, at its top sits a prime minister, appointed by the President. Legislative power is \"de jure\" vested in the bicameral parliament, the National Assembly, however the president may enact decrees that are executed the same way as laws, for undisputed time. Belarus's declaration of independence on 27 July 1990, did not stem from long-held political aspirations but from reactions to domestic and foreign events. Ukraine's declaration of independence, in particular, led the leaders of then Belarusian SSR to realize that the Soviet Union was on the brink of dissolving, which it did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ze72u
|
why does my iphone say i have 4.4 gigs of memory used in pictures and yet i have no pictures on my phone
|
[
{
"answer": "It's photos saved in messages, possibly cached photos. Delete some conversations, or (I highly recommend) jailbreak your phone, install iCleaner and it will clear ALL that crap out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42713479",
"title": "IOS 8",
"section": "Section::::App features.:Photos and Camera.:iCloud Photo Library.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "iOS 8 added iCloud Photo Library support to the Photos app, enabling photo synchronization between different Apple devices. Photos and videos were backed up in full resolution and in their original formats. This feature almost meant that lower-quality versions of photos could be cached on the device rather than the full-size images, potentially saving significant storage space on models with limited storage availability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3616597",
"title": "Digital photography",
"section": "Section::::The digital camera.:Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Because photographers rely on the integrity of image files, it is important to take proper care of memory cards. Common advocacy calls for formatting of the cards after transferring the images onto a computer. However, since all cameras only do quick formatting of cards, it is advisable to carry out a more thorough formatting using appropriate software on a PC once in a while. Effectively, this involves scanning of the cards to search for possible errors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The first-generation iPhone and iPhone 3G have a fixed-focus 2.0-megapixel camera on the back for digital photos. It has no optical zoom, flash or autofocus, and does not natively support video recording. Video recording is possible on the first-generation iPhone and iPhone 3G via a third-party app available on the App Store or through jailbreaking. iPhone OS 2.0 introduced geotagging for photos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46875443",
"title": "IOS 9",
"section": "Section::::App features.:Photos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The Photos app on iOS 9 included the improved scrubber bar in the photo viewer, \"Screenshots\" and \"Selfies\" albums, and the ability to hold and select multiple photos easily, without having to delete them individually. It also allows the user to hide sensitive material through a new Hide option. The app also allows the user to pinch-to-zoom while playing a video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10152308",
"title": "Microsoft SenseCam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "The photos represent almost every experience of its wearer's day. They are taken via a wide-angle lens in order to capture an image that is likely to contain most of what the wearer can see. The SenseCam uses a flash memory which has the means to store upwards of 2,000 photos per day as .jpg files, though more recent models with larger and faster memory cards mean a wearer typically stores up to 4,000 images per day. These files can then be uploaded and automatically viewed as a daily movie, which can be easily reviewed and indexed using a custom viewer application running on a PC. It is possible to replay the images from a single day in as little as a few minutes. An alternative way of viewing images is to have a day's worth of data automatically segmented into 'events' and to use an event-based browser which can view each event (of 50, 100 or more individual SenseCam images) using a keyframe chosen as a representative of that event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23173647",
"title": "Motorola Krave",
"section": "Section::::Camera phone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "The camera phone records pictures in JPEG format, but the Krave can also read GIF, PNG and BMP/DIB files. Thumbnails are stored individually as 9kB device-independent bitmap files (such as \"filename\"_jpg.dib, or \"filename\"_3g2.dib), occupying up to 10% more flash memory space (with 32kB clusters) than each picture itself (about 320kB at full size). The entire first video frame for each video is also stored this way (ff-\"filename\"_3g2.dib) at a resolution higher than the 320×240 of the video itself. Windows cannot read the thumbnails produced by the phone. Automatic creation of thumbnails can significantly slow browsing of photos. There is no way to bookmark, favorite, index, categorize, sort, or tag photos, such that the oldest ones require scrolling through all other photos taken since then. Large numbers of photos in the my_pix folder can cause severe slowness in capturing and browsing photos, and when a card is inserted or the phone reboots or is turned on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40272802",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy Gear",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The camera app can take photos, or record videos up to 15 seconds in length. Photos and videos can be stored to the device's internal storage, or immediately transferred to the user's phone or tablet. Users can also record up to 5 minutes worth of voice memos. A media controller for music or video being played by the phone or tablet is also provided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5epajt
|
Was Emperor Jimmu a real person? Who were his parents?
|
[
{
"answer": "In mythology Jimmu was a descendant of the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu. Ugayafukiaezu no Mikoto, a Kami (a god) is his father. Considering that both of these people are gods, it is unlikely that he was a real person. But that's the short answer. The long answer is a bit more in depth:\n\nThe Japanese migrated to the Japanese Islands, that much is known but it's not known when or from where (though probably from Korea and that region). Largely the Japanese were concentrated in the south and seem to have been organized in small villages during what is known as the Yayoi and Kofun Periods. During the end of the Kofun and the beginning of the Asuka Period, the villages became more fortified and larger, and local leaders developed into clans known in Japanese as Uji. \n\nOfficially, the Uji are unified under the Yamato Family by the eight century C.E. As the Yamato claim descent from the Sun Goddess, this is probably where the idea of Jimmu comes from. The Japanese State seems to just sort of...happened, and like all states that seem to come out of nowhere, they invented a mythological history for themselves as an easy way to explain what was most likely a convoluted series of wars and deals for Yamato hegemony. Rather than recalling all the conflict that undoubtedly took place, Jimmu becomes an easy way to explain unification. Who established the armies? Jimmu. Who unified the clans? Jimmu. See where I'm going with this?\n\nIn all reality though, what the myth of Jimmu represents is a case where mythology has preserved actual history (we see this in cases like Romulus, and Hercules, indeed if you live in America Washington seems to very very slowly be moving towards this). A local strongman may have had enough strength and guile to begin unification, who was then mythologized as Jimmu. Or perhaps he, like Prince Yamato, is an example of a blending of various stock characters in order to explain the past. \n\nI hope this helped answer your question!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10110",
"title": "Emperor of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Succession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "The origins of the Japanese imperial dynasty are obscure, and it bases its position on the claim that it has \"reigned since time immemorial\". There are no records of any Emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other, yet earlier Emperor ( \"bansei ikkei\"). There is suspicion that Emperor Keitai (c. AD 500) may have been an unrelated outsider, though the sources (Kojiki, Nihon-Shoki) state that he was a male-line descendant of Emperor Ōjin. However, his descendants, including his successors, were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage. The tradition built by those legends has chosen to recognize just the putative male ancestry as valid for legitimizing his succession, not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3177105",
"title": "Imperial House of Japan",
"section": "Section::::List of current members.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The Emperor Emeritus was born at Tokyo Imperial Palace on 23 December 1933, the elder son and fifth child of the Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun. He was married on 10 April 1959 to Michiko Shōda. Emperor Akihito succeeded his father as emperor on 7 January 1989, and was succeded by Naruhito after he abdicated on 30 April 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10451",
"title": "Emperor Suinin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 712,
"text": ", also known as was the 11th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. There is less known about \"Suinin\" than his father, and likewise is also considered to be a \"legendary emperor\". Both the \"Kojiki\", and the \"Nihon Shoki\" (collectively known as the \"Kiki\") record events that took place during Suinin's alleged lifetime. This legendary narrative tells how he ordered his daughter Yamatohime-no-mikoto to establish a new permanent shrine for Amaterasu (the Sun Goddess), which eventually became known as the Ise Grand Shrine. Other events that were recorded concurrently with his reign include the origins of Sumo wrestling in the form of a wrestling match involving Nomi no Sukune. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55893284",
"title": "2019 Japanese imperial transition",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:2019.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "BULLET::::- in which Emperor Akihito reports his abdication to the Ancestral Spirits of the Imperial Family from one year after their death and the from Takamagahara and from Japanese mythology at the \"Kōrei-den\" and \"Shin-den\" of the Three Palace Sanctuaries of the Imperial Palace respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10111",
"title": "Emperor",
"section": "Section::::East Asian tradition (Sinosphere).:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The earliest Emperor recorded in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki is Emperor Jimmu, who is said to be a descendant of Amaterasu's grandson Ninigi who descended from Heaven (Tenson kōrin). If one believes what is written in Nihon Shoki, the Emperors have an unbroken direct male lineage that goes back more than 2,600 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11931603",
"title": "Records of heads of state",
"section": "Section::::Ruling houses.:Oldest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Officially, the current Emperor of Japan, Naruhito is the 126th in line from the first emperor, Jimmu, who is variously believed to have reigned in the 1st or 7th century BC. The earliest documentary evidence is only for the 29th emperor, Kinmei (AD 509–571); however, this is sufficient such that even the most conservative of estimates still places the Japanese imperial family as among the oldest lines in the world today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425527",
"title": "Japanese mythology",
"section": "Section::::Mythical legends of Emperors.:First Emperor Jimmu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The first legendary Emperor of Japan, best known by his posthumous name of Emperor Jimmu was referred to in the records by the title of . He is the son of Ugaya, descendent of Ninigi, and the sea princess Tamayori. His given name was Hiko-hohodemi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5d2i7i
|
how do we know there are more colors than can be seen with the naked eye, if we can't... see them?
|
[
{
"answer": "A color is just a particular wavelength of light that happens to trip some of the cells in our eyes to some degree.\n\nWe know for a fact that there are wavelengths of light that do *not* activate those cells in our eyes--but those are still wavelengths of light, which can be called a color.\n\nAdditionally, we know for a fact that there are other animals that those wavelengths *do* activate some of the cells in *their* eyes, which is reason enough to call those wavelengths \"additional colors that humans can't see.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A German scientist decided to see if some colors were warmer or cooler than other colors, so he put a prism in sunlight to create a rainbow and put thermometers in each color to see what happened. He also wanted to measure the temperature of \"normal\" sunlight to compare them, and he set thermometers outside the rainbow for that. \n\nHe found that all of the colors by themselves were warmer than just sunlight, starting from violet and getting warmer as you get closer to red. But the thermometer he set next to red, where there were no colors he could see, was the hottest. \n\nThat's how he discovered infrared, by accident.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our brain interprets how much energy light has as color. Violet has more energy and red has less. If you increase the energy past violet or decrease it past red, our eyes can't detect the light* anymore. Past violet is called ultraviolet (known as UV light), and below red is called infrared.\n\nThere are many names for the \"colors\" that we can't see, but they all refer to the same phenomenon at different energies. These include, in order from least to most energetic:\n\n- Radio waves (for TV and radio transmission)\n- Microwaves (used in the ovens)\n- Infrared (detected by \"heat vision\")\n- Visible light (ROYGBV)\n- Ultraviolet (harmful sun rays)\n- X-Rays (used in the scans)\n- Gamma rays\n\nThese are all light*, but not all visible.\n\n*Some definitions of \"light\" restrict it to what's visible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, there's \"color\" as a concept for which we can see, and \"color\" as a measurable frequency of light.\n\nWe can see because we have three types of sensors in our eye: when all three are activated by light, we interpret it as \"white\", none is \"black\" of course, but varying combinations of the three are interpreted as colors. This is why people say magenta doesn't exist: there's no wavelength for it, but it's what results when the blue and red sensors are triggered, which can't happen using a strict color spectrum of light. Those are the colors we can understand through direct observation -- however, we're stuck with three sensors and each with its own narrow sensitivity, and the combinations of those three.\n\nOutside of what our eye can detect, photons have a variety of other wavelengths that can be detected through other means -- they're *technically* colors, since the only thing distinguishing them from visible colors is wavelength, which is also how we distinguish visible colors from each other.\n\nNow: there's something called tetrachromacy, which [can happen in humans](_URL_0_), which means they can percieve different colors than us, or percieve colors in a different way than other humans with three types of eye sensors. Also, it's possible for those three sensors in human eyes to detect slightly different wavelengths than other humans -- which usually results in colorblindness, but can be percieved as humans seeing 'different colors' than other people because the wavelengths are detected by their eyes differently than other people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "569650",
"title": "Stimulus modality",
"section": "Section::::Light modality.:Colour stimuli.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Humans are able to see an array of colours because light in the visible spectrum is made up of different wavelengths (from 380 to 760 nm). Our ability to see in colour is due to three different cone cells in the retina, containing three different photopigments. The three cones are each specialized to best pick up a certain wavelength (420, 530 and 560 nm or roughly the colours blue, green and red). The brain is able to distinguish the wavelength and colour in the field of vision by figuring out which cone has been stimulated. The physical dimensions of colour include wavelength, intensity and purity while the related perceptual dimensions include hue, brightness and saturation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22884719",
"title": "Philosophy of color",
"section": "Section::::Color discourse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Michael Tye argues, among other things, that there is only one correct way to see colors. Therefore, the colorblind and most mammals do not really have color vision because their vision differs from the vision of \"normal\" humans. Similarly, creatures with more advanced color vision, although better able to distinguish objects than people, are suffering from color illusions because their vision differs from humans. Tye advanced this particular position in an essay called \"True Blue\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331448",
"title": "Color depth",
"section": "Section::::Direct color.:More than 3 primaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "For storing and working on images, it is possible to use \"imaginary\" primary colors that are not physically possible so that the triangle does enclose a much larger gamut, so whether more than three primaries results in a difference to the human eye is not yet proven, since humans are primarily trichromats, though tetrachromats exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42210873",
"title": "Green star (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Why stars do not look green.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Human color vision is in fact more complicated than suggested by the explanation above, and in particular the perceived color of an object depends not only on the light it emits, but also on the colors of nearby objects. For example, a blue object close to a red object may appear somewhat greenish; this effect accounts for many apparently green stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53315",
"title": "Ewald Hering",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Color theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Young proposed that color vision is based on three primary colors: red, green, and blue. Maxwell demonstrated that any color can be matched by a mixture of three primary colors. This was interpreted by Helmholtz as proof that humans perceive colors through three types of receptors, while white and black would reflect the amount of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41464",
"title": "Visible spectrum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The spectrum does not contain all the colors that the human eyes and brain can distinguish. Unsaturated colors such as pink, or purple variations like magenta, for example, are absent because they can only be made from a mix of multiple wavelengths. Colors containing only one wavelength are also called pure colors or spectral colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097368",
"title": "On Vision and Colours",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 8.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Colors are not in light. Colors are nothing more than the eye's activity, appearing in polar contrasts. Philosophers have always surmised that color belongs to the eye rather than to things. Locke, for example, claimed that color was at the head of his list of secondary qualities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10e9ny
|
apple vs. samsung lawsuits
|
[
{
"answer": "Samsung created a lot of mobile devices that do things that Apple says they thought of first. Some examples are:\n\n\"Making things on the screen bigger when you tap on it twice\" \n\"Making the phone shaped like a rectangle\" \n\"Making icons have rounded edges\"\n\nApple was able to sue Samsung for \"copying\" them because Apple has \"patents\" for those things. [According to Wikipedia](_URL_0_), a patent gives an inventor an exclusive set of rights to produce his invention for a limited period of time. This means that if you think of a clever invention and get a patent for it, you can take the time to build and sell that invention without having to worry about a big company stealing your idea.\n\nRemember, though, your invention must be \"novel\" and \"non-obvious\", or you won't be able to get a patent for it. (If you're wondering how in the H-E-doublehockeysticks Apple managed to patent rectangles and successfully sue Samsung over them, congratulations! You're a lot smarter than all the grownups who were involved in the fiasco! Maybe you will grow up to be a patent attorney and save us all from this absurdity). =)\n\n**EDIT:** I know there are a lot of iPhone users out there, and that's fine (I'm a Mac user myself), but it's surprising to see how many people don't think this lawsuit is utter crap and an affront to innovation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Grog make fire! You copy Grog! If use fire you pay Grog beads! Grog share beads with Chief. Chief made sure Grog get paid. I get beads too. Everyone win!\" - The World's First Lawyer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, the evidence shows the Head Design Team from Samsung went through the iPhone point by point and compared it to their own TouchWiz OS and phone. They made suggestions that Samsung adopt hundreds of little features and design cues from the iPhone. You can look at the final OS changes on a phone and see they followed most of the advice released in [THESE INTERNAL DOCUMENTS.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "4 hours in and no good, unbiased explanation...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Question - why isn't apple suing google? don't these software patents pertain to android? Or is it because android is open source, so samsung actually gets the blame?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Samsung saw it's schoolyard friend Apple made an awesome Lego castle. It was awesome and many other students were wondering why they never thought to make a Lego Castle before!\n\nSamsung saw the Lego castle, and said \"That's nothing, i can make a better Lego castle just watch!\" So they went and started making a Lego castle. During the construction Samsung would run to the other room and look at Apple's Castle to make sure that the one he was making really was actually better.\n\nFinally, when Samsung finished his castle and showed it to the class \"Here is my Castle, it's much better than Apple's castle, see how his castle only has FOUR towers and made out of green blocks? Mine has FIVE towers and is made out of blue blocks! his has a two block wide moat? well mine has a SEVEN block wide moat!\"\n\nMany students were impressed with Samsungs Lego Castle. But Apple was not happy, he went to the teacher and said \"Samsung copied my castle and everyone thinks he's better at making castles than me!\"\n\n\"See how the flags on the towers are in similar patterns? See how he put the throne room in the same spot? See how he has two drawbridges in the same spots? HE COPIED ME DESTROY HIS CASTLE TEACHER!\"\n\n**The Court Case**\n\nThe teacher wasn't sure how to handle this, she went to the class one grade higher and asked some of the students to come and help evaluate the castles for her. She did a brief interview with the students she picked and told them that they cant be mean or nice to either student, they are only there to compare the castles.\n\nShe picked 12 students and showed them the castles.\n\nAlmost immediately the 12 students sided with Apple, \"The Samsung Castle should be destroyed! It is way too close to Apple's Castle, If Samsung wants to make castles they have to do it without drawbridges, moats, throne rooms, towers, or green blocks!\"\n\n\"That's not fair\" Samsung cried \"How can i make a castle without those things? Why can Apple use those things and i cant?\"\n\n**The Samsung Appeal**\n\nSamsung was angry, the teacher said he had to take apart his castle and give all of his Lego's to Apple. On his way home from school though he stopped in the next grade up's room to see that two of the people who said he ripped off Apple bragging about something.\n\n\"Yeah I know all about people copying, i own the designs for Lego Trucks and Cars! If anyone wants to make a Lego Truck or Car i just get Teacher to make them take them apart and give me their legos just like what happened to Samsung! I convinced the other kids that I knew all about this and that Samsung had copied Apple!\"\n\nSamsung got furious, this was the loudest kid of the bunch and if he hadn't of been there and lied to teacher about not taking favorites he might not have lost!\n\nAnd that's where we are today, Make it as ELI5 as i could.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Samsung counter-sued Apple on April 22, 2011, filing federal complaints in courts in Seoul, South Korea; Tokyo, Japan; and Mannheim, Germany, alleging Apple infringed Samsung's patents for mobile-communications technologies. By summer, Samsung also filed suits against Apple in the British High Court of Justice, in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware, and with the United States International Trade Commission (ITC) in Washington D.C., all in June 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46445426",
"title": "Samsung Electronics",
"section": "Section::::Litigation and safety issues.:Apple lawsuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Apple sued Samsung on 15 April 2011 in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California that several of Samsung's Android phones and tablets, including the Nexus S, Epic 4G, Galaxy S 4G, and the Samsung Galaxy Tab, infringed on Apple's intellectual property: its patents, trademarks, user interface and style. Apple's complaint included specific federal claims for patent infringement, false designation of origin, unfair competition, and trademark infringement, as well as state-level claims for unfair competition, common law trademark infringement, and unjust enrichment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3540442",
"title": "Apple Inc. litigation",
"section": "Section::::Trademarks, copyrights, and patents.:Patent.:\"Apple v. Samsung\": Android phones and tablets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "\"Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd.\" was the first of many lawsuits between Apple and Samsung. In the spring of 2011, Apple sued Samsung while already fully engaged in a patent war with Motorola. Apple's multinational litigation over technology patents became known as the mobile device patent wars: Extensive litigation followed fierce competition in the global market for consumer mobile communications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::U.S. courts.:First U.S. trial.:Injunction of U.S. sales during first trial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The injunction Apple sought in the U.S. to block Samsung smartphones such as the Infuse 4G and the Droid Charge was denied. Judge Koh ruled that Apple's claims of irreparable harm had little merit because although Apple established a likelihood of success at trial on the merits of its claim that Samsung infringed one of its tablet patents, Apple had not shown that it could overcome Samsung's challenges to the patent's validity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::Dutch courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Apple initially sued Samsung on grounds of patent infringement, specifically European patents 2.059.868, 2.098.948, and 1.964.022. On the 24th of October, 2011, a court in the Hague ruled only a photo gallery app in Android 2.3 was indeed infringing a patent (EP 2.059.868), resulting in an import ban of three Samsung telephones (the Galaxy S, Galaxy S II, and Ace) running the infringing software. Phones operating more recent versions of Android remained unaffected. This made the import and sale of the banned phone models with updated software still legal. This ruling was widely interpreted as a favourable one for Samsung, and an appeal by Apple may still be forthcoming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::Japanese courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Samsung's complaint in Japan's Tokyo District Court cited two infringements. Apple has filed other patent suits in Japan against Samsung, most notably one for the \"bounce-back\" feature. Samsung has also sued Apple, claiming the iPhone and iPad infringe on Samsung patents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35489551",
"title": "Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.",
"section": "Section::::South Korean courts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In late August 2012, a three-judge panel in Seoul Central District Court delivered a split decision, ruling that Apple had infringed upon two Samsung technology patents, while Samsung violated one of Apple's patents. The court awarded small damages to both companies and ordered a temporary sales halt of the infringing products in South Korea; however, none of the banned products were the latest models of either Samsung or Apple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bzup6
|
Could the Industrial Revolution have happened earlier in history, or did it happen as soon as the world was "ready" for it?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is basically directly taken from Ian Morris' *Why the West Rules for Now* which I highly recommend. Its a great read. \n\nThere were a few reasons why the Industrial Revolution happened when it did. Technology continued to accumulate over centuries and centuries making a breakthrough to industrialization possible, something earlier Empires did not have the luxury to rely on. Due to this increase in technology countries were more able to protect themselves with the invention of guns and other military equipment. This prevented empires from being overrun by enemy migration allowing them to focus on other concerns. Also ships could now sail virtually anywhere creating an economy that the world had never seen before. The Industrial Revolution was more easily instituted in Britain because of their massive economy, weaker monarchs (compared to other European powers), freer merchants, coal mines,more open institutions, and also dumb luck. \n\nAgain Ian Morris covers most of this in his book and does much better than I can, but none the less I hope this brief response helps somewhat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1204141",
"title": "Industrial civilization",
"section": "Section::::Constrast with other terms.:Contrast with industrial revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The \"industrial revolution\" is the historical event that ushered in industrial civilization. The modern world has evolved further following development in mass production and information technology (allowing service economy, and information society).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435268",
"title": "History of the world",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:Late Modern period.:1750–1914.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The Scientific Revolution changed humanity's understanding of the world and led to the Industrial Revolution, a major transformation of the world's economies. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century had had little immediate effect on industrial technology; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances begin to be applied substantially to practical invention. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required. The Age of Enlightenment also led to the beginnings of modern democracy in the late-18th century American and French Revolutions. Democracy and republicanism would grow to have a profound effect on world events and on quality of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51462",
"title": "Machine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16531537",
"title": "Industrious Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Industrious vs. Industrial Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The basic picture painted of the pre-Industrial Revolution is that the Industrial Revolution was the result of a surplus of money and crops, which led to the development of new technology. This new technology eventually developed into factories. The Industrious Revolution addresses this belief, saying instead, that the overwhelming desire for more goods directly preceded the Industrial Revolution. The theory states that during the Industrious Revolution there was an increase in demand for goods, but that supply did not rise as quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210545",
"title": "Industrialisation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "After the last stage of the Proto-industrialization, the first transformation from an agricultural to an industrial economy is known as the Industrial Revolution and took place from the mid-18th to early 19th century in certain areas in Europe and North America; starting in Great Britain, followed by Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and France. Characteristics of this early industrialisation were technological progress, a shift from rural work to industrial labor, financial investments in new industrial structure, and early developments in class consciousness and theories related to this. Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6639133",
"title": "Economy",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Industrial Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transport had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human history; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14914",
"title": "Industrial Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The Industrial Revolution, now also known as the First Industrial Revolution, was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pzgq4
|
eili5 how does file encryption work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Encryption takes a key, and combines it with the message mathematically to scramble it.\n\nA simple encryption scheme might move the letters of the message forward in the alpha. If my key was 1 2 3, and my message was REDDIT, it would encrypt it like this:\n\n R, 1 - > S\n E, 2 - > G\n D, 3 - > G\n D, 1 - > E\n I, 2 - > K\n T, 3 - > W\n\nSo the encrypted message is now SGGEKW. And even if you knew what the encryption was, you'd have a hard time finding the message without a key.\n\nIn practice, the actually scrambling method is more complicated, but the principle is the same. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7066791",
"title": "Disk encryption",
"section": "Section::::Transparent encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "With transparent encryption, the files are accessible immediately after the key is provided, and the entire volume is typically mounted as if it were a physical drive, making the files just as accessible as any unencrypted ones. No data stored on an encrypted volume can be read (decrypted) without using the correct password/keyfile(s) or correct encryption keys. The entire file system within the volume is encrypted (including file names, folder names, file contents, and other meta-data).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7622727",
"title": "Anti-computer forensics",
"section": "Section::::Data hiding.:Encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "File level encryption encrypts only the file contents. This leaves important information such as file name, size and timestamps unencrypted. Parts of the content of the file can be reconstructed from other locations, such as temporary files, swap file and deleted, unencrypted copies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7160942",
"title": "Filesystem-level encryption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Filesystem-level encryption, often called file-based encryption, FBE, or file/folder encryption, is a form of disk encryption where individual files or directories are encrypted by the file system itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33941",
"title": "Windows 2000",
"section": "Section::::New and updated features.:Encrypting File System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "EFS works by encrypting a file with a bulk symmetric key (also known as the File Encryption Key, or FEK), which is used because it takes less time to encrypt and decrypt large amounts of data than if an asymmetric key cipher were used. The symmetric key used to encrypt the file is then encrypted with a public key associated with the user who encrypted the file, and this encrypted data is stored in the header of the encrypted file. To decrypt the file, the file system uses the private key of the user to decrypt the symmetric key stored in the file header. It then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the file. Because this is done at the file system level, it is transparent to the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23271188",
"title": "Format-preserving encryption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "In cryptography, format-preserving encryption (FPE), refers to encrypting in such a way that the output (the ciphertext) is in the same format as the input (the plaintext). The meaning of \"format\" varies. Typically only finite domains are discussed, for example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1693035",
"title": "File hosting service",
"section": "Section::::Security.:Data encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Convergent encryption derives the key from the file content itself and means an identical file encrypted on different computers result in identical encrypted files. This enables the cloud storage provider to de-duplicate data blocks, meaning only one instance of a unique file (such as a document, photo, music or movie file) is actually stored on the cloud servers but made accessible to all uploaders. A third party who gained access to the encrypted files could thus easily determine if a user has uploaded a particular file simply by encrypting it themselves and comparing the outputs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1055437",
"title": "Deniable encryption",
"section": "Section::::Forms of deniable encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Another approach used by some conventional disk encryption software suites is creating a second encrypted volume within a container volume. The container volume is first formatted by filling it with encrypted random data, and then initializing a filesystem on it. The user then fills some of the filesystem with legitimate, but plausible-looking decoy files that the user would seem to have an incentive to hide. Next, a new encrypted volume (the hidden volume) is allocated within the free space of the container filesystem which will be used for data the user actually wants to hide. Since an adversary cannot differentiate between encrypted data and the random data used to initialize the outer volume, this inner volume is now undetectable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bzld7h
|
why are wall outlets 110v or 220v? those seem like such arbitrary values; why not 100v?
|
[
{
"answer": "In many parts of the world, electric companies sprung up, each making their own flavor of power (certain voltage, amperage, cycles per second, etc.). This caused one really big problem: you buy a lamp and it works in your house, then you move to another part of town, and it won't work because the power is different.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAt some point, it was necessary to standardize the way power works so that there was interchangeability, technicians didn't require retraining, etc. In the end, 110/220 were completely arbitrary. It could have been 150 or 200 for all that matters, as long as everyone used the same one in the same country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was tough in the early days of electricity to figure out what was the best voltage. Edison liked DC, it worked well but required heavy wires and could only be sent short distances from the generating station. \nWestinghouse and Tesla liked AC which didn't require heavy wiring, but was more dangerous to work with and required heavy transformers, but it could be sent long distances with ease. \n\nSo many different schemes were tried, and they settled on 110v as a good balance between wire thickness and distance and dangerousness. \n\nPlus it probably just fit well with the generators they had built. That's why a lot of things end up like that. Some guy built something and arbitrarily picked a figure because it made it easier to build and therefore cheaper than all the competitors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "you may be surprised to find out that the power coming out of your outlets isn't actually 110/220/whatever the standard is in your area.\n\ndon't recommend this to people without some background in working with electricity, but you can check an outlet with a multimeter designed for the job - has to be one designed to handle wall socket currents, cheap shit will explode in your hands, don't do it.\n\nI can see anything from 100V to 116V in Toronto in the same house on the same day.\n\nTokyo had clean power, never budged from 100v.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might not be a simple ELI5, but the history is based off of common 1.5V battery cells and 6V DC power supplies before AC was widely implemented. Any combination of power could then be made with multiples of 6V (6V, 12V, 48V, etc) and they were sometimes rounded for simplicity. Thus 6V x 40 DC batteries = 240V. \n\nBut through the AC and DC \"War of Currents\" between Edison and Tesla, Tesla won with an implementation of AC and originally planned 240V but decided 120V (half of 240) was safer in the household and more efficient at 60Hz. 240V was originally chosen technically because of phases and less line loss during transmission, but probably more detail than needed for ELI5. \n\n120V was also thought to be enough to power most household appliances and probably more importantly the original filament light bulb was designed to be used between 100V and 130V. This alone might be the easiest ELI5 reason - everyone in that day and age wanted lights like today's cellphone. \n\nAdditionally, all US homes are still fed with 240V at the main panel (2 hot legs) but most outlets except for dryers, ovens, etc only get one hot leg and therefore 120V power. \n\nThe US then standardized on 120V and AC beat out DC. \n\nMost of the rest of the world just chose 240V, which is arguably more efficient and accomplishes the same thing. In cases like when England rebuilt after WW2 it was that 240V was more efficient for transmission and therefore required less copper wiring so economics played a big part of that decision. \n \nYou can find out more technical detail, but this is probably enough for ELI5.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are not quite arbitrary, but their origins are a bit involved.\n\nYou see before AC became the way to distribute power DC power was common for this purpose in the very early days. Actually some of the last remnants of that old way managed to last up until a few years ago when the last remaining parts of Thomas Edison's DC grid in New York were taken offline.\n\nDC isn't really as good for distributing power as AC, so when Tesla introduced DC current it caught on.\n\nThe original voltages for the AC grid were based on the voltages of the DC grid. It started out as 240V and was later reduced to 120V for safety reasons and eventually ended up as 110V in North America.\n\nOther places use different voltages and frequencies but they are all based on the early grid and usually end up being 110V to 120V or 220V to 240V with 50Hz or 60Hz.\n\nThe question is then why did early AC grid use a number like 120V instead of 100V.\n\nApparently this is because they wanted to remain compatible with earlier battery based systems. Those batteries even in those days came in multiples of 1.5V you get larger batteries by connecting smaller ones together. The term \"battery\" in fact implies having a battery of cells providing electricity. 6V was a common combination of four 1.5V cells and connecting a round number like twenty of those 6V batteries together ends you up with 120V.\n\nthe 1.5 volt battery came from the first commercially successful dry cell sold in larger numbers. It was the first thing close to a standard for voltages anyone had ever had and its descendants still provide standards for us today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17355007",
"title": "Electricity pricing",
"section": "Section::::Price comparison across countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "For example, in 2012, Hawaii residents had the highest average residential electricity rate in the United States (37.34¢/kWh), while Louisiana residents had the lowest average residential electricity costs (8.37¢/kWh). Even in the contiguous United States, the gap is significant with New York residents having the highest average residential electricity rates in the lower 48 U.S. states (17.62¢/kWh).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212253",
"title": "Electric power distribution",
"section": "Section::::Secondary distribution.:Regional variations.:100–120 volt systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Most of the Americas use 60 Hz AC, the 120/240 volt split phase system domestically and three phase for larger installations. North American transformers usually power homes at 240 volts, similar to Europe's 230 volts. It is the split-phase that allows use of 120 volts in the home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33457759",
"title": "Electrical burn",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Basic electrical safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "BULLET::::- Not inquiring about the voltage when traveling abroad for those residing in the Americas, Japan, and Taiwan (countries with 110-125 volts). This includes inter-American travel, as a few countries commonly use 220-240 volts. A matching electrical socket (power mains) does \"not\" necessarily mean the voltage is the same as one's home country. The doubling of voltage results in a very dangerous four-fold increase in power and heat. Not checking that dual-voltage small appliances have been adjusted correctly for 220-240 volts is also unsafe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7320252",
"title": "Muja Power Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In household consumer terms, this equates to of emitted for each one kilowatt-hour (kWh), or , of electricity produced and fed into the electricity grid. That is, Muja Power Station emits slightly more per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced than nearby Collie Power Station () and much more than Bluewaters Power Station () based on estimates for the same year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7320485",
"title": "Collie Power Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In household consumer terms, this equates to of emitted for each one kilowatt-hour (kWh), or , of electricity produced and fed into the electricity grid. That is, Collie Power Station emits slightly less per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced than nearby closing Muja Power Station () but more than also nearby Bluewaters Power Station () based on estimates for the same year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38824",
"title": "Electric power transmission",
"section": "Section::::Overhead transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 765 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48516470",
"title": "Low-voltage network",
"section": "Section::::Design considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Most of differences in the layout and design of low-voltage networks are dictated by the mains voltage rating. In Europe and most of the world 220–240 V is the dominant choice, while in North America 120 V is the standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kzsij
|
What exactly is the reaction happening when I clean tarnished silver with bicarb, Aluminium, and hot water?
|
[
{
"answer": "Aluminium is naturally very reactive, but is often covered in a thin layer of passivating aluminium oxide that prevents the rest of the aluminium from reacting. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric, and thus easily soluble in alkaline or acidic solutions. The hot bicarb solution is alkaline, and dissloves the aluminium oxide, and allows the underlying aluminium to react with water into more aluminium oxide, that gets dissolved, and it repeats until the metal is entirely gone.\n\nThe oxidizing aluminium, in turn, reduces the silver tarnish into silver when placed in contact with the aluminium.\n\nThe strong smell is probably the silver sulfide (black silver tarnish) reducing into silver metal and hydrogen sulfide, which smells like rotting eggs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34966381",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of silver objects",
"section": "Section::::Current practices.:Museum conservation practices – historical objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Ethyl alcohol is sometimes added to the slurry mixture to help dry out excess water. The slurry mixture is applied throughout the piece until completely polished. Dark tarnish spots are sometimes located on the surface and may need to be polished more than once to remove. Over polishing is an issue with silver and can cause harm to the surface of the metal. After polishing, the silver object is rinsed in deionized water and dried with a cotton cloth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44293086",
"title": "Galvanic corrosion",
"section": "Section::::Examples of corrosion.:Electrolytic cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "The common technique of cleaning silverware by immersion of the silver or sterling silver (or even just silver plated objects) and a piece of aluminum (foil is preferred because of its much greater surface area compared to ingots, although if the foil has a \"non-stick\" face, this must be removed with steel wool first) in a hot electrolytic bath (usually composed of water and sodium bicarbonate, i.e., household baking soda) is an example of galvanic corrosion. Silver darkens and corrodes in the presence of airborne sulfur molecules, and the copper in sterling silver corrodes under a variety of conditions. These layers of corrosion can be largely removed through the electrochemical reduction of silver sulfide molecules: the presence of aluminum (which is less noble than either silver or copper) in the bath of sodium bicarbonate strips the sulfur atoms off the silver sulfide and transfers them onto and thereby corrodes the piece of aluminum foil (a much more reactive metal), leaving elemental silver behind. No silver is lost in the process. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34966381",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of silver objects",
"section": "Section::::Current practices.:Museum conservation practices – historical objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Water sensitive objects are masked in plastic wrap to avoid getting wet. A slurry of precipitated (pharmaceutical grade) calcium carbonate and deionized water is created and rubbed onto the silver piece with a cotton rag or cotton ball. It is recommended that the slurry be tested on the bottom or in a non-visible area of the silver for abrasiveness. If the slurry is too abrasive it will scratch the surface and increase the potential for future tarnishing. The polish is applied with a soft cloth and polished in a circular motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23926307",
"title": "Rewari metal work",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "6. Neutralization: after water washing acid is not completely removed. So to neutralize the surface of the metal it is dipped into Kishta or Khatai i.e. tamarind solution.acid present on the meta surface darken the color of brass due to corrosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34966381",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of silver objects",
"section": "Section::::Collections care.:Preventing interaction with sulfur gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Sulfur-containing gases and particulates can tarnish the surface of silver. These corrosive agents can come from air pollution, paints, textiles, bacterial by-products, and other chemically treated objects or building materials. When storing silver, museum conservators wrap silver in sulfur-free tissue paper and store in a tight sealed polyethylene bag. Activated charcoal is sometimes used to absorb sulfur by placing it in the bag but not in direct contact with the object. Likewise, Pacific Silver Cloth has also been used by museums to prevent tarnishing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34966381",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of silver objects",
"section": "Section::::Current practices.:Museum conservation practices – historical objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Once cleaned and dried the silver is wrapped in acid-free tissue paper and placed in a sealed plastic bag. A 3M anti-tarnish strip is also placed in the bag to absorb any sulfur that may be in the air. The tissue paper is used as a buffer to prevent the silver surface coming into contact with the anti-tarnish strip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1177234",
"title": "Potassium dichromate",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Analytical reagent.:Silver test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "When dissolved in an approximately 35% nitric acid solution it is called Schwerter's solution and is used to test for the presence of various metals, notably for determination of silver purity. Pure silver will turn the solution bright red, sterling silver will turn it dark red, low grade coin silver (0.800 fine) will turn brown (largely due to the presence of copper which turns the solution brown) and even green for 0.500 silver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45e4ue
|
why are doctors england on strike?
|
[
{
"answer": "The UK government wants to introduce a new contract for doctors. The changes would include modification of standard working hours which will result in unsafe working practices and reduced pay, as well as potentially causing issues with staffing and recruitment.\nThe contract aims to \"introduce\" the idea of a 7-day NHS, as though care is currently withdrawn at 5pm every evening and is non-existent at weekends. One way of providing this is by classing Saturday, Sunday and evenings as normal working hours, as opposed to overtime or unsociable hours. Proposals have also included calls for only a 30 minute break during 10 hour on call shifts. These longer hours have the potential to result in doctors working while tired which can impact on their and patients' safety.\nThe other outcome of these changes in hours is one of pay. By changing unsociable hours to normal working hours, a lot of doctors will essentially be taking a paycut as they will no longer receive the same bonuses and incentive payments for working overtime or unsociable hours.\nUnderstandably, junior doctors are not happy and, after many attempts at negotiation with the health secretary, have concluded that industrial action is the best way of getting their voices heard",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Health Secretary, Jeremy Hunt (he of the easily mispronounced surname) has decided to impose a new contract on junior doctors (junior doctors referring to all doctors under consultant-grade). This new contract says that weekends and nights no longer count as 'unsociable hours', so doctors will now be paid on basic rate, as well as increasing the upper amount of hours that doctors must work, and reducing the amount of rest time they're entitled to during long shifts. His stated reason for doing so is to ensure that the same level of care is available every day of the week (e.g. scheduled surgeries, appointments etc). The British Medical Association have stated that this will effectively cut doctors pay by 30%, and result in worse care for patients, as there is no extra money being budgeted for the increase in 5 days to 7 - so, doctors will just be spread more thinly, and receive lower wages whilst being asked to work longer hours with less rest. The BMA have stated that this will have adverse effects on patient healthcare, because exhausted and stressed doctors are more likely to make mistakes. Jeremy Hunt says it will be fine, but Jeremy Hunt also says that homeopathy should be available on the NHS and thinks that parents should check Dr Google for their child's symptoms rather than go to the actual doctor. He has not so far provided evidence for his positions.\n\nDoctors took a ballot on whether to strike; 98% of doctors voted to strike on the basis that their concerns about patient safety and doctors wellbeing were being ignored. The majority of the public when polled, support the doctors. During the strikes, non-essential and elective procedures were cancelled/postponed, and doctors worked to ensure that patient safety was not compromised, often looking after patients before going out on the picket line.\n\nJeremy Hunt has now decided to impose the contract anyway after strikes. Many people suspect that the current government want to abolish free healthcare in the UK, and in order to do so, are running it into the ground by cutting funding and making it harder for doctors to do their jobs safely and effectively, thereby reducing public support for the NHS. Jeremy Hunt has previously co-written a book advocating a move towards US style insurance-based healthcare, and owns \n\nMany doctors have stated their reasons clearly: here is one example (chosen for clarity and brevity) from Dr Mei Nortley: \n\n\"This is NOT about pay. It is wholly about patient safety. We are so thinly spread already and all we are trying to resist is being spread even thinner and putting patient safety at risk. If more doctors really are needed at the weekend, we need MORE doctors.\n\nEven then, doctors cannot work alone. We need our porters to take you to X-ray, we need a radiographer to do your X-ray, we need physiotherapists to help you rehabilitate. Lastly, without our nurses along side us, we are nothing. Moving doctors from the midweek to the weekend will cripple services we already struggle to provide during weekdays. Without also funding our allied colleagues to work weekends alongside us, we will be standing alone, telling you what you need but unable to provide it.\"",
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},
{
"answer": "I'm going to try and offer a different viewpoint from some of those others here. Please accept, I fully accept the doctor's right to strike to prevent unsafe working practises and I am not advocating that they should roll over.\n\nThe main problem is that too many Britons are living longer and too many new treatments are expensive. Healthcare is the second biggest line item in the UK budget and planned to be around £137 Billion (~$200 Billion) in 2016.\n\nBecause of a rising population, longer life expectancy, more treatment options and higher tech medicine the demand on the NHS has, for many years, been rising faster than the UK GDP and therefore (approximately) the ability of the UK to pay for it.\n\nNow the UK could borrow money internationally to fund new doctor's surgeries, new hospitals, MRI machines etc but the UK already owes the world £1.5 Trillion, somewhere near £26,000 for every person in the UK, plus paying the interest on that debt. The 2016 budget as-is plans to add £45 Billion of new borrowing to add to that £1.5T.\nThe government has been elected on a manifesto of \"living within our means\" so cannot borrow significantly to grow the NHS.\n\nNHS service availability is constrained by both the lack of staff and the lack of equipment/beds/facilities. Hospitals seem to operate an \"emergencies only\" policy for Saturday and Sunday work and only treat routine appointments Mon-Fri. This leads to the thought that there are resources (beds) being blocked over the weekend without treatment taking place and free time available in expensive operating theatres and on scanners and such that is not being used optimally.\n\nThe governments approach is to say that 50 years ago, for society as a whole the work week was way more rigid than today. Work Mon-Fri, home time Saturday, church Sunday. As a result Saturday work tended to be paid at time and a half (150%) and Sundays at double time (200%). In this new millennium flexible working is far more common, weekends are less special and the NHS should adapt by both downrating the weekend bonuses and increasing the efficient use of equipment and facilities and improve citizen health care by also offering routine medical treatment at weekends. There is no new money to pay for this so weekend bonuses will be reduced.\n\nThe BMA is understandably angry on behalf of its members, society wants more access to healthcare more often and the government has a little extra money to send to the NHS but not enough to make these sort of changes. There is no easy answer here. Hope this helps and I gratefully accept changes and challenges to this ELI5 view.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1761343",
"title": "Junior doctor",
"section": "Section::::Pay and conditions.:Contract dispute in England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "On the 12th of January 2016, Junior Doctors in England took part in the first general strike across the NHS, the first such industrial action in 40 years. Emergency care was still provided. There have been claims that the Medical Director of NHS England, Professor Sir Bruce Keogh, has used performance target levels to justify and encourage NHS Trusts to declare an emergency situation, forcing Junior Doctors to work despite the strike, a move to which the BMA has condemned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53801235",
"title": "2015 junior doctors contract dispute in England",
"section": "Section::::Strikes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "On 12 January 2016, Junior Doctors in England took part in the first general strike across the NHS, the first such industrial action in 40 years. Emergency care was still provided. Hunt claimed it was \"unnecessary\", that patients could be put at risk, and that many junior doctors had \"ignored\" the strike call and worked anyway, but the BMA responded that many junior doctors were in work maintaining emergency care as planned. There were claims that Bruce Keogh, had used performance target levels to justify and encourage NHS trusts to declare an emergency situation, forcing Junior Doctors to work despite the strike, a move to which the BMA condemned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56820534",
"title": "2018 UK higher education strike",
"section": "Section::::Background to the strike.:Pay and conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "BULLET::::- Similar concerns were reflected by strike action around the same time more widely in UK professional classes: junior doctors undertook their first strikes in the history of the National Health Service (England) in 2015-16, while barristers began strike action on 1 April 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53801235",
"title": "2015 junior doctors contract dispute in England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "A junior doctors contract dispute in England led to industrial action being taken in 2015 and 2016. A negotiation between NHS Employers and the main UK doctor's union, the British Medical Association (BMA) had been overshadowed by the Secretary of State for Health, Jeremy Hunt threatening to impose certain aspects. The BMA balloted members in November 2015 and industrial action was scheduled for the following month. The initial action was suspended, although further talks broke down. Junior doctors took part in a general strike across the NHS in England on 12 January 2016, the first such industrial action in 40 years. Junior doctors again withdrew their labour for routine care on 10 February. On 26 April 2016, junior doctors withdrew from emergency and routine care, the first time this had happened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56136824",
"title": "2018 in India",
"section": "Section::::Events.:January.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- 290,000 doctors across the country participate in a strike for 12 hours to protest against the National Medical Commission Bill, which seeks to replace the Medical Council of India with National Medical Commission. The Strike was called off mid-way as the government agrees to send the bill to parliamentary standing committee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30221613",
"title": "Care UK",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Political donations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In 2014, Care UK's former chairman Lord Nash became a government minister and Care UK took over services for people with severe learning disabilities in Doncaster, south Yorkshire - where they immediately cut wages of staff who had been on NHS terms by up to 35% while bringing in 100 new workers on £7 an hour. Fifty carers for the disabled began strike action in protest and by August 2014, had been on strike for 7 weeks - making it one of the longest strikes in the history of the NHS. Care UK won the supported living contract from the council after telling officials that it could deliver it for £6.7m over three years. Yet the wage bill alone for the service was £7m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61000675",
"title": "Health care in Catalonia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1180,
"text": "In November 2018 5,700 medical practitioners, including gynaecologists, paediatricians and general practitioners, went on strike for a week, demanding that the Generalitat de Catalunya implement a cap to the number of daily patient consultations. This was part of a dispute which started in 2008 when more than 900 doctors were fired and doctors’ wages were cut by 30%. They blocked the Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, and occupied the Catalonia Health Institute headquarters. Emergency services were continued. After 4 days a settlement was negotiated on the number of patient appointments, which were limited by a cap of 25-28 patient consultations per day with a minimum time of 12 minutes per appointment. 300 more primary care professionals were recruited. In February 2019 these guidelines were still not universally enforced according to the doctors’ union of Catalonia, Metges De Catalunya. Very few of the 309 family medical practitioners had appeared. 600 existing doctors had agreed to work more hours. The European Union of General Practitioners found that only about 24% of general practitioners thought the workload in their country was sustainable and reasonable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25z7sy
|
tuition is increasing faster than inflation. cable prices are increasing faster than inflation. healthcare costs too. isn't that the definition of inflation?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, you need to understand how Inflation is measured. Its simply not practical to have the primary inflation number we talk about include every possible product that you could by or spend money on, not to mention the problems of deciding how to weight different items. Instead, a \"basket\" of goods is selected that is designed to represent common consumer items, and their prices are tracked and used to produce an inflation number. The problem is that what is included in that basket is a political question. The basket used to consider fuel prices, now it doesn't, etc...",
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},
{
"answer": "In 2013:\n\nThe price of TVs fell by 13.9 percent.\nGas prices fell by 1 percent.\nPrices of New vehicles fell by .3 percent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "254108",
"title": "Textbook",
"section": "Section::::Higher education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "With higher education costs on the rise, many students are becoming sensitive to every aspect of college pricing, including textbooks, which in many cases amount to one tenth of tuition costs. The 2005 Government Accountability Office report on college textbooks said that since the 1980s, textbook and supply prices have risen twice the rate of inflation in the past two decades. A 2005 PIRG study found that textbooks cost students $900 per year, and that prices increased four times the rate of inflation over the past decade. A June 2007 Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance (ACSFA) report, “Turn the Page,” reported that the average U.S. student spends $700–$1000 per year on textbooks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61029894",
"title": "Cost and financing issues facing higher education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cost and finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "After adjusting for inflation, average published tuition at public (4-year, in-state) and private non-profit universities has increased by 178% and 98%, respectively, from the 1990-91 school year to 2017-18. Net Price (tuition less aid received) has also grown, but to a much smaller degree, as most universities have increased their \"discount rate\" by offering more in student aid. After adjusting for inflation, average net price at public and private universities has increased by 77% and 17%, respectively, over the same time frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254108",
"title": "Textbook",
"section": "Section::::Market.:Production.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Following closely behind annual increases in tuition and fees at postsecondary institutions, college textbook and supply prices have risen at twice the rate of annual inflation over the last two decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254108",
"title": "Textbook",
"section": "Section::::Market.:Production.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "According to the 2007 edition of the College Board’s Trend in College Pricing Report published October 2007: \"\"College costs continue to rise and federal student aid has shown slower growth when adjusted for inflation, while textbooks, as a percentage of total college costs, have remained steady at about 5 percent.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25810074",
"title": "Chegg",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "It is estimated that in 2009, college students spent an average of $667 on their textbooks. A second estimate was $1,000 per year, with signs that textbook prices were increasing faster than inflation. Moreover, some college bookstores would offer to buy back the used books for a fraction of their original price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61029894",
"title": "Cost and financing issues facing higher education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cost and finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "An alternate explanation posits that tuition increases simply reflect the increasing costs of producing higher education due to its high dependence upon skilled labor. According to the theory of the Baumol effect, a general economic trend is that productivity in service industries has lagged that in goods-producing industries, and the increase in higher education costs is simply a reflection of this phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16961745",
"title": "Middle-class squeeze",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Costs of key goods and services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "While overall inflation has generally remained low since 2000, the costs of certain categories of \"big ticket\" expenses have grown faster than the overall inflation rate, such as healthcare, higher education, rent, and child care. These goods and services are considered essential to a middle-class lifestyle yet are increasingly unaffordable as household income stagnates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9h2gw0
|
Did they have ads as we know them centuries ago?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up question/example: When I was at Herculaneum, which in the famous eruption of Vesuvius in 79AD was destroyed and preserved, I remember seeing adverts as you describe. I remember it was an advert in big red script outside of a street cafe or bakery of some sort. This might be a good example to use if someone could provide further context of what and how it was advertising the sponsor.",
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"answer": "Aha! What a fun topic! For me, this one is gonna go back....well, a couple of millenia, but I hope you'll be alright with that. I can't speak much to advertisement later than the Roman period, but advertisement in the Roman city is a wonderful thing in itself!\n\nSome notes before we start: Shorthand in the Latin quotes. Parentheses () indicate that I'm expanding on a shorthand - so if I have a D M, I'll expand it to D(is) M(anibus). Brackets [] are letters that are no longer extant, but we know ought to be there. \n\nObviously, as you might imagine, we don't have much of that left. What we do have is generally categorized in a field called \"epigraphy\" - the study of stuff that's written on stuff. The absolute most common unit of study here is [the generic gravestone](_URL_6_). For an easy example of this, there's an [online database of Latin inscription](_URL_5_) (not 100% complete, but not bad!) that's mostly only browsable if you're reasonably fluent in Latin. There are also mistakes here and there, but again - only a big issue if you're in the field. The above reads:\n\n > D(is) M(anibus) / T(ito) Fl(avio) Vero Aug(usti) / lib(erto) tab(ulario) rat(ionis) / aquarior(um) co(n)/iugi bene me/renti Octa/via Thetis fecit\n\nwhich translates toooo\n\n > To the departed spirits, Octavia Thetis made this for her well deserving husband, Titus Flavius Vero, freedman of Augustus, scribe of the regulation of the water supply. \n\nBut that's a tangent I'll address later. For now, let's go to specific shop signs, 'cause that's what it looks like you're looking for! Luckily, there are a couple that are extant that are *very* clear as to what they're doing. [They say so!](_URL_2_) Now, if you'll do me a favour and follow that link, it'll show you a picture of a page from a book that's on my desk^1 ~~that I'm supposed to be actively reading right now instead of browsing reddit~~. The page is mostly self explanatory: the inscription, written in both Latin and Greek, has a large, bold, eye catching note at the top, which in both Greek and Latin translates directly to: \"INSCRIPTIONS HERE.\" The rest of the details follow in close order (and in smaller text, since we already have your attention). The grammar and spelling is....imperfect at best, but you definitely know what's going on inside and how nice they can make things (that stone is OLD and it still looks good). [Here's another one, from Rome this time!](_URL_3_). That one employs another cheeky way of grabbing the eye. See the DM at the top? That's the universal marker for \"gravestone\" (see above, the Dis Manibus/To the departed spirits). So that'd catch the eye, and following up it says:\n\n > D M / titulos scri/bendos vel/ si quid o[pe]/ris marmor/ari opus fu/erit hic ha/bes\n\nor, in translation...\n\n > To the departed spirits! You can get inscriptions written here or any other sort of marble work you need done! \n\nNice and blatant there ;) Regarding other shop signs, there's one that *might* be [a shop sign for poultry from Ostia](_URL_0_), but the issue is that there's no text there - it could just as easily be a funerary inscription. We're not entirely sure. \n\nOn to other forms of advertisement, known as the *programmata*! These generally take the form of things like graffiti and pottery stamps. This general category of epigraphy is heavily focused on Pompeii/Herculaneum, mostly because of preservation.^2 Oftentimes, these were related to elections and generally consist of the candidate's name (or initials) and the office for which he's running. This is followed by a bunch of abbreviations, such as OVF (*oro vos faciatis* - I ask that you make [insert name] a [insert office]), VB (*virum bonum* - \"good dude\"), or DRP (*dignum rei publicae* - worthy of the republic). Sometimes these have the supporter who sponsored said *programmata*, sometimes not. Generally, they take a format that looks something like this:\n\n > L(ucium) P(opidium) S(ecundum) Aed(ilem) O(ro) V(os) F(aciatis) D(ignum) R(ei) P(ublicae) Successa Rog(at) | *CIL 4.1062*\n\nor...\n\n > Successa asks that you make Lucius Popidius Secundus, worthy of the Republic, an aedile. **nota bene: the Latin is ten ways of hilariously messy here, but this is what it's saying. Essentially.**\n\nThe graffiti would have just been written on walls in various locations, while pottery stamps would have been put on...well....pottery. Bowls, cups, plates, roof tiles, amphorae...you get the idea. If someone could pay a tiny bit to get their candidate's name out there, it was gonna happen.\n\nFinally! A form of advertisement that you might not have been intending, but that I feel like rambling about anyway ;) Inscriptions that were put out as announcements! Advertisements that you might not think of as such, but...well...advertise to the people what's up. One fun such piece is actually a glorious pain in the ass to read because it's so damn old: [the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus.](_URL_4_) Nope, I'm not translating the whole thing (again x.x) because it's hella long, but it essentially is a decree from the Senate banning the Bacchanalia throughout all of Italy. It's a pretty gigantic step to snuff out any hint of this kinda stuff, which is pretty interesting because the next time such a stance was taken with regards to religion was with respect to some crucified sophist in Palestine. \n\nThe other fantastic piece of advertisement (besides [the inevitable signatures of \"I made this\" on every piece of Roman architecture ever)](_URL_1_), that I love to talk about is Augustus' *Res Gestae*, the only surviving copies of which were written, first on massive bronze columns outside his tomb (lost), and then all over the temples of the Roman Empire. It's a hilariously self-promoting piece, obviously exaggerates, very specifically skips over anything negative that he did, and, in short, makes him out to be practically perfect in every way. You heard it here, Gussie = Mary Poppins. And if you don't think that's advertisement, then I'm disappointed. \n\nHope this helps you out!\n\n1. Said book is the *Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy*, edited by Christer Bruun and Jonathan Edmondson. I VERY highly recommend this if you're interested in Roman epigraphy, as the price tag is actually manageable for such a tome. Or you could just use the library, that works too. \n\n2. This quick intro on *programmata* is taken from *Women and elections in Pompeii* by Liisa Savunen.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "41241080",
"title": "History of advertising",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The history of advertising can be traced to ancient civilizations. It became a major force in capitalist economies in the mid-19th century, based primarily on newspapers and magazines. In the 20th century, advertising grew rapidly with new technologies such as direct mail, radio, television, the internet and mobile devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "41241080",
"title": "History of advertising",
"section": "Section::::Pre-modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BCE) of bamboo flutes played to sell candy. Advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with \"Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop\" and \"We buy high quality steel rods and make fine quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time\" written above and below. is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "256560",
"title": "Brand management",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
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"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "With the rise of mass media in the early 20th century, companies soon adopted techniques that would allow their advertising messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s. Many of the earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a \"soap opera.\" Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these \"advertising spots,\" as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2861",
"title": "Advertising",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with \"Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop\" and \"We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time\" written above and below is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2861",
"title": "Advertising",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 434,
"text": "In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false advertising and so-called \"quack\" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "445800",
"title": "Advertising agency",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "In 1856 Mathew Brady created the first modern advertisement when he placed an ad in the New York Herald paper offering to produce \"photographs, ambrotypes, and daguerreotypes.\" His ads were the first whose typeface and fonts were distinct from the text of the publication and from that of other advertisements. At that time all newspaper ads were set in agate and only agate. His use of larger distinctive fonts caused a sensation. Later that same year Robert E. Bonner ran the first full-page ad in a newspaper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41241080",
"title": "History of advertising",
"section": "Section::::16th–18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 677,
"text": "Modern advertising began to take shape with the advent of newspapers and magazines in the 16th and 17th centuries. The very first weekly gazettes appeared in Venice in the early 16th-century. From there, the concept of a weekly publication spread to Italy, Germany and Holland. In Britain, the first weeklies appeared in the 1620s, and its first daily newspaper was \"The Daily Courant\" published from 1702 to 1735. Almost from the outset, newspapers carried advertising to defray the cost of printing and distribution. The earliest commercial advertisements were for books and quack medicines, but by the 1650s, the variety of products being advertised had increased markedly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hyalj
|
why does radiation in a disaster stay for so long? (like in chernobyl)
|
[
{
"answer": "All radioactive materials have a half-life. The half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of the material to decay into something else.\n\nIf the material from Chernobyl has a half-life of 1000 years then after 1000 years only 1/2 of it will be gone. After 2000 years, 3/4 of it will be gone. Etc.\n\nSome radioactive materials actually decay into other radioactive materials. Then those materials need to decay, too.\n\nObviously, this is a problem. Modern nuclear reactors have been designed with safety in mind because nobody wants to deal with the consequences of a meltdown.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167895",
"title": "Timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::April 2011.:Tuesday, 12 April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "At Chernobyl, approximately 10 times the amount of radiation was released into the atmosphere as was released from Fukushima I through 12 April 2011. The total amount of radioactive material still stored at Fukushima is about 8 times that stored at Chernobyl, and leakage at Fukushima continues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162498",
"title": "Nuclear meltdown",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union-designed reactors.:Chernobyl disaster.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Although the Chernobyl accident had dire off-site effects, much of the radioactivity remained within the building. If the building were to fail and dust were to be released into the environment, the release of a given mass of fission products that have aged for almost thirty years would have a smaller effect than the release of the same mass of fission products (in the same chemical and physical form) that had only undergone a short cooling time (such as one hour) after the nuclear reaction had terminated. If a nuclear reaction were to occur again within the Chernobyl plant (for instance if rainwater were to collect and act as a moderator), however, then the new fission products would have a higher specific activity and thus pose a greater threat if they were released. To prevent a post-accident nuclear reaction, steps have been taken, such as adding neutron poisons to key parts of the basement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60167773",
"title": "Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Factors such as rainfall, wind currents, and the initial explosions at Chernobyl themselves caused the nuclear fallout to spread throughout Europe, Asia, as well as parts of North America. Not only was there a spread of these various radioactive elements previously mentioned, but there were also problems with what are known as hot particles. The Chernobyl reactor didn't just expel aerosol particles, fuel particles, and radioactive gases, but there was an additional expulsion of Uranium fuel fused together with radionuclides. These hot particles could spread for thousands of Kilometers and could produce concentrated substances in the form of raindrops known as Liquid hot particles. These particles were potentially hazardous, even in low-level radiation areas. The radioactive level in each individual hot particle could rise as high as 10 kBq, which is a fairly high dosage of radiation. These liquid hot particle droplets could be absorbed in two main ways; ingestion through food or water, and inhalation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8958957",
"title": "Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases",
"section": "Section::::Chernobyl compared with an atomic bomb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The radioactivity released at Chernobyl tended to be more long lived than that released by a bomb detonation hence it is not possible to draw a simple comparison between the two events. Also, a dose of radiation spread over many years (as is the case with Chernobyl) is much less harmful than the same dose received over a short period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1728672",
"title": "Human impact on the environment",
"section": "Section::::Energy industry.:Nuclear power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Radiation is a carcinogen and causes numerous effects on living organisms and systems. The environmental impacts of nuclear power plant disasters such as the Chernobyl disaster, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and the Three Mile Island accident, among others, persist indefinitely, though several other factors contributed to these events including improper management of fail safe systems and natural disasters putting uncommon stress on the generators. The radioactive decay rate of particles varies greatly, dependent upon the nuclear properties of a particular isotope. Radioactive Plutonium-244 has a half-life of 80.8 million years, which indicates the time duration required for half of a given sample to decay, though very little plutonium-244 is produced in the nuclear fuel cycle and lower half-life materials have lower activity thus giving off less dangerous radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1238999",
"title": "Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant",
"section": "Section::::Accidents and incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "On April 26, 1986, the Chernobyl disaster occurred at reactor No. 4, caused by a catastrophic power increase resulting in core explosions and open-air fires. This caused large quantities of radioactive materials and airborne isotopes to disperse in the atmosphere and surrounding land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2843569",
"title": "Hot particle",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Hot particles released into the environment may originate in nuclear reactors. The Chernobyl disaster was a major source of hot particles, as the core of the reactor was breached, but they have also been released into the environment through illegal dumping of low-level waste at Dounreay. They are also a component of the black rain or other nuclear fallout resulting from detonations of a nuclear weapon, including the more than 2000 nuclear weapons tests in the mid-20th century. Radiation can spread from a more radioactive substance to a less radioactive one by the processes of neutron activation and photodisintegration; this induced radioactivity increases the potential number of hot particle sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33e6hd
|
Does leaving a refrigerator door opened for about 20 seconds actually use up a large enough amount of energy/ power to consider not leaving it open for that long?
|
[
{
"answer": "I vaguely recall actually calculating this for a question long ago.\n\nThe answer is basically no, it's not a huge waste. For starters, the air in the refrigerator is essentially stagnant; you're not going to get a large amount of mixing of the cold air with the surroundings in the span of 20 seconds, unless you have a fan pointing at it. Secondly, if you have a decently stocked fridge, the thermal mass of the physical items inside it (think of a fully stocked beer fridge), and the walls of the fridge, is far higher than the thermal mass of the air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I attended a talk about exactly that just yesterday.\n\nThe bottom line of the talk was leaving the fridge door open for a little longer than necessary consumes almost no extra power. Putting hot food in the fridge however, consumes a lot of power for two reasons: first it increases humidity by condensation that your fridge needs to get rid of and second it needs to cool the food.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll make an estimate and you decide if it is worth arguing with your parents:\n\nI will assume that when you leave your fridge door open, all the cool air leaks out from the lower part of the door opening and is replaced by warm air coming in from the upper part of the door opening.\n\n**How much air is in the fridge:**\nFridge + freezer models can have up to 450 litres of capacity. Assuming that the fridge alone is 2/3 of this capacity, we have a 300 litre fridge. Assuming that it is 75% full, that means that only 25% of the volume is occupied by air (75 litres of air).\n\n**What is the temperature of air inside and outside the fridge:**\nQuickly assuming that the fridge is 3 degrees C and ambient temperature is 25 degrees C. Therefore the temperature difference is 22 degrees C.\n\n**How much energy to remove in order to cool 75 litres of 25 C air down to 3 C:**\nAir at 25 C is 1.183 grams per litre. 75 litres of air enters the fridge, which is 88.7 g.\n\nEnergy to remove in order to cool that 88.7 g of warm air = [mass of air, 88.7 g] x [temperature change, 22 C] x [heat capacity, 1 J/g.C] = 1,951 J or 1.95 kJ.\n\n**Electrical energy and cost used to remove 1.95 kJ of energy from the fridge:**\nAssuming this fridge has a coefficient of performance of 1, then you need to use 1.95 kJ of electricity for this exercise.\n\n1 kJ is equal to 0.000278 kWh, so 1.95 kJ is 0.00054 kWh.\n\nEnergy companies charge you anywhere between US$0.02 to US$0.99 per kWh (depending on where in the world you are).\n\nIn mainland USA, it's between US$0.08 and US$0.17 per kWh. The cost to cool your 75 g of air is between US$0.00004 to US$0.00009 each time.\n\n**How much does it cost you every year?**\n\nAssuming you do this 10 times a day, and you have 4 people in the house. That is 14,600 times the fridge is opened and air exchanged. The annual cost impact is approximately US$0.32 to US$0.69.\n\nIt's an amazingly small number, and I hope I haven't made any mistakes that might have deflated the figure by a few decimal points haha.",
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},
{
"answer": "Let's say you replace all the air inside the refrigerator with room temperature air **(20 degrees celcius)**, how much energy will it cost to reduce it down to **4 degrees again**?\n\nAn empty (Norwegian standard) refrigerator has a **volume of 240 liters**. **Mass density of air** is approximately **1.225 kg/m^3** which multiplied by 0.24 gives a **total mass of 0.294 kg.**\n\nSo we have 0.3 kg of air and want to cool the air from 20 degrees to 4 degrees. Let's start with the easiest calculation - how much energy would we need to *heat* the cold air to room temperature (the other way around)? We can use this formula (which can be used with a [calculator](_URL_4_)):\n\nΔQ = m x ΔT x c\n\nwhere ΔQ is the heat we need (the energy), m is the mass of the air, ∆T is the temperature change and c is the specific heat. The only thing we don't have is the specific heat. A quick [google search](_URL_1_) reveals that at constant pressure, **the specific heat is 1.00 kJ/(kg*K)**. Plugging in the numbers gives an energy cost of\n\nΔQ = m x ΔT x c = 0.294 x 16 x 1.0 = 4.7 kJ (kilojoules) of energy.\n\nSo the *heating* of the air needs 4.7 kJ. How expensive would that be? 4.7kJ is approximately **0.001 kilowatt hours**, so with average [electricity prices](_URL_3_), 0.20 USD per kilowatt hour, it costs 0.001 x 0.20 = **0.0002 USD to heat all that air.**\n\nLuckily, the cooling process in refrigerators can give a [coefficient of performance](_URL_2_) of higher than 1. The theoretical limit for the temperatures we mentioned above is COP < = T_c / (T_h - T_c) = 17.3125 (T_c is cold temperature, T_h is hot, both measured in Kelvin). This means that for each Joule you put into the fridge, it can suck much more than 1 Joule out. So it would actually cost *less* to cool down the air than heating it up. With a COP of 2, you could **open up the fridge and replace all the air 10000 times before it would cost 1 dollar.** You also get the benefit that the energy isn't completely \"wasted\" since it will heat up your kitchen.\n\n**TL;DR: So no, it isn't expensive to leave the door open while you fill your glass with iced tea.**\n\n\nEdit: as [/u/TellMeYourButtStory](_URL_0_) pointed out, the calculations above assumed dry air whereas moist air might be more correct. To include these effects, two things will change: the mass density and the specific heat. The mass density will actually be reduced (because some of the heavier air molecules like N_2 are replaced by water molecules that are less dense. The specific heat will increase, but not by much (maybe a factor 2, for sure less than a factor 4 which is dense water specific heat). \n**TL;DR: So including these effects will not change the conclusion at all.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1172809",
"title": "Defrosting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "A defrosting procedure is generally performed periodically on refrigerators and freezers to maintain their operating efficiency. Over time, as the door is opened and closed, letting in new air, water vapour from the air condenses on the cooling elements within the cabinet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors; children playing hide-and-seek have been asphyxiated while hiding inside discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors. Since 2 August 1956, under U.S. federal law, refrigerator doors are no longer permitted to latch so they cannot be opened from the inside. Modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. This gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by Max Baermann (1903-1984) of Bergisch Gladbach/Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::General technical explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "This means the refrigerator may become too warm. However, because only enough air is diverted to the refrigerator compartment, the freezer usually re-acquires the set temperature quickly, unless the door is opened. When a door is opened, either in the refrigerator or the freezer, the fan in some units stops immediately to prevent excessive frost build up on the freezer's evaporator coil, because this coil is cooling two areas. When the freezer reaches temperature, the unit cycles off, no matter what the refrigerator temperature is. Modern computerized refrigerators do not use the damper system. The computer manages fan speed for both compartments, although air is still blown from the freezer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.:Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The efficiency of older refrigerators can be improved by defrosting (if the unit is manual defrost) and cleaning them regularly, replacing old and worn door seals with new ones, adjusting the thermostat to accommodate the actual contents (a refrigerator needn't be colder than to store drinks and non-perishable items) and also replacing insulation, where applicable. Some sites recommend cleaning condenser coils every month or so on units with coils on the rear. It has been proven that this does very little for improving efficiency, however, the unit should be able to \"breathe\" with adequate spaces around the front, back, sides and above the unit. If the refrigerator uses a fan to keep the condenser cool, then this must be cleaned, at the very least, yearly. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8637",
"title": "Door",
"section": "Section::::Construction and components.:Swing direction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The \"refrigerator rule\" applies, and a refrigerator door is not opened from the inside. If the hinges are on the right then it is a right hand (or right hung) door. (Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909–1984 pg 6.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Freezer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Food stored at or below is safe indefinitely for longer than at room temperatures. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from , although some freezer-only units can achieve and lower. Refrigerators generally do not achieve lower than , since the same coolant loop serves both compartments: Lowering the freezer compartment temperature excessively causes difficulties in maintaining above-freezing temperature in the refrigerator compartment. Domestic freezers can be included as a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate appliance. Domestic freezers are generally upright units resembling refrigerators or chests (upright units laid on their backs). Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their door. Some upscale models include thermostat displays and controls, and sometimes flatscreen televisions as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "A refrigerator (colloquially fridge) consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room. Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is . A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4uac80
|
Are there any indications that there are elements beyond the 118 we have currently discovered or synthesized? If so, is there any indication that there is a finite number of elements, other than their increasingly short halflives?
|
[
{
"answer": "A neutron star is very similar to an extremely heavy atomic nucleus. Consider that neutron stars contain ~10^57-58 particles. If a neutron star grows much heavier than this it will collapse into a black hole. Therefore there is a **finite** limit to the number of possible atomic elements, but it's a very large number. A periodic table that detailed all the elements up to and including element number 10^57 would be so large and massive that it would collapse into a black hole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a predicated Island of Stability around ^300 Unbinilium. But with not enough elements to figure out where the island actually is it's an educated guess.\n\nThe [Strong Force](_URL_0_) is what causes the nuclei to stay together and it's range is on the order of 10^-15 m. After that the force gets weaker which causes the nucleus to fall apart. \n\nAnother reason is $$. It just gets to costly to make stuff that falls apart before you really have time to study it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, there are elements with a proton number greater than 118, and yes there is a finite number of elements. The general trend is that the heavier the nucleus the less stable it is. At some point it will go from being merely unstable to unbound, and this is a hard limit on the number of possible elements. The distinction is that an unstable nucleus still has a binding energy greater than zero, while an unbound nucleus does not.\n\nNote that simply having a bound nucleus is a very loose definition of an element. A more commonly used (and more stringent) definition requires that the atom last long enough for chemical processes to occur (some 10-13 s).\n\nSo where exactly is the limit? We don't know, but it probably isn't much larger than Z=118. In the low hundreds, anyway. Nuclear binding is *complicated* and once you start looking at nuclei far away on the [chart of nuclides](_URL_0_) from the ones that we have measured then the different theoretical models offer wildly varying predictions of their properties.\n\nThe top comment points out that a neutron star can be considered as a very heavy nucleus, but that doesn't mean that any arbitrary number of nucleons up to the mass of a neutron star is also a nucleus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23053",
"title": "Periodic table",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) through 118 (oganesson) have been discovered or synthesized, completing seven full rows of the periodic table. The first 94 elements all occur naturally, though some are found only in trace amounts and a few were discovered in nature only after having first been synthesized. Elements 95 to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors. The synthesis of elements having higher atomic numbers is currently being pursued: these elements would begin an eighth row, and theoretical work has been done to suggest possible candidates for this extension. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68326",
"title": "Extended periodic table",
"section": "Section::::Predicted properties of eighth-period elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "Element 118, oganesson, is the last element that has been synthesized. The next two elements, elements 119 and 120, should form an 8s series and be an alkali and alkaline earth metal respectively. Beyond element 120, the superactinide series is expected to begin, when the 8s electrons and the filling 8p, 7d, 6f, and 5g subshells determine the chemistry of these elements. Complete and accurate CCSD calculations are not available for elements beyond 122 because of the extreme complexity of the situation: the 5g, 6f, and 7d orbitals should have about the same energy level, and in the region of element 160, the 9s, 8p, and 9p orbitals should also be about equal in energy. This will cause the electron shells to mix so that the block concept no longer applies very well, and will also result in novel chemical properties that will make positioning these elements in a periodic table very difficult. For example, element 164 is expected to mix characteristics of the elements of group 10, 12, 14, and 18.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67491",
"title": "Unbinilium",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Ununennium and unbinilium (elements 119 and 120) are the lightest elements that have not yet been synthesized: all the preceding elements have been synthesized, culminating in oganesson (element 118), the heaviest-known element, which completes the seventh row of the periodic table. Attempts to synthesize elements 119 and 120 push the limits of current technology, due to the decreasing cross sections of the production reactions and their probably short half-lives, expected to be on the order of microseconds. Heavier elements would likely be too short-lived to be detected with current technology: they would decay within a microsecond, before reaching the detectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23053",
"title": "Periodic table",
"section": "Section::::Open questions and controversies.:Element with the highest possible atomic number.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The number of possible elements is not known. A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911, and based on the arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row, was that elements of atomic weight greater than circa 256 (which would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern-day terms) did not exist. A higher—more recent—estimate is that the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability, which is expected to centre around element 126, as the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines. Other predictions of an end to the periodic table include at element 128 by John Emsley, at element 137 by Richard Feynman, at element 146 by Yogendra Gambhir, and at element 155 by Albert Khazan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, \"known\" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements). Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system, or as naturally occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "673",
"title": "Atomic number",
"section": "Section::::History.:Missing elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (\"Z\" = 92) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with \"Z\" 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91. From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered. By this time the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (\"Z\" = 96).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31537",
"title": "Transuranium element",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Of the elements with atomic numbers 1 to 92, most can be found in nature, having stable (such as hydrogen), or very long half-life (such as uranium) isotopes, or are created as common products of the decay of uranium and thorium (such as radon). The exceptions are elements 43, 61, 85, and 87; all four occur in nature, but only in very minor branches of the uranium and thorium decay chains, and thus all save element 87 were first discovered by synthesis in the laboratory rather than in nature (and even element 87 was discovered from purified samples of its parent, not directly from nature).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gn9t7
|
Actual health impacts of eugenics programs
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not really possible to know. These programs were not scientifically rigorous or adequately controlled, and the sheer number of factors that may or may not impact how individual people or entire societies develop means that it cannot be said with any degree of confidence whether or not eugenics programs worked.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9737",
"title": "Eugenics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "A major criticism of eugenics policies is that, regardless of whether \"negative\" or \"positive\" policies are used, they are susceptible to abuse because the genetic selection criteria are determined by whichever group has political power at the time. Furthermore, \"negative eugenics\" in particular is criticized by many as a violation of basic human rights, which include the right to reproduce. Another criticism is that eugenics policies eventually lead to a loss of genetic diversity, thereby resulting in inbreeding depression due to a loss of genetic variation. Yet another criticism of contemporary eugenics policies is that they propose to permanently and artificially disrupt millions of years of evolution, and that attempting to create genetic lines \"clean\" of \"disorders\" can have far-reaching ancillary downstream effects in the genetic ecology, including negative effects on immunity and species resilience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9737",
"title": "Eugenics",
"section": "Section::::Scientific and moral legitimacy.:Ethics.:Endorsement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "Some, for example Nathaniel C. Comfort from Johns Hopkins University, claim that the change from state-led reproductive-genetic decision-making to individual choice has moderated the worst abuses of eugenics by transferring the decision-making from the state to the patient and their family. Comfort suggests that \"the eugenic impulse drives us to eliminate disease, live longer and healthier, with greater intelligence, and a better adjustment to the conditions of society; and the health benefits, the intellectual thrill and the profits of genetic bio-medicine are too great for us to do otherwise.\" Others, such as bioethicist Stephen Wilkinson of Keele University and Honorary Research Fellow Eve Garrard at the University of Manchester, claim that some aspects of modern genetics can be classified as eugenics, but that this classification does not inherently make modern genetics immoral. In a co-authored publication by Keele University, they stated that \"[e]ugenics doesn't seem always to be immoral, and so the fact that PGD, and other forms of selective reproduction, might sometimes technically be eugenic, isn't sufficient to show that they're wrong.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9737",
"title": "Eugenics",
"section": "Section::::Meanings and types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Eugenic policies have been conceptually divided into two categories. Positive eugenics is aimed at encouraging reproduction among the genetically advantaged; for example, the reproduction of the intelligent, the healthy, and the successful. Possible approaches include financial and political stimuli, targeted demographic analyses, \"in vitro\" fertilization, egg transplants, and cloning. The movie \"Gattaca\" provides a fictional example of a dystopian society that uses eugenics to decide what people are capable of and their place in the world. Negative eugenics aimed to eliminate, through sterilization or segregation, those deemed physically, mentally, or morally \"undesirable\". This includes abortions, sterilization, and other methods of family planning. Both positive and negative eugenics can be coercive; abortion for fit women, for example, was illegal in Nazi Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37440011",
"title": "History of eugenics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Galton's theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1341,
"text": "Eugenics eventually referred to human selective reproduction with an intent to create children with desirable traits, generally through the approach of influencing differential birth rates. These policies were mostly divided into two categories: \"positive eugenics\", the increased reproduction of those seen to have advantageous hereditary traits; and \"negative eugenics\", the discouragement of reproduction by those with hereditary traits perceived as poor. Negative eugenic policies in the past have ranged from paying those deemed to have bad genes to voluntarily undergo sterilization, to attempts at segregation to compulsory sterilization and even genocide. Positive eugenic policies have typically taken the form of awards or bonuses for \"fit\" parents who have another child. Relatively innocuous practices like marriage counseling had early links with eugenic ideology. Eugenics is superficially related to what would later be known as Social Darwinism. While both claimed intelligence was hereditary, eugenics asserted new policies were needed to actively change the status quo towards a more \"eugenic\" state, while the Social Darwinists argued society itself would naturally \"check\" the problem of \"dysgenics\" if no welfare policies were in place (for example, the poor might reproduce more but would have higher mortality rates).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9737",
"title": "Eugenics",
"section": "Section::::Scientific and moral legitimacy.:Ethics.:Endorsement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "In their book published in 2000, \"From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice\", bioethicists Allen Buchanan, Dan Brock, Norman Daniels and Daniel Wikler argued that liberal societies have an obligation to encourage as wide an adoption of eugenic enhancement technologies as possible (so long as such policies do not infringe on individuals' reproductive rights or exert undue pressures on prospective parents to use these technologies) in order to maximize public health and minimize the inequalities that may result from both natural genetic endowments and unequal access to genetic enhancements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9737",
"title": "Eugenics",
"section": "Section::::Scientific and moral legitimacy.:Loss of genetic diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Eugenic policies may lead to a loss of genetic diversity. Further, a culturally-accepted \"improvement\" of the gene pool may result in extinction, due to increased vulnerability to disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change, and other factors that may not be anticipated in advance. This has been evidenced in numerous instances, in isolated island populations. A long-term, species-wide eugenics plan might lead to such a scenario because the elimination of traits deemed undesirable would reduce genetic diversity by definition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37440011",
"title": "History of eugenics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Other countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Other countries that adopted some form of eugenics program at one time include Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland with programs to sterilize people the government declared to be mentally deficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uc7ql
|
How much air in one breath came from the previous one?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Anatomical deadspace](_URL_0_), which is the term for the air that doesn't participate in gas exchange within the body is roughly 1ml/kg. \n\nHowever, it's not this simple to example, at the small airways, there really is no flow-rate to be measured, it's purely diffusion.\n\nIf we take into consideration that the first gas you inhale is the last gas you exhale, and don't account for changes in physiological deadspace on inhalation and exhalation, you'll find that roughly the first 1/3 of inhalation is *old* gas. The po2 in this air isn't significantly lower because of diffusion though, nor is the pc02 higher for the same reason. \n\n\nSo, you could sort of say it's a 1/3, but it really isn't.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3802867",
"title": "Inert gas asphyxiation",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "A typical human breathes between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by carbon dioxide concentration, and thus pH, in the blood. With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active lung volume (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal Earth atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22468364",
"title": "Volume (thermodynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Gas volume.:General conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "For example, calculating how much 1 liter of air (a) at 0 °C, 100 kPa, \"p\" = 0 kPa (known as STPD, see below) would fill when breathed into the lungs where it is mixed with water vapor (l), where it quickly becomes 37 °C, 100 kPa, \"p\" = 6.2 kPa (BTPS):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20903424",
"title": "Breathing",
"section": "Section::::Gas exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1412,
"text": "The primary purpose of breathing is to bring atmospheric air (in small doses) into the alveoli where gas exchange with the gases in the blood takes place. The equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the alveolar blood and the alveolar air occurs by diffusion. At the end of each exhalation, the adult human lungs still contain 2,500–3,000 mL of air, their functional residual capacity or FRC. With each breath (inhalation) only as little as about 350 mL of warm, moistened atmospherically is added, and well mixed, with the FRC. Consequently, the gas composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle. Since the pulmonary capillary blood equilibrates with this virtually unchanging mixture of air in the lungs (which has a substantially different composition from that of the ambient air), the partial pressures of the arterial blood gases also do not change with each breath. The tissues are therefore not exposed to swings in oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions in the blood during the breathing cycle, and the peripheral and central chemoreceptors do not need to \"choose\" the point in the breathing cycle at which the blood gases need to be measured, and responded to. Thus the homeostatic control of the breathing rate simply depends on the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This then also maintains the constancy of the pH of the blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146393",
"title": "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency of mouth-to-patient insufflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Normal atmospheric air contains approximately 21% oxygen when inhaled in. After gaseous exchange has taken place in the lungs, with waste products (notably carbon dioxide) moved from the bloodstream to the lungs, the air being exhaled by humans normally contains around 17% oxygen. This means that the human body utilises only around 19% of the oxygen inhaled, leaving over 80% of the oxygen available in the exhalatory breath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51424340",
"title": "When Breath Becomes Air",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "When Breath Becomes Air is a non-fiction autobiographical book written by Paul Kalanithi. It is a memoir about his life and illness, battling stage IV metastatic lung cancer. It was posthumously published by Random House on January 12, 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "A 1927 paper produced by Emil Bogen, who collected air in a football bladder and then tested this air for traces of alcohol, discovered that the alcohol content of 2 litres of expired air was a little greater than that of 1 cc of urine. However, research into the possibilities of using breath to test for alcohol in a person's body dates as far back as 1874, when Francis E. Anstie made the observation that small amounts of alcohol were excreted in breath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319094",
"title": "List of discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.:O.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 585,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 585,
"end_character": 1732,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"fire air Karl Wilhelm Scheele 1771\" John W. Severinghaus (25 July 2016) Eight sages over five centuries share oxygen's discovery https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00076.2016, \"Advances in Physiological Education\", The American Physiological Society \"During the last century, historians have discovered that between the 13th and 18th centuries, at least six sages discovered that the air we breathe contains something that we need and use. Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) in Cairo and Michael Servetus (1511–1553) in France accurately described the pulmonary circulation and its effect on blood color. Michael Sendivogius (1566–1636) in Poland called a part of air “the food of life” and identified it as the gas made by heating saltpetre. John Mayow (1641–1679) in Oxford found that one-fifth of air was a special gas he called “spiritus nitro aereus.” Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786) in Uppsala generated a gas he named “fire air” by heating several metal calcs. He asked Lavoisier how it fit the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier never answered. In 1744, Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) in England discovered how to make part of air by heating red calc of mercury. He found it brightened a flame and supported life in a mouse in a sealed bottle. He called it “dephlogisticated air.” He published and personally told Lavoisier and other chemists about it. Lavoisier never thanked him. After 9 years of generating and studying its chemistry, he couldn't understand whether it was a new element. He still named it “principe oxigene.” He was still not able to disprove phlogiston. Henry Cavendish (1731–1810)\" PubMed 27458241, Received 11 May 2016, Accepted 2 June 2016, Published online 25 July 2016, Published in print 1 September 2016\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10mvfs
|
What were the main arguments American Anti-Federalists made against the first article of the Constitution?
|
[
{
"answer": "I assume you have looked at the anti-federalist papers?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2210837",
"title": "Anti-Federalist Papers",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "The Anti-Federalists proved unable to stop the ratification of the US Constitution, which took effect in 1789. Since then, the essays they wrote have largely fallen into obscurity. Unlike, for example, The Federalist No. 10 written by James Madison, none of their works are mainstays in college curricula or court rulings. The influence of their writing, however, can be seen to this day – particularly in the nature and shape of the United States Bill of Rights. Federalists (such as Alexander Hamilton, in Federalist 84) vigorously argued against its passage but were in the end forced to compromise. The broader legacy of the Anti-Federalist cause can be seen in the strong suspicion of centralized government held by many Americans to this day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349889",
"title": "Anti-Federalism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Anti-Federalism was a late-18th century movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of the 1787 Constitution. The previous constitution, called the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, gave state governments more authority. Led by Patrick Henry of Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, that the position of president, then a novelty, might evolve into a monarchy. Though the Constitution was ratified and supplanted the Articles of Confederation, Anti-Federalist influence helped lead to the passage of the United States Bill of Rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497752",
"title": "History of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Amendments to the Constitution.:Bill of Rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 1181,
"text": "The sharp Anti-Federalist critique of the Constitution did not abate after it became operational, and by the time the First Congress convened in March 1789, there existed widespread sentiment in both the House and Senate in favor of making alterations. That September, Congress adopted twelve amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of these were ratified by the required number of states in December 1791 and became part of the Constitution. These amendments enumerate freedoms not explicitly indicated in the main body of the Constitution, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, a free press, and free assembly; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom from unreasonable search and seizure, security in personal effects, and freedom from warrants issued without probable cause; indictment by a grand jury for a capital or \"infamous crime\"; guarantee of a speedy, public trial with an impartial jury; and prohibition of double jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights reserves for the people any rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution and reserves all powers not specifically granted to the federal government to the people or the States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31644",
"title": "Constitution of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Ratified amendments.:Unenumerated rights and reserved powers (Amendments 9 and 10).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "The Ninth Amendment (1791) declares that individuals have other fundamental rights, in addition to those stated in the Constitution. During the Constitutional ratification debates Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. The Federalists opposed it on grounds that a list would necessarily be incomplete but would be taken as explicit and exhaustive, thus enlarging the power of the federal government by implication. The Anti-Federalists persisted, and several state ratification conventions refused to ratify the Constitution without a more specific list of protections, so the First Congress added what became the Ninth Amendment as a compromise. Because the rights protected by the Ninth Amendment are not specified, they are referred to as \"unenumerated\". The Supreme Court has found that unenumerated rights include such important rights as the right to travel, the right to vote, the right to privacy, and the right to make important decisions about one's health care or body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8702096",
"title": "Presidency of George Washington",
"section": "Section::::Domestic affairs.:Constitutional amendments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Although some Anti-Federalists continued to call for a new federal constitutional convention and ridiculed them, by December 15, 1791, 10 of the 12 proposed amendments had been ratified by the requisite number of states (then 11), and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution; collectively they are known as the Bill of Rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31661",
"title": "Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Background before adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "When the U.S. Constitution was put to the states for ratification after being signed on September 17, 1787, the Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. One of the arguments the Federalists gave against the addition of a Bill of Rights, during the debates about ratification of the Constitution, was that a listing of rights could problematically enlarge the powers specified in of the new Constitution by implication. For example, in Federalist , Alexander Hamilton asked, \"Why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?\" Likewise, James Madison explained to Thomas Jefferson, \"I conceive that in a certain degree ... the rights in question are reserved by the manner in which the federal powers are granted\" by Article One, Section 8 of the Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3411519",
"title": "Massachusetts Compromise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Anti-Federalists feared the Constitution would over-centralize government and diminish individual rights and liberties. They sought to amend the Constitution, particularly with a Bill of Rights as a condition before ratification. Federalists insisted that states had to accept or reject the document as written.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
suyht
|
What's the most expensive part of launching a spacecraft?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm no expert, but as far as I am aware, the most difficult part of getting a spacecraft in space is, as you inferred, getting into orbit, and the cost and quantity of the fuels involved, as we lack an alternative form of thrust (that doesn't only work in a vacuum) capable of lifting such heavy loads with the forces required.\n\nOne way innovative companies are looking to get around this problem is SpaceX's approach on the Skylon with their [SABRE Engines](_URL_0_).\n\nEdit: Link knavery",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fuel is pretty cheap. The problem is that you need so much of it that you have to shave every ounce of weight off your structure and engines in order to be able to make it to space. This means that your safety margins need to pretty small, leaving little room for error and uncertainty. \n\nTo reduce this uncertainty, you need to spend a lot of money on engineering analysis, tests, quality assurance, inspections, etc. Some of these are non-recurring (only done once), but a lot of work still has to be done for each launch. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you don't have a very efficient spacecraft in terms of weight, you'll have to increase the size to store more fuel, which increases the weight. it's a nasty loop.\n\nfor an 40k aircraft, decreasing the weight by 1 pound will yield a roughly 7 pound weight saving.\n\nsource: aerospace engineer",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17037094",
"title": "Non-rocket spacelaunch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Present-day launch costs are very high – $2,500 to $25,000 per kilogram from Earth to low Earth orbit (LEO). As a result, launch costs are a large percentage of the cost of all space endeavors. If launch can be made cheaper, the total cost of space missions will be reduced. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314935",
"title": "Mars Climate Orbiter",
"section": "Section::::Mission background.:Spacecraft design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The cost of the mission was $327.6 million total for the orbiter and lander, comprising $193.1 million for spacecraft development, $91.7 million for launching it, and $42.8 million for mission operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6385634",
"title": "Criticism of the Space Shuttle program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "By 2011, the incremental cost per flight of the Space Shuttle was estimated at $450 million, or $18,000 per kilogram (approximately $8,000 per pound) to low Earth orbit (LEO). By comparison, Russian Proton expendable cargo launchers (Atlas V rocket counterpart), still largely based on the design that dates back to 1965, are said to cost as little as $110 million, or around $5,000/kg (approximately $2,300 per pound) to LEO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11262086",
"title": "DH-1 (rocket)",
"section": "Section::::Financial considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "With an estimated manufacturing cost of $65 million and a sale price of $250 million the development costs of ~$3 billion could be paid off with about 20 sales. Launch costs were estimated at $1M (launch often) to $100M (once per year) depending on how often the vehicle was operated, with launch facilities costing $100M and fitting inside a 1-mile circle. The Rocket Company asserts that globally such sales are possible. Potential clients are suggested as NASA, the USAF, NATO countries like UK, France, Germany and Japan, as well as private firms, like Virgin Galactic or Bigelow Aerospace. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38824255",
"title": "Swiss Space Systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 323,
"text": ", the company planned to charge 10 million CHF (US$10.5 million) per launch using unmanned suborbital spaceplanes that could carry satellites weighing up to . Costs were expected to be reduced by the reusable nature of the spaceplane and launch facilities, and by somewhat lower fuel-consumption than conventional systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38458",
"title": "Space Shuttle program",
"section": "Section::::Budget.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Early during development of the space shuttle, NASA had estimated that the program would cost $7.45 billion ($43 billion in 2011 dollars, adjusting for inflation) in development/non-recurring costs, and $9.3M ($54M in 2011 dollars) per flight. Early estimates for the cost to deliver payload to low earth orbit were as low as $118 per pound ($260/kg) of payload ($635/lb or $1,400/kg in 2011 dollars), based on marginal or incremental launch costs, and assuming a 65,000 pound (30 000 kg) payload capacity and 50 launches per year. A more realistic projection of 12 flights per year for the 15-year service life combined with the initial development costs would have resulted in a total cost projection for the program of roughly $54 billion (in 2011 dollars).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38458",
"title": "Space Shuttle program",
"section": "Section::::Budget.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Per-launch costs can be measured by dividing the total cost over the life of the program (including buildings, facilities, training, salaries, etc.) by the number of launches. With 135 missions, and the total cost of US$192 billion (in 2010 dollars), this gives approximately $1.5 billion per launch over the life of the Shuttle program. A 2017 study found that carrying one kilogram of cargo to the ISS on the Shuttle cost $272,000 in 2017 dollars, twice the cost of Cygnus and three times that of Dragon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7zcur2
|
What was the public reaction in Australia after gun control laws were enacted?
|
[
{
"answer": "A journalist on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's main news and current affairs show *The 7:30 Report*, said on May 9th, 1996, that \"Australian massacres have a dulling familiarity. Public shock and outrage is soothed by assurances of tougher gun laws. But as public outcry dissipates, often so does political will in the face of the gun lobby.\"\n\nThe journalist was speaking less than two weeks after the Port Arthur massacre, in which Martin Bryant killed 35 people and wounded several others; this was the deadliest mass shooting in Australian history since the Frontier Wars between white Australians and indigenous peoples. As the journalist implies, Martin Bryant was not the only mass shooting in recent memory; there were mass shootings in 1984, 1987, 1991, and 1993.\n\nHowever, change was in the air. The day after the Port Arthur massacre, Prime Minister John Howard announced sweeping changes to gun laws, and May 10th was to be a meeting of the state and Federal governments to enact these sweeping changes (which is likely what Frank McGuire on the *7:30 Report* was editorialising about. \n\nHoward had been in the job for a couple of months after decisively winning the 1996 election against the then-rather-disliked Labor PM Paul Keating; the Coalition between the Liberal Party and the National Party had won 94 seats to Labor's 49. Paul Keating had described Howard as \"Lazarus with a triple bypass\", referring to Howard's never-say-die attitude to politics; 1996 was his second attempt at gaining the position of Prime Minister, after losing the 1987 election and then losing the leadership of the party in 1989. \n\nHoward came from the conservative wing of the Liberal Party (who, it should be said, were *economically* liberal in a free-trade way, and had been put together as something of a centre-right party). For American readers, Howard's political instincts circa 1996 were somewhere between Richard Nixon and George W. Bush. There was a belief that Howard had followers amongst a sort of Nixon-esque silent majority styled 'Howard's battlers' who were meant to represent the 'real Australia', and Howard had positioned himself as a someone moderate conservative in the 1996 election, trying to convince everyone that he had changed and that he had become something of a moderate. \n\nWith such a recent and large electoral win, Howard had political capital to burn, and he seems to have seen gun control as something that would consolidate his 1995-1996 stance as a moderate conservative (something that there was some suspicion about given how he campaigned in 1987). The sheer amount of seats in Parliament also helped; what conservative MPs with ties to the gun lobby were in the Liberal and National parties would probably not have been numerous enough to block the legislation had Labor not supported it (Labor supported it).\n\nAccording to [Simon Chapman, in his 1998 book *Over Our Dead Bodies*](_URL_0_) about the debate in the three months following the Port Arthur massacre:\n\n > Port Arthur made gun control almost undeniable as a political response because the preceding years of advocacy for gun law reformhad succeeded in positioning them as sensible, easily understood and above all the course that any decent society committed to public safety should adopt. When Port Arthur occurred, the seeds sown during these years of advocacy erupted out of an angry community who made it plain they would countenance no more of the political equivocation that had characterised gun control in the past. \n\nChapman, as a public health professor, was a prominent advocate of gun control, and he says in the book that his experience in the three months following the massacre was that:\n\n > In the three months after the massacre, the volume of anger against the gun lobby remained so intense that whenever a gun lobby initiative needed a response, the public was more than obliging. This response included everything from ordinary people expressing their heartfelt, untutored reactions to gun lobby rhetoric, to those who had particular personal experiences relevant to the argument. On many occasions we read and heard arguments, analogies, and factual perspectives on gun control from people who had no connection with the NCGC. Frequently, we recognised these as identical to arguments and analogies that we and others in gun control had sown in the media in preceding years on issues like gun registration, safe storage and international comparisons. Our past media advocacy efforts were bearing fruit in the form of articulate and informed public comment.\n\nGun control advocates and the media also successfully made the gun lobby appear unhinged, and media coverage did not favour the gun lobby. Perhaps the most prominent media event in the time period related to the gun lobby was a gun rally in Sale in rural Victoria on June 15th that attracted 3000 protesters. John Howard was on a tour of country regions to sell his reforms, and he gave a speech at this rally, while protesters shouted 'Nazi' and 'Heil Hitler!' at him. It became known that Howard had worn a bulletproof vest at the rally, on the advice of security. This was not good publicity for the gun lobby. Despite the generally rural nature of opposition to gun control, Howard's popularity in polling had risen to 66% in country regions in a poll released the weekend of the Victorian rally.\n\nChapman is not the most unbiased voice here, of course, but opinion polls from the time, however, suggest that the gun control lobby very clearly represented mainstream Australian views on gun control. Most notably, at that May 10th meeting, when a couple of states threatened to walk away from the deal to control guns, Howard threatened to call a referendum on the topic (which presumably would have enshrined gun control into the Australian constitution, in an interesting reversal to the rights in the American amendment). The ministers from those states at the meeting folded; they decided they'd rather sign this legislation rather than have to deal with the binding vote of a referendum that almost certainly would have been won.\n\nAn opinion poll in July 1995, less than a year *before* the Port Arthur massacre, found that 82% of people either supported or strongly supported 'laws that make it more difficult to buy guns in NSW'. In the wake of the Port Arthur massacre, an opinion poll was conducted in early May, which found that 91% of city people and 88% of rural people supported a ban on all automatic and semi-automatic guns. In Tasmania, where the Port Arthur massacre had occurred, this was as high as 95%.\n\nIn June, once the legislation was enacted, a national poll found that 80% agreed with the gun laws, while 18% disagreed - something of a drop compared to the initial revulsion after Port Arthur. However, only 4% would vote against a political candidate based on the word of a gun group (which is likely a good representation of the amount of Australians who strongly disagreed with the legislation, rather than just disagreed). \nIn a (normal) Australian Federal election, six Senators are elected for each state, and the maths work out to a party needing ~14% of votes (which in Australia are not necessarily just first votes, because of the preferential voting system); this feels like an achievable goal to some minor parties and interest groups. However, after the gun control legislation there was not much political will amongst the gun lobby to run candidates for the Senate. The Shooters Party in NSW, which had gotten 1.8% of the (Federal) Senate vote in 1993, and 2% in 1996, did not run in 1998, despite that you'd expect the increase in their profile to translate into more votes. While they had run candidates in other states in 1998 (who were not as successful as the NSW candidates in 1993 and 1996), the party did not run in the Senate in 2001 and degistered in 2004. \n\nFinally, Howard's 'net satisfaction' rating in the polls was never higher than it was in the immediate wake of the Port Arthur massacre, and in the wake of several scandals and unpopular decisions following that poll, it still took him two years after that poll to fall into negative territory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2698571",
"title": "Monash University shooting",
"section": "Section::::Responses.:Gun ownership laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The then Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, initiated another review of Australian gun laws, the last having been after the Port Arthur massacre, after it was discovered that Xiang had acquired his firearms legally. The Victorian State Government prepared new laws doubling the punishment for misuse of handguns and introducing new laws against trafficking in handguns after the shooting, and all other states followed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39737448",
"title": "Port Arthur massacre (Australia)",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Following the spree, the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, led the development of strict gun control laws within Australia and formulated the National Firearms Agreement, restricting the private ownership of semi-automatic rifles, semi-automatic shotguns and pump-action shotguns as well as introducing uniform firearms licensing. It was implemented with bipartisan support by the Commonwealth, states and territories. The massacre happened just six weeks after the Dunblane massacre, in Scotland, which claimed 18 lives, with U.K. Prime Minister John Major reaching out to his counterpart over the shared tragedies; the United Kingdom passed its own changes to gun laws in 1997.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7862242",
"title": "Gun violence",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Gun-related violence in Australia.:Port Arthur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The Port Arthur massacre of 1996 horrified the Australian public. The gunman opened fire on shop owners and tourists, killing 35 people and wounding 23. This massacre, kick started Australia's laws against guns. The Prime Minister at that time, John Howard, proposed a gun law that prevented the public from having all semi-automatic rifles, all semi-automatic and pump-action shotguns, in addition to a tightly restrictive system of licensing and ownership controls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "624333",
"title": "Martin Bryant",
"section": "Section::::Port Arthur massacre.:Political aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "As a response to the spree killing, Australian state and territory governments placed extensive restrictions on all firearms, including semi-automatic centre-fire rifles, repeating shotguns (holding more than 5 shots) and high-capacity rifle magazines. In addition to this, limitations were also put into place on low-capacity repeating shotguns and rim-fire semi-automatic rifles. Though this resulted in stirring controversy, opposition to the new laws was overcome by media reporting of the massacre and mounting public opinion in the wake of the shootings (see Gun laws in Australia for more information on the 1996 legislation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44276",
"title": "Gun control",
"section": "Section::::Studies.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In 1988 and 1996, gun control laws were enacted in the Australian state of Victoria, both times following mass shootings. A 2004 study found that in the context of these laws, overall firearm-related deaths, especially suicides, declined dramatically. A 1995 study found preliminary evidence that gun control legislation enacted in Queensland, Australia reduced suicide rates there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40129756",
"title": "Federal Assault Weapons Ban",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Mass shootings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "A 2015 study found a small decrease in the rate of mass shootings followed by increases beginning after the ban was lifted. The same report also noted that all mass shootings in Australia occurred before the 1996 National Firearms Agreement which placed tight control on semi-automatic and fully automatic weapons. However, since the report's publication, there have been mass shootings in Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48823059",
"title": "National Firearms Agreement",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Research by Philip Alpers of the University of Sydney found that Australia experienced 69 gun homicides in 1996 (not counting the Port Arthur massacre), compared to 30 in 2012. The drop in firearm homicides was not attributed to the national firearms agreement. A 2006 study led by Simon Chapman, also of the University of Sydney, found that after the NFA was passed, the country experienced more than a decade without mass shootings and accelerated falls in gun deaths, especially suicides. Samara McPhedran and Jeanine Baker, researchers for gun lobby group Women in Shooting and Hunting (WiSH), considered whether the NFA had any effect in eliminating mass shootings by using New Zealand (a country with many similarities to Australia) as a comparison and found; “there is little support for the proposition that prohibiting certain types of firearms explains the absence of mass shootings in Australia since 1996”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j3lcy
|
Salt and Ice
|
[
{
"answer": "I would say that the ice chest *without* the salt added stays colder for longer. The chest with the salt gets colder as the ice melts and absorbs the latent heat of fusion. However, since heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference between the substance and its environment, the 'cryo bath' will warm faster than the other chest. The liquid formed from the melting ice can also facilitate heat transfer and thus expedite it's melting. On the other hand, the ice in the chest without the salt warms more slowly because it is closer to thermal equilibrium with the room, and it still needs to absorb the same latent heat as the 'cryo bath' ice to melt. Thus, the chest with the salt would be expected to fully melt sooner.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "341566",
"title": "Halite",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Halite is also often used both residentially and municipally for managing ice. Because brine (a solution of water and salt) has a lower freezing point than pure water, putting salt or saltwater on ice that is below will cause it to melt. (This effect is called freezing-point depression.) It is common for homeowners in cold climates to spread salt on their sidewalks and driveways after a snow storm to melt the ice. It is not necessary to use so much salt that the ice is completely melted; rather, a small amount of salt will weaken the ice so that it can be easily removed by other means. Also, many cities will spread a mixture of sand and salt on roads during and after a snowstorm to improve traction. Using salt brine is more effective than spreading dry salt because moisture is necessary for the freezing-point depression to work and wet salt sticks to the roads better. Otherwise the salt can be wiped away by traffic. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80207",
"title": "Sodium chloride",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Road salt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The second major application of salt is for de-icing and anti-icing of roads, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles. In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally \"anti-iced\" with brine (concentrated solution of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snow-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates the heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as calcium chloride and/or magnesium chloride. The use of salt or brine becomes ineffective below .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37861774",
"title": "Salt and ice challenge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The salt and ice challenge is an Internet challenge where participants pour salt on their bodies, usually on the arm, and ice is then placed on the salt. This causes a \"burning\" sensation similar to frost bite, and participants vie to withstand the pain for the longest time. The challenge can be recorded and posted on YouTube or other forms of social media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15983150",
"title": "Himalayan salt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Himalayan salt is rock salt (halite) mined from the Punjab region of modern Pakistan. The salt often has a pinkish tint due to mineral impurities. It is primarily used as a food additive as table salt, but is also used as a material for cooking and food presentation, decorative lamps, and spa treatments. The salt has been claimed to provide numerous health benefits, but no scientific support exists for such claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555251",
"title": "History of salt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Salt, also referred to as table salt or by its chemical formula NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. All life has evolved to depend on its chemical properties to survive. It has been used by humans for thousands of years, from food preservation to seasoning. Salt's ability to preserve food was a founding contributor to the development of civilization. It helped to eliminate dependence on seasonal availability of food, and made it possible to transport food over large distances. However, salt was often difficult to obtain, so it was a highly valued trade item, and was considered a form of currency by certain peoples. Many salt roads, such as the via Salaria in Italy, had been established by the Bronze age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605200",
"title": "Salt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6,000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara on camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15983150",
"title": "Himalayan salt",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Himalayan salt is used to flavor food. It is recognized by its distinctive pink hue, which has led to a misconception that it is healthier than common table salt. There is no scientific evidence to support such assertions. Blocks of salt are also used as serving dishes, baking stones, and griddles. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration warned a manufacturer about marketing the salt as a dietary supplement with unproven claims of health benefits. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5c9248
|
serious question - is there science behind a face that appears more desirable to punch? aka: "punchable face"
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no definitive single answer, but there are some answers. It probably shouldn't be a surprise that given how sensitive to facial expressions humans are, that we'd have the capacity for a strong reaction. By the way, there is a German word for the phenomenon you're describing, called \"Backpfeifengesicht\"... or roughly, \"A face that should be struck.\"\n\nThe answer seems to be that people who's faces, for any number of reasons, don't express a comfortable and familiar range of expressions. A great example, and a good discussion of this can be found here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3964523",
"title": "Kasperle",
"section": "Section::::Kasper’s cousins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Punch is aggravated by his whining child, nagging wife (Judy), and ineffective bureaucracy. This eventually leads to Punch hitting other characters with his slapstick, but it is a very ritualized form of violence. Traditional shows ended with Punch defeating the ultimate evil and proclaiming \"Huzzah, Huzzah, I've killed the Devil!\" In modern endings, Punch is punished by being swallowed by the crocodile, scared into repentance by a ghost, or arrested by the police.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51713213",
"title": "Rainer Krause",
"section": "Section::::Emotions and Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1751,
"text": "Using the example of smiling, Rainer Krause shows in a (German) presentation the difference between a natural-looking and a phony smile, in which not the same muscles are involved. Significant in this regard is the fact that the muscles of the so-called “lower face” can be consciously controlled much easier than the muscles of the so-called “upper face”. And with a smile that seems spurious, certain muscles of the upper face are not involved. As the “most common emotions that you get to see”, Krause is calling contempt and disgust, which is likely to be contrary to the everyday theories of laypersons in affect-psychology. However, when people talk about their daily lives, the expression of joy is the most frequently shown emotion. Other situations show different rankings of the affects. Krause emphasizes that what is seen in the face of the person who imagines a specific affect is not inevitably what is experienced. Only in expression of joy is there congruence with what is visible in the face and what is internally experienced. Not so with the negative emotions: they are shown more often than experienced. Krause states that this will not allow information-sharing about the relationship between the two persons. He refers to old and often confirmed findings of Bühler (1934), according to which in a communication between a “sender” and his “receiver” signs of expression should be interpreted differently: as an “expression for the internal status of the sender”, or in his “appeal function” that “should bring the receiver to a specific action”, or as a kind of “mental comment” about something “the sender is talking or thinking about”. Laughter is “combined with almost any other emotion” in contrast to other affective states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47814067",
"title": "Resting bitch face",
"section": "Section::::Cultural uptake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Hadley Freeman wrote that since it appeared in the Broken People video, it had enjoyed a stratospheric rise, and pointed out that the male equivalent term Resting Asshole Face (RAF) highlighted in this video had not received the same degree of comment. Texas Women's University academic Rene Paulson stated that those with resting bitch face have a stronger sense of self-awareness and a better ability to communicate, whilst New York University psychologist Jonathan Freeman carried out a study showing that slightly angry facial expressions make other people think you are untrustworthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52369248",
"title": "East Timor genocide",
"section": "Section::::Indonesian pacification operations.:'Operation Clean-Sweep': 1983.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "When someone punches you so much and so hard, it feels as if your face is broken. People hit me on my back and on my sides with their hands and then kicked me... [In another location] they psychologically tortured me; they didn't hit me, but they made strong threats to kill me.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15783711",
"title": "Indonesian occupation of East Timor",
"section": "Section::::Indonesian hegemony.:'Operation Clean-Sweep': 1983.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "When someone punches you so much and so hard, it feels as if your face is broken. People hit me on my back and on my sides with their hands and then kicked me... [In another location] they psychologically tortured me; they didn't hit me, but they made strong threats to kill me.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23013",
"title": "Punch and Judy",
"section": "Section::::Comedy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "Despite Punch's unapologetic murders throughout the performances, it is still a comedy. The humour is aided by a few things. Rosalind Crone (2006, p. 1065) suggests that, since the puppets are carved from wood, their facial expressions cannot change, but are stuck in the same exaggerated pose, which helps to deter any sense of realism and to distance the audience. The use of the swazzle also helps to create humour, and that the sound of Punch's voice takes the cruelty out of Punch. According to Crone, a third aspect that helped make the violence humorous was that Punch's violence toward his wife was prompted by her own violence toward him. In this aspect, he retains some of his previous hen-pecked persona. This would suggest that, since Punch was merely acting violently out of self-defence, it was okay. This is a possible explanation for the humour of his violence toward his wife, and even towards others who may have somehow \"had it coming.\" This suggestion better explains the humour of the violence toward the baby. Other characters that had to incur the wrath of Punch varied depending on the punchman, but the most common were the foreigner, the blind man, the publican, the constable, and the devil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26153201",
"title": "Face distortion",
"section": "Section::::Uses in popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Several movies, as well as some anime, involving boxing, martial arts, or other styles of fighting have scenes involving face distortion. Movies like \"Cinderella man\", which involves American boxing has a few of these moments. Anime's like Bleach and Naruto contain moments of face distortion as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4lp2t2
|
what is a senator and what is a congressman?
|
[
{
"answer": "Congress is more or less the US equivalent of the UK's Parliament. Like the UK Parliament, it has two houses.\n\nThe lower house is the House of Representatives. The people who sit in that are called Congressmen/women. It's very much like the UK's House of Commons. The entire country is split into districts (same concept as UK constituencies) which each elect a single representative via the First Past The Post system. They have fewer Congressmen than the UK has MPs and a much larger population, so the districts are much bigger than in the UK. There are fresh elections every 2 years.\n\nThe Senate is the upper house of Congress. However it's very different to the UK's upper house, the House of Lords. Each state elects 2 senators, regardless of its population. Senators have 6 year terms, but they are not elected all at once. They are staggered so 1/3 of them are elected every 2 years.\n\nAnother difference is that the Senate is much more powerful than the House of Lords. Most bills have to be agreed by both houses before a bill can become law. Where as in the UK, the House of Commons can ultimately pass legislation through even if the Lords doesn't agree.\n\nSo I'd say Congressmen are the closest equivalent to UK MPs. But Senators are more senior in a sense because they serve longer terms, and there's fewer of them.\n\nedit - I suppose I should point out that technically Senators are also Congressmen, as they are part of Congress. The people in the House of Representatives are Representatives. But people commonly refer to them as Congressmen, and refer to Senators specifically as Senators.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23444",
"title": "Politics of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Legislature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Congress is a bicameral legislature. The upper house, the Senate, is composed of 24 senators elected via the plurality-at-large voting with the country as one at-large \"district.\" The senators elect amongst themselves a Senate President. The lower house is the House of Representatives, currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected via party-list system, with the rest elected from legislative districts. The House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25659300",
"title": "Undergraduate Student Government at Stony Brook University",
"section": "Section::::Branches.:Legislative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "The Legislative branch is a unicameral legislature. The Senate consists of the entire Executive Council as non-voting members (excluding the Executive Vice-President, who serves as the Senate chair) and twenty-three voting Senators. The representation in the Senate is based on the enrollment of the various colleges (one Senator for every 1000 students in the respective college). Consequently, there are at present 10 Senators from the College of Arts and Sciences, 4 Senators from the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, and 1 each of the following: Senator from the College of Business, Senator from the Health Science Center, and Senator-at-Large (who represents the School of Journalism and the School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, which each have fewer than 1000 students but have more than 1000 in total). Additionally, there is a Freshman Class Senator, a Sophomore Class Senator, a Junior Class Senator, a Senior Class Senator, and a Senator from the Commuter Student Association and the Residence Hall Association, who are each appointed internally by the two organizations from among their officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20667818",
"title": "Joint Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The members are sitting members of the United States Senate and House of Representatives. Typically, the House members include the Speaker of the House as well as the House majority and minority leaders. The Senate members are drawn from the leadership of the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration (previously known by other names). A senator acts as Chairman of the Joint Committee; the chairman is therefore drawn from the party in control of the Senate, which may or may not be the same party as the president-elect's. Membership in the committee gives its members the opportunity to control tickets to the inauguration ceremonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4761648",
"title": "Legislature of the Virgin Islands",
"section": "Section::::Legislature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The Legislature, referred to as the Senate, is a unicameral body, one of the four such legislative bodies in the United States, along with Nebraska, Guam and the District of Columbia. The Legislature meets inside the Senate Building in Charlotte Amalie, a restored Danish and American military barracks building as well as a former high school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2627884",
"title": "Constitution of Argentina",
"section": "Section::::Divisions of government powers.:Legislative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The Legislative Branch is composed of the Vice-President, a bicameral Congress, the General Auditing Office of the Nation and the Ombudsman. Congress is divided in two Houses: \"Cámara de Diputados\" (Chamber of Deputies, the Lower House) and \"Cámara de Senadores\" (Senate, the Upper House).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426202",
"title": "Michigan Legislature",
"section": "Section::::Titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Members of the Senate are referred to as Senators and members of the House of Representatives are referred to as Representatives. Because this shadows the terminology used to describe members of Congress, constituents and the news media, using \"The Associated Press Stylebook\", often refer to legislators as state senators or state representatives to avoid confusion with their federal counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429346",
"title": "Florida Legislature",
"section": "Section::::Titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Members of the Senate are referred to as Senators and members of the House of Representatives are referred to as Representatives. Because this shadows the terminology used to describe members of Congress, constituents and the news media, using \"The Associated Press Stylebook\", often refer to Legislators as State Senators or State Representatives to avoid confusion with their Federal counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rz0c1
|
why do people become outraged and upset at other people's sexual preferences?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bisexual here. I've been called mentally handicapped, told that I should be institutionalized or put on medication, and told that I don't exist.\n\nHonestly I have no fucking clue. My thought is that with something as personal as sexuality, many people are not open-minded enough to accept others for who they are. People who get offended over sexuality often are bigoted in many other areas as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always held the belief that people who are overly concerned and or outraged at other people's sexuality are insecure about their own sexuality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some people get upset when their beliefs or values are not reinforced by others conforming. Especially when they perceive their values as superior. These are weak individuals with sub-par intelligence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My theory is this: we humans have found the need to become self-controlled and disciplined for the good of our society. We keep our basic instincts in check so that we can focus on working together to build things and to make our lives better and free of danger.\n\nObviously most of us like sex... but we also don't have sex anywhere, anytime we want. Society expects us to deal with our basic instincts in privacy. Those who cannot do this are frowned upon because it shows a lack of self-control, a personality flaw that is seen as harmful to the well-being of our society. However, heterosexuality is more widely accepted (or tolerated) because it's essential to life - that's basically how you make babies. If you're alive right now, chances are that your biological parents did the nasty at least once before.\n\nHomosexuality on the other hand isn't as widespread as heterosexuality so many people have trouble relating to it. They don't understand its appeal. Because of that and because it doesn't follow \"the norm\", some people see homosexuality as a personality flaw, as the result of someone not being able to take control of their urges. It also doesn't help that some gay people are extremely vocal about their sexual preference and may be attracted to heterosexual people, something which isn't reciprocated and can be the source of discomfort.\n\nIn my opinion, the reason why some idiots are outraged about what gay people do in their own home is because they think their supposed \"lack of self-control\" is going to have a negative effect somewhere else in society.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think there are multiple reasons, but the main one is this:\n\nWe have hard-wired preferences in our minds for people who are similar to us. Not just similar-looking, but similar-acting and similar-believing. It's a survival thing, and a rather unfortunate one at times.\n\nSo, when we encounter someone who either likes something we don't like, or doesn't like something we do like, it tends to make us uncomfortable.\n\nThe more deeply embedded in our minds the idea in question is, the more strongly we feel about the conflict.\n\nFor example:\n\n\"No big deal\" level:\nPerson A: \"I like crossword puzzles.\"\nPerson B: \"Yeah? I don't really.\"\n\n\"Small deal\" level:\nPerson A: \"I don't care for this musician.\"\nPerson B: \"What?? She rocks!\"\n\n\"Medium deal\" level (sadly):\nPerson A: \"I'm a huge fan of this sports team.\"\nPerson B: \"They suck! I like the rival team.\"\nPerson A: \"No, you suck!\"\nPerson B: [Spiils beer on person A]\n\n\"Big Deal\" level\nPerson A: \"I'm a male, and I prefer the company of males for romance.\"\nPerson B: \"Ooh, ick! That's gross! I'm gonna get with a bunch of other people who feel the same way I do about your \"aberration\" and make up all kinds of rules condemning that kind of behavior!\"\n\nSad, really.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Based on what my dad (with whom I've had many disagreements over gay marriage) has said, they generally see the traditional family as being a cornerstone of society. They tend to see homosexuality as eroding away at this, and thus see it as an attack on society.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34237227",
"title": "Sexual suggestiveness",
"section": "Section::::Misinterpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The increase in sexual content in modern society often results in a more nonchalant approach to sexually suggestive behavior. People, predominantly women, often act in a way that they themselves do not consider to be sexually suggestive but which can be misinterpreted by others. For example, wearing clothes or skirts/shorts that show skin is not something that most Western women would consider to be overtly provocative but it is still regarded as sexually suggestive by others. Misconstruing people’s behaviour can have disastrous consequences, contributing to harassment and rape culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14231342",
"title": "Error management theory",
"section": "Section::::Alternative explanations.:Individual differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Sexual over-perception relative to under-perception was reported more frequently among younger participants, among singles, and among participants with an unrestricted socio-sexual orientation. Endorsing and being more open to casual sex may have evoked more sexual interest from members of the opposite sex, leading to more frequent reports of sexual overperception. Socially unrestricted male and female high school students were found to report being more subject to sexual harassment as well as sexually harassing others. From this, it is possible that being subject to sexual over-perception may explain the link between socio-sexuality and being subject to sexual harassment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23942007",
"title": "Feminist views on pornography",
"section": "Section::::Anti-pornography feminism.:Social harm from exposure to pornography.:Women reduced to sex objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "This indicates negative opinions towards women. It is concluded that being exposed to sexual content, even when it is unwanted, leads men to develop harsher sexist attitudes towards women. The greater intrigue for men to view hardcore and unusual pornography was greater when they believed to be doing so anonymously. This is most likely tied to the theory of deindividuation. The theory states that a person detaches his or her self from personal responsibility and awareness as an individual, and is more likely to act differently than when their behaviors are socially attached to his or her character. \"When individuals perceive that no one knows what they are viewing, they are likely to experience reduced self-awareness, which, in turn, leads to being less considerate toward others\". This implies that these men would be less likely to view the pornography which harshly objectifies women if they know others would be aware if they do so, due to the perceived social consequences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37680417",
"title": "Internalized sexism",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Additionally, studies have found connections between as sexual objectification as a result of internalized sexism and body shame, sexual objectification, and disordered eating. Internalized sexism also plays a role in lowered academic goals and diminished job performance. On a larger scale, the presence of internalized sexism in the world is believed to alienate those affected from each other and thus further promotes continued sexism as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200977",
"title": "Sexual objectification",
"section": "Section::::Sexual objectification of women.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "Some feminists and psychologists argue that sexual objectification can lead to negative psychological effects including eating disorders, depression and sexual dysfunction, and can give women negative self-images because of the belief that their intelligence and competence are currently not being, nor will ever be, acknowledged by society. Sexual objectification of women has also been found to negatively affect women's performance, confidence, and level of position in the workplace. How objectification has affected women and society in general is a topic of academic debate, with some saying girls' understanding of the importance of appearance in society may contribute to feelings of fear, shame, and disgust during the transition to womanhood, and others saying that young women are especially susceptible to objectification, as they are often taught that power, respect, and wealth can be derived from one's outward appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11418268",
"title": "Questioning (sexuality and gender)",
"section": "Section::::Adolescents and other youths.:Social.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "Heteronormativity can contribute to the hesitation of youths in being public with their gender identity and sexuality. This can be due to the fact that one may feel they do not fit with the social constructs of heterosexuality, masculinity or femininity - which are ideals that do not necessarily include the exceptions and differences of other genders and sexualities. According to Choi and collaborators, \"Misunderstanding and fear of the unknown are likely the main influencers of the controversy around gender acceptance. As a sense of belonging is one of the five basic needs, the individual may fear transitioning to another gender causing an inner conflict.\" The social construct of heteronormativity is directly related to gender binary; these two constructs are often conditioned in the mainstream to be more accepted, therefore impacting the acceptance of other genders and sexualities, ones that may not fit into those norms or are fluid between multiple categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50335355",
"title": "Natasha Choufani",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:Women Rights.:Mesh Basita / It is not Ok - The Kip Project's Campaign against Sexual Harassment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The reactions to the campaign were especially difficult for me, because it showed people’s ignorance on the definition of sexual harassment; that it is not really about attraction, it is about power and control. You see, the harasser on the street knows that the girl will know better than to react. She has been taught to ignore, especially in our society. If she tries to defend herself, they will say that she is too masculine, or she exaggerates, or they will accuse her of having psychological issues because any \"normal\" girl should be flattered at the attention. She will prefer to ignore and let it pass over so as to not draw attention to herself. He knows that she is in a weaker position than he, so he abuses the situation with pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nw6wr
|
why constant friction leads to orgasm? what makes the brain think "yeah... i wasn't sure you were having sex, but now that 20 minutes has passed i'm certain... take the reward now"?
|
[
{
"answer": "As far as I know (not a biologist) human males generally last so long because they train to, because they want to get human females off, which i'm guessing have a longer time to orgasm to encourage them to have more sex, to guarantee pregnancy. Since monogamy and marriage and stuff is a human cultural thing, from nature's perspective we should absolutely just be fucking any woman we see just about all the time if we're not out hunting or whatever.\n\nIf you take a human male who hasn't had sex or masturbated in a while, he will pop basically as soon as he enters the vagina, if he even lasts that long, which lines up with most animals natural abilities and is indeed, the 'optimal' speed from nature's perspective.\n\nThis is mostly conjecture and shouldn't be taken as fact. but it's what I can work out with the knowledge i've got.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Achieving orgasm.:Nipple stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "An orgasm is believed to occur in part because of the hormone oxytocin, which is produced in the body during sexual excitement and arousal and labor. It has also been shown that oxytocin is produced when a man or woman's nipples are stimulated and become erect. Komisaruk also relayed, however, that preliminary data suggests that nipple nerves may directly link up with the relevant parts of the brain without uterine mediation, acknowledging the men in his study who showed the same pattern of nipple stimulation activating genital brain regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860043",
"title": "Sexual anhedonia",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Normally, a human being is able to feel pleasure from an orgasm. Upon reaching a climax, chemicals are released in the brain and motor signals are activated that will cause quick cycles of muscle contraction in the corresponding areas of both males and females. Sometimes, these signals can cause other involuntary muscle contractions such as body movements and vocalization. Finally, during orgasm, upward neural signals go to the cerebral cortex and feelings of intense pleasure are experienced. People who have this disorder are aware of reaching an orgasm, as they can feel the physical effects of it, but they experience very limited or no sort of pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Physiological response.:Male physiological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Equally, if sexual stimulation stops before orgasm, the physical effects of the stimulation, including the vasocongestion, will subside in a short time. Repeated or prolonged stimulation without orgasm and ejaculation can lead to discomfort in the testes (corresponding to the slang term \"blue balls\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20014929",
"title": "Human female sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Physiological.:Orgasm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: \"Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm.\" Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Physiological response.:Female physiological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "If sexual stimulation continues, then sexual arousal may peak into orgasm. After orgasm, some women do not want any further stimulation and the sexual arousal quickly dissipates. Suggestions have been published for continuing the sexual excitement and moving from one orgasm into further stimulation and maintaining or regaining a state of sexual arousal that can lead to second and subsequent orgasms. Some women have experienced such multiple orgasms quite spontaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The health effects surrounding the human orgasm are diverse. There are many physiological responses during sexual activity, including a relaxed state created by prolactin, as well as changes in the central nervous system such as a temporary decrease in the metabolic activity of large parts of the cerebral cortex while there is no change or increased metabolic activity in the limbic (i.e., \"bordering\") areas of the brain. There is also a wide range of sexual dysfunctions, such as anorgasmia. These effects impact cultural views of orgasm, such as the beliefs that orgasm and the frequency/consistency of it are either important or irrelevant for satisfaction in a sexual relationship, and theories about the biological and evolutionary functions of orgasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18488",
"title": "Libido",
"section": "Section::::Factors that affect libido.:Endogenous compounds.:Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm. Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes a woman feel aroused. Also, during these days, estrogen levels decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
415jqi
|
What was up with the Anti-Masonic Party? Why was Freemasonry considered such a pressing issue in 17th century America that people created a whole political party over it?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can give you a brief answer, copied from an earlier question I answered on this sub. Perhaps someone more knowledgeable can step in to supplement:\n\nAn incident occurred in the 1820s that sparked a wave of anti-masonry. A man claimed he was going to publish the masonic \"secrets\" (rites and symbols) ...and then went missing. Some blamed the masons for his death. This spark was fanned both by religious groups who just so happened to be going through a massive religious revival, and an anti-Jacksonite political party (as Jackson was a mason) who were running non-masonic candidates. The sentiment and political party largely diminished after a few years.\n\n \n & nbsp;\n\n^(Edit: I just noticed that you said '17th century America' ... I'm assuming that's a simple typo, as the political party was formed in the early 19th century / 1800s.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Finally a question here that I can help answer!\n\ntl;dr: A local scandal provided the catalyst for a regionally-successful political party. Its success was likely due to a variety of factors, including political and economic disenfranchisement, religion, and some genuine concern over the role that a secret society was taking in the young American Republic.\n\nAs other posters have noted, the event that formally gave rise to the Anti-Masonic Party was the 1824 disappearance of William Morgan, an itinerant (literal) stonemason who broke from his Masonic Lodge and wrote an expose on Masonic rituals. The State of New York, under pressure from Gov. DeWitt Clinton, indicted dozens of Masons in Morgan's disappearance. The trial ended with a handful of convictions for misdemeanor kidnapping. Within a matter of months, local outrage over Morgan's disappearance and the handling of the subsequent trial gelled into a successful regional political party that also tried to play at the national level with an 1832 presidential candidate.\n\nOf course, the Morgan incident by itself does not explain why the Anti-Masonic Party grew as quickly and successfully as it did. Nor was anti-Masonic sentiment a new concept in America, though it had not previously reached the cohesion necessary for a political party. Also interesting about the Anti-Masonic Party is that it drew members from a number of social strata (for example, farmers, merchants, professionals) and attracted members who were drawn to political/religious activism and later went on to join Evangelical, Sabbatarian, Temperance, and Abolition movements. \n\nThe serious historiographical study of the Anti-Masonic Party began at the tail-end of McCarthyism in America, for reasons that are not entirely surprising. The historians Richard Hofstadter and Lorman Ratner attributed Anti-Masonry's success to the same characteristics in the American psyche that drove social movements like McCarthyism, Know Nothingism, and anti-Mormonism. As Hofstadter's fascinating 1964 article terms it, this is the \"Paranoid Style in American Politics.\" (_URL_0_). These views, while in my opinion not completely wrong, are subject to criticism for viewing taking a simplistic view of these social movements in a vacuum.\n\nThe next wave of study, for example, William Preston Vaughn’s The Antimasonic Party in the United States (1983) (for what it's worth, Vaughn was himself a very active Freemason), looked to social factors and not just major trends in American politics. Vaughn focuses on the evangelical Christian membership of the Anti-Masonic Party. Many prominent party members were evangelical ministers, and much of the public concern over Masonry was its supposed embrace of mysticism. Vaughn also identifies \"political\" members, who were more concerned over Masonry's role in the American Republic (i.e., as a secret society with politically-prominent members) than its impact on religion. In his view, Anti-Masonry's eventual failure is largely driven by its inability to reconcile these groups of members.\n\nPaul Goodman's Towards a Christian Republic: Antimasonry and the Great Transition in New England, 1826-1836, provides another view. Per Goodman, Freemasonry was a private and exclusive association that appeared to influence the public spheres of politics and religion. This created inevitable social tension that led to anti-Masonry and the Anti-Masonic Party, whose members perceived themselves as the guardians of Christian Republicanism. Paul Goodman's archive for this book is available for inspection at UC Davis and is a wonderful source for people interested in this period of American history.\n\nFinally, as some others posting here have suggested, Anti-Masonry was able to take advantage of existing translocal political structures in a politically- and religiously-active area of the country. For example, so-called Anti-Masonic Conventions were fairly regular, and the Anti-Masonic Party had reasonably successful regional/state-level organization. This cohesion allowed the party to broker deals and play the margin between established political parties in order to \"punch above its weight.\" By way of example, the Anti-Masonic Party never polled above 15% in Rhode Island, but was still able to push through legislature revoking Masonic charters and banning Masonic oaths. This kind of dealmaking ultimately backfired and helped lead to the downfall of the party, causing contemporaries to observe that “Anti-Masons are doing precisely what they condemn in the Masonic fraternity; namely, an attempt to engross power and office.” (Calvin Philleo, “Calvin Philleo’s Light on Masonry, and Anti-Masonry, and a Renunciation of Both” (Providence: H.H. Brown, 1831).)\n\nedit: typos and clarification\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30758",
"title": "Age of Enlightenment",
"section": "Section::::Dissemination of ideas.:Masonic lodges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11227",
"title": "Freemasonry",
"section": "Section::::Anti-Masonry.:Political opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of William Morgan by Freemasons and his subsequent disappearance. Reports of the \"Morgan Affair\", together with opposition to Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason), helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement. The short-lived Anti-Masonic Party was formed, which fielded candidates for the presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32301",
"title": "Anti-Masonic Party",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The Anti-Masonic Party, also known as the Anti-Masonic Movement, was the first third party in the United States. It strongly opposed Freemasonry as a single-issue party and later aspired to become a major party by expanding its platform to take positions on other issues. After emerging as a political force in the late 1820s, most of the Anti-Masonic Party's members joined the Whig Party in the 1830s and the party disappeared after 1838. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32301",
"title": "Anti-Masonic Party",
"section": "Section::::History.:Party foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The Anti-Masonic Party was formed in Upstate New York in February 1828. Anti-Masons were opponents of Freemasonry, believing that it was a corrupt and elitist secret society which was ruling much of the country in defiance of republican principles. Many people regarded the Masonic organization and its adherents involved in government as corrupt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32301",
"title": "Anti-Masonic Party",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As people became more mobile economically during the Industrial Revolution and began to move west when new states were populated by white settlers and added to the Union, the growth of the Anti-Masonic movement was caused by the political and social unrest resulting from the weakening of longstanding family and community ties. With Freemasonry one of the few institutions that remained stable during this time of change, it became a natural target for protesters. As a result, the Morgan Affair became the catalyst that turned the movement against Freemasons into a political party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40512",
"title": "1836 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Nominations.:Anti-Masonic Party nomination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "After the negative views of Freemasonry among a large segment of the public began to wane in the mid 1830s, the Anti-Masonic Party began to disintegrate. Some of its members began moving to the Whig Party, which had a broader issue base than the Anti-Masons. The Whigs were also regarded as a better alternative to the Democrats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55490084",
"title": "James King, 4th Baron Kingston",
"section": "Section::::Freemasonry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "Freemasonry during the early 18th century had somewhat of a Jacobite tinge to it, particularly in France and Ireland. In England, the supporters of the Hanoverians, particularly under Prime Minister Robert Walpole, had decided to move into freemasonry and make it their own, rather than attack it outright or suppress it, as well as this, abroad (especially in Paris) the Hanoverians and Jacobites spied on each other in the masonic lodges. Some persons within freemasonry, such as John Theophilus Desaguliers and James Anderson (author of \"The Constitutions of the Free-Masons\" in 1723) were happy to oblige with this Whiggish reorientation. In relation to France, around 1737, Cardinal André-Hercule de Fleury, the Chief Minister to Louis XV of France was looking to make to make peace with Walpole and Britain. The masonic lodges in France, founded mostly by Jacobite military exiles, were a threat to this deal and so de Fleury directed René Hérault to shut them down. He also pressed Pope Clement XII to issue a bull the following year condemning freemasonry. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4s354f
|
what happened to the panama papers story? it was supposed to be this giant scandal, yet it seems to have disappeared.
|
[
{
"answer": "1. It's still a thing, but given that there haven't been any new major revelations (e.g. The Pope) most news organizations have chosen to focus on more topical things (The Euro 16, Brexit, etc.)\n\n2. No prominent Americans were listed, hence why it's gotten little to no attention in the US. Most Americans don't give a shit if some Saudi Minister hid money off-shore. Now if some Mega Church Pastor was named you'd see the media explode on this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As always, when a story happened months ago it is no longer \"news\" and no longer \"current events\". The news reports on stuff that recently happened or currently happening. There is a lot currently happening, so they report that stuff instead of a story from April.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The next big story came along.\n\nAsk your average person on the street (or redditor without google) about LIBOR - the biggest financial fraud in history, and one that the average person on the street *actually lost money over* - and see what they say. Most people aren't even effected by the panama papers. Scandals pass",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50034356",
"title": "Panama Papers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The documents were dubbed the Panama Papers because of the country they were leaked from; however, the Panamanian government expressed strong objections to the name over concerns that it would tarnish the government's and country's image worldwide, as did other entities in Panama and elsewhere. This led to an advertising campaign some weeks after the leak, titled \"Panama, more than papers\". Some media outlets covering the story have used the name \"Mossack Fonseca papers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31464496",
"title": "Indian black money",
"section": "Section::::2016 Panama Papers leak.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The 2016 Panama Papers scandal is the largest-ever leak of information on black money in history. International Consortium of Investigative Journalists first obtained the leaked information, revealing over 11 million documents. These documents pertain to 214,000 offshore entities and span almost 40 years. The papers originated from Mossack Fonseca, a Panama-based law firm with offices in more than 35 countries. The list of names exposed in the scandal includes 500 Indians who flouted rules and regulations, such as Amitabh Bachchan, Aishwarya Rai, Niira Radia, KP Singh, Garware family, Harish Salve, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50088606",
"title": "Leaktivism",
"section": "Section::::Background of Leaktivism: The Panama Papers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The information leaked in regards to the Panama Papers is considered one of the largest leaks in history. This leak is considered to be larger than both the US diplomatic cables distributed by WikiLeaks in 2010 and the secrete intelligence documents released by Edward Snowden in 2013. In total there 11.5m documents along with 2.6 terabytes of information taken from the Mossack Fonseca’s internal database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26909",
"title": "Silvio Berlusconi",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Panama Papers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 250,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 250,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "In April 2016 the Panama Papers scandal broke out; it was a leaked set of 11.5 million confidential documents that provide detailed information about more than 214,000 offshore companies listed by the Panamanian corporate service provider Mossack Fonseca, including the identities of shareholders and directors of the companies. The documents show how wealthy individuals, including public officials, hid their assets from public scrutiny. Silvio Berlusconi was cited in the list, along with his long-time partner at A.C. Milan, Adriano Galliani.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50088606",
"title": "Leaktivism",
"section": "Section::::Establishment of Leaktivism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "White concludes his article by stating that the main problem that the Panama Papers illustrates is a questions concerning the governance of our world. The leak demonstrates who is actually in power. He further argues that the distribution of the papers will only be successful if it bring upon change.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50034356",
"title": "Panama Papers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The Panama Papers are 11.5 million leaked documents that detail financial and attorney–client information for more than 214,488 offshore entities. The documents, some dating back to the 1970s, were created by, and taken from, Panamanian law firm and corporate service provider Mossack Fonseca, and were leaked in 2015 by an anonymous source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59524411",
"title": "Panama Papers: South America allegations, reactions, and investigations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The Panama Papers are 11.5 million leaked documents that detail financial and attorney–client information for more than 214,488 offshore entities. The documents, some dating back to the 1970s, were created by, and taken from, Panamanian law firm and corporate service provider Mossack Fonseca, and were leaked in 2015 by an anonymous source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5h3786
|
what factors cause people from different countries to protest differently?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing's to say that can't happen in the US, but a part of it comes out of necessity. Many parts of Asia are heavily populated, and not just heavily, but densely. The need to be clean isn't just a good idea, it has roots in survival. And it's convention. People do it so you do it. People see you do it so they do it. It's just something done. Some cultures hold the door, others don't. However, picking up trash has more of an actual impact, so it *should* be done everywhere.\n\nBeyond that, many protests in the US happen this way. Right now in North Dakota the protests are *very* peaceful and clean, considering. It depends how it's portrayed. What protests are you talking about or comparing?\n\nKoreans are protesting their president, but many people as of late in the US are protesting the needless killing of its citizens by an armed force that almost always gets away with it. The idea that people should politely protest everything is also absurd.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Typically, cultural factors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60284602",
"title": "Foreign domestic worker protests",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Protesting outside of one’s home country is a relatively new phenomenon. Nicole Constable, professor of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh, has noted that the potential ability for them to protest relies upon their pseudo stateless nature. While FDWs receive visas to live and work temporarily within their host country, they rarely become full-fledged citizens or residents in their country of employment. This creation of improper statehood allows for a “neoliberal space of exception” that allows for a greater ability to mobilize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2744606",
"title": "Social criticism",
"section": "Section::::Protest experience with political theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Repression experienced by a minority often leads to protest. Without sufficient resolution of the dispute, a social criticism can be formulated, often covered by political groups (political monopoly). For protesting people \"within\" a social movement, it is often frustrating to experience failure of the movement and its own agenda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8122995",
"title": "Mass mobilization",
"section": "Section::::Mass mobilization for social movements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Social movements are groups that protest against social or political issues. Different social movements try to make the public and politicians aware of different social problems. For social movements it is important to solve collective action problems. When social movements protest for something in the interest of the whole society, it is easier for the individual to not protest. The individual will benefit the outcome, but will not risk anything by participating in the protest. This is also known as the free-rider problem. Social movements must convince people to join the movement to solve this problem. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21304605",
"title": "Nativism (politics)",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for immigration restriction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "According to Fetzer (2000), opposition to immigration commonly arises in many countries because of issues of national, cultural, and religious identity. The phenomenon has been studied especially in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, as well as in continental Europe. Thus nativism has become a general term for \"opposition to immigration\" based on fears that the immigrants will distort or spoil existing cultural values. In situations where immigrants greatly outnumber the original inhabitants, nativistic movements can allow cultural survival. Immigrants can \"swamp\" a local population due to birth rate relative to nationals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21627",
"title": "Nation state",
"section": "Section::::Minorities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Negative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities not considered part of the nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50077675",
"title": "Nuit debout",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "What distinguishes social movements from mere protests is that they have a larger purpose, not one specific demand. From the first meetings of university and high school students on 9 March the El Khomri law served as an opportunity to express general indignation. In protest leaflets, students called for resistance \"against government policy\" rather than just this one bill. During marches, protesters expressed their disappointment with the political left in general and the ruling Socialist Party in particular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25073374",
"title": "Replacement migration",
"section": "Section::::Results.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Certain countries may be opposed to international immigration. Reasons such as xenophobia can subject new immigrants to discrimination, thus, the immigrants may have trouble assimilating to their new country. The native population of said countries may also resent and oppose the loss of national identity, homogeneous national culture, and the loss of advantages for native people that replacement immigration leads to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sp0tr
|
At what point did Australians and New Zealanders begin to consider themselves as distinct from the British?
|
[
{
"answer": "I wrote about this partly in my undergraduate thesis. \n\nSimilar to the colonization of America, settlers in the Antipodes experienced a lifestyle hugely different from what they or their parents had experienced in Europe. Australian/American/Canadian/New Zealand (to an extent) evolved as a response to their new environment and a different understanding of their role as settlers and within the Empire. Dealing with (often) hostile natives in an unhospitable environment changes the character of the individual and society as a whole. The 'frontier' played a pivotal role in shaping the idea of white settler national identity, and the heros of the frontier (explorers, outlaws etc.) remain an important aspect of national mythology. Essentially these societies grew outside or even against the traditional notion of state authority, so individuals who defied the oppression of the state were idolized and subsequently hold a vital place in their national histories (Lewis & Clark, Ned Kelly).\n\nHowever, Australia, New Zealand and Canada remained strongholds of the British Empire even as they gradually gained increasing amounts of political and economic sovereignty throughout the 19th century as they transitioned towards 'Dominion' status. Settlers from Britain and other European countries continued to arrive so there is no doubt that the societies being created were 'European' societies at the base level. \n\nThe 'heroic' fairytale idea is that Australian and New Zealand identity was born after the Gallipoli campaign in 1915. As a part of the Empire, ANZAC forces were under the command of British generals and suffered huge losses in the poorly-planned and orchestrated campaign against the Ottomans. Many historians have played up the significance of Gallipoli in identity construction because it is picturesque and allows them to point to a specific point in history.\n\nWhen the Second World War broke out and the British surrendered their Empire in South-East Asia to the Japanese, it became clear to Australians and Kiwis that they could not rely on the British for military protection and instead found another willing and capable ally across the Pacific in the USA. The Australians and New Zealanders were finally asserting their political and military sovereignty and the ANZUS treaty which resulted form their wartime alliance with the USA has been a vital aspect of Australian foreign relations throughout C20 and up until today.\n\nSo to answer your question. There is no specific date when a distinct national identity emerged but it gradually developed due to a variety of environmental, political and economic factors over the course of centuries. Let me know if you have any questions as I have only provided a very simplified overview of 200 years of Antipodean political history",
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{
"answer": "There was no single point at which “Australian” superseded “British” to become the primary identity of people living in Australia. The process of Australian-isation started as early as the 1820s, and continued well into the 1970s (it’s possibly still going, according to some people!).\n\nI’ll mention a few key milestones along the way. And, you’ll notice that, while some of them are movements towards asserting an independent Australian identity, others reinforce Australia’s identity as an offshoot of Britain. These two threads ran through most of our history, alongside each other.\n\n* As early as the 1820s, the native-born Australians were starting to make themselves known. Around this time, the term “currency lads (and lasses)” arose to describe these native-born Australians. The British immigrants – even the convicts – were seen as “sterling”, the real deal. Meanwhile, the native-born Australians were seen as inferior copies: “currency”. Less than 40 years after the first convicts arrived, there was already a separation between the British immigrants and the locally born Australians. There are also references to them resenting the fact that immigrants from Britain were given free land as settlers ahead of native-born people.\n\n* The Australasian Anti-Transportation League, active in the 1840s and 1850s, was formed by locals to stop the transportation of convicts to colonies in Australia. The document ‘The Aims of the Anti-Transportation League’ contains the phrase “And Whereas the native Australasians are entitled to all the rights and privileges of British subjects” – another minor instance recognising the locally born people. The League itself was an example of local Australians exerting their independence from the British, by telling the British to stop sending convicts. (The British did stop sending convicts in the 1850s, but more because gold was discovered in Victoria than anything else – how can you be considered to be punishing someone when you’re transporting them *for free* to a destination that thousands of other people were desperate to get to?)\n\n* In 1871 the Victorian Natives’ Association was founded; the following year, it expanded to the other colonies and became the Australian Natives’ Association. Membership was restricted to white men *born in Australia*. The ANA was a major supporter of Federation. (Although it left the political arena when Federation was achieved in 1901, the ANA remained an independent mutual society and health insurance company until 1993, when it merged with Manchester Unity to form Australian Unity.)\n\n* By the 1890s, locally born Australians outnumbered British-born Australians for the first time. Around this time, we see a couple of other watershed movements.\n\n* The colonists started pushing for Federation in the 1880s and more strongly in the 1890s. However, it’s worth noting that this was not seen as a way to gain full independence from Britain, but merely to give Australia the ability to stand proudly as a British land in Asia and the Pacific. On the other hand, one of the reasons to federate was mutual defence of the colonies – this became especially important after... well, I’ll let Alfred Deakin tell you in his own words: “they [the Australasian Colonies] were asked [by the British government] to surrender the New Hebrides as of little commercial value and in the next breath were told that the French set the greatest store by them for commercial development. [The French’s] interest in Australasia were spoken of as large, while ours which were incomparably larger were brushed aside as of no account. [...] We were assured that our alarm as to French intentions was groundless but we should never forget that it was while relying on a similar assurance from the Colonial Office, our trust had been betrayed by a surrender of part of New Guinea to Germany.” In short, the British gave away territories to the French and the Germans that the Australians saw as *theirs*. So, here we see the beginnings of a Australian foreign policy (and identity) which is different to that of Britain’s.\n\n* The 1890s & 1900s saw the first flourishing of a local Australian literary identity, with such works as: ‘Clancy of the Overflow’ by Banjo Patterson; ‘The Man From Snowy River’ by Banjo Patterson; ‘Waltzing Matilda’ by Banjo Patterson; ‘The Drover’s Wife’ by Henry Lawson; ‘Seven Little Australians’ by Ethel Turner; ‘My Brilliant Career’ by Miles Franklin; ‘Such is Life’ by Joseph Furphy; ‘My Country’ (“I love a sunburnt country...”) by Dorothea McKellar. At a time when Australians were more likely to be living in urban environments than in rural environments, the stereotypical Aussie outback identity was being written about and idealised.\n\n* When Australia became a country, one of the first acts of the new Commonwealth government was to create what became known as the White Australia Policy. This enforced the idea that Australians were merely British people living in a southern land.\n\n* At the start of World War I, then Prime Minister Andrew Fisher said Australia would “stand beside our own to help and defend Britain to the last man and the last shilling.”\n\n* I won’t write much about the Gallipoli invasion of 1915. Suffice to say that this has become romanticised as “The Birth of a Nation”.\n\n* During World War II, Australia yet again sent soldiers overseas to fight for “the mother country”. However, when the chips were down, and Japan tried to invade Australia... the Brits were nowhere to be seen. The Australian government then turned to the Americans for mutual help and defence, asserting its own independent foreign policy once and for all. This led to the ANZUS treaty in 1951, where Australia, New Zealand, and the United States agreed to come to each other’s mutual defence if necessary.\n\n* Australian citizenship existed for the first time in 1949. Until this time, all Australians had been British citizens.\n\n* During the 1950s, the Australian Prime Minister was an ardent defender of the British Empire (even though it was now the British Commonwealth), and of the personification of that Empire, the young Queen Elizabeth II. When Elizabeth became the first reigning British monarch to visit Australia, in 1954, Menzies positively gushed over her: “I did but see her passing by, and yet I love her till I die.”\n\n* During the post-war period, from 1945 to 1969, the “ten-pound Pom” scheme was in place, giving subsidised fares to any British people wishing to emigrate to Australia. Over one million British immigrants arrived during that time: a whole new generation of Australians who referred to Britian as “home” and “the mother country”.\n\n* The White Australia policy was finally dismantled in the 1960s/1970s. The Holt government in 1966 introduced a Migration Act which removed the requirement for migrants to speak a European language to gain entry (this test had been used to prevent undesireables from entering) and assessed migrants on their skills rather than their origins. The Whitlam government in 1973 put the final nails in the White Australia policy’s coffin by disabling all the racial aspects of immigration law, and signing international treaties and agreements relating to immigration and race. This was when “multiculturalism” became a buzz-word.\n\nMany of these turning-points could be deemed that point when Australians began to consider themselves as distinct from the British: “currency lads”; the ANA; the failure to hold on to the New Hebrides; “I love a sunburnt country...”; Gallipoli; Australian citizenship; ANZUS; multiculturalism; the Australia Act. However, at the same time, Australia has held on to its British heritage: White Australia policy; “the last man and the last shilling”; Gallipoli; WWII; “I did but see her passing by...”; ten-pound Poms.\n\nWhen did Australians begin to see themselves as distinct from the British? 1820s. 1850s. 1890s. 1915. 1951. 1966. 1973. 1988. Take your pick! Some people would say we *still* don’t have our own identity, because we share the same monarch as Britain. Others would say we *lost* our identity when we started on the path of multiculturalism. The “Australian identity” is a very contentious issue.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From a purely legal perspective, the High Court said in [Sue v Hill (1999)](_URL_1_) that the UK could now be considered a \"foreign power\" for the purposes of Constitutional Law (the case was about voting rights). \n\nHowever, the [Australia Act 1986 (Cth)](_URL_0_) was the legislation which severed the last remaining legal ties with the UK, finally ending appeals Australian to the Privy Council. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is worth noting that it was not.until the passage of the Australia Acts in 1986 that Australia became an independent state. Before that, Westminster could have passed an act amending our constitution, or indeed, doing anything it wanted. There were also appeals available to the Privy council from State Courts and technically from the Supreme Court of Australia (called the High Court). \n\nThis wasn't mere legal technicality either. Our constitution provides that you can't be in parliament if you are the subject of a forgiegn power. Before '86 you could be a British citizen but in our parliament. After 86 no longer. There was a case about this but the name escapes me. There was also cases that went to the privy counsel from time to time from state supreme courts. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11197621",
"title": "Australians",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "As a result of many shared linguistic, historical, cultural and geographic characteristics, Australians have often identified closely with New Zealanders in particular. Furthermore, elements of Indigenous, American, British, and more recent immigrant customs, languages, and religions have also combined to form the modern Australian culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097669",
"title": "British people",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.:New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "A long-term result of James Cook's voyage of 1768–1771, a significant number of New Zealanders are of British descent, for whom a sense of Britishness has contributed to their identity. As late as the 1950s, it was common for British New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mount Everest as putting \"the British race and New Zealand on top of the world\". New Zealand passports described nationals as \"British Subject: Citizen of New Zealand\" until 1974, when this was changed to \"New Zealand citizen\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1286042",
"title": "New Zealanders",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The development of a New Zealand identity and national character, separate from the British colonial identity, is most often linked with the period surrounding the First World War, which gave rise to the concept of the Anzac spirit. However, cultural links between New Zealand and Great Britain are maintained by a common language, sustained immigration from the UK, and the fact that many young New Zealanders spend time in Britain on \"overseas experience\", known as \"OE\". New Zealanders also identify closely with Australians, as a result of the two nations' shared historical, cultural and geographic characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4037118",
"title": "European New Zealanders",
"section": "Section::::Alternative terms.:British and Irish New Zealanders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The New Zealand 2006 census statistics reported citizens with British (27,192), English (44,202), Scottish (15,039), Irish (12,651), Welsh (3,771) and Celtic (1,506) origins. Historically, a sense of 'Britishness' has figured prominently in the identity of many New Zealanders. As late as the 1950s it was common for New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mt. Everest as \"\"[putting] the British race and New Zealand on top of the world\"\". New Zealand passports described nationals as \"British Subject and New Zealand Citizen\" until 1974, when this was changed to \"New Zealand Citizen\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4037118",
"title": "European New Zealanders",
"section": "Section::::Alternative terms.:British and Irish New Zealanders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "While \"European\" identity predominates political discourse in New Zealand today, the term \"British\" is still used by some New Zealanders to explain their ethnic origins. Others see the term as better describing previous generations; for instance, journalist Colin James referred to \"we ex-British New Zealanders\" in a 2005 speech. It remains a relatively uncontroversial descriptor of ancestry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308698",
"title": "Anglo-Celtic Australians",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "In the eyes of multiculturalists, Australian society of the 1940s, 150 years after first settlement, is adequately described as Anglo-Celtic. At least this acknowledges that the people of Australia were Irish and Scots as well as English, but it has nothing more substantial than a hyphen joining them. In fact a distinct new culture had been formed. English, Scots and Irish had formed a common identity - first of all British and then gradually Australian as well. In the 1930s the historian W.K. Hancock could aptly describe them as Independent Australian Britons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097669",
"title": "British people",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Its history of British dominance meant that Australia was \"grounded in British culture and political traditions that had been transported to the Australian colonies in the nineteenth century and become part of colonial culture and politics\". Australia maintains the Westminster system of Parliamentary Government and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia. Until 1987, the national status of Australian citizens was formally described as \"British Subject: Citizen of Australia\". Britons continue to make up a substantial proportion of immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yc8mg
|
how on earth do batteries work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They have a chemical inside that is capable of holding extra electrons. When you charge them, you use the energy from the power plant ( or solar panels/ wherever the hell it comes from) to pump the chemical to a higher energy state (lots of extra electrons). When you discharge a battery you complete a circuit from the negative to the positive terminal. The positive terminal is a different substance that wants more electrons. It pulls them from the negative terminal through the circuit (the device the battery is powering). \n\nIt's like a little pressurized container for electrons. You pump it up with energy and it holds it to high pressure, the pressure is released and utilized when you connect the negative to positive terminal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You start with a container that has metal at both ends. Then you dump some chemicals called an 'electrolyte' in. Electrolytes are just compounds that ionize (become negatively charged) when dunked in some solution (normally water).\n\nAs those ions are generated, they want to spread away from one another because... electromagnetism (for further research, see Messrs Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope). The only way they can spread is out one of those metal plates - and out any escape path (conductor) you provide from there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just FYI batteries work in space as well or any other planets for that matter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "505992",
"title": "Earth battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "An Earth battery is a pair of electrodes made of two dissimilar metals, such as iron and copper, which are buried in the soil or immersed in the sea. Earth batteries act as water activated batteries and if the plates are sufficiently far apart, they can tap telluric currents. Earth batteries are sometimes referred to as telluric power sources and telluric generators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3022",
"title": "Autonomous building",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Electricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Earth batteries tap electric currents in the earth called telluric current. They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38120036",
"title": "Batteries in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Batteries are used on spacecraft as a means of power storage. Primary batteries contain all their usable energy when assembled and can only be discharged. Secondary batteries can be re-charged from some other energy source, such as solar panels, and can deliver power during periods when the space vehicle is out of direct sunlight. Batteries generate electrical current from a chemical reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505992",
"title": "Earth battery",
"section": "Section::::Operation and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "The simplest earth batteries consist of conductive plates from different metals of the electropotential series, buried in the ground so that the soil acts as the electrolyte in a voltaic cell. As such, the device acts as a primary cell. When operated only as electrolytic devices, the devices were not continuously reliable, owing to drought condition. These devices were used by early experimenters as energy sources for telegraphy. However, in the process of installing long telegraph wires, engineers discovered that there were electrical potential differences between most pairs of telegraph stations, resulting from natural electrical currents (called telluric currents) flowing through the ground. Some early experimenters did recognize that these currents were, in fact, partly responsible for extending the earth batteries' high outputs and long lifetimes. Later, experimenters would utilize these currents alone and, in these systems, the plates became polarized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505992",
"title": "Earth battery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "One of the earliest examples of an earth battery was built by Alexander Bain in 1841 in order to drive a \"prime mover\"—a device that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. Bain buried plates of zinc and copper in the ground about one meter apart and used the resulting voltage, of about one volt, to operate a clock. Carl Friedrich Gauss, who had researched Earth's magnetic field, and Carl August von Steinheil, who built one of the first electric clocks and developed the idea of an \"Earth return\" (or \"ground return\"), had previously investigated such devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505992",
"title": "Earth battery",
"section": "Section::::Operation and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Earth batteries are not to be confused with soil-based microbial fuel cells, which rely on electrogenic micro-organisms present in soil to generate electricity, as opposed to the galvanic reaction of two different metals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term \"battery\" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wi1i0
|
If dark matter is a matter, then what would it look like if you held it in your hands?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dark matter, according to the most popular theories at the moment, consists of **w**eakly **i**nteracting **m**assive **p**articles, or WIMPs. Because they interact so weakly, in particular having no electromagnetic interaction, WIMPs stream through you much like neutrinos do. Thus, you can't really hold dark matter in your hands, and if you could, somehow, it wouldn't look like anything, since it wouldn't interact with photons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3157505",
"title": "Dark matter in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Dark matter is defined as hypothetical matter that is undetectable by its emitted radiation, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. It has been used in a variety of fictional media, including computer and video games and books. In such cases, dark matter is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties. Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the known properties of dark matter proposed in physics and cosmology. For example, in computer games, it is often used as material for making weapons and items, and is usually depicted as black or a similar color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8651",
"title": "Dark matter",
"section": "Section::::Composition of dark matter: baryonic vs. nonbaryonic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons. However, for the reasons outlined below, most scientists think the dark matter is dominated by a non-baryonic component, which is likely composed of a currently unknown fundamental particle (or similar exotic state).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8651",
"title": "Dark matter",
"section": "Section::::Composition of dark matter: baryonic vs. nonbaryonic.:Dark matter aggregation and dense dark matter objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "If dark matter is composed of weakly-interacting particles, an obvious question is whether it can form objects equivalent to planets, stars, or black holes. Historically, the answer has been it cannot,ref name=\"siegel\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29831246",
"title": "Svalbard in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Novels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "\"Dark Matter\", by Michelle Paver, is a ghost story set in 1937 in an isolated bay on the north-east coast Svalbard. A group of scientists land in Svalbard and prepare to overwinter in an abandoned mining camp. However, they soon discover that there is someone—or something—else out there of a sinister nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673093",
"title": "Matter",
"section": "Section::::Other types.:Dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "In astrophysics and cosmology, \"dark matter\" is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. Observational evidence of the early universe and the Big Bang theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed ordinary baryons (protons and neutrons). The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark matter is non-baryonic in nature. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are supersymmetric particles, which are not Standard Model particles, but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9561161",
"title": "Five Pure Lights",
"section": "Section::::Basis (gzhi).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "For the deluded, matter seems to appear. This is due to non-recognition of the five lights. Matter includes the \"mahābhūta\" or classical elements, namely: space, air, water, fire, earth. The illusion of matter includes even the formless realms and the minds of sentient beings. For example, the beings of the formless realms are made of subtle matter. And the mind of a human is merely matter, specifically vayu (wind, air). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189424",
"title": "Hot dark matter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1148,
"text": "Dark matter is a form of matter that neither emits nor absorbs light. Within physics, this behavior is characterized by dark matter not interacting with electromagnetic radiation, hence making it \"dark\" and rendering it undetectable via conventional instruments in physics. Data from galaxy rotation curves indicate that approximately 80% of the mass of a galaxy cannot be seen, forcing researchers to innovate ways that \"indirectly\" detect it through dark matter's effects on gravitational fluctuations. There exists no consensus in the theoretical physics community as to whether dark matter is divisible into various 'types', but there exists evidence for differentiating dark matter into \"hot\" (HDM) and \"cold\" (CDM) types–some even suggesting a middle-ground of \"warm\" dark matter (WDM). The terminology is not meant to invoke any association with temperature, but instead refer to the \"size\" of the purported dark matter particles (WIMPs). In turn, the size of the particles determines the velocities at which they travel at in an inverse relationship: HDM travels faster than CDM because the HDM particles are theorized to be of lower mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
66zmb2
|
if things with different mass fall at the same velocity, why do heavier things cause more 'damage' when they land?
|
[
{
"answer": "Force = mass x acceleration\n\nAs you point out, objects fall at the same rate, i.e. acceleration is constant. So, for falling objects, force is proportional to mass. Using your example, a 1 ton (1,000 kg) ball will hit with exactly 1,000 times more force than the 1kg ball.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "574544",
"title": "Circular motion",
"section": "Section::::Non-uniform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth's gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object's inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36920393",
"title": "History of experiments",
"section": "Section::::Galileo Galilei.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "These results supported Galileo's hypothesis that objects of different weights, when measured at the same point in their fall, are falling at the same speed because they experience the same gravitational acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268475",
"title": "Two New Sciences",
"section": "Section::::The two new sciences.:The motion of objects.:The law of falling bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "While Aristotle had observed that heavier objects fall more quickly than lighter ones, in \"Two New Sciences\" Galileo postulated that this was due \"not\" to inherently stronger forces acting on the heavier objects, but to the countervailing forces of air resistance and friction. To compensate, he conducted experiments using a shallowly inclined ramp, smoothed so as to eliminate as much friction as possible, on which he rolled down balls of different weights. In this manner, he was able to provide empirical evidence that matter accelerates vertically downward at a constant rate, regardless of mass, due to the effects of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256662",
"title": "Terminal velocity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "As the speed of an object increases, so does the drag force acting on it, which also depends on the substance it is passing through (for example air or water). At some speed, the drag or force of resistance will equal the gravitational pull on the object (buoyancy is considered below). At this point the object ceases to accelerate and continues falling at a constant speed called the terminal velocity (also called settling velocity). An object moving downward faster than the terminal velocity (for example because it was thrown downwards, it fell from a thinner part of the atmosphere, or it changed shape) will slow down until it reaches the terminal velocity. Drag depends on the projected area, here, the object's cross-section or silhouette in a horizontal plane. An object with a large projected area relative to its mass, such as a parachute, has a lower terminal velocity than one with a small projected area relative to its mass, such as a bullet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1730659",
"title": "Square–cube law",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "This is why large vehicles perform poorly in crash tests and why there are limits to how high buildings can be built. Similarly, the larger an object is, the less other objects would resist its motion, causing its deceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28505459",
"title": "S-1 Gard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Because of Bernoulli's principle, a decrease in air pressure between a larger object (such as a transit bus or large truck) and a smaller object (such as a pedestrian or cyclist) is created when passing in close proximity, resulting in a force that pulls the smaller object towards the larger object. The greater the velocity of the larger object, and the greater the difference in mass of the two objects, the greater the force. This principle accounts for accidents wherein, for instance, a cyclist being closely passed by a moving bus is pulled toward the bus, loses control and is thrown under the path of the wheels. The curvature of the guard is designed to counteract Bernoulli's principle by producing a net outward pressure away from the direction of travel of the bus, in addition to physically pushing an object out of the way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27569419",
"title": "Stream competency",
"section": "Section::::Importance of Velocity.:Lift.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Velocity differences between the bottom and tops of particles can lead to lift. Water is allowed to flow above the particle but not below resulting in a zero and non-zero velocity at the bottom and top of the particle respectively. The difference in velocities results in a pressure gradient that imparts a lifting force on the particle. If this force is greater than the particle's weight, it will begin transport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b6cj5m
|
how does a charger charge your phone for a split second after it was removed from the socket?
|
[
{
"answer": "The charger has electrical storage components inside of it called capacitors, and these components can store electricity for a very short time after being disconnected from the power supply.\n\nFor the same reason, you should not go poking around inside an old television with a screwdriver, unless it has been unplugged for a very long time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It contains a *capacitor,* a little power holding device, which is loaded up with power from the outlet. It takes a moment to finish unloading into your phone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think because the icon shows charging that it is actually charging?\n\nOr the software just hasn't updated the screen yet?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While folks have mentioned capacitors, on a phone charger they are pretty small, they are used as filters to smooth out the AC or switching noise from the rectification or buck stage. More energy comes from the magnetic fields in the transformer as they collapse after removing mains power. Even so, this will all happen in milliseconds. \n\nThe most likely reason is that it takes the charging function of the phone some time to measure the incoming power, debounce it in case it was just a glitch, time out and update the UI. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11464105",
"title": "In-cell charge control",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The charge control consists of a pressure switch built into the cell, which disconnects the charging current when the internal cell pressure rises above a certain limit (usually 200 to 300 psi or 1.4 to 2.1 MPa). This prevents overcharging and damage to the cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41834",
"title": "Uninterruptible power supply",
"section": "Section::::Batteries.:Common battery characteristics and load testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Cycles.:Fast and slow charge and discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12186381",
"title": "Citroën Berlingo électrique",
"section": "Section::::Design quirks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The manual does not indicate that removing the charging plug before it is fully charged can illuminate the 'Electrical Fault Light' which stays on until a full trickle charge is performed. This can be quite disconcerting as the manual states the car has to be taken to the dealer to reset the problem. Also, one cannot, or should not, perform a fast charge when it is in this state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20126231",
"title": "Quartz fiber dosimeter",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging electrode. Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10592503",
"title": "Charging station",
"section": "Section::::Residential charging.:Mode 1: Domestic socket and extension cord.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "BULLET::::- As the charging socket shares a feeder from the switchboard with other sockets (no dedicated circuit) if the sum of consumptions exceeds the protection limit (in general 16 A), the circuit-breaker will trip, stopping the charging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.:Faster-charging standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "When a device detects it is plugged into a charger with a compatible faster-charging standard, the device pulls more current or the device tells the charger to increase the voltage or both to increase power (the details vary between standards).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
257dq2
|
Why do mitochondria need their own DNA?
|
[
{
"answer": "As has been said, endosymbiotic theory which is pretty widely accepted states that both chloroplasts and mitochondria were once bacteria of their own right. We believe the modern day equivalents are cyanobacteria and proteobacteria respectively.\n\nSome nice sets of evidence:\n\n* Circular genomes as seen in bacteria\n\n* No nucleus of their own and no chromatin packaging (prokaryotic features)\n\n* No introns as in eukaroytic systems\n\n* Double membrane akin to the inner and outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria.\n\n* Encode their own tRNAs\n\n* Replicate at a different point in the cell cycle to other organelles\n\nBut do they \"need their own DNA\". No they don't. But it's the system that works and nature is good at keeping systems that work, even if they're not the optimal system. A considerable amount of mtDNA and chDNA has migrated to the nucleus such that mtDNA no longer fully encodes for a functioning mitochondrion. Why doesn't all the DNA migrate to the nucleus? Because this system works :)\n\n[See quantum_lotus' comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic mitochondria including chimera activity recovery](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mitochondria are ancient symbionts that once had their own complete genome. Over time the genes needed to run the mitochondria migrated to the nucleus and were lost from the mitochondria. This is why they have relatively little DNA and do not make all the components they need to work. Some of the protein products the mt needs are too big to be transported into the mt after translation so they have to make it themselves and hence they need the DNA for it. Most of the genes you see today in MT are for large proteins.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Complete mitochondria (like those found in humans, plants and most eukaryotes) do seem to need mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to keep their distinctive shape. Yeast cells that lack mtDNA (known as rho0 cells) have abnormal mitochondrial morphology. But the number of mitochondria do not differ between rho0 and rho+ cells. So the researchers conclude that mtDNA is necessary for the proper morphology/shape of mitochondria, but not their generation. Evidence for this comes from: \n\nHolmuhamedov *et al*. Deletion of mtDNA disrupts mitochondrial function and structure, but not biogenesis. *Mitochondrion*. 2003 Aug;3(1):13-9.\n\nAnd if you're unconvinced that the shape of a mitochondrion is important, remember that the enzymes that make up the respiratory chain are clustered together in the cristae of the inner membrane, allowing for increased rates of respiration. Furthermore, it is speculated that the morophology of the inner membrane facilitates necessary interactions between the complexes of the respiratory chain.\n\n*Edit: clarified that I am not talking about mitosomes, unlike /u/PsiWavefunction (who has very good points)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60283999",
"title": "Mitochondrial theory of ageing",
"section": "Section::::Molecular basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Mitochondria are thought to be organelles that developed from endocytosed bacteria which learned to coexist inside our cells. These bacteria maintained their own DNA, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which codes for components of the electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and functions to produce energy in the form of ATP molecules. The process is called oxidative phosphorylation, because ATP is produced from ADP in a series of redox reactions. Electrons are transferred through the ETC from NADH and FADH to oxygen, reducing oxygen to water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "558596",
"title": "Leigh syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Genomics.:Mitochondrial DNA mutations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Mitochondria are essential organelles in eukaryotic cells. Their function is to convert the potential energy of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria carry their own DNA, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The information stored in the mtDNA is used to produce several of the enzymes essential to the production of ATP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60426",
"title": "Symbiogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Endosymbiosis of Protomitochondria.:Mitochondria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Mitochondria are organelles that synthesize ATP for the cell by metabolizing carbon-based macromolecules. The presence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in mitochondria and proteins, derived from mtDNA, suggest that this organelle may have been a prokaryote prior to its integration into the proto-eukaryote. Mitochondria are regarded as organelles rather than endosymbionts because mitochondria and the host cells share some parts of their genome, undergo mitosis simultaneously, and provide each other means to produce energy. Endomembrane system and nuclear membrane were derived from the protomitochondria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2316934",
"title": "Haplogroup",
"section": "Section::::Haplogroup formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Mitochondria are small organelles that lie in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, such as those of humans. Their primary function is to provide energy to the cell. Mitochondria are thought to be reduced descendants of symbiotic bacteria that were once free living. One indication that mitochondria were once free living is that each contains a circular DNA, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), whose structure is more similar to bacteria than eukaryotic organisms (see endosymbiotic theory). The overwhelming majority of a human's DNA is contained in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell, but mtDNA is an exception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1329361",
"title": "Mitochondrial matrix",
"section": "Section::::Processes.:Protein synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The mitochondria contains its own set of DNA used to produce proteins found in the electron transport chain. The mitochondrial DNA only codes for about thirteen proteins that are used in processing mitochondrial transcripts, ribosomal proteins, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and protein subunits found in the protein complexes of the electron transport chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24536543",
"title": "Eukaryote",
"section": "Section::::Cell features.:Mitochondria and plastids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Mitochondria contain their own DNA, which has close structural similarities to bacterial DNA, and which encodes rRNA and tRNA genes that produce RNA which is closer in structure to bacterial RNA than to eukaryote RNA. They are now generally held to have developed from endosymbiotic prokaryotes, probably proteobacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89796",
"title": "Mitochondrial DNA",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The reasons why mitochondria have retained some genes are debated. The existence in some species of mitochondrion-derived organelles lacking a genome suggests that complete gene loss is possible, and transferring mitochondrial genes to the nucleus has several advantages. The difficulty of targeting remotely-produced hydrophobic protein products to the mitochondrion is one hypothesis for why some genes are retained in mtDNA; colocalisation for redox regulation is another, citing the desirability of localised control over mitochondrial machinery. Recent analysis of a wide range of mtDNA genomes suggests that both these features may dictate mitochondrial gene retention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1h2l1l
|
the senate bill 5 being discussed in today's filibuster in the texas senate.
|
[
{
"answer": "Might be a little over EIL5, but meh...\n\nThe bill does a few things. From [_URL_1_](_URL_4_):\n\n* The bill would restrict abortions after 20 weeks of pregnancy \n* Require all clinics to be certified as ambulatory surgical centers\n* Require abortion doctors to have admitting privileges at a local hospital.\n\nProblems with these are: \n\n1) the Supreme Court and many doctors agree, kinda sorta, that \"life\" (more like viability) starts at about the 24th(?) week of the term. [Radiolab story about it is really heartbreaking](_URL_7_). This would hamper and go counter to what's been established as a litmus test. Thus, it limits the woman's right to choose.\n\n2) The ambulatory surgical clinic provision seems like a good idea, till you actually look into what's needed to run one of these. \n\n > \"There's a whole bunch of requirements that have to do with airflow, temperature, humidity, size of the room, that kind of thing for operations that may take three or four hours. But for an abortion that takes five or ten minutes, it's sort of mismatched.\"\n\nFrom a [KXAN article](_URL_0_). While [this](_URL_3_) article can be argued to be slightly biased, the oldest citation is from 1990. 97% of all women in the US suffer no complications, 2% suffer minor complications that can be handled in clinic or outpatient, and about .5% suffer serious complications. \n\nOutpatient knee surgery has nearly the same, if not slightly worse numbers according to [this](_URL_8_) with 94% meeting discharge criteria, with 3.6% readmission. Granted, the numbers for the knee surgery study are smaller than the abortion study, but there's more care needed.\n\nAlso, who is to say that once the majority of abortion clinics in Texas get up to the standard, that they will be licensed to practice? [Here's the requirement](_URL_5_) for clinics in Texas. And according to this [Washington Post article](_URL_6_), \"the majority of abortions are not surgical procedures, and 37 of the state’s 42 abortion clinics don’t meet that new standard, so many would need to relocate and spend millions of dollars to reach it.\" Which means that these clinics would have to change how they operate completely.\n\n3) Admitting privilege sounds like a great idea. I personally agree with it in principle, but in real life, things aren't as simple. For starters [this shows how doctors are \"employed'](_URL_2_). Then, each hospital seems to have it's own rules and standards for who and what can get admitting privileges as well as limited number of slots. I could be wrong on this, but I believe that general practitioners in Texas do not need admitting privileges to operate. There's also the fact that many communities in Texas do not have a \"local\" (however it's defined legally) hospital.\n\nSo, let's look at it simply: the 20 week limit is shorter than what the Supreme Court of the USA, medical ethicist, and others agree upon viability (to live outside of the womb) of the embryo, the regulations then put on an abortion clinic could mean that no abortion clinics could be licensed to practice, and there's nothing to say that doctors who provide abortions will be able to get admitting privileges. This bill can deny a woman's constitutional right to seek a legal abortion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29218074",
"title": "Wendy Davis (politician)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "On June 25, 2013, Davis held a thirteen-hour-long filibuster to block Senate Bill 5, a measure which included more restrictive abortion regulations for Texas. The filibuster played a major role in Senate Democrats' success in delaying passage of the bill beyond the midnight deadline for the end of the legislative session, though it ultimately passed in a second session. The filibuster brought Davis national attention, leading to speculation about a run for governor of Texas. She subsequently ran for governor of Texas in 2014, but was defeated by Republican Party nominee Greg Abbott, 59–38%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8638061",
"title": "Leticia Van de Putte",
"section": "Section::::Political career.:Texas Senate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "On June 25, 2013, Wendy Davis gave an 11-hour filibuster in an attempt to run out a special legislative session so that a vote could not be held on Texas Senate Bill 5. At about 15 minutes to midnight, Van de Putte confronted the Presiding Officer, State Senator Robert L. Duncan, a Republican from Lubbock, who she said had ignored her repeated motions earlier. Van de Putte asked him, \"at what point must a female senator raise her hand or her voice to be recognized over the male colleagues in the room?\" Her question was immediately met with cheers and applause by the spectators in the gallery. The applause delayed the legislative session past the midnight deadline, effectively ending the legislative session without a vote on the bill. This bill was ultimately passed in a special session ordered by then Governor Rick Perry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57866724",
"title": "Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination",
"section": "Section::::Senate votes.:Cloture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "On October 5, the Senate voted 51–49 for cloture; a procedural vote that brought debate to end and allowed the Senate to move forward on the Kavanaugh nomination. The vote was almost entirely along party lines, with the exception of Democrat Joe Manchin, who voted yes, and Republican Lisa Murkowski, who voted no.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "250550",
"title": "Abe Fortas",
"section": "Section::::Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.:Nomination to be Chief Justice.:Cloture vote.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "In 1968, the rules of the Senate required the approval of two thirds of senators present to cut off debate (from 1975 to 2017 the consent of three fifths of the membership of the Senate was required to cut off debate, but a simple majority is sufficient). The 45 to 43 cloture vote to end the Fortas debate included 10 Republicans and 35 Democrats voting for cloture, and 24 Republicans and 19 Democrats voting against cloture. The 12 other senators, all Democrats, were absent. \"The New York Times\" wrote of the 45 to 43 vote for cloture: \"Because of the unusual crosscurrents underlying today's vote, it was difficult to determine whether the pro-Fortas supporters would have been able to muster the same majority in a direct confirmation vote.\" The next president, Republican Richard Nixon, appointed Warren Burger the next Chief Justice. David Leonhardt of \"The New York Times\" called Johnson's nomination of Fortas \"one of the most consequential blunders in modern American politics,\" as the role of Chief Justice has been held by conservatives appointed by Republican presidents ever since.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28915259",
"title": "Paycheck Fairness Act",
"section": "Section::::Legislative history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "On June 5, 2012, the bill fell short of the 60 votes necessary to override a filibuster and did not make it to the Senate floor for debate. The vote went along party lines, excluding a vote against by Democrat Harry Reid. (Senator Reid changes his vote as a procedural maneuver, which left Democrats the option to call up the bill again at a later time.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7921812",
"title": "Jeff Merkley",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Senate reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Merkley has been a leader in trying to reform the rules of the Senate itself, including those concerning the filibuster. On January 5, 2011, Merkley and Senators Tom Udall and Tom Harkin introduced a resolution intended to increase genuine debate and accountability in the Senate. The resolution proposed to eliminate the filibuster on motions to proceed, eliminate secret holds, guarantee consideration of amendments for both majority and minority, require a \"talking filibuster\" in which senators opposed to holding a straight up-or-down vote must continuously debate on the Senate floor, and expedite the nominations process. Upon introducing the resolution, Merkley stated: \"The Senate is broken. We are failing to fulfill our legislative responsibilities.\" On January 27, Merkley's \"talking filibuster\" proposal received 46 votes in the Senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39145339",
"title": "Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013",
"section": "Section::::Legislative history.:Senate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "On June 11, 2013, the Senate voted 84-15 (all 52 Democrats, both Independents, and 30 Republicans voting in the affirmative) to proceed with debate. The Senate considered the bill on the floor on June 12–13, June 17–21, June 24–26, 2013. During this time, it was recommitted to the Senate Judiciary committee twice to make amendments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3da5rf
|
Are they any cases of animals using covering or "clothes" to protect themselves from the environment as humans have done?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hermit crabs are an obvious example.\n\nPigs will slather themselves in mud to cool off. \n\nYou could call a burrow a kind of \"clothing\" that animals \"put on\" to protect themselves from the environment.\n\nThe biggest problem is that the natural world doesn't present a lot of things which you can really use as a covering (which is why we need to do complicated things like weaving fibres or skinning animals). So without a high degree of intelligence and dexterity it's very hard to make \"clothes\". \n\nHeck, a lot of human tribes didn't have clothes. \n\nedit: Another thing is that we need clothes mostly because a lot of us live outside our natural habitat. If we still lived in Kenya then they would be less necessary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, I'm not sure it's exactly what you're looking for, but it's pretty common for insects to use inorganic matter in their environments to cover themselves for protection. \n[Caddisfly larvae](_URL_6_) are a great example. They'll build a case for themselves out of anything around them. In that first pic the casemaker used rocks and gravel. In [this example](_URL_0_) the casemaker dressed itself in leaves that it's cut up and stuck together. \n \n[This](_URL_3_) is an interesting and somewhat unique casemaker. This species would usually use something whole like a hollowed out twig from its environment. But the individual pictured there happened to have come across and used the discarded case made by a completely different species of caddisfly casemaker. \n \nAnother great example of this sort of dressing up from the insect world that people will often encounter is the [bagworm moths.](_URL_7_) This is actually the caterpillar of a moth that loves to dress itself up as things like [pinecones.](_URL_4_) \n \nThen there are the [masked hunter nymphs](_URL_1_) which will dress up like any kind of debris they find so they can more eaily ambush and kill their prey. Which is often bedbugs, so these mean little guys are your allies. \n \nAnd that just reminded me of the [decorator crab](_URL_5_) which will also adorn itself with basically anything it finds. Even if [the thing it finds](_URL_2_) might not necessarily agree with the arrangement. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nematode roundworms have a resistant outer coat called a cuticle which they will moult at various points in their life-cycle. Many species will retain (...or wear? A bit of a stretch I concede) an extra cuticle layer (rather than shed it) in order to provide more protection from environmental extremes. Parasitic nematodes often do this, perhaps to withstand the first onslaught of the host immune system....like those bomb disposal suits from 'The Hurt Locker'...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "575495",
"title": "Hide (skin)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Animal rights activists generally protest the use of animal hides for human clothing. Forms of protest range from PETA's \"I would rather go naked than wear fur\" campaign, although more shocking and direct action, like damaging furs with red paint in imitation of blood, has been toned down, like the \"Ink, not Mink\" campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57827877",
"title": "Protection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "Some kind of protection is a characteristic of all life, as living things have evolved at least some protective mechanisms to counter damaging environmental phenomena, such as ultraviolet light. Biological membranes such as bark on trees and skin on animals offer protection from various threats, with skin playing a key role in protecting organisms against pathogens and excessive water loss. Additional structures like scales and hair offer further protection from the elements and from predators, with some animals having features such as spines or camouflage serving exclusively as anti-predator adaptations. Many animals supplement the protection afforded by their physiology by burrowing or otherwise adopting habitats or behaviors that insulate them from potential sources of harm. Humans originally began wearing clothing and building shelters in prehistoric times for protection from the elements. Both humans and animals are also often concerned with the protection of others, with adult animals being particularly inclined to seek to protect their young from elements of nature and from predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22032703",
"title": "Clothing material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Humans have shown extreme inventiveness in devising clothing solutions to environmental hazards and the distinction between clothing and other protective equipment is not always clear-cut; examples include space suit, air conditioned clothing, armor, diving suit, swimsuit, bee-keeper's protective clothing, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and protective clothing in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38180",
"title": "Clothing",
"section": "Section::::Political issues.:Fur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. It is currently associated in developed countries with expensive, designer clothing, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection. Once uncontroversial, it has recently been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA, along with other animal rights and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13455478",
"title": "Animal coloration",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration.:Camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "For adventitious protection, an animal uses materials such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell to conceal its outline, for example when a caddis fly larva builds a decorated case, or when a decorator crab decorates its back with seaweed, sponges and stones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1974560",
"title": "Rug (animal covering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "A rug (UK), blanket (Equine and other livestock, US), or coat (canine and other companion animals, US) is a covering or garment made by humans to protect their pets from the elements, as in a \"horse rug\" or \"dog coat\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56293182",
"title": "Self-decoration camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Among animals, self-decoration is found in decorator crabs, some insects such as caddis flies and the masked hunter bug, and occasionally also in octopuses. In military camouflage, it is seen in the use of ghillie suits by snipers and the helmet nets of soldiers more generally, when these are camouflaged by inserting grass and other local plant materials, and in a more general way by the use of decorated camouflage netting over vehicles, gun emplacements and observation posts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9btl7y
|
What were relations between medieval Muslims and medieval Buddhists like?
|
[
{
"answer": "As I mention [in this post](_URL_0_) to almost the same question, the initial Buddhist literary response to Islam was highly negative. I'd welcome other perspectives, of course, especially from the Muslim side and on a more subaltern level.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13929",
"title": "History of religion",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "During the Middle Ages, Muslims came into conflict with Zoroastrians during the Islamic conquest of Persia (633-654); Christians fought against Muslims during the Byzantine-Arab Wars (7th to 11th centuries), the Crusades (1095 onward), the Reconquista (718-1492), the Ottoman wars in Europe (13th century onwards) and the Inquisition; Shamanism was in conflict with Buddhists, Taoists, Muslims and Christians during the Mongol invasions (1206-1337); and Muslims clashed with Hindus and Sikhs during the Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent (8th to 16th centuries).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13677",
"title": "Hindus",
"section": "Section::::History of Hindu identity.:Hindu identity amidst other Indian religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Overlaps in Jain-Hindu identities have included Jains worshipping Hindu deities, intermarriages between Jains and Hindus, and medieval era Jain temples featuring Hindu religious icons and sculpture. Beyond India, on Java island of Indonesia, historical records attest to marriages between Hindus and Buddhists, medieval era temple architecture and sculptures that simultaneously incorporate Hindu and Buddhist themes, where Hinduism and Buddhism merged and functioned as \"two separate paths within one overall system\", according to Ann Kenney and other scholars. Similarly, there is an organic relation of Sikhs to Hindus, states Zaehner, both in religious thought and their communities, and virtually all Sikhs' ancestors were Hindus. Marriages between Sikhs and Hindus, particularly among \"Khatris\", were frequent. Some Hindu families brought up a son as a Sikh, and some Hindus view Sikhism as a tradition within Hinduism, even though the Sikh faith is a distinct religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335588",
"title": "Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "Section::::Survival of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Abul Fazl, the courtier of Mughal emperor Akbar, states, \"For a long time past scarce any trace of them (the Buddhists) has existed in Hindustan.\" When he visited Kashmir in 1597 he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however he 'saw none among the learned'. This is can also be seen from the fact that Buddhist priests were not present amidst learned divines that came to the Ibadat Khana of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18402685",
"title": "Vimalaprabha",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "According to Johan Elverskog, the \"Vimalaprabha\" provides evidence that the Buddhists who composed this text, along with the \"Kalachakra Tantra\", were aware of the Islamic theology and the core differences between the precepts and premises of Muslims and Buddhists by the 11th-century. The differences were deemed so significant that the text refers to Muslims as barbarians. In other sections it calls Muslims as enemies or \"mlecchas\", assertions that have led scholars to date the text after the 10th-century Islamic invasions of regions inhabited by Buddhist monks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8108570",
"title": "History of Buddhism in India",
"section": "Section::::Decline of Buddhism in India.:Surviving Buddhists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Abul Fazl, the courtier of Mughal emperor Akbar, states, \"For a long time past scarce any trace of them (the Buddhists) has existed in Hindustan.\" When he visited Kashmir in 1597, he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however he 'saw none among the learned'. This is can also be seen from the fact that Buddhist priests were not present amidst learned divines that came to the Ibadat Khana of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29812984",
"title": "Religion in the Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Buddhists entered the service of the Mongol Empire in the early 13th century. Buddhist monasteries established in the Karakorum were granted tax-exempt status, though the religion was not given official status by the Mongols until later. All variants of Buddhism, such as Chinese, Tibetan and Indian Buddhism flourished, though Tibetan Buddhism was eventually favored at the imperial level under emperor Möngke, who appointed Namo from Kashmir as chief of all Buddhist monks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3267529",
"title": "Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Buddhist texts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Unlike what the Bible is to Christianity and the Quran is to Islam, but like all major ancient Indian religions, there is no consensus among the different Buddhist traditions as to what constitutes the scriptures or a common canon in Buddhism. The general belief among Buddhists is that the canonical corpus is vast. This corpus includes the ancient \"Sutras\" organized into \"Nikayas\", itself the part of three basket of texts called the \"Tripitakas\". Each Buddhist tradition has its own collection of texts, much of which is translation of ancient Pali and Sanskrit Buddhist texts of India. The Chinese Buddhist canon, for example, includes 2184 texts in 55 volumes, while the Tibetan canon comprises 1108 texts—all claimed to have been spoken by the Buddha—and another 3461 texts composed by Indian scholars revered in the Tibetan tradition. The Buddhist textual history is vast; over 40,000 manuscripts—mostly Buddhist, some non-Buddhist—were discovered in 1900 in the Dunhuang Chinese cave alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9njare
|
why does a magnetic field do no work on a stationary particle but yet electric field does work on it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The electric field (ac) is moving so the stationary particle has motion with respect to the electric field creating work. The magnetic field is stationary and thus is stationary with respect to the stationary particle so no work is done.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A magnetic field does no work on a point charge under any circumstances. The magnetic force on a stationary charge is zero. If the charge is moving, then there is a magnetic force of q**v**x**B**, which is always perpendicular to **v**, so it doesn't do any work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3597377",
"title": "Magnetosphere particle motion",
"section": "Section::::Motion of charged particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Because the magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity, it performs no work and requires no energy—nor does it provide any. Thus magnetic fields (like the Earth's) can profoundly affect particle motion in them, but need no energy input to maintain their effect. Particles may also get steered around, but their total energy remains the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563",
"title": "Magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic field and electric currents.:Magnetic field due to moving charges and electric currents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges, such as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "316167",
"title": "Simple Magnetic Overunity Toy",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The magnetostatic field produced by any arrangement of stationary permanent magnets is a conservative field. This means any magnetic object which moves in a closed-loop path in the field, like the ball in this device, gains no energy from the field, and in the absence of friction ends with the same total energy (kinetic plus potential) it started with. Since any moving object is also subject to friction forces, which dissipate the kinetic energy as it moves, the ball will always end a cycle with less energy than it started with, and will eventually stop moving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385621",
"title": "Plasma diagnostics",
"section": "Section::::Invasive probe methods.:Magnetic (B-dot) probe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "If the magnetic field in the plasma is not stationary, either because the plasma as a whole is transient or because the fields are periodic (radio-frequency heating), the rate of change of the magnetic field with time (formula_1, read \"B-dot\") can be measured locally with a loop or coil of wire. Such coils exploit Faraday's law, whereby a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The induced voltage can be measured and recorded with common instruments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "570662",
"title": "Wireless power transfer",
"section": "Section::::Field regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Electric and magnetic fields are created by charged particles in matter such as electrons. A stationary charge creates an electrostatic field in the space around it. A steady current of charges (direct current, DC) creates a static magnetic field around it. The above fields contain energy, but cannot carry power because they are static. However time-varying fields can carry power. Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in an alternating current (AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric and magnetic fields in the space around them. These fields can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving \"antenna\", causing them to move back and forth. These represent alternating current which can be used to power a load.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11887250",
"title": "Stellar magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Field generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "The magnetic field of a rotating body of conductive gas or liquid develops self-amplifying electric currents, and thus a self-generated magnetic field, due to a combination of differential rotation (different angular velocity of different parts of body), Coriolis forces and induction. The distribution of currents can be quite complicated, with numerous open and closed loops, and thus the magnetic field of these currents in their immediate vicinity is also quite twisted. At large distances, however, the magnetic fields of currents flowing in opposite directions cancel out and only a net dipole field survives, slowly diminishing with distance. Because the major currents flow in the direction of conductive mass motion (equatorial currents), the major component of the generated magnetic field is the dipole field of the equatorial current loop, thus producing magnetic poles near the geographic poles of a rotating body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31439",
"title": "Tokamak",
"section": "Section::::History.:Magnetic confinement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Sakharov's concern about the electrodes led him to consider using magnetic confinement instead of electrostatic. In the case of a magnetic field, the particles will circle around the lines of force. As the particles are moving at high speed, their resulting paths look like a helix. If one arranges a magnetic field so lines of force are parallel and close together, the particles orbiting adjacent lines may collide, and fuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
70sqhz
|
why do we sometimes twitch or spaz when we get a random chill?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those are transient myoclonic jerks . These are just short burst of muscle contractions that you see especially when you are falling sleep. These are similarly seen in many physiological and pathological conditions. \nIf excessive they are called myoclonic seizures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "532996",
"title": "Chills",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Chills are commonly caused by inflammatory diseases, such as the flu.. It is also common in urinary tract infections. Malaria is one of the common reasons for chills and rigors. In malaria, the parasites enter the liver, grow there and then attack the red blood cells which causes rupture of these cells and release of a toxic substance hemozoin which causes chills recurring every 3 to 4 days. Sometimes they happen in specific people almost all the time, in a slight power, or it less commonly happens in a generally healthy person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14492113",
"title": "Cold chill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "A cold chill (also known as chills, the chills or simply thrills) is described by David Huron as, \"a pleasant tingling feeling, associated with the flexing of hair follicles resulting in goose bumps (technically called piloerection), accompanied by a cold sensation, and sometimes producing a shudder or shiver.\" Dimpled skin is often visible due to cold chills especially on the back of the neck or upper spine. Unlike shivering, however, it is not caused by temperature, menopause, or anxiety but rather is an emotionally triggered response when one is deeply affected by things such as music, speech, or recollection. It is similar to autonomous sensory meridian response; both sensations consist of a pleasant tingling feeling that affects the skin on the back of the neck and spine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2093809",
"title": "Chill-out music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Chill-out (shortened as chill; also typeset as chillout or chill out) is a loosely defined form of popular music characterized by slow tempos and relaxed moods. The definition of \"chill-out music\" has evolved throughout the decades, and generally refers to anything that might be identified as a modern type of easy listening. Some of the genres associated with \"chill\" include downtempo, classical, dance, jazz, hip hop, world, pop, lounge, and ambient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "532996",
"title": "Chills",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Chills is a feeling of coldness occurring during a high fever, but sometimes is also a common symptom which occurs alone in specific people. It occurs during fever due to the release of cytokines and prostaglandins as part of the inflammatory response, which increases the set point for body temperature in the hypothalamus. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold or chills until the new set point is reached. Shivering also occurs along with chills because the patient's body produces heat during muscle contraction in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point. When it does not accompany a high fever, it is normally a light chill. Sometimes a chill of medium power and short duration may occur during a scare, especially in scares of fear, commonly interpreted like or confused by trembling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14595218",
"title": "Frisson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Frisson is of short duration, lasting only a few seconds. Typical stimuli include loud passages of music and passages—such as appoggiaturas and sudden modulation—that violate some level of musical expectation. During a frisson, a sensation of chills or tingling felt on the skin of the lower back, shoulders, neck, and/or arms. The sensation of chills is sometimes experienced as a series of 'waves' moving up the back in rapid succession and commonly described as \"shivers up the spine\". Hair follicles may also undergo piloerection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365001",
"title": "Hypnic jerk",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine there is a wide range of potential causes, including anxiety, stimulant like caffeine and nicotine, stress and strenuous activities in the evening. It also may be facilitated by fatigue or sleep deprivation. However, most hypnic jerks occur essentially at random in healthy people. Nevertheless, these repeated, intensifying twitches can cause anxiety in some individuals and a disruption to their sleep onset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33326794",
"title": "Chills (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::The team.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "\"Chills\" is composed of a presenter, psychic medium, historian, main technology consultant and a backstage team of researchers and technicians, who work behind the scenes, mainly with Harrison and La Peruta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b5uxhv
|
why does your arm shake when you flex really hard?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you stretch or flex your muscles, they can affect the body’s nervous system, which in effect controls the body’s muscle movements. When the body becomes overly stressed, it can cause involuntary muscle spasms.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3042704",
"title": "Coracobrachialis muscle",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "The overuse of the coracobrachialis can lead to stiffening of the muscle. Common causes of injury include chest workouts or activities that require one to press the arm very tight towards the body, e.g. work on the rings in gymnastics. Symptoms of overuse or injury are pain in the arm and shoulder, radiating down to the back of the hand. In more severe cases, the musculocutaneous nerve can get trapped, causing disturbances in sensation to the skin on the radial part of the forearm and weakened flexion of the elbow, as the nerve also supplies the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles. Actual rupture to the coracobrachialis muscle is extremely rare. Very few case reports exist in the literature, and it is reported to be caused by direct trauma to the contracted muscle. Avulsion of the muscle's origin from the coracoid as a result of indirect forces is even more unusual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2349982",
"title": "List of flexors of the human body",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In anatomy, flexion (from the Latin verb \"flectere\", to bend) is a joint movement that decreases the angle between the bones that converge at the joint. For example, your elbow joint flexes when you bring your hand closer to the shoulder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8403532",
"title": "Shoulder arthritis",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The main symptom of shoulder arthritis is pain; this is due to the grinding of the bones against each other because of the lack of cartilage. Pain usually occurs in the front of the shoulder and is worse with motion. People with shoulder arthritis will also experience moderate to severe weakness, stiffness developing over many years, and the inability to sleep on the affected shoulder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4057221",
"title": "Anatomical terms of motion",
"section": "Section::::General motion.:Flexion and extension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "\"Flexion\" describes a bending movement that \"decreases\" the angle between a segment and its proximal segment. For example, bending the elbow, or clenching a hand into a fist, are examples of flexion. When sitting down, the knees are flexed. When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, flexion refers to movement in the anterior direction. When the chin is against the chest, the head is flexed, and the trunk is flexed when a person leans forward. Flexion of the shoulder or hip refers to movement of the arm or leg forward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788074",
"title": "Physical strength",
"section": "Section::::Strength capability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Skeletal muscles produce reactive forces and moments at the joints. To avoid injury or fatigue, when person is performing a task, such as pushing or lifting a load, the external moments created at the joints due to the load at the hand and the weight of the body segments must be ideally less than the muscular moment strengths at the joint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1549780",
"title": "Arm wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Associated injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Arm wrestling puts enormous torque/torsion stress on the upper arm's humerus bone to a degree seen in few other physical activities. Most people's bones are not accustomed to being significantly stressed in this direction, and severe injuries can occur. The arm typically fails because of a diagonal break at or below the midpoint between the shoulder and the elbow; this is known as the 'break arm' position. The most common injury is the humeral shaft fracture. Other common injuries also include shoulder injuries, muscle strain, and less commonly pectoralis major rupture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17605520",
"title": "Ulnar claw",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Massaging the forearm muscles also alleviates the tightness that occurs with muscles exertion. Stretching allows the muscles more flexibility, decreasing interference with the innervations of the ulnar nerve to the fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ruhlr
|
What would we see if the speed of light was, say, 1ms^-1?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is actually a common thought experiment in special relativity. The answer is, nothing would really change, but massive relativistic effects would be observable in everyday life. Also, everything in the universe would be limited to a speed of 1m/s since the speed of light is the top speed that anything can travel (including information). This means that when you leave for school, you could walk there, but in the 20 minutes it takes to walk there, hundreds if not millions of years will have passed once you get there. The speed of light actually has nothing to do with its intensity, but running forward will actually narrow your visual range. Kind of like tunnel vision. The backwards question is even more interesting. If you were facing forward, and you started running backward at near the speed of light, your visual range will increase. You would be able to see things that are behind you. If you are more interested on the topic, just look up special relativity. The fact that in our universe, the speed of light is constant has lots of wacky consequences. Things like time dilation, Lorentz contraction, and loss of simultaneity. If you are interested, I could describe more of it here, but I would recommend you look around the web at videos. These kinds of questions are what got me really interested in physics and I would be glad to try and answer more questions that people have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "740817",
"title": "Mathematical coincidence",
"section": "Section::::Some examples.:Numerical coincidences in numbers from the physical world.:Speed of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The speed of light is (by definition) exactly 299,792,458 m/s, very close to 300,000,000 m/s. This is a pure coincidence, as the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance between the Earth's pole and equator along the surface at sea level, and the Earth's circumference just happens to be about 2/15 of a light-second. It is also roughly equal to one foot per nanosecond (the actual number is 0.9836 ft/ns).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24896900",
"title": "Rømer's determination of the speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Later discussion.:Did Rømer measure the speed of light?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "\"If one considers the vast size of the diameter KL, which according to me is some 24 thousand diameters of the Earth, one will acknowledge the extreme velocity of Light. For, supposing that KL is no more than 22 thousand of these diameters, it appears that being traversed in 22 minutes this makes the speed a thousand diameters in one minute, that is 16-2/3 diameters in one second or in one beat of the pulse, which makes more than 11 hundred times a hundred thousand toises;\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "894774",
"title": "Emission theory",
"section": "Section::::Refutations of emission theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "where \"c\" is the speed of light, \"v\" that of the source, \"c' \" the resultant speed of light, and \"k\" a constant denoting the extent of source dependence which can attain values between 0 and 1. According to special relativity and the stationary aether, \"k\"=0, while emission theories allow values up to 1. Numerous terrestrial experiments have been performed, over very short distances, where no \"light dragging\" or extinction effects could come into play, and again the results confirm that light speed is independent of the speed of the source, conclusively ruling out emission theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2493619",
"title": "Data mile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The speed of light is 983571056 ft/s, or about one foot per nanosecond. If it were exactly one foot per nanosecond, and a target was one data mile away, then the radar return from that target would arrive 12 microseconds after the transmission. (Recall that radar was developed during World War II in America and England, while both were using English units. It was convenient for them to relate 1 data mile to 12 microseconds, whereas the modern tendency would be to approximate the speed of light as 3e8 m/s.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35182609",
"title": "Measurements of neutrino speed",
"section": "Section::::Supernova 1987A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The most precise agreement with the speed of light () was determined in 1987 by the observation of electron antineutrinos of energies between 7.5 and 35 MeV originated at the Supernova 1987A at a distance of 157000 ± 16000 light years. The upper limit for deviations from light speed was:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878327",
"title": "Engineering notation",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Another example: when the speed of light (exactly by the definition of the meter and second) is expressed as 3.00 × 10 m/s or 3.00 × 10 km/s then it is clear that it is between 299 500 km/s and 300 500 km/s, but when using 300 × 10 m/s, or 300 × 10 km/s, 300 000 km/s, or the unusual but short 300 Mm/s, this is not clear. A possibility is using 0.300 Gm/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1447921",
"title": "Pp-wave spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In particular, the physical experience of an observer who whizzes by a gravitating object (such as a star or a black hole) at nearly the speed of light can be modelled by an \"impulsive\" pp-wave spacetime called the Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8gs8a9
|
What are the recommended sources for the history of mercenaries and, to a lesser extent, the development of professional fighting forces in Europe from the collapse of the WRE to the early medieval period?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best book on the topic (and the only sufficient treatment I'm aware of) is John France's *Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages.* I'm afraid it's become dreadfully expensive, but perhaps you can acquire a copy through a local library.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Absolutely try to find a copy of David Parrott’s *The Business of War.* It’s also a massive book, and it’s more focused on the late medieval and early modern periods. BUT it does contain a very useful introduction that will give you an idea of the way mercenaries have been written about in European history. It also contains a little information in the first chapter that’s kinda high/late medieval. I imagine the bibliography and footnotes would give you some further reading as well. See what you think of the price and if it’s too hefty, try to find it at a library.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "427067",
"title": "Swiss mercenaries",
"section": "Section::::Ascendancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "During the Late Middle Ages, mercenary forces grew in importance in Europe, as veterans from the Hundred Years War and other conflicts came to see soldiering as a profession rather than a temporary activity, and commanders sought long-term professionals rather than temporary feudal levies to fight their wars. Swiss mercenaries (\"Reisläufer\") were valued throughout Late Medieval Europe for the power of their determined mass attack in deep columns with the spear, the pike and halberd. Hiring them was made even more attractive because entire ready-made Swiss mercenary contingents could be obtained by simply contracting with their local governments, the various Swiss cantons—the cantons had a form of militia system in which the soldiers were bound to serve and were trained and equipped to do so. Some Swiss also hired themselves out individually or in small bands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285423",
"title": "Landsknecht",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The Landsknecht, (), plural: Landsknechte, were mercenary soldiers who became an important military force through late 15th- and 16th-century Europe. Consisting predominantly of German mercenary pikemen and supporting foot soldiers, they were the universal mercenaries of early modern Europe, sometimes fighting on both sides of a conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360246",
"title": "Battle of the Golden Spurs",
"section": "Section::::Historical significance.:Effect on warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1194,
"text": "The Battle of the Golden Spurs had been seen as the first example of the gradual \"Infantry Revolution\" in Medieval warfare across Europe during the 14th century. Conventional military theory placed emphasis on mounted and heavily armoured knights which were considered essential to military success. This meant that warfare was the preserve of a wealthy elite of \"bellatores\" (nobles specialized in warfare) serving as men-at-arms. The fact that this form of army, which was expensive to maintain, could be defeated by militia drawn from the \"lower orders\" led to a gradual change in the nature of warfare during the subsequent century. The tactics and composition of the Flemish army at Courtrai were later copied or adapted at the battles of Bannockburn (1314), Crecy (1346), Aljubarrota (1385), Sempach (1386), Agincourt (1415), Grandson (1476) and in the battles of the Hussite Wars (1419–34). As a result, cavalry became less important and nobles more commonly fought dismounted. The comparatively low costs of militia armies allowed even small states (such as the Swiss) to raise militarily significant armies and meant that local rebellions were more likely to achieve military success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1012887",
"title": "Early modern warfare",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Nature of war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "The changes in warfare eventually made the mercenary forces of the Renaissance and Middle Ages obsolete. However this was a gradual change. As late as the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), most troops were mercenaries. However, after this conflict, most states invested in better disciplined and more ideologically inspired troops. For a time mercenaries became important as trainers and administrators, but soon these tasks were also taken by the state. The massive size of these armies required a large supporting force of administrators. The newly centralized states were forced to set up vast organized bureaucracies to manage these armies, which some historians argue is the basis of the modern bureaucratic state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19433970",
"title": "Free company",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- Showalter, Dennis E. (1993), \"Caste, Skill, and Training: The Evolution of Cohesion in European Armies from the Middle Ages to the Sixteenth Century\", \"Journal of Military History\", 57(3), pp. 407–430.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5728518",
"title": "Moldavian military forces",
"section": "Section::::Army.:Decline and refounding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Towards the end of the 15th century, especially after the success of guns and cannons, mercenaries became a dominant force in the country’s military. With the economic demands created by the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire, the force diminished and included only mercenaries such as the \"seimeni\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46007",
"title": "Moldavia",
"section": "Section::::Military forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Towards the end of the 15th century, especially after the success of guns and cannons, mercenaries became a dominant force in the country's military. With the economic demands created by the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire, the force diminished and included only mercenaries such as the \"seimeni\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7mwr6r
|
plasma, in the electrical sense. why is it its own state/phase?
|
[
{
"answer": "Plasma forms when you heat up a gas to really high temperatures. The electrons get ripped away from the atoms due to their high energy. This is called ionization. This makes plasma highly electrically conductive. Plasma is its own state of matter because its properties are so fundamentally different from a gas, in the same way that a liquid's properties are fundamentally different than a solid's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest reason is because atoms no longer retain their electrons, which makes it respond to electrical and magnetic forces much more strongly than other matter. The biggest results of this are that it is highly conductive to electricity (practically no resistance whatsoever), and it tends to flow in ways far different from gasses. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Plasma is different from solids, liquids, and gasses.\n\nIn a solid the atoms or molecules are fixed in a static structure, and while for instance a conductor might be able to trade electrons between atoms, the nuclei do not move.\n\nIn a liquid the nuclei are moving around but the atoms or molecules generally are staying stuck together. They are in contact but not fixed in place, and so able to conform to the shape of their container.\n\nA gas has mobile nuclei but the atoms or molecules aren't stuck together, instead just bouncing around their container frantically.\n\nIn the case of a plasma the material has been given so much energy that the electrons are no longer bound to their nuclei. Instead you just have a sort of soup of nuclei and electrons all whizzing about. Molecules are of course no longer possible and there are just elemental nuclei without any exclusive claim to specific electrons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is fire a plasma or gas?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Properties and parameters.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30747793",
"title": "Plasma polymerization",
"section": "Section::::Basic operating mechanism.:Glow discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Plasma consists of a mixture of electrons, ions, radicals, neutrals and photons. Some of these species are in local thermodynamic equilibrium, while others are not. Even for simple gases like argon this mixture can be complex. For plasmas of organic monomers, the complexity can rapidly increase as some components of the plasma fragment, while others interact and form larger species. Glow discharge is a technique in polymerization which forms free electrons which gain energy from an electric field, and then lose energy through collisions with neutral molecules in the gas phase. This leads to many chemically reactive species, which then lead to a plasma polymerization reaction. The electric discharge process for plasma polymerization is the “low-temperature plasma” method, because higher temperatures cause degradation. These plasmas are formed by a direct current, alternating current or radio frequency generator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1391009",
"title": "Plasma stealth",
"section": "Section::::Plasma and its properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "A plasma is a \"quasineutral\" (total electrical charge is close to zero) mix of ions (atoms which have been ionized, and therefore possess a net positive charge), electrons, and neutral particles (un-ionized atoms or molecules). Most plasmas are only partially ionized, in fact, the ionization degree of common plasma devices like fluorescent lamp is fairly low ( less than 1%). Almost all the matter in the universe is very low density plasma: solids, liquids and gases are uncommon away from planetary bodies. Plasmas have many technological applications, from fluorescent lighting to plasma processing for semiconductor manufacture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6207",
"title": "Electric current",
"section": "Section::::Conduction mechanisms in various media.:Gases and plasmas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or \"ionized\" from their molecules or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen [O → 2O], which then recombine creating ozone [O]).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8603211",
"title": "Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition",
"section": "Section::::Discharges for processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1128,
"text": "A plasma is any gas in which a significant percentage of the atoms or molecules are ionized. Fractional ionization in plasmas used for deposition and related materials processing varies from about 10 in typical capacitive discharges to as high as 5–10% in high density inductive plasmas. Processing plasmas are typically operated at pressures of a few millitorr to a few torr, although arc discharges and inductive plasmas can be ignited at atmospheric pressure. Plasmas with low fractional ionization are of great interest for materials processing because electrons are so light, compared to atoms and molecules, that energy exchange between the electrons and neutral gas is very inefficient. Therefore, the electrons can be maintained at very high equivalent temperatures – tens of thousands of kelvins, equivalent to several electronvolts average energy—while the neutral atoms remain at the ambient temperature. These energetic electrons can induce many processes that would otherwise be very improbable at low temperatures, such as dissociation of precursor molecules and the creation of large quantities of free radicals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Plasma behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Plasma is an ionized gas that conducts electricity. In bulk, it is modeled using magnetohydrodynamics, which is a combination of the Navier–Stokes equations governing fluids and Maxwell's equations governing how magnetic and electric fields behave. Fusion exploits several plasma properties, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::The four fundamental states.:Plasma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a \"sea\" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron \"sea\" allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bv4e9k
|
why are vehicles insured, instead of people/drivers?
|
[
{
"answer": "I some countries it's actually both. The vehicle is insured, but the insurance won't cover driver liability, so the driver needs their own insurance too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest variable in insurance is the performance and value of a vehicle.\n\nIf the person was insured irrelevant of what vehicle they drove they would have to pay for insurance to cover the highest spec car available in case that was what they were driving at the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "- Some cars are more valuable than others\n\n- will cost more to repair \n\n- have a higher risk of theft. More desirable \n\n- easier to steal. Weak security features\n\n- some cars are faster. Higher risk of crashing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52559168",
"title": "Self-driving car liability",
"section": "Section::::Current liability frameworks.:Tort liability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "With the onset of fully autonomous cars, it is possible that the need for specialized automobile insurance disappears and that health insurance and homeowner's liability insurance instead cover automobile crashes, much in the same way that they cover bicycle accidents. Moreover, as cases of traditional negligence decrease, no-fault insurance systems appear attractive given their benefits. It would provide compensation to victims relatively quickly and the compensation would not depend on the identification of a party at-fault. In such systems, individual drivers would be well protected and would encourage the adoption of autonomous cars for its safety and cost-related benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8069",
"title": "Transport in the Dominican Republic",
"section": "Section::::Public transport.:Public Cars (\"Carros Públicos\").\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "This system though, is not very reliable and lacks discipline. The high number of public cars that travel the roads, and the fact that they do not lend themselves to regulation or central control, causes frequent transit problems among city roads. They may also be somewhat uncomfortable, since they try to fit as many people as possible inside them. As a standard, a 4-person sedan (driver included) usually carries 6 passengers, twice the amount for which they were designed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Potential changes for different industries.:Elderly, disabled, and children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 1792,
"text": "Autonomous vehicles will have a severe impact on the mobility options of persons that are not able to drive a vehicle themselves. To remain socially engaged with society or even able to do groceries, the elderly people of today are depending on caretakers to drive them to these places. In addition to the perceived freedom of the elderly people of the future, the demand for human aides will decrease. When we also consider the increased health of the elderly, it is safe to state that care centers will experience a decrease in the number of clients. Not only elderly people face difficulties of their decreased physical abilities, also disabled people will perceive the benefits of autonomous vehicles in the near future, causing their dependency on caretakers to decrease. Both industries are largely depending on informal caregivers, who are mostly relatives of the persons in need. Since there is less of a reliance on their time, employers of informal caregivers or even governments will experience a decrease of costs allocated to this matter. Children and teens, who are not able to drive a vehicle themselves, are also benefiting of the introduction of autonomous cars. Daycares and schools are able to come up with automated pick up and drop off systems, causing a decrease of reliance on parents and childcare workers. The extent to which human actions are necessary for driving will vanish. Since current vehicles require human actions to some extent, the driving school industry will not be disrupted until the majority of autonomous transportation is switched to the emerged dominant design. It is plausible that in the distant future driving a vehicle will be considered as a luxury, which implies that the structure of the industry is based on new entrants and a new market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222132",
"title": "Bicycle-friendly",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of bicycle-friendly communities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Bicycling is often used as an alternative to travel by car. Automobile travel provides increased mobility and convenience for travelers, but also has high costs associated with taxes, insurance, fuel, maintenance, road construction and repair, and contributes to air pollution. When infrastructure is built to allow consumers to choose between automobile and other forms of travel, it reduces a community's automobile dependency and allows for more efficient land usage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9361554",
"title": "Insurance Information and Enforcement System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The Insurance Information and Enforcement System is a system used, in the United States, by many Department of Motor Vehicles agencies to track people who might be driving without automobile insurance. Since many jurisdictions forbid uninsured driving, a system like this is necessary to keep track of any applications and cancellations of policies. The system was created largely because many people try to trick the DMV into thinking they're keeping their car insured by registering a car with a policy and then cancelling the policy soon after to keep the plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31576870",
"title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision resulting in property or physical damages. Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance. States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state; New Hampshire, and Mississippi which offers vehicle owners the option to post cash bonds (see below). The privileges and immunities clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution protects the rights of citizens in each respective state when traveling to another. A motor vehicle owner typically pays insurers a monthly fee, often called an insurance premium. The insurance premium a motor vehicle owner pays is usually determined by a variety of factors including the type of covered vehicle, the age and gender of any covered drivers, their driving history, and the location where the vehicle is primarily driven and stored. Credit scores are also taken into consideration. Most insurance companies offer premium discounts based on these factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16821000",
"title": "Road space rationing",
"section": "Section::::Applications of road space rationing.:Permanent alternate-day travel schemes.:Bogotá.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Since December 2014, exempted vehicles include passenger cars with three or more passengers including the driver; properly registered vehicles for use by people with disabilities; all-electric vehicles; emergency vehicles, such police cars, ambulances, and fire trucks; properly identified public utilities vehicles, traffic control and towing vehicles; school buses; motorcycles; cash-in-transit armored vehicles; funeral vehicles; and press, judiciary, diplomatic, presidential motorcade, and security scort vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qu54d
|
what's the point of the russians visiting the moon in 2029 when we're planning on visiting mars in the 2030's?
|
[
{
"answer": "There hasn't been a person on the moon since the 70s and we've not sent a person beyond orbit since then either.\n\nNot to mention no other country besides the US has actually sent anyone to the moon so this would be a first step for the Russian space program.\n\nIn addition, there is probably still value in analyzing the moon, especially with newer technology that can likely find things that would have been impossible 40 years ago. And we only explored a small fraction of the moons surface.\n\nAs for NASA, the reason they haven't planned another visit has nothing to do with the value of the moon and everything to do with NASA funding being extremely reliant on political trends, which in turn are reliant on the public interest. The reason NASA hasn't gone back to the moon is because the American population are essentially \"bored\" with the idea and so any plan they propose would likely loose funding for essentially being \"not cool\".\n\nThey choose the mars because it was something they could get the public excited about and thereby ensuring their funding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't have to be about importance.\n\nBut in addition to the other answers, the moon is much much easier to colonize than Mars due to its proximity. Just bury a vault under some regolith, and BOOM, moonbase. \n\nCompared to a Mars manned visit, that's a snap! We still haven't figured out how to keep people healthy and safe over the many-months-journey required to actually reach the Red Planet; the Moon's only a couple days away using conventional rocket engines. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why go on holiday to the caravan park this year when you know you're going to go on holiday to DISNEYLAND next year?\n\nThere's still things for us to Do on the Moon - places yet unmapped, below surface exploration, samples to collect. Sure we're going to Mars, but that doesn't mean we should Not go to the Moon as well, or explore the Mariana Trench, or have some tasty ice cream at Disneyland.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From what I've read, the Russians plan more than just another moon landing. They expect to explore the viability of an inhabitable moon base.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11589297",
"title": "Human mission to Mars",
"section": "Section::::Mission proposals.:21st century.:Russian mission proposals (2011).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "A number of Mars mission concepts and proposals have been put forth by Russian scientists. Stated dates were for a launch sometime between 2016 and 2020. The Mars probe would carry a crew of four to five cosmonauts, who would spend close to two years in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54743319",
"title": "2021 in spaceflight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Three spaceflights to the Moon are planned to take place in 2021. As part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services program, commercial landers developed by Astrobotic Technology and Intuitive Machines will both be launched, and Russia will resume its Luna-Glob exploration programme with the Luna 25 lander. NASA plans a return to the Moon sometime in the 2020s, and following that a manned exploration of Mars in the mid 2030s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1558077",
"title": "Moon landing",
"section": "Section::::Proposed future missions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Russia's Luna-Glob 1 was expected to be launched in 2019. In 2007 the head of the Russian Space Agency announced plans to send cosmonauts to the Moon by 2025 and establish a permanent robotically operated base there in 2027–2032. In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place a cosmonaut on the Moon by 2030, leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid another Space Race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4453559",
"title": "Exploration of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Plans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Russia also announced to resume its previously frozen project Luna-Glob, an uncrewed lander and orbiter, which is slated to launch in 2021. In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place an astronaut on the Moon by 2030 leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid a space race Russian Federation spacecraft is planned to send cosmonauts into Moon orbit in 2025. Russian Lunar Orbital Station is then proposed to orbit around the Moon after 2030.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55873616",
"title": "2020s in spaceflight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "NASA plans a return of humans to the Moon by 2024, first by assembling a Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway in lunar orbit. A crewed exploration of Mars could follow in the mid 2030s. An uncrewed and then a crewed trip to Jupiter and Europa have been commonly contemplated, but no space agencies or companies have yet announced definite plans to launch a crewed mission further than Mars. SpaceX, a private company, has also announced plans to land humans on Mars in the mid-2020s, with the long-term goal of enabling the colonization of Mars. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "716184",
"title": "JAXA",
"section": "Section::::Human space program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In June 2014 Japan's science and technology ministry said it was considering a space mission to Mars. In a ministry paper it indicated unmanned exploration, manned missions to Mars and long-term settlement on the Moon were objectives, for which international cooperation and support was going to be sought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30764115",
"title": "Japanese space program",
"section": "Section::::History.:Currently.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In June 2014 Japan's science and technology ministry said it was considering a space mission to Mars. In a ministry paper it indicated unmanned exploration, manned missions to Mars and long-term settlement on the Moon were objectives, for which international cooperation and support was going to be sought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gvart
|
How can meteor fragments found on earth possibly be so frequently described as 'martian'? How can we possibly assert their origin?
|
[
{
"answer": "The quote below is taken directly from the [Martian Meteorite](_URL_0_) page of Wikipedia:\n\n\nBy the early 1980s, it was obvious that the SNC group of meteorites (Shergottites, Nakhlites, Chassignites) were significantly different from most other meteorite types. Among these differences were younger formation ages, a different oxygen isotopic composition, the presence of aqueous weathering products, and some similarity in chemical composition to analyses of the Martian surface rocks in 1976 by the Viking landers. Several workers suggested these characteristics implied the origin of SNC meteorites from a relatively large parent body, possibly Mars (e.g., Smith et al.[4] and Treiman et al.[5]). Then in 1983, various trapped gases were reported in impact-formed glass of the EET79001 shergottite, gases which closely resembled those in the Martian atmosphere as analyzed by Viking.[6] These trapped gases provided direct evidence for a Martian origin. In 2000, an article by Treiman, Gleason and Bogard gave a survey of all the arguments used to conclude the SNC meteorites (of which 14 had been found at the time) were from Mars. They wrote, \"There seems little likelihood that the SNCs are not from Mars. If they were from another planetary body, it would have to be substantially identical to Mars as it now is understood.\"[3]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67216",
"title": "Martian meteorite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A Martian meteorite is a rock that formed on the planet Mars and was then ejected from Mars by the impact of an asteroid or comet, and finally landed on the Earth. Of over 61,000 meteorites that have been found on Earth, 224 were identified as Martian . These meteorites are thought to be from Mars because they have elemental and isotopic compositions that are similar to rocks and atmosphere gases analyzed by spacecraft on Mars. In October 2013, NASA confirmed, based on analysis of argon in the Martian atmosphere by the Mars Curiosity rover, that certain meteorites found on Earth thought to be from Mars were indeed from Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "463835",
"title": "Life on Mars",
"section": "Section::::Possible biosignatures.:Meteorites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "As of 2018, there are 117 known Martian meteorites (some of which were found in several fragments). These are valuable because they are the only physical samples of Mars available to Earth-bound laboratories. Some researchers have argued that microscopic morphological features found in ALH84001 are biomorphs, however this interpretation has been highly controversial and is not supported by the majority of researchers in the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34661222",
"title": "Tissint meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Petrology and origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "The meteorite fragments were recovered within days after the fall, so it is considered an \"uncontaminated\" meteorite. The meteorite displays evidence of water weathering, and there are signs of elements being carried into cracks in the rocks by water or fluid, which is something never seen before in a Martian meteorite. Specifically, scientists found carbon and nitrogen-containing compounds associated with hydrothermal mineral inclusions. One team reported measuring an elevated carbon-13 (C) ratio, while another team reported a low C ratio as compared to the content in Mars' atmosphere and crust, and suggested that it may be of biological origin, but the researchers also noted that there a several geological processes that could explain that without invoking complex life-processes; for example, it could be of meteoritic origin and would have been mixed with Martian soil when meteorites and comets impact the surface of Mars, or of volcanic origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37835208",
"title": "List of Martian meteorites",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Of the over 53,000 meteorites that have been found on Earth just 99 had been identified as Martian . On 17 October 2013, NASA reported, based on analysis of argon in the Martian atmosphere by the Mars \"Curiosity\" rover, that certain meteorites found on Earth thought to be from Mars, were actually from Mars. The list does \"not\" include meteorites found on Mars by the various rovers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41759375",
"title": "EETA 79001",
"section": "Section::::Importance.:Martian meteors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "EETA 79001 has been shown to originate from the Martian interior, so holds great importance because of the clues it can provide about the composition and evolution of Mars. It was the first sample that provided conclusive evidence of an origin from Mars. The idea of meteorites ejected from other planets was at first not popular with scientists, as they believed such an impact would completely melt the ejected debris, EETA 79001 showed that while some portion is likely melted from impact, original rock crystals can survive the process. This meteorite is one of only 99 known meteorites discovered on earth, of Martian origin. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5615978",
"title": "Nakhla meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "A number of meteorites thought to have originated from Mars have been catalogued from around the world, including the Nakhlites. These are considered to have been ejected by the impact of another large body colliding with the Martian surface. They then travelled through the solar system for an unknown period before penetrating the Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41759375",
"title": "EETA 79001",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The meteorite is classified as a shergottite and is primarily basaltic in composition. EETA 79001 is the second largest Martian meteorite found on earth, at approximately 7900 grams, only the Zagami meteorite is larger. It is a very young rock, by geologic standards, dating to only about 180 million years ago, and was ejected from the Martian surface about 600 thousand years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
684rxj
|
after the initial sleepiness feeling, why do we suddenly feel more alert after a few hours pass your normal sleeping time before you suddenly feel lethargic and sleepy again?
|
[
{
"answer": "A certain sleep writer suggests it's because there is a metabolitic release timed to coincide with the early part of sleep intended to for the heavy lifting your lymphatic and endocrine systems will do in the early part of sleep. Apparently this is the \"second wind\" we feel at approximately 10pm, and being asleep at this point results in higher quality sleep.\n\nThis is the only thing I've come up with on the topic so far. It seams reasonable that one's body would benefit from a release of energy for homonal/repair/immune function that does happen during sleep; however, I traced the reference chain back finally back to an Ayurvedic medicine writer, and haven't found any peer-reviewed empirical research on the topic (yet), so I think the jury is still out on this one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2476314",
"title": "Smith–Magenis syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Disrupted sleep patterns are characteristic of Smith–Magenis syndrome, typically beginning early in life. Affected people may be very sleepy during the day, but have trouble falling asleep and awaken several times each night, due to an inverted circadian rhythm of melatonin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Disorders.:Obstructive sleep apnea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Diagnosing sleep apnea usually requires a professional sleep study performed in a sleep clinic, because the episodes of wakefulness caused by the disorder are extremely brief and patients usually do not remember experiencing them. Instead, many patients simply feel tired after getting several hours of sleep and have no idea why. Major risk factors for sleep apnea include chronic fatigue, old age, obesity and snoring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28278287",
"title": "Sleep state misperception",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms and diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Finally, on the opposite end of the spectrum, other patients may report feeling that they have slept much longer than is observed. It has been proposed that this experience be subclassified under sleep state misperception as \"positive sleep state misperception\", \"reverse sleep state misperception\", and \"negative sleep state misperception\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1315495",
"title": "Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Sighted.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "People with the disorder may have an especially hard time adjusting to changes in \"regular\" sleep–wake cycles, such as vacations, stress, evening activities, time changes like daylight saving time, travel to different time zones, illness, medications (especially stimulants or sedatives), changes in daylight hours in different seasons, and growth spurts, which are typically known to cause fatigue. They also show lower sleep propensity after total sleep deprivation than do normal sleepers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15514352",
"title": "Hours of service",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "Circadian rhythm effects describe the tendency for humans to experience a normal cycle in attentiveness and sleepiness through the 24-hour day. Those with a conventional sleep pattern (sleeping for seven or eight hours at night) experience periods of maximum fatigue in the early hours of the morning and a lesser period in the early afternoon. During the low points of this cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person's body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day. Changing the starting time of a work shift by more than these amounts will reduce attentiveness, which is common after the first night shift following a \"weekend\" break during which conventional sleep times were followed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39197315",
"title": "Thelma Van Rensburg",
"section": "Section::::Examples of work.:Existential Angst.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Occasionally, late at night, while trying to sleep and failing, people experience an anxiety of existence, they are aware of their entire body, the entire world, and the whole of reality itself. It's like waking from a dream, or a light going on, or a giant \"\"You are here\"\" sign appearing in the sky. The mere fact that I'm actually real and actually breathing suddenly hits me in the head with a thwack. It leaves me giddy. It causes a brief surge of clammy, bubbling anxiety, like the opening stages of a panic attack. The moment soon passes, but while it lasts it's strangely terrifying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29560139",
"title": "Sleep inversion",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Individuals with the delayed sleep phase type of the disorder exhibit habitually late sleep hours and an inability to change their sleeping schedule consistently. They often show sleepiness during the desired wake period of their days. Their actual phase of sleep is normal. Once they fall asleep, they stay asleep for a normal period of time, albeit a period of time that starts and stops at an abnormally late time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8snsj8
|
why do fermented foods turn into alcohol and cause intoxication?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yeast. Yeast is a microscopic fungi that is intentionally added to the process of making alcoholic drinks. It consumes the sugars, and excrete alcohol. As the alcohol content rises, the yeast dies off. They also produce CO2, which is why beer is carbonated (at least traditionally, now its added)\n\nSo beer is essentially fungal shit",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When yeast or other bacteria breakdown the sugars in the food, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.\n\nWhen there are still yeast and/or bacteria present in the finished product (kombucha, for example) the process is continuing, and depending on a number of factors (time, temperature, etc.) more alcohol will be produced. So if a product is not paturized, depending on shipping and storing conditions, the level of alcohol the food contains may vary. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1014",
"title": "Alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Biological routes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause \"auto-brewery syndrome\" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable. For example, drinking water in the Middle Ages was dangerous because it often contained pathogens that could spread disease. When the water is made into beer, the boiling during the brewing process kills any bacteria in the water that could make people sick. Additionally, the water now has the nutrients from the barley and other ingredients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52893218",
"title": "Industrial microbiology",
"section": "Section::::Food industry application.:Fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "_Fermentation is a reaction where sugar can be converted into a gas, alcohols or acids. _Microorganisms like yeast and bacteria are used to massively produce the many things. Drinking alcohol also known as ethanol is produced by yeast and bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39357",
"title": "Tequila",
"section": "Section::::Fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Unlike other tequila production steps, fermentation is one of the few steps out of the control of human beings. Fermentation is the conversion of sugars and carbohydrates to alcohol through yeast in anerobic conditions, meaning that oxygen is not present during the process. Fermentation is also carried out in a non-aseptic environment which increases the bacterial activity of tequila. The participation of microorganisms from the environment (yeasts and bacteria) makes fermentation a spontaneous process which gives rise to many byproducts that contribute to the flavor and aroma of tequila.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32078038",
"title": "Liebig–Pasteur dispute",
"section": "Section::::Liebig’s position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Liebig formulated his own theory claiming that the production of alcohol was not a biological process but a chemical process, discrediting the idea that fermentation could occur due to microscopic organisms. He believed that vibrations emanating from the decomposition of organic matter would spread to the sugar resulting in the production of solely carbon dioxide and alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1088286",
"title": "Ethanol fermentation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89198",
"title": "Alcohol dehydrogenase",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Yeast and bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "In yeast and many bacteria, alcohol dehydrogenase plays an important part in fermentation: Pyruvate resulting from glycolysis is converted to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and the acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by an alcohol dehydrogenase called ADH1. The purpose of this latter step is the regeneration of NAD, so that the energy-generating glycolysis can continue. Humans exploit this process to produce alcoholic beverages, by letting yeast ferment various fruits or grains. Yeast can produce and consume their own alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kkmaa
|
Were places like New Jersey, New York, New South Wales, etc. so named because of a resemblance in climate/topography to Jersey, York, Wales, etc., or because the original settlers were from those regions of the British Isles?
|
[
{
"answer": "New Jersey was so named because the land it encompasses was an award from the King Charles II to Sir George Cartalet for his loyalty during the English Civil War. Sir Goerge was both originally born on the isle of Jersey and served as a governor there, so the land was eventually renamed, in his honor, by the Duke of York as \"New Jersey\".\n\nSo, in the case of New Jersey, it seems to be the latter.\n\nSource: [Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, Volume 09](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT - Just found my book on Scottish colonialism to confirm: Nova Scotia (Latin for New Scotland) was so named because while originally settled by the French and called a different name, it was eventually taken over by Scotland, which was technically a separate kingdom at the time of settlement, and renamed.\n\nSource: [The Scottish Empire, Michael Fry](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were many people from Lincolnshire involved in exploring Australia. Matthew Flinders and George Bass were from there and they were involved in mapping the coast of the continent [Official Australian Government site](_URL_0_). The land of their home area is very different but they named places after familiar towns and villages. Near Adelaide there are Lincoln, Boston, Tumby, Sibsey, Spilsby, Donington etc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sweden had a colony in the Americas in what is now Delaware that they named New Sweden. The area does not resemble Sweden at all; it's flat, humid, and much sunnier and warmer than Sweden.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the case of New South Wales, it was named because the landscape was judged to be similar to South Wales.\n\nSince Cook didn't go very far ashore, he had no idea that it was, in reality, very very different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The latter. New York, for example, was founded as New Amsterdam by Dutch colonists, and renamed when it was captured by the British.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In response to this question I see a lot of interesting stories relating individuals or teams of \"explorers\" to their homelands, but not going any further into the territoriality of these figures. I want to reference back to a section from Benedict Anderson's *Imagined Communities*, which explores, in part, how conceptions of time in history have changed alongside how we identify with others, specifically at a \"national level\", and directly relevant to the question:\n\n > It was not that, in general, the naming of political or religious sites as \"new\" was in itself so new. In Southeast Asia, for example one finds towns of reasonable antiquity whose names also include a term for novelty: Chiangmai (New City), Kota Bahru (New Town), Pekenbaru (New Market). But in these names 'new' invariably has the meaning of 'successor' to, or 'inheritor' of, something vanished. 'New' and 'old' are aligned diachronically, and the former appears always to invoke an ambiguous blessing from the dead. What is startling in the American namings of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries is that 'new' and 'old' were understood synchronically, coexisting within homogenous, empty time. [...] This new synchronic novelty could arise historically only when substantial groups of people were in a position to think of themselves as living lives parallel to those of other substantial groups of people- if never meeting, yet certainly proceeding along the same trajectory.\n\nThe parallelism between groups with similar cultural cohesion, especially ones (like in the Americas) with such a rapidly growing (emigrant) population, brought forth a special set of political consequences which included but was not limited to a *local* \"political ascendancy\", changes in cartography and navigation, and shared languages of state (aided by print-capitalism). These communities were uniquely seen as privileged continuations of already existing, distant empires, and were relied upon for the benefit of the imperial state.\n\nSources: Anderson, *Imagined Communities*, Storey, *Territories*\n\n\nTL;DR: \"New\" toponyms of pre-existing places arose with a changing consciousness of simultaneity and shared history, arguably unique to European colonialism. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1990216",
"title": "List of place names of Native American origin in New England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The region of New England in the United States has numerous place names derived from the indigenous peoples of the area. New England is in the Northeastern United States, and comprises six states: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Listed are well-known names of towns, significant bodies of water, and mountains. This list can virtually never be sufficiently completed as there are hundreds of thousands of place names in New England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1283751",
"title": "Dutch Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Placenames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Some towns of New York and areas of New York City, once part of the colony of New Netherland have names of Dutch origin, such as Brooklyn (after Breukelen), Flushing (after Vlissingen), the Bowery (after Bouwerij, construction site), Harlem (after Haarlem), Coney Island (from Conyne Eylandt, modern Dutch spelling Konijneneiland: Rabbit island) and Staten Island (meaning \"Island of the States\"). The last Director-General of the colony of New Netherland, Pieter Stuyvesant, has bequeathed his name to a street, a neighborhood and a few schools in New York City, and the town of Stuyvesant. Many of the towns and cities along the Hudson in upstate New York have placenames with Dutch origins (for example Yonkers, Hoboken, Haverstraw, Newburgh, Staatsburg, Catskill, Kinderhook, Coeymans, Rensselaer, Watervliet). Nassau County, one of the four that make up Long Island, is also of Dutch origin. The Schuylkill river that flows into the Delaware at Philadelphia is also a Dutch name meaning hidden or skulking river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "125237",
"title": "Jersey City, New Jersey",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Community diversity.:European American.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Ever since the settling of New Netherland in the 1600s, comprising what is now the Gateway Region of northeastern New Jersey as well as portions of Downstate New York in the New York City metropolitan area, the Dutch and British, along with German and Irish Americans, have established an integral role in the subsequent long-term development of Jersey City over the centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5938550",
"title": "Belgian Americans",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "During the 17th century, colonists from the Southern Netherlands (the area of modern-day Belgium) lived in several of the Thirteen Colonies of North America. Settlements already existed in New York — in Wallabout (Brooklyn), on Long Island and Staten Island—and New Jersey (Hoboken, Jersey City, Pavonia, Communipaw, and Wallkill). Later, other settlers moved into the Middle States. Many names are derived from the Walloon reformed immigrants who settled there and the Dutch versions of Walloon words used to describe a locale. There were also Southern Netherlands colonies in Connecticut, Delaware, and Pennsylvania established primarily by Walloons, many of whom arrived with the Dutch West India Company (founded by Willem Usselincx, a Fleming).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23323849",
"title": "Hudson Historic District (New York)",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "By 1785 enough settlers had arrived from Nantucket and Rhode Island that they were able to incorporate as a city, the first in New York since independence and the third in the state. They set aside the high ground today known as Promenade Hill overlooking the water at the district's west end as a \"Parade\", an open leisure ground for the citizens. Some disassembled their New England houses and reconstructed them on the lots they had divided their land into.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18056083",
"title": "New England New State Movement",
"section": "Section::::Geographical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Because New England has never had a formal identity, its claimed boundaries have varied with time. In broad terms, it covers the humid coastal strip including the Hunter Region to the Queensland border, the New England Tablelands and the immediately adjoining Western Slopes and Plains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93442",
"title": "Hudson County, New Jersey",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Community diversity.:European American.:Western European American.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Ever since the settling of New Netherland in the 1600s, comprising what is now the Gateway Region of northeastern New Jersey as well as portions of Downstate New York in the New York City metropolitan area, the Dutch and British, along with German and Irish Americans, have established an integral role in the subsequent long-term development of Hudson County over the centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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