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10g9uf
|
how does a random function work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Before a matematician/IT guys confirms it, I can say that it takes a really difficult to foresee value (ex. the actual date, up to the hundredth of second) and feed its to a very complex function whose output is even harder to foresee, and has an uniform distribution in a given interval.\n\nEx. get date, divide for hundreth of second, square root the value, take the 62th and 103th digit after the dot and multiply, blah blah blah..\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A random number generator like the one typically used by a computer to generate random numbers isn't actually random. It is what is known as a *pseudo-random number generator*. It generates numbers according to a certain algorithm that first is initialized with a value called *seed*. For different seed values, different pseudo-random sequences would be produced. Your computer will usually use something like the current time as seed to initialize the pseudo-random number generator. And then you get these pseudo-random numbers that seem to be random, even if they aren't. For most purposes, this is good enough.\n\nA certain category of pseudo-random number generators are known as *cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators*. These are algorithms that conform to certain requirements that are hard to ELI5, but the basic and most important idea is that one can't predict what the next number would be even if you know the entire sequence up until now.\n\nFor certain applications where truly random numbers are needed, special hardware devices are used that can generate random numbers by using physical processes that are unpredictable (random) by the laws of physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5215393",
"title": "Random element",
"section": "Section::::Examples of random elements.:Random function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "A random function is a type of random element in which a single outcome is selected from some family of functions, where the family consists some class of all maps from the domain to the codomain. For example, the class may be restricted to all continuous functions or to all step functions. The values determined by a random function evaluated at different points from the same realization would not generally be statistically independent but, depending on the model, values determined at the same or different points from different realisations might well be treated as independent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47895",
"title": "Stochastic process",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The term random function is also used to refer to a stochastic or random process, because a stochastic process can also be interpreted as a random element in a function space. The terms \"stochastic process\" and \"random process\" are used interchangeably, often with no specific mathematical space for the set that indexes the random variables. But often these two terms are used when the random variables are indexed by the integers or an interval of the real line. If the random variables are indexed by the Cartesian plane or some higher-dimensional Euclidean space, then the collection of random variables is usually called a random field instead. The values of a stochastic process are not always numbers and can be vectors or other mathematical objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3454616",
"title": "Pseudorandom function family",
"section": "Section::::Motivations from random functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Essentially, a truly random function would just be composed of a lookup table filled with uniformly distributed random entries. However, in practice, a PRF is given an input string in the domain and a hidden random seed and runs multiple times with the same input string and seed, always returning the same value. Nonetheless, given an arbitrary input string, the output looks random if the seed is taken from a uniform distribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47895",
"title": "Stochastic process",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The term \"random function\" is also used to refer to a stochastic or random process, though sometimes it is only used when the stochastic process takes real values. This term is also used when the index sets are mathematical spaces other than the real line, while the terms \"stochastic process\" and \"random process\" are usually used when the index set interpreted as time, and other terms are used such as \"random field\" when the index set is formula_1-dimensional Euclidean space formula_6 or a manifold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3578575",
"title": "Randomization function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "In computer science, a randomization function or randomizing function is an algorithm or procedure that implements a randomly chosen function between two specific sets, suitable for use in a randomized algorithm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41597450",
"title": "Poisson point process",
"section": "Section::::Functionals and moment measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In probability theory, operations are applied to random variables for different purposes. Sometimes these operations are regular expectations that produce the average or variance of a random variable. Others, such as characteristic functions (or Laplace transforms) of a random variable can be used to uniquely identify or characterize random variables and prove results like the central limit theorem. In the theory of point processes there exist analogous mathematical tools which usually exist in the forms of measures and functionals instead of moments and functions respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3578575",
"title": "Randomization function",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Randomness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "In theory, randomization functions are assumed to be truly random, and yield an unpredictably different function every time the algorithm is executed. The randomization technique would not work if, at every execution of the algorithm, the randomization function always performed the same mapping, or a mapping entirely determined by some externally observable parameter (such as the program's startup time). With such a \"pseudo-randomization\" function, one could in principle construct a sequence of calls such that the function would always yield a \"bad\" case for the underlying deterministic algorithm. For that sequence of calls, the average cost would be closer to the worst-case cost, rather than the average cost for random inputs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cj0otb
|
why can some brands completely rip off other brands designs on certain products?
|
[
{
"answer": "Per a quick google search, they are often lawsuits for this. However, I’d hazard a guess that court costs and lawyer fees are factored in before moving forward. Generic copy at Walmart maybe only profits 40k$, but the lawsuit would cost 200k for both sides. It’s now a loss to sue and not worth moving forward. Adidas sued Walmart for infringing on their 3 stripe design a while back and won. Those shoes now have 4 stripes.\n\nEdit:changed a letter",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9420718",
"title": "Fashion victim",
"section": "Section::::Materialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Designer branding is sometimes associated with a higher quality of manufacture and a higher price. The ownership and display of such products of quality is frequently marketed to suggest that the wearer will automatically embody a personal characteristic of quality by association. Designers have identified this and in some cases are able to exploit it to the extent that prices can be escalated to surprising proportions without reference to the cost of manufacture. Extreme examples of this type of branding are found among accessory manufacturers such as Versace, Gucci and Burberry, scent manufacturers such as Chanel and Guerlain and watch manufacturers such as Rolex and Bulgari.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950900",
"title": "Brand",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Brand personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Consumers may look on branding as an aspect of products or services, as it often serves to denote a certain attractive quality or characteristic (see also brand promise). From the perspective of brand owners, branded products or services can command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of the products has no associated branding (such as a generic, store-branded product), potential purchasers may often select the more expensive branded product on the basis of the perceived quality of the brand or on the basis of the reputation of the brand owner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234189",
"title": "Individual branding",
"section": "Section::::Applicability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Individual branding is the most effective when a company offers numerous unconnected commodities, which vary in quality and price and target different market segments. It is also useful when introducing a new, high-risk product to the market, in order to manage risks to existing brands if the new product should fail. However, the expected revenue from a new brand must justify the higher costs of marketing and advertising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1284942",
"title": "Drop shipping",
"section": "Section::::Scams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Knock off name brand products being sold by drop shipping wholesalers is another problem. While some of these products may look genuine, they can be spotted by the extremely high profit margins available on them. If colors, styles or other physical characteristics do not match those of the manufacturer, the product is probably a counterfeit. Selling non-genuine products could destroy one's eCommerce reputation and possibly ruin a drop shipping business. It might also cause legal problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6760277",
"title": "Functionality doctrine",
"section": "Section::::Aesthetic Functionality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "When the aesthetic development of the good is intended to enhance the design and make the product more commercially desirable, trademark protection may be denied because the consumer is drawn to the design. The distinctiveness of the mark serves to identify the product rather than the source, and trademark protection becomes inappropriate. The underlying theory as aesthetics become integrated with functionality, the resulting product strongly resembles product design, which may receive no trademark protection absent secondary meaning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950900",
"title": "Brand",
"section": "Section::::Expanding role of brands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The original aim of branding was to simplify the process of identifying and differentiating products. Over time, manufacturers began to use branded messages to give the brand a unique personality. Brands came to embrace a performance or benefit promise, for the product, certainly, but eventually also for the company behind the brand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20940617",
"title": "Magnesium oxide wallboard",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "BULLET::::- Several different producers exist, with big differences in their production and selling costs, which greatly impacts on the mix design and curing process. This makes each brand very different in potential uses. Even though the different brands may look and feel similar, caution must be used when selecting the versions and brands for specific use since they are not all the same or usable in the same way. [?reference]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dkh7xr
|
does convolution of signals have an intuitive explanation like the water-flow example for voltage and current?
|
[
{
"answer": "Have you heard of convolution reverb?\n\nBasically, you take an impulse response from, say, a cathedral, and then you can convolve it with any sound signal to make it sound as if it were in the cathedral.\n\nSo i guess a convolution is kind of like an echo. A bit like sonar - when there is something x-metres away, you'll get a corresponding spike on the impulse-response when the echo comes back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32567",
"title": "Volt",
"section": "Section::::Water-flow analogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In the \"water-flow analogy\", sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage (difference in electric potential) is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping and a capacitor/inductor could be likened to a \"U\" shaped pipe where a higher water level on one side could store energy temporarily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21402632",
"title": "Electroencephalography",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "It is mathematically impossible to reconstruct a unique intracranial current source for a given EEG signal, as some currents produce potentials that cancel each other out. This is referred to as the inverse problem. However, much work has been done to produce remarkably good estimates of, at least, a localized electric dipole that represents the recorded currents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40866",
"title": "Characteristic impedance",
"section": "Section::::Transmission line model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "where the superscripts formula_12 and formula_13 represent forward- and backward-traveling waves, respectively. A surge of energy on a finite transmission line will see an impedance of \"Z\" prior to any reflections arriving, hence \"surge impedance\" is an alternative name for characteristic impedance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35775386",
"title": "Reflection phase change",
"section": "Section::::Electrical transmission lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Reflections of signals on conducting lines can exhibit a phase change from the incident signal. The voltage wave reflection on a line terminated with a short circuit is 180° phase shifted. This is analogous (by the mobility analogy) to a string where the end is fixed in position, or a sound wave in a tube with a blocked off end. The current wave, on the other hand, is not phase shifted. A transmission line terminated with an open circuit is the dual case; the voltage wave is shifted by 0° and the current wave is shifted by 180°. In both cases the full amplitude of the wave is reflected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41811",
"title": "Transmission line",
"section": "Section::::Input impedance of transmission line.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The characteristic impedance formula_69 of a transmission line is the ratio of the amplitude of a \"single\" voltage wave to its current wave. Since most transmission lines also have a reflected wave, the characteristic impedance is generally not the impedance that is measured on the line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24806944",
"title": "Metal-mesh optical filter",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Electromagnetic theory.:Transmission and reflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Given the relations between the reflected and transmitted waves found earlier, this means that the transmitted wave in an inductive grid is equal to the negative of the reflected wave in a capacitive grid and vice versa, and also that the transmitted powers for capacitive and inductive grids sum to unity for a unit incident wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18651732",
"title": "Coherence (signal processing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In signal processing, the coherence is a statistic that can be used to examine the relation between two signals or data sets. It is commonly used to estimate the power transfer between input and output of a linear system. If the signals are ergodic, and the system function linear, it can be used to estimate the causality between the input and output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89pr9h
|
the definition of “literary theory”
|
[
{
"answer": "I suppose there isnt one definition but a literary theory woukd be a way in which yoi can understand/interpret literature. \nFor example you could read a text in a feminist or post colonial way and theyre both literary theories. \nOr you could theorise on what literature itself is, for example literary theorist Roland Barthes discusses the role of the author in literature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51119",
"title": "Literary theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "As a consequence, the word \"theory\" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to reading texts. Many of these approaches are informed by various strands of Continental philosophy and of sociology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30746",
"title": "Theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking often is associated with such processes like observational study, research. Theories may either be scientific or other than scientific (or scientific to less extent). Depending on the context, the results might, for example, include generalized explanations of how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several related meanings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186023",
"title": "Unifying theories in mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The term \"theory\" is used informally within mathematics to mean a self-consistent body of definitions, axioms, theorems, examples, and so on. (Examples include group theory, Galois theory, control theory, and K-theory.) In particular there is no connotation of \"hypothetical\". Thus the term \"unifying theory\" is more like a sociological term used to study the actions of mathematicians. It may assume nothing conjectural that would be analogous to an undiscovered scientific link. There is really no cognate within mathematics to such concepts as \"Proto-World\" in linguistics or the Gaia hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17645570",
"title": "Philosophical theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "A philosophical theory or philosophical position is a set of beliefs that explains or accounts for a general philosophy or specific branch of philosophy. The use of the term theory here is a statement of colloquial English and not reflective of the term theory. While any sort of thesis or opinion may be termed a position, in analytic philosophy it is thought best to reserve the word \"theory\" for systematic, comprehensive attempts to solve problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6880370",
"title": "Philosophy of language",
"section": "Section::::Major topics and sub-fields.:Social interaction and language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Literary theory is a discipline that some literary theorists claim overlaps with the philosophy of language. It emphasizes the methods that readers and critics use in understanding a text. This field, an outgrowth of the study of how to properly interpret messages, is unsurprisingly closely tied to the ancient discipline of hermeneutics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30746",
"title": "Theory",
"section": "Section::::Ancient uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The English word \"theory\" derives from a technical term in philosophy in Ancient Greek. As an everyday word, \"theoria\", , meant \"a looking at, viewing, beholding\", but in more technical contexts it came to refer to contemplative or speculative understandings of natural things, such as those of natural philosophers, as opposed to more practical ways of knowing things, like that of skilled orators or artisans. English-speakers have used the word \"theory\" since at least the late 16th century. Modern uses of the word \"theory\" derive from the original definition, but have taken on new shades of meaning, still based on the idea of a theory as a thoughtful and rational explanation of the general nature of things.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51119",
"title": "Literary theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Literary theory in a strict sense is the systematic study of the nature of literature and of the methods for analyzing literature. However, literary scholarship since the 19th century often includes—in addition to, or even instead of literary theory in the strict sense—considerations of intellectual history, moral philosophy, social prophecy, and other interdisciplinary themes which are of relevance to the way humans interpret meaning. In the humanities in modern academia, the latter style of scholarship is an outgrowth of critical theory and is often called simply \"theory\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26k5hi
|
Mistakes Germany made on Russia
|
[
{
"answer": "There are two problems, I think, with the German War in the east. 1) the Germans, due to the racist Nazi ideology, was far too brutal against the Slavic nationalities in the conquered territories. 2) The size and scale of Russia made a rapid victory like in 1940 virtually impossible. \n\nTo point 1), Hitler famously said that his first attack would wreck the fragile Soviet state. He was alluding to the many national and racial minorities which the Russians dominated. This included Hungarians, Poles, Finns, Baltics, Siberians, Asians, Arabs, and a myriad of other ethnicities. Famously, the Ukrainians welcomed the Germans with open arms in the first weeks of Barbarossa. But, rather than courting dissident groups and promoting revolt behind Soviet lines, the Germans instead implemented a large scale program of harassment and extermination. This news was carried rearward by the retreating Red Army, and by Winter of 1941 any possibility of counter-revolution had been killed. Instead, Russians and non-Russians unified to defeat the barbaric Nazi menace. It was a major opportunity which the Germans wasted. \n\nTo point 2), the Germans had grown used to quick victories. In 1940, they had smashed the French Army, destroyed the cohesion of its armies, and quickly occupied regions of critical importance to French government (like, say, Paris). But Russia was big, and even if the German army achieved smashing success, it would never reach Moscow and St. Petersburg (Leningrad) as quickly as it did Paris. The distances are simply not comparable. Instead, the German army focused on destroying the Red Army along the border. It makes sense, if the Red Army was destroyed in Soviet Poland, who would stop the Germans from taking Moscow? Nobody, thats who. *But* it wasnt that simple. The Germans were really good at destroying an enemies *cohesion*, or its ability to operate effectively. But it had a harder time destroying the Russian army. Again, the spaces involved (and especially the unit density, or the average number of men per km) were so great that while Russian Corps and Armies were destroyed, many men simply passed through the porous German lines. They would later reform into new units which would defend Moscow. Its hard to say how the *Wehrmacht* could have solved that glaring issue, but it was a major cause for their defeat. Russia is just so big, and the Germans were totally unable to account for that.\n\n",
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"answer": "Wall of text- I'm sorry but it's a really complex answer that I've already really pruned down.\n\nI'm going to direct your attention to a frequently underappreciated aspect of the historiography- differing conceptualisation of warfare at an operational level. Under appreciation for this level of history stems from a Western lack of appreciation of it's intricacies, and an often excessive reliance upon German Generals and sources who sought to rationalise their defeat in the terms of tactics and strategy- simply put, they argued that German generals and armies were constantly tactically superior to their enemies, and Hitler is responsible for all strategic mistakes. This rather conveniently ensures former German generals were freed from having to admit they made mistakes, and allowed them to keep their lucrative lecturing tours. that the German army deployed a somewhat complex operational method at this time was conveniently forgotten.\n\n'the Wehrmacht is generally portrayed as immensely superior in every aspect...its failure are ascribed to adverse climatic conditions, the sheer size of the USSR, overwhelming soviet numbers, hitler's mistakes...everything...except superior Red leadership and combat performance.(1)'\n\nFollowing the end of the first world war and the Russian civil war, Stavka (the Russian high command) recognised that the traditional division of warfare between tactics and strategy was outdated, and that a gap existed between these. Tactics had come to be associated with divisional combat downwards, while strategy was a question of Army Groups and High Command. Operational level technique exists in this gap, and the relationship between all of these levels is implicitly interlinked as it's first proponent, Aleksandr Svechin pointed out 'tactics make the steps from which operational art leaps; strategy points out the path.' The operational level of warfare deals with this path, and is best described as being\n\n'Concerned with the disruption of the enemy's overall cohesion on a large scale, preventing him from accomplishing his aims and breaking up his organisation and control of higher formations. destruction of large enemy groupings is achieved as a result of the disruption of his plans, timetabled and ability to organise over a wide area and in great depth (i.e. 300-500KM).(2)'\n\nThese concepts were outlined initially outlined in the Russian manual PU-36 (field manual-'36) and detailed two key concepts, deep battle, and Maskirovka. The great purge (or as the Russians prefer to call it 'the events of 1936-8') saw the rejection of these ideas for a more traditional approach, but they were rapidly re-introduced with PU-42. Maskirovka is a term describing camouflage, concealment, deception, signals counter-intelligence and surveillance methods and has no accurate English translation, just note that it was the means by which the Russians aimed to achieve surprise, and that Russian doctrine views the surprise as a 10X force multiplier- one man with it, is worth 10 without.\n\nDeep battle was a term utilised to describe what we would call blitzkrieg, but carried out on a far larger scale. A Russian Army group (called a 'front') would be devided into two unequal halves. the first, representing 1/3 was called a pinning group, and was responsible for holding the frontline when it was static, carrying out spoiling attacks etc. this allowed for the major concentration of resources into 'strike groups,' representing 2/3 of the forces deployed. these were divided into shock armies and mobile groups\n\nShock armies were essentially break-in formations, heavily provided with infantry support tanks, engineers and artillery. they would punch a hole in the initial defences through overwhelming concentrations of force and firepower.\n\nthese openings would then be exploited by mobile groups- composed of tank armies equipped with anti-tank guns, mechanised infantry, self propelled guns and medium tanks such as the t-34. these would develop the break-in into a break out and exploit deeply. \n\nIt is important to understand the scale of these operations, and the interlinking of them. A series of shock armies would engineered several break-ins of about 12-15 km width, with about 16-20km between each of them. These break-ins would have a depth of about 10-15 km, which would then be rapidly exploited by the mobile groups, sacrificing some combat power to complete the break out. These formations were then expected to drive deeply to a depth of 100-200km. They would screen surrounded German units, who would then be reduced by hard-marching shock armies as the mobile groups conducted a mobile defence against German counter-attacks.\n\nThe most important aspect to remember is Maskirovka, all of these offensives were to be mounted in the utmost secrecy. Briefing were carried out in the third period (more on this later) Orally only, and just 5-10 days or so before the attack to front commanders, who in turn briefed the subordinates. The fact that entire tank armies (seriously, the Russians had formations called tank armies) were able to entrain, move 100s of miles, detrain and then launch these huge assault with only days of preparation and acting on verbal orders hints at an often underestimated genius in the west for Russian staffwork, professionalism and the effectiveness of maskirovka.\n\nFor the Russians, the great patriotic war is divided into three periods, based upon how effectively these principles were deployed- \n\nThe first from the 22 June 1941- 18th November 1942 saw an endless period of defeats as the germans advanced rapidly. They destroyed 28 divisions, and reduced an additional 70 to 50% strength. These defeats eventually led to the re-introduction of the operational method outlined above in PU-42. severe mistakes were continuously made. a lack of maskirovka meant attacks failed to achieve surprise, lack of concentration, poor command and a lack of appreciation of the operational level of warfare allowed opportunities to slip away.\n\nThe second period was a slow and painful learning experience, lasting from 19th November 1942 to the end of '43. every aspect of their warfighting capability was overhauled- command, control communications improved, better combat support and service support. Better weapons and more of them, overhauled formation organisation etc. they still made mistakes, but they slowly learnt from them and showed an increasing capacity for waging war. encirclements, where they occurred, took a considerable amount of time to reduce, but the effectiveness of such methods was obvious, and formations fought deeper, and reduced the encirclements far quicker.\n\nThe third period from 1944-45 is simply awesome. They were not just conducting these massive offensives one at a time anymore, these huge operations were now interlinked, as one closed down, another was just in the process of opening up. The perfect example of this is Operation Bagration. another would be the vistula-oder operation, 'liberating' most of Poland in 17 days. Additionally they constantly achieved complete surprise and destroyed tactically superior German armies at every turn. \n\nSo yeah, it didn't really matter that the Germans were tactically superior when the Russians had perfected their operational method for the operational level of war, were able to mass huge numbers of troops, achieving complete surprise and overwhelming the enemy through systematic manoeuvre warfare, crushing every single enemy formation they met with superior material, generalship and staffwork.\n\nReferences\n\nHastings, M., Armageddon, (London, Pan Books,2004)\n\nGlatz, D.M., Soviet Operational Art (London, Frank Cass, 1991)\n\nHarrison, R.W. The Russian Way of War (Laurence, University of Kansas press, 2001)\n\n (1) Dick, C.J. 'The operational employment of soviet armour in the great patriotic war' In Harris J.P. and Toase F.N. eds Armoured Warfare (London, Batsford Ltd.,1990)\n\n(2) Dick, C.J., 'Soviet Operation Art, Part 1' in International defence review, July 1988",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "405978",
"title": "Volhynia",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I and the German settlements in Volhynia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "As Russia's war losses increased, so did anti-German hysteria. They were held responsible for the disastrous course of the war and were accused of being spies and saboteurs betraying Russia. Anti-German measures reached a nadir with the government's so-called Liquidation Laws, of February 1915, authorizing it to expropriate German properties in the Western border provinces, especially in Volhynia. Compensation was envisaged in the form of 25-year government obligations. The laws were not enforced immediately due to the concern over economic disruption. The passage of the decrees, however, caused great anxiety in many German villages, particularly in the province of Volhynia. Some people made panic sales or neglected the land in expectation that it would be appropriated. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1051351",
"title": "Karl Max, Prince Lichnowsky",
"section": "Section::::Comments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The latter refers to the harsh terms the Germans imposed on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in early March 1918. Chesterton was reminding his readers that, were Germany to win the war in the west, it would impose equally harsh terms on Belgium and France, in line with the 1914 Septemberprogramm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59716982",
"title": "Russia Germans",
"section": "Section::::Russia German resettlers in Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "When the Ruso-German relationship deteriorated after 2014, declining further since the 2015 start of the refugee crisis in Germany, many Russia Germans felt unfairly treated and unwelcome. Russia had begun to attack Western democracies with propaganda. In the Russian media often consumed by Russia Germans, a mood was set against Chancellor Merkel and neo-fascism was presented as Germany's main characteristic. In 2017, for the first time since 2004, the Federal Agency for Civic Education provided voting advice in Russian. Russia German families had not spoken German over fear of discrimination after the Second World War, but had never learned to form a free opinion, according to the Russia German journalist Ella Schindler. Some withdrew \"into the well-known Soviet past\" and familiar simple explanatory patterns offered by Russian television.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318008",
"title": "Causes of World War I",
"section": "Section::::July Crisis: The chain of events.:German mobilisation and war with Russia and France, 1–3 August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "On 28 July, Germany learned through its spy network that Russia had implemented its \"Period Preparatory to War\". The Germans assumed that Russia had, after all, decided upon war and that her mobilisation put Germany in danger. That was doubly so because German war plans, the so-called Schlieffen Plan, relied upon Germany to mobilise speedily enough to defeat France first (by attacking largely through neutral Belgium) before turning to defeat the slower-moving Russians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318008",
"title": "Causes of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Technical and military factors.:Primacy of the offensive and war by timetable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 224,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 224,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "On 28 July, Germany learned through its spy network that Russia had implemented partial mobilisation and its \"Period Preparatory to War\". The Germans assumed that Russia had, after all, decided upon war and that her mobilisation put Germany in danger, doubly so because German war plans, the so-called Schlieffen Plan, relied upon Germany to mobilise speedily enough to defeat France first (by attacking largely through neutral Belgium) before turning to defeat the slower-moving Russians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49017290",
"title": "2015–16 New Year's Eve sexual assaults in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Distrust towards government and media after their 'late' reporting.:Governmental cover-up feared, and exposed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Mid-January 2016, Russian newspapers made accusations against the German government similar to the suspicions circulating in Western media. The state-run Russian newspaper \"Rossiyskaya Gazeta\" for example contended: at the outset, official Berlin pretended that nothing out of the ordinary had happened; regional and national German media then demonstrated an astonishing solidarity with the politics by refusing to illuminate the extent of raids, plunderings and rapes committed by refugees. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519489",
"title": "Eastern Front (World War II)",
"section": "Section::::Forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Soviet intelligence was fooled by German disinformation, so sent false alarms to Moscow about a German invasion in April, May and the beginning of June. Soviet intelligence reported that Germany would rather invade the USSR after the fall of the British Empire or after an unacceptable ultimatum demanding German occupation of Ukraine during the German invasion of Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15fv5d
|
Paper vs Electronics
|
[
{
"answer": "To add to that, how much difference is there between an e-ink e-reader and an actual book?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 350,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 350,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Electronic paper, also called e-paper, is a display technology designed to mimic the appearance of ordinary ink on paper. Electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while allowing the image to be changed later. Applications of e-paper technology include e-book readers capable of displaying digital versions of books, magazines and newspapers, electronic pricing labels in retail shops, time tables at bus stations, and electronic billboards. Electronic paper was invented in 1973 by Nick Sheridon at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center. The first electronic paper, called Gyricon, consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometres across.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524589",
"title": "Paper recycling",
"section": "Section::::Recycling facts and figures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Although paper is traditionally identified with reading and writing, communications has now been replaced by packaging as the single largest category of paper use at 41% of all paper used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9225",
"title": "Electronic paper",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "There are many approaches to electronic paper, with many companies developing technology in this area. Other technologies being applied to electronic paper include modifications of liquid crystal displays, electrochromic displays, and the electronic equivalent of an Etch A Sketch at Kyushu University. Advantages of electronic paper include low power usage (power is only drawn when the display is updated), flexibility and better readability than most displays. Electronic ink can be printed on any surface, including walls, billboards, product labels and T-shirts. The ink's flexibility would also make it possible to develop rollable displays for electronic devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9225",
"title": "Electronic paper",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Gyricon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by Nick Sheridon at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center. The first electronic paper, called Gyricon, consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometers across. Each sphere is a janus particle composed of negatively charged black plastic on one side and positively charged white plastic on the other (each bead is thus a dipole). The spheres are embedded in a transparent silicone sheet, with each sphere suspended in a bubble of oil so that they can rotate freely. The polarity of the voltage applied to each pair of electrodes then determines whether the white or black side is face-up, thus giving the pixel a white or black appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22190",
"title": "Organic electronics",
"section": "Section::::Organic electronic devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "One advantage of printed electronics is that different electrical and electronic components can be printed on top of each other, saving space and increasing reliability and sometimes they are all transparent. One ink must not damage another, and low temperature annealing is vital if low-cost flexible materials such as paper and plastic film are to be used. There is much sophisticated engineering and chemistry involved here, with iTi, Pixdro, Asahi Kasei, Merck & Co.|Merck, BASF, HC Starck, Hitachi Chemical and Frontier Carbon Corporation among the leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9225",
"title": "Electronic paper",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Several companies are simultaneously developing electronic paper and ink. While the technologies used by each company provide many of the same features, each has its own distinct technological advantages. All electronic paper technologies face the following general challenges:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12833594",
"title": "Paper battery",
"section": "Section::::Potential applications.:Lithium-ion Batteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1717,
"text": "Paper can be used in lithium-ion batteries as regular, commercial paper, or paper enhanced with single-walled carbon nanotubes. Enhanced paper is used as the electrode and as the separator which results in a sturdy, flexible battery that have great performance capabilities such as good cycling, great efficiency, and good reversibility. Using paper as a separator is more effective than using plastic. The process of enhancing the paper, however, can be complicated and costly, depending on the materials used. A carbon nanotube and silver nanowire film can be used to coat regular paper to create a simpler and less expensive separator and battery support. The conductive paper can also be used to replace traditionally used metallic chemicals. The resulting battery performs well, while simplifying the manufacturing process and reducing the cost. Lithium-ion paper batteries are flexible, durable, rechargeable, and produce significantly more power than electrochemical batteries. In spite of these advantages, there are still some drawbacks. In order for paper to be integrated with the Li-ion battery, complex layering and insulating techniques are required for the battery to function as desired. One reason these complex techniques are used is to strengthen the paper used so that it does not tear as easily. This contributes to the overall strength and flexibility of the battery. These techniques require time, training, and costly materials. Additionally, the individual materials required are not environmentally friendly and require specific disposal procedures. Paper lithium-ion batteries would be best suited for applications requiring a substantial amount of energy over an extended period of time. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
99cibf
|
How come Denmark ruled the Kalmar Union during 14-16 centuries, while Sweden was humongous in territory and Norway was considerably larger as well?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, first let's sort out what the Kalmar Union _was_ (and wasn't). \n\nIt was a personal union, where three different countries had the same monarch. All three Scandinavian countries had elective monarchies at that time, albeit with a preference for electing people within he same dynasties. So the nobles (or _stormän_, or jarls if you want to go even farther back) could elect and also dethrone kings. That alone tells you that the monarch was not that strong. The countries did not have strong central government. Besides power being held by local jarls, the church and its bishops had huge power and wealth. The countries had also been hit hard by the Great Plague int he 14th century, and the Hanseatic League of north Germany was the dominant trading power in the Baltic. Ok, so the king is fairly weak. Being in another country there's not even a theoretical chance of exercising direct control anyway. \n\nSo in the late 15th century Danish Margarethe comes along, and in very simplified terms, basically inherits Denmark, marries into Norway and gets herself elected as queen of Sweden on the condition of defeating their German king, which she does. Not bad! Not having any heirs of her own, she adopts her sister's daughter's son ~~Bogislav~~ now Erik of Pomerania, has him coronated in Kalmar and then an act of union is signed or something. We don't really know! The document we have doesn't have the correct seals on it, is on paper rather than the expected parchment, has amendments and crossed-out stufff and doesn't exist in six copies like it says it should, so interpretations have varied. It may be just a draft document, or it might be an attested copy of a summary of what was decided, which is why the seals aren't right - they're for the witnesses and not the original signers.. Anyway, the content makes it clear that the three countries remain three countries, with their own laws. But they are also bound to to assist each other in war. \n\nSo in short the monarch gets to collect taxes, appoint foged/fogde/fogds as local administrators and tax collectors, appoint clergy (the Vatican at that particular point is too weak to stop it), handle foreign policy and wage war. The latter bit is an important to the motive of taking up competition with the Hanseatic League. (at least according to historian Erik Lönnroth)\n\nAnyway, Margarethe still continues as de facto ruler but with power being gradually transferred to Erik until her death (1412). Already 1410 Erik starts war for territory against Holstein (at the base of the Jutland peninsula) and then against he Hanseatic League, which, with breaks, would continue until the 1430s. In 1429 he also starts trying to claim the Sound Toll on all shipping in and out of the Baltic, which would ultimately become a Danish cash-cow all the way until the 19th century.\n\nThis isn't that much in the interest of Sweden and Norway though. Norway's selling fish to the Hansa, who have offices in Bergen. (Everyone's still Catholic, so fish on Fridays is a big deal, not to mention lent) and Sweden's shipping iron from Bergslagen down to Lübeck through Stockholm (nominally a Hanseatic city). They have much less to gain from picking a fight with the Hanseatics. Add to that, the Swedes are angry that Erik has been appointing Germans and Danes as _fogdar_ in the crown castles and estates, despite promises that only Swedish nobles would get those. Taxes are high as well.\n\nSupposedly the Danish _fogde_ of Västerås, Jens Erikssøn, was super-cruel and forced pregnant women to work so hard they had miscarriages and other horrible things, according to the Swedsh chronicle of Engelbrekt, which is a highly biased source nobody really takes too seriously. But in any case, the figure Engelbrekt comes out of Bergslagen in 1434 and demands Erikssøn be replaced, but gets nothing. So he raises an army and takes matters into his own hands, forces Erikssøn out of his castle and executes him after a trial. The rebellion continues, with Engelbrekt and his men successfully laying siege to castle after castle until he's taken 14 of them, 2 in the then-Danish province of Halland before a truce is declared. At which point only the 7 strongest castles are still left in Sweden (plus the ones in Finland). \n\nAnyway, in the peace negotiations they agree on only letting the king put foreigners in three castles, that he was required to listen to the advice of the national council (but not to follow it), and that there would be future discussions about taxes. Notably, Engelbrekt did not demand or appear to want to dissolve the union, but the secessionist tendencies nevertheless increased in Sweden. Engelbrekt passed away in 1436, and the Swedish nobles, considering Erik to have broken the treaty in a number of ways (including by intending to designate a relative as heir without any election) declared Erik deposed not long after that. The remainder of the history is a pretty messy back-and-forth of rules, but the short is that the Swedes pretty much do what they want while the Danish kings try to reclaim power, it breaks out into open hostilities under Sten Sture the Elder and then the Younger (no relation! the latter just took the former's name as a political statemnet). Initially these are however fought mostly between pro-and-anti-union Swedes rather than being the Sweden-vs-Denmark affair it became at the end.\n\nSten Sture the Younger is killed by the invading Danish king Kristian II, who takes Stockholm, has himself coronated as king of Sweden and then celebrates with the Stockholm Bloodbath, where about 100 anti-unionist Swedish nobles are executed. This leads to Gustav Vasa taking up the fight (bankrolled by the Hansa) and defeating the Danes, becoming king (1523) that's the formal end of the union. Vasa also converts the country to Lutheranism, confiscates church property and gathers power, and it's now you start to have a really strong central state both in Sweden and Denmark. Not long after Frederik I of Denmark decides that Danish nobles should have privileges in Norway as well, and it's now the union really starts transforming into the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway-where-Denmark-calls-all-the-shots. (However even as Sweden had started to pull away, Denmark-Norway signed a treaty in 1450 stating they'd have the same king 'in perpetuity', so one might also consider it to have started there)\n\nHo-kay, so that's the short version of the history of the Kalmar Union. As you can hopefully tell from the above, you can't really describe it as Denmark ruling the union, but rather a \"king in Denmark\" ruling the union. One with certain tendencies to put Denmark's interests first. \n\nHow could Sweden and Norway be dominated by Denmark despite being bigger? Well, first - territory doesn't matter, especially not when it's mostly empty, as was the case. Denmark was population-wise larger than Norway, and about the same as Sweden in 1400. More importantly though, Denmark _couldn't_ actually rule Sweden once Swedish opinion was firmly anti-Danish, as during the end of the Union. But up to the Stockholm Bloodbath there were a significant amount of pro-union Swedes, especially in the clergy. Roughly it started becoming more of a Sweden-vs-Denmark thing around 1500. Of course nationalist historiography in Sweden would long paint it all from the start as a grand war of liberation from a foreign oppressor rather than strife between pro- and anti-unionist Swedish factions. \n\nThe probable reason why the coronation and act of union (if there was one) was in Kalmar is because it was a conveniently-located coastal town, near the Swedish-Danish border (Blekinge province being Danish at the time), roughly equidistant from Copenhagen and Stockholm, with a royal palace and a cathedral. So a good spot for everyone except the Norwegians.\n\nFinally as for why Copenhagen would be the seat of power, there's the simple fact Margarete was Danish. Sweden was the country she had least personal connections with. Copenhagen was closer to the continent, which she had plenty of aristocratic connections with. It was closer to other useful things like the Universty of Rostock, where Danes usually studied at that time. (Copenhagen and Uppsala Universities were founded in the 1470s) It was also much closer to the rival Hanseatic league, without them having as much influence as they did in Stockholm (which still has a medieval church just for Germans in the old town, to this day). \n\nSources: Any good Scandinavian general-history book will tell you all or most of the above, but I don't really know what to recommend in English. I like Alf Henriksson's book in Swedish though. There are some nice Danish books about Margarete in particular too (even fictionalized novels about her life).\n\nI'm also taking the 'conventional' view and fallacy of viewing the union with the hindsight of its dissolution, in giving the period 1440-1520 short thrift. If you want to start getting more angles on the union history Gustafsson's ['A state that failed?'](_URL_0_) is a great place to start.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119964",
"title": "History of Scandinavia",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages (1100–1600).:Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The Kalmar Union (Danish/Norwegian/Swedish: \"Kalmarunionen\") was a series of personal unions (1397–1520) that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden under a single monarch. The countries had given up their sovereignty but not their independence, and diverging interests (especially Swedish dissatisfaction over the Danish and Holsteinish dominance) gave rise to a conflict that would hamper it from the 1430s until its final dissolution in 1523.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "487079",
"title": "Political unions involving Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Kalmar Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In 1397 the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Sweden, Norway and Denmark were united in the Kalmar Union, a personal union agreed upon in the Swedish city of Kalmar. After only a few decades the relationship between Sweden and the leading power Denmark had deteriorated into open conflict. The period until the dissolution in 1521 was marked by the constant strife between Sweden and Denmark. The union was sometimes made defunct by Sweden electing a monarch separate from the union king, and on one occasion Sweden and Norway were even de facto united in a personal union in opposition to the union monarch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5925168",
"title": "List of monarchies",
"section": "Section::::Shared monarchies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 343,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 343,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Kalmar Union was a period between 1397 and 1536 in which Denmark, Norway and Sweden shared the same monarch as three independent countries. Norway and Denmark continued to share a monarchy from 1536 to 1814. Norway was then united under a common monarchy with Sweden from 1814 to 1905.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48683156",
"title": "Denmark–Sweden border",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Sweden and Denmark–Norway became separate countries with the breakup of the Kalmar Union in 1523. Until 1658, the historic provinces of Scania, Blekinge and Bohuslän (and until 1645 also Halland) belonged to Denmark, so that the Denmark–Sweden border ran across what is now southern Sweden. In 1645 and 1658 respectively, these provinces were ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde, establishing the Øresund as national boundary. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49587930",
"title": "Borders of Denmark",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Sweden and Denmark–Norway became separate= countries with the breakup of the Kalmar Union in 1523. Until 1658, the historic provinces of Skåne, Blekinge and Bohuslän (and until 1645 also Halland) belonged to Denmark, so that the Denmark–Sweden border ran across what is now southern Sweden. In 1645 and 1658 respectively, these provinces were ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde, establishing the Øresund as national boundary. The modern Norway–Sweden border remained the border between Denmark–Norway and Sweden until the breakup of Denmark and Norway in 1814. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "76972",
"title": "Denmark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1240,
"text": "The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea. Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were ruled together under one sovereign ruler in the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. The areas of Denmark and Norway remained under the same monarch until 1814, Denmark–Norway. Beginning in the 17th century, there were several devastating wars with the Swedish Empire, ending with large cessions of territory to Sweden. After the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden, while Denmark kept the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, which were defeated in the 1864 Second Schleswig War. Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945. An industrialised exporter of agricultural produce in the second half of the 19th century, Denmark introduced social and labour-market reforms in the early 20th century that created the basis for the present welfare state model with a highly developed mixed economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2584785",
"title": "Treaty of Stettin (1570)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The Kalmar Union comprising Sweden, Denmark and Norway, had broken apart in 1523. Frederick II of Denmark attempted to restore the Union under his rule. Frederick underlined his claim by using the Union's three crowns in his coat of arms and invaded Sweden in 1563; both actions are considered the starting events of the Seven Years' War. While the Danes had the upper hand in land battles and captured Älvsborg, the Swedes performed better in naval battles and in Livonia, which had been secularized before and now was a subject of territorial competition of the surrounding powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ar49ob
|
how do we know what prehistoric life was like?
|
[
{
"answer": "We have a good understanding of biomechanics, how the shape of bones, their growth and wear patterns, how ligaments were attached, and a lot of the details that tell us how the moved, how they ate and hunted. Teeth can tell you a lot about what sort of food an animal ate. The design of the head tells you how big their eyes, noses, and mouths were. Some bones have teeth marks, indicating that they were bitten by other dinosaurs. \n\nHere's a review article [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) on Dinosaur Biomechanics\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "148210",
"title": "Prion (bird)",
"section": "Section::::List of species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "In addition, fossil remains of some hitherto undescribed prehistoric species have been found. The oldest comes from the Late Miocene (Tortonian, some 7 to 12 million years ago) of the Bahía Inglesa Formation in Chile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "833593",
"title": "The Lost World (Conan Doyle novel)",
"section": "Section::::References in other works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The idea of prehistoric animals surviving into the present day was not new, but had already been introduced by Jules Verne in \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\". In that book, published in 1864, the creatures live under the earth in and around a subterranean sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19590450",
"title": "Obcell",
"section": "Section::::Hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "The beginning of life and living organisms is difficult to specifically date as proto-organisms' earliest existence left no paleontological clues. Cavalier-Smith argues that initially there was primordial soup which contained amino acids, the building blocks for proteins. Replication and phosphorylation were not relevant until the prebiotic soup started to become organized into the \"nucleic acid\" era. Although still not \"living,\" the substances during this period could replicate and undergo organized chemical processes. Based off these orderly processes, the world transitioned into an obcell world which included coding for proteins and chromosomes and the symbiotic interactions between membranes, genes, and enzymes. Obcells probably had a single membrane that was lipid-dense and also had specific cytoskeletal proteins that gave the obcells its curvature. These skeletal proteins were probably contained within the obcell's protoperiplasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Earliest evidence for life on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "The earliest identified organisms were minute and relatively featureless, and their fossils look like small rods that are very difficult to tell apart from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes. The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth, interpreted as fossilized bacteria, dates to 3 Ga. Other finds in rocks dated to about 3.5 Ga have been interpreted as bacteria, with geochemical evidence also seeming to show the presence of life 3.8 Ga. However, these analyses were closely scrutinized, and non-biological processes were found which could produce all of the \"signatures of life\" that had been reported. While this does not prove that the structures found had a non-biological origin, they cannot be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life. Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3.4 Ga have been interpreted as evidence for life, although these statements have not been thoroughly examined by critics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497415",
"title": "At the Mountains of Madness",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "A small advance group, led by Professor Lake, discovers the remains of fourteen prehistoric life-forms, previously unknown to science, and also unidentifiable as either plants or animals. Six of the specimens have been badly damaged, while another eight have been preserved in pristine condition. The specimens' stratum places them far too early on the geologic time scale for the features of the specimens to have evolved. Some fossils of Cambrian age show signs of the use of tools to carve a specimen for food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42073518",
"title": "Peter A. Rona",
"section": "Section::::Oceanography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Rona and Lutz had been scouring the ocean floors for the organism \"Paleodictyon nodosum\", believed to be one of the Earth's earliest complex life forms, or one of the oldest \"living fossils\". No living creatures have been found, only thousands of their formed hexagonal patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1226883",
"title": "Ngorongoro Conservation Area",
"section": "Section::::Oldupai or Olduvai Gorge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "It is one of the most important prehistoric sites in the world and research there has been instrumental in furthering understanding of early human evolution. Excavation work there was pioneered by Mary and Louis Leakey in the 1950s and is continued today by their family. Some believe that millions of years ago, the site was that of a large lake, the shores of which were covered with successive deposits of volcanic ash. Around 500,000 years ago seismic activity diverted a nearby stream which began to cut down into the sediments, revealing seven main layers in the walls of the gorge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53uetz
|
What was the fire rate of the matchlock musket, and how did it compare to wheel locks and flintlocks?
|
[
{
"answer": "16th century sources do indeed tend to be pretty unclear when it comes to firearm's rate of fire. Humfrey Barwick was a strong proponent of firearms at the end of the century and as such is probably represents the upper end of what might be expected in terms of fire rate. While serving as a mercenary for the French army he described a war meeting in which he overheard a nobleman claim that an arquebus could only be fired 10 times per hour. Some people apparently did think the fire rate was this low, but Barwick thought the man was daft and afterwards approached him offering to personally demonstrate shooting 40 times in one hour with a single piece. One shot every 1 minute and 30 seconds doesn't seem like much, but this seems to have only been the rate for long term fire over the course of an hour, which would have required occasionally cleaning the weapon, adjusting the match, and measuring the powder for each shot independently since a soldier at the time typically didn't carry 40 whole wooden cartridges at a time.\n\nFor short term rate of fire, later on in his discourse he described the maximum number of times that a soldier with a *musket* could shoot at an advancing army, which involved shooting once in the time it took the enemy to march (not running) 80 yards (presumably 60-90 seconds, he recommended making up the difference by shooting multiple bullets at a time as the enemy got closer). The fact that he says this is for a musket is significant because the 16th century musket was a very different beast compared to the muskets of the 17th and 18th centuries. It was extremely heavy with a longer barrel and a larger bore than later weapons and had to be supported by a forked rest while firing. Most troops at the time would have been armed with an arquebus or caliver, firearms which which were much lighter and had a much shorter barrel. Humfrey Barwick and Sir Roger Williams both wrote that the arquebus/caliver could fire twice as quickly as the clumsy musket could (though they prefered the latter because of its far greater force).\n\nThat would make the ideal rate of fire for the late 16th century arquebus/caliver: 30-45 seconds per shot max, 40 shots per hour sustained\n\nAnd for the heavy musket: 60-90 seconds per shot max, 20 shots per hour sustained.\n\nAs far as how rate of fire compares to the wheel lock or flintlock. A matchlock is generally more complicated to load since it requires constantly tending the match to keep it burning as well as adjusting the match length as it burns down. In addition manuals on loading reccomends removing the match after every shot and holding it in the opposite hand so the soldier doesn't accidentally blow himself up while handling powder (loading could still potentially be done much faster if shortcuts are taken as demonstrated by [this reenactor with an arquebus](_URL_0_)). A wheel lock firearm did away all this but added the need to reset the spring with a specialized tool after every shot. As far as flintlocks go, most manuals and sources tend to give a maximum fire rate of around 3, maybe four shots per minute. As far as I know, even with greatly simplified drills reenactors tend to have a lot of difficulty reloading a full sized Napoleonic musket in under 20 seconds.\n\nSo to sum up, 16th century muskets did take a long time to reload, largely due to its size. A flintlock musket was generally quicker and easier to reload than a 16th century matchlock caliver (which was similar in length and weight) though probably not as much as you're saying. And there was more to reload speed than the type of lock.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2250567",
"title": "Line infantry",
"section": "Section::::Arms and equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "At the end of the 17th century, a flaw within the design of matchlock muskets became more apparent. Since the matchlock musket used a slow burning piece of twine known as a slow match, the twine sometimes would accidentally set fire to the gunpowder reservoir in the musket prematurely setting off all of the gunpowder and bringing serious injury and death to the operator. During this time, matchlock muskets began to be replaced by lighter and cheaper infantry fusils with flintlocks, weighing 5 kg with a caliber of 17.5 mm, first in France and then in other countries. In many countries, the new fusils retained the name \"musket\". Both muskets and fusils were smoothbore, which lessened their accuracy and range, but made for faster loading, lesser amount of bore fouling and more robust, less complicated firearms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2234297",
"title": "Carignan-Salières Regiment",
"section": "Section::::Troop life.:Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- Flintlock musket: became the main weapon of long range fighting for the Carignan-Salières. It replaced the matchlock musket that was common in early years due to its increased reliability and ability to be fired without the use of an external flame. Additionally, it was capable of a much higher rate of fire than the earlier matchlock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4512473",
"title": "Springfield Model 1840 flintlock musket",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The Springfield Model 1840 flintlock musket was manufactured in Springfield. The .69 caliber musket had a 42-inch (107 cm) barrel, an overall length of 58 inches (147 cm), and a weight of 9.8 pounds (4,4 kg). More than 30,000 were produced by the Springfield Armory and two independent contractors between 1840 and 1846 (D. Nippes and L. Pomeroy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3595931",
"title": "Sailing ship tactics",
"section": "Section::::Technical innovations in the late 18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "BULLET::::- The flintlock: flintlock firing mechanisms for cannon were suggested by Captain Sir Charles Douglas and introduced during the American War of Independence in place of the traditional matches. Flintlocks enabled a higher rate of fire and greater accuracy as the gun captain could choose the exact moment of firing. Prior to this the Royal Navy introduced the use of goose quills filled with powder during the Seven Years' War giving an almost instantaneous burn time compared with earlier methods of detonation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4512473",
"title": "Springfield Model 1840 flintlock musket",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The Model 1840 was the last flintlock musket produced at Springfield Armory. Many were converted to percussion lock before they made it to the field. Although produced as a smoothbore musket, most of the Model 1840s had their barrels rifled later, as the designers had anticipated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224589",
"title": "Nine Years' War",
"section": "Section::::Weapons, technology, and the art of war.:Military developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1251,
"text": "The major advancement in weapon technology in the 1690s was the introduction of the flintlock musket. The new firing mechanism provided superior rates of fire and accuracy over the cumbersome matchlocks. But the adoption of the flintlock was uneven, and until 1697 for every three Allied soldiers that were equipped with the new muskets, two soldiers were still handicapped by matchlocks: French second-line troops were issued matchlocks as late as 1703. These weapons were further enhanced with the development of the socket-bayonet. Its predecessor, the plug bayonet – jammed down the firearm's barrel – not only prevented the musket from firing but was also a clumsy weapon that took time to fix properly, and even more time to unfix. In contrast, the socket-bayonet could be drawn over the musket's muzzle and locked into place by a lug, converting the musket into a short pike yet leaving it capable of fire. The disadvantage of the pike came to be widely recognised: at the Battle of Fleurus in 1690, German battalions armed only with the musket repulsed French cavalry attacks more effectively than units conventionally armed with the pike, while Catinat had abandoned his pikes altogether before undertaking his Alpine campaign against Savoy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1597900",
"title": "Naval artillery",
"section": "Section::::Age of Sail.:Technical innovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Flintlock firing mechanisms for cannon were suggested by Captain Sir Charles Douglas and introduced during the American War of Independence in place of the traditional matches. Flintlocks enabled a higher rate of fire and greater accuracy as the gun captain could choose the exact moment of firing. Prior to this the Royal Navy introduced the use of goose quills filled with powder during the Seven Years' War giving an almost instantaneous burn time compared with earlier methods of detonation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cxhe0k
|
what's a good source of hydration during a hurricane if water supply in stores is sold out?
|
[
{
"answer": "The point is to stock up beforehand. Water comes out of your faucet for hundreds of times cheaper than in the store.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Top part of the toilet. Seems gross but it’s actually clean except for a few airborne poo particles that sneak under the lid. No more than you breathe in all day anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is better in r/answers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "280509",
"title": "Fire hydrant",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "To prevent casual use or misuse, the hydrant requires special tools to be opened, usually a large wrench with a pentagonal socket. Vandals sometimes cause monetary loss by wasting water when they open hydrants. Such vandalism can also reduce municipal water pressure and impair firefighters' efforts to extinguish fires. Sometimes those simply seeking to play in the water remove the caps and open the valve, providing residents a place to play and cool off in summer. However, this is usually discouraged as residents have been struck by passing automobiles while playing in the street in the water spray. In spite of this, some US communities provide low flow sprinkler heads to enable residents to use the hydrants to cool off during hot weather, while gaining some control on water usage. Most fire hydrants in Australia are protected by a silver-coloured cover with a red top, secured to the ground with bolts to protect the hydrant from vandalism and unauthorized use. The cover must be removed before use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11524334",
"title": "Standpipe (street)",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, an \"Emergency Drought Order\" permits a water company to shut off the primary water supply to homes, and to supply water instead from tanks or standpipes in the streets. This was done in some areas during the 1976 heat wave, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "280509",
"title": "Fire hydrant",
"section": "Section::::Non-pressurized (dry) hydrants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "In rural areas where municipal water systems are not available, dry hydrants are used to supply water for fighting fires. A dry hydrant is analogous to a standpipe. A dry hydrant is usually an unpressurized, permanently installed pipe that has one end below the water level of a lake or pond. This end usually has a strainer to prevent debris, such as frogs, from entering the pipe. The other end is above ground and has a hard sleeve connector. When needed, a pumper fire engine will pump from the lake or pond by drafting water. This is done by vacuuming the air out of the dry hydrant, hard sleeve, and the fire engine pump with a primer. Because lower pressure now exists at the pump intake, atmospheric pressure on the water and the weight of the water forces water into part of the dry hydrant above water, into the hard sleeve, and finally into the pump. This water can then be pumped by the engine's centrifugal pump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33044546",
"title": "Block 5A, South Sudan",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Large amounts of saline water are injected into the sub-surface around the oil reservoirs to maintain oil pressure, and this can cause health problems if people drink the water. Witnesses also said that toxic waste was being dumped into pits in the dried swamp, which would flood into the marshes in the rainy season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47739166",
"title": "Lone Chimney Lake",
"section": "Section::::Impact of drought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "In 2012, drought had severely damaged the capability to supply water to about 16,000 customers,because the lake level had dropped below normal. One of the water intakes was above the water level, while the other was partially above the line. By January 14, 2014, a television newscast reported that the lake was within a few weeks of running out of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402923",
"title": "Bottled water",
"section": "Section::::Product Forms.:Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Bottled water is often stored as part of an emergency kit in case of natural disaster. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) says the \"safest\" and \"most reliable\" source of drinking water is store bought bottled water. Commonly, disaster management experts recommend storing of water per person, per day for at least three days. This amount is intended to include water for drinking and cooking as well as water for hand washing, washing dishes, and personal hygiene. Factory-containers of water have an indefinite shelf life, as long as they remain unopened and undamaged. The sell-by date is voluntarily and individually set by manufacturers to indicate the length of time that they believe the water will taste and smell fresh, rather than to indicate any issue of contamination or food safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15380061",
"title": "Water scarcity",
"section": "Section::::Depletion of freshwater resources.:Groundwater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "To set up a big plant near a water abundant area, bottled water companies need to extract groundwater from a source at a rate more than the replenishment rate leading to the persistent decline in the groundwater levels. The groundwater is taken out, bottled, and then shipped all over the country or world and this water never goes back. When the water table depletes beyond a critical limit, bottling companies just move from that area leaving a grave water scarcity. Groundwater depletion impacts everyone and everything in the area that uses the water: farmers, businesses, animals, ecosystems, tourism and other users e.g. people reliant on a local well for potable water. Millions of gallons of water out of the ground leaves the water table depleted uniformly and not just in that area because the water table is connected across the landmass. Bottling Plants generate water scarcity and impact ecological balance. They lead to water stressed areas which bring in droughts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lvtc4
|
why does canceling a credit card with a zero balance hurt my credit score
|
[
{
"answer": "Assuming you have other credit and you have outstanding balances. Canceling increases your credit utilization %..\n\nLets say you have two cards and one has a balance\nA:$50/$100\nB: $0/$100\nYou are using 25% of your available credit.\n\nYou cancel card B\n\nYour are now using 50% of your available credit.\n\nCredit scores are a bit of a scam, they measure more your ability to keep paying than anything else... in fact most companies would prefer you keep paying your minimum and send them money for ever.\n\nThis is why the following can also hurt your score:\n- Having TOO Much available credit, IE you have lots of cards with $0 on them but the total credit has become a risk in-case you snap and max them all at once.\n- You have no credit cards, and have always payed for everything.. Even if you have good income, this can be a problem if they haven't been able to build a history of your reliability to pay.\n\nIf you have Netflix check if the movie [Maxed Out](_URL_0_) is still on their... it explains consumer debt fairly well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Credit ratings are for the benefit of credit card companies, not for you. They want customers who can pay off their balance, but not so fast they don't earn interest off of it first.\n\nSome savvy customers try to get better rates by signing up for introductory rates cards, then cancelling them when the rate goes up. Credit card companies don't make money of these people, so credit ratings penalize this behavior.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "462448",
"title": "Credit score in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Easily gamed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Because a significant portion of the FICO score is determined by the ratio of credit used to credit available on credit card accounts, one way to increase the score is to increase the credit limits on one's credit card accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2183979",
"title": "Universal default",
"section": "Section::::Ban on forms of universal default.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "However, this law did not prohibit all forms of universal default. Credit card companies have begun the practice of canceling altogether the accounts of customers who are delinquent or in default with other credit agencies even if the customer is still in good standing with the credit card company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1471699",
"title": "Credit card debt",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Declines in credit card debt are often misinterpreted because they fail to include information about charge-offs. The possible causes for a decline in credit card debt are consumers paying down their debt, credit card companies writing charged-off debt off their books, or a combination of the two. Inclusion of charged-off debt can therefore significantly impact debt trends and the characterization of a nation's financial health. For example, the $10.3 billion decrease in outstanding credit card debt in Q3 2010 relative to the previous quarter might at first glance seem to be a significant consumer pay down. However, considering that the Q3 credit card charge-off rate was $16.9 billion, consumers actually increased their overall debt by $6.6 billion during this quarter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "This second form of credit card hijacking was created by marketers who recognized that subscription based services generally have relatively low periodic billing amounts which will generally go unnoticed on any given credit card statement. So what happens is that long after the user loses interest in the subscription, they forget to cancel the subscription and because the periodic billing is so low, they don’t tend to notice it on their credit card statement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19264478",
"title": "Alternative data",
"section": "Section::::Alternative data for credit in North America.:United States.:Current use of alternative data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Since the financial crisis of late 2008, many Americans have struggled with the negative change to their credit score. Reduced credit lines resulting in a new group of consumers in need of liquidity forced this growing consumer segment to seek alternative financial services providers. Businesses relying on traditional credit reports to make credit decisions have had limited to no visibility on the new credit usage behaviors of this growing portion because alternative data is not information that the traditional bureaus capture or tend to report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Detriments to cardholders.:High interest and bankruptcy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Low introductory credit card rates are limited to a fixed term, usually between 6 and 12 months, after which a higher rate is charged. As all credit cards charge fees and interest, some customers become so indebted to their credit card provider that they are driven to bankruptcy. Some credit cards often levy a rate of 20 to 30 percent after a payment is missed. In other cases, a fixed charge is levied without change to the interest rate. In some cases universal default may apply: the high default rate is applied to a card in good standing by missing a payment on an unrelated account from the same provider. This can lead to a snowball effect in which the consumer is drowned by unexpectedly high interest rates. Further, most card holder agreements enable the issuer to arbitrarily raise the interest rate for any reason they see fit. First Premier Bank at one point offered a credit card with a 79.9% interest rate; however, they discontinued this card in February 2011 because of persistent defaults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462448",
"title": "Credit score in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Credit scoring models.:FICO score.:Makeup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Getting a higher credit limit can help a credit score. The higher the credit limit on the credit card, the lower the utilization ratio average for all of a borrower's credit card accounts. The utilization ratio is the amount owed divided by the amount extended by the creditor and the lower it is the better a FICO rating, in general. So if a person has one credit card with a used balance of $500 and a limit of $1,000 as well as another with a used balance of $700 and $2,000 limit, the average ratio is 40 percent ($1,200 total used divided by $3,000 total limits). If the first credit card company raises the limit to $2,000, the ratio lowers to 30 percent, which could boost the FICO rating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w6l9w
|
Do computer screens have a direct effect on our levels of melatonin?
|
[
{
"answer": "Source:\n_URL_0_\n\nBasically yes, but only very slightly. Computer screens do suppress Melatonin levels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here are a few papers I found that might help this discussion:\n\n \n1. Kubota T, Uchiyama M, Suzuki H, Shibui K, Kim K, et al. (2002). [\"Effects of nocturnal bright light on saliva melatonin, core body temperature and sleep propensity rhythms in human subjects.\"](_URL_0_)\n\n2. Cajochen C, Frey S, Anders D, Späti J, Bues M, et al. (2011). [\"Evening exposure to a light-emitting diodes (LED)-backlit computer screen affects circadian physiology and cognitive performance.\"](_URL_1_)\n\n---\n\n[The Research page on the f.lux website](_URL_2_) is rich with links to papers focused on this area of study.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer is: yes, [computer monitors suppress the natural release of melatonin during the biological night](_URL_8_). But this is not unique to computer monitors -- *all* artificial and natural light that is bright enough suppresses melatonin, including blue and other colors of light.\n\nHere is how melatonin release normally works. The brain contains a master circadian clock -- it is a group of a few thousand neurons called the [suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)](_URL_6_) in the hypothalamus -- that keeps approximately 24-hour time. This clock sends signals to many other brain regions, one of which is the pineal gland. As an aside, the signal takes a [rather crazy pathway](_URL_7_) via the superior cervical ganglion in the neck. As a result, people who have severed their spinal cord above this level (i.e., people with tetraplegia) [release no detectable melatonin at all](_URL_0_).\n\nThe SCN signals the pineal gland to release melatonin across the night. The timing of melatonin release (in the total absence of light) is variable between individuals, but it is typical for melatonin release to begin a couple of hours before bed and to end around wake time. Light exposure during the night causes the SCN to send a stop signal to the pineal gland, causing melatonin release to cease. [Once the light source is removed, melatonin release will ramp up again if it is still during the nighttime release interval](_URL_4_). No melatonin is released during the biological day, even in darkness.\n\nSo how bright does the light need to be to suppress melatonin? It turns out the circadian system is very sensitive to light. Using broad-spectrum white light, [dim indoor lighting is sufficient to cause 50% suppression of melatonin release](_URL_10_).\n\nAnd what about the color of light? I often hear that it's just blue light that matters. This is not quite correct -- it's an oversimplification. The wikipedia passage you linked to is misleading in this respect. Let me explain why. The SCN receives light signals from a special population of cells in the retina, called [intrinsically-photosensitive retinal ganglion cells](_URL_5_), or ipRGCs for short. These cells are involved in sensing light for non-visual purposes, such as the circadian system and the pupillary reflex to light. It is possible to be visually blind yet still have this non-visual light-detecting system intact, but for some blind people this system is destroyed as well (e.g., if the eyes are removed), meaning the circadian rhythm is unable to be reset by light and runs at its intrinsic period (different between individuals and not exactly 24 hours).\n\nThe ipRGCs have their own photopigment called [melanopsin](_URL_3_) (which was only discovered in the last 20 years!), allowing them to detect light. The melanopsin molecule is most sensitive to blue light (around 460-480nm wavelength), which is where this idea that blue light is the only really important color of light for melatonin suppression comes from.\n\nHowever, things are a bit more complicated than that. The ipRGCs *also* receive inputs from the cone/rod system, which is maximally sensitive to green light! I have drawn a simple schematic of the pathways [here](_URL_9_). As a result, the suppression of melatonin is achieved by a combination of rod/cone and melanopsin responses to light. For relatively short light pulses (up to minutes), the rod/cone system is highly responsive and [green light is just as effective as blue light for suppressing melatonin](_URL_1_). For longer exposures (hours or longer), blue light has the greatest effect. However, if the light is bright enough, any color light can suppress melatonin release.\n\nThere are some programs now (e.g., f.lux) that redden the screen at night, thereby reducing the blue content of the light. While I am not aware of any rigorous studies of these programs to date, they are based on sound scientific reasoning. Reducing the blue content of light at night will reduce (but not eliminate) the effect on the circadian system. This makes it easier to fall asleep for two reasons. First, there will be less suppression of melatonin, and melatonin helps sleep onset to occur. Second, light in the late evening and early night causes [delay of the circadian rhythm](_URL_2_), which pushes the brain's sleep onset signal and the release of melatonin back later into the night, which can cause insomnia on that night and subsequent nights.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "“Artificial light exposure between dusk and the time we go to bed at night suppresses release of the sleep-promoting hormone melatonin, enhances alertness and shifts circadian rhythms to a later hour–making it more difficult to fall asleep,” says Charles Czeisler, Ph.D., MD, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital. “This study reveals that light-emitting screens are in heavy use within the pivotal hour before sleep. Invasion of such alerting technologies into the bedroom may contribute to the high proportion of respondents who reported that they routinely get less sleep than they need.” Computer or laptop use is also common. Roughly six in ten (61%) say they use their laptops or computers at least a few nights a week within the hour before bed. More than half of generation Z’ers (55%) and slightly less of generation Y’ers (47%) say they surf the Internet every night or almost every night within the hour before sleep.\"\n\nNational Sleep Foundation, 2011 survey, via _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24298549",
"title": "Alpha-Methyldopamine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "Interest lies in the fact that MDA and MDMA may not themselves be responsible for their neurotoxicity, as an intracerebroventricular injection does not appear to cause neurotoxicity. While many studies suggest excitotoxicity or oxidative stress as likely mechanisms, which may be an effect of MDMA itself, this has led to the search for other mechanisms for the observed toxicity of serotonin axons and subsequent reduction in 5-HT (Serotonin) and 5-HIAA (its major metabolite in the body) in vivo following administration. A common theory follows that a metabolite in the periphery must be responsible, and several have been cited as responsible. Although alpha-methyldopamine is widely cited as the source of this neurotoxicity in a number of lay sources, McCann, \"et al.\" (1991), demonstrated that the major metabolites alpha-methyldopamine (α-Me-DA or HHA) and 3-O-methyl-α-methyldopamine (3-O-Me-α-MeDA or HMA) did not produce neurotoxicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19557982",
"title": "Default mode network",
"section": "Section::::Modulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "BULLET::::- Psychedelic drugs – Reduced blood flow to the PCC and mPFC was observed under the administration of psilocybin. These two areas are considered to be the main nodes of the DMN. One study on the effects of LSD demonstrated that the drug desynchronizes brain activity within the DMN; the activity of the brain regions that constitute the DMN becomes less correlated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "Section::::MDMA and Visual Orientation Processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Recent research investigating MDMA has revealed the neurotoxic effect of the drug on brain serotonin neurons. Long term and potentially permanent changes to serotonergic axons have been noted in animal and primate studies where they were administered doses of MDMA similar to those taken by some human users. MDMA has subsequently been used to investigate the role that serotonin may play in visual orientation processing. Serotonin neurons are thought to reside in the occipital lobe, which is an area of the brain responsible for visual processing of line orientation, edges, motion and stereoscopic depth perception. Because MDMA is known to affect serotonin and that serotonin is thought to be involved in vision, individuals who take MDMA may exhibit differences in their visual orientation processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38468",
"title": "Psilocybin",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) have been known to prolong and enhance the effects of DMT and one study assumed that the effect on psilocybin would be similar since it is a structural analogue of DMT. Alcohol consumption may enhance the effects of psilocybin, because acetaldehyde, one of the primary breakdown metabolites of consumed alcohol, reacts with biogenic amines present in the body to produce MAOIs related to tetrahydroisoquinoline and β-carboline. Tobacco smokers may also experience more powerful effects with psilocybin, because tobacco smoke exposure decreases the activity of MAO in the brain and peripheral organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50732180",
"title": "The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing",
"section": "Section::::MDMA and Visual Orientation Processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The relationship between the effect of MDMA and serotonin's role in visual orientation processing has been investigated following a prior study conducted in the 1990s by Maisini, Antonietti and Moja (1990). Their experiment involved subjects ingesting a mixture which significantly reduced brain serotonin levels. This reduction in serotonin resulted in an increase in the magnitude of the TAE in those subjects. This study has since been used as the foundation for the idea that MDMA neurotoxicity, due to its effect on serotonin neurons, could influence the magnitude of the TAE in individuals who use MDMA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231014",
"title": "Delayed sleep phase disorder",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.:Comorbidity.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "A direct neurochemical relationship between sleep mechanisms and depression is another possibility. DSPD may cause excessive or inappropriate production of melatonin. Serotonin, a mood regulator, is the precursor of melatonin. As a result, increased endogenous melatonin production can deplete serotonin levels and may cause depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10024",
"title": "MDMA",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "The experience elicited by MDMA depends on the dose, setting, and user. The variability of the induced altered state by MDMA is lower compared to other psychedelics. For example, MDMA used at parties is associated with high motor activity, reduced sense of self-identity as well as poor awareness of the background surroundings. Use of MDMA individually or in a small groups in a quiet environment and when concentrating, is associated with increased lucidity, capability of concentration, sensitivity of aesthetic aspects of the background and emotions, as well as greater capability of communication with others. In psychotherapeutic settings MDMA effects have been described by infantile ideas, alternating phases of mood, sometimes memories and moods connected with childhood experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22tnmq
|
why do indian reservations have such high unemployment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Very true and in case you have forgotten, the reservations were the tracts of mostly worthless land nobody wanted, far from civilisation. That should explain the dismal prospects ofvthe denizens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First Reason: No jobs... \nSecond Reason: Remote... \nThird Reason: Culture Shock...\n\nSimplest terms these three in combination with each other is why... Every other problem stems from these...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. They're in bad locations in the middle of nowhere. What sort of jobs would be found there? They're usually too poor to leave, and if they do, they generally won't be supported by the other members for betraying their culture. And if they leave, they really will eventually lose it. I guess this sort of things applies to poor inner city youth too, or most groups in poverty who band together.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38978117",
"title": "Native Americans and reservation inequality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Native American reservation inequality underlies a range of societal issues that affect the lives of Native American populations residing on reservations in the United States. About one third of the Native American population, about 700,000 persons, lives on an Indian Reservation in the United States. Reservation poverty and other discriminatory factors have led to persisting social inequality on Native American reservations. Disparities between many aspects of life at the national level and at the reservation level, such as quality of education, quality of healthcare, substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, violence, and suicide rates are significant in demonstrating the inequality of opportunities and situations between reservations and the rest of the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661225",
"title": "Red Lake Indian Reservation",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century to present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "In part because of the reservation's isolation, it has struggled economically. Many people are unemployed. High unemployment has contributed to high rates of poverty, alcoholism, violence and suicide. As a result, since the 1990s, the school board has added classes to the high school curriculum to include drug and alcohol abuse prevention, anti-gang training, anti-bullying training, and instruction about fetal alcohol syndrome. As a result of gang killings in the 1990s, the school added security measures to the high school, including guards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42784744",
"title": "2019 Indian general election",
"section": "Section::::Campaigning.:Issues.:Unemployment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "According to the Pew Research Center, a majority of Indian voters consider the lack of employment opportunities as a \"very big problem\" in their country. \"About 18.6 million Indians were jobless and another 393.7 million work in poor-quality jobs vulnerable to displacement\", states the Pew report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42342847",
"title": "Unemployment in India",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.:2018-2019 reports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "According to the Pew Research Center, a significant majority of Indians consider the lack of employment opportunities as a \"very big problem\" in their country. \"About 18.6 million Indians were jobless and another 393.7 million work in poor-quality jobs vulnerable to displacement\", states the Pew report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52883480",
"title": "Economically Weaker Section",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "People belonging to Economically Weaker Section now get 10% reservation in education and government jobs of India similarly like OBC, SC, ST. There was huge unrest among people which came out in many ways including the form of anti-reservation agitations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1552939",
"title": "North India",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "A large number of unskilled and skilled workers have moved to Southern India and other nations because of the unavailability of jobs locally. The technology boom that occurred in the past three decades in Southern India has helped many Indians from the north to find jobs and live prosperous lives in Southern cities. An analysis by Multidimensional Poverty Index creators reveals that Acute poverty prevails in eight Indian states. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17334094",
"title": "Reservation poverty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Reservations vary drastically in their size, population, political economy, culture and traditions. Despite such variation, all reservations share similar histories of colonization, and face similar contemporary challenges. One of these challenges is poverty. In 2010, the poverty rate on reservations was 28.4 percent, compared with 22 percent among all American Indians (on and off reservations). The official U.S. poverty rate for 2016 was much lower, at 12.7 percent. In addition to poverty rates, reservations are hindered by lower-than-national-average education levels, poor healthcare services, low employment, substandard housing, and deficient economic infrastructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
asxdxy
|
how do motor boat engines not get water logged?
|
[
{
"answer": "Same reason your car motor doesn't get water logged when you drive in rain or puddles.\n\nThe motor is not in the water. It's spins a shaft which is also attached to a propeller, that goes into the water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The actual motor is well above the waterline, usually at least 1-2 feet. Like on this outboard boat for example \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe actual motor part is in that black plastic housing, there's possibly a gear box and shaft that goes down to the actual propeller. In theory water could get into the housing for the shaft, proper maintenance of the shaft seals, and a lot of marine rated grease will protect them from water damage. The grease lubricates any moving parts, but also fills any gaps with grease where water could enter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On large sailboats with internal motors there is a thing called a stuffing box. Between the water and the engine is a box like compartment that contains a grease infused material that keeps water out yet is slippery enough to allow the shaft to spin. The compartment on my boat is six or eight inches deep, and it is stuffed tightly so there is basically no room for water to enter. One interesting aspect of this is that if there isn't a tiny bit of water coming through, like a drip a minute, the grease can dry out. So the box is made so it can be tightened or loosened. Eventually you run out of room to tighten and you have to pull the boat out of the water and replace the material. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "854900",
"title": "Amphicar",
"section": "Section::::Powertrain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The Amphicar's engine was mounted at the rear of the craft, driving the rear wheels through a 4-speed manual transmission. For use in the water, the same engine drove a pair of reversible propellers at the rear, with a second gear lever engaging forward or reverse drive. Once in the water, the main gear lever would normally be left in neutral. By engaging first gear as well as drive to the propellers when approaching a boat ramp, the Amphicar could drive itself out of the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574964",
"title": "Motorboat",
"section": "Section::::History.:Expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1214,
"text": "A motorboat has one engine or more that propel the vessel over the top of the water. Boat engines vary in shape, size and type. Engines are installed either inboard or outboard. Inboard engines are part of the boat construction, while outboatboard engines are secured to the transom and hangs off the back of the boat. Motorboat engines run on gasoline or diesel and fuel. Engines come in various types. Engines vary in fuel type such as: gasoline, diesel, gas turbine, rotary combustion or steam. Motorboats are commonly used for recreation, sport or racing. Boat racing is a sport where drivers and engineers compete for fastest boat. The American Powerboat Association (APBA) splits the sport into categories. The categories include: inboard, inboard endurance, professional outboard, stock outboard, unlimited outboard performance craft, drag, modified outboard and offshore. Engines and hulls categorize racing. The two types of hull shape are runabout and hydroplane. Runabout is a v-shape and hydroplane is flat and stepped. The type of hull used depends on the type of water the boat is in and how the boat is being used. Hulls can be made of wood, fiberglass or metal but most hulls today are fiberglass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156481",
"title": "Amphibious vehicle",
"section": "Section::::General technical notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "For propulsion in or on the water some vehicles simply make do by spinning their wheels or tracks, while others can power their way forward more effectively using (additional) screw propeller(s) or water jet(s). Most amphibians will work only as a displacement hull when in the water – only a small number of designs have the capability to raise out of the water when speed is gained, to achieve high velocity hydroplaning, skimming over the water surface like speedboats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3799760",
"title": "Radio-controlled boat",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Racing power boats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1392,
"text": "Power boats are typically Fast electric or internal combustion, (ignition engine or glow plug R/C engine based) and some are steam powered (conventional type, and also flash steam). (At one time some boats used engines working on the compression ignition principle. These were not diesels in the true sense of the word but the modelling fraternity frequently referred to them as such. A few enthusiasts still operate such engines.) The power is commonly used to rotate a submerged propeller, aircraft propeller or jet which in turn provide the thrust to move the craft. Typically power boats have two controls, rudder, outboard motor or stern drive and throttle control. Powered scale boats will often have additional remote-controlled functions to improve realism, e.g. sounding fog horns, rotating radar antennae etc. Some of the more sophisticated powered racing boats may also have additional remote-controlled functions. These may include remote mixture control allowing the driver to optimise the fuel/air mixture during a race. Another function occasionally implemented for racing boats using a surface piercing propellor is remote control of depth or angle of thrust. There are three main types of power boat. RTR(ready-to-run), ARTR(almost-ready-to-run), and kit versions are available. All thoroughbred racing boats are made from kits and the builders add their own gear and radio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "751892",
"title": "USS Adder",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "For surface running, they were powered by one gasoline engine that drove the single propeller. When submerged the propeller was driven by a electric motor. The boats could reach on the surface and underwater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "751942",
"title": "USS Moccasin (SS-5)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "For surface running, they were powered by one gasoline engine that drove the single propeller shaft. When submerged the propeller was driven by a electric motor. The boats could reach on the surface and underwater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574964",
"title": "Motorboat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A motorboat, speedboat, or powerboat is a boat which is powered by an engine. Some motorboats are fitted with inboard engines, others have an outboard motor installed on the rear, containing the internal combustion engine, the gearbox and the propeller in one portable unit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8b3pec
|
Are there any good book (for layman) about climate changes and their impact on the course of human history/prehistory? Hopefully with maps.
|
[
{
"answer": "Although comprehensive only in the sense that it attempts to cover the whole globe across most of the seventeenth century, with special focus on the impact of the Little Ice Age and associated abnormal El Nino episodes, Geoffrey Parker's book *The Global Crisis* (2013) is a major contribution by a senior historian to efforts to integrate social, political and environmental history. \n\nParker's thesis is that climate change during this period is crucial to understanding the very widespread political turmoil of the 17th century, which \"saw more cases of simultaneous state breakdown around the globe than any previous or subsequent age\" – from the Thirty Years War and British civil wars to the Fronde, the downfall of the Ming dynasty, civil war in Mughal India, the overthrow of the African kingdom of Kongo, and the disintegration of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth. \n\nParker contends that the period was also marked by a sharp increase in the number of revolts, and more and longer wars than occurred in any comparable period before the 20th century, all accompanied by dearth and plague leading to massive mortality – which in turn led (as Hobbes suggested in *Leviathan*) to the feeling that\n\n > \"There is [now] no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain, and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; ... no arts; no letters; no society. And, which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.\"\n\nand which prompted the contemporary Welsh historian James Howell to conclude that:\n\n > \"God Almighty has a quarrel lately with all mankind, and given the reins to the ill spirit to compass the whole earth; for within these twelve years [1637-49] there have the strangest revolutions and horridest things happened, not only in Europe but all the world over, that have befallen mankind, I dare boldly say, since Adam fell, in so short a revolution of time ... [Such] monstrous things have happened [that] it seems the whole world is off the hinges.\"\n\nFinally, although perhaps least persuasively, Parker also attempts to explain why Japan, pretty much alone among the major nations studied, escaped most of the problems caused by climate change in this period.\n\nIt's a very big book, but he writes extremely well and it flies by, if the subject matter itself grips you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20248326",
"title": "Field Notes from a Catastrophe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature, and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert. The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change. Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways. These locations include Alaska, Greenland, the Netherlands, and Iceland. The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels, thawing permafrost, diminishing ice shelves, changes in migratory patterns, and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation. She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings. Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists. She also writes about America’s reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Leading this resistance, she explained, was the Bush administration, which was opposed to the Kyoto Protocol since it was ratified in 2005. Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4242197",
"title": "Raymond S. Bradley",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "Bradley's research focuses on climate variability over recent centuries and millennia, using instrumental and proxy records of past climate, making major contributions to our understanding of climate change over the last century. He has made it clear that these changes are well outside the envelope of natural variability that the earth has experienced over recent millennia. His research on natural forcing factors has helped to clarify the factors that caused climates to vary in the past. He has shown the critical importance of well-calibrated paleoclimate proxies for placing recent changes in a long-term context, thereby clarifying the important effects that humans have had on climate in recent decades. This led to him becoming the target of political attacks by \"skeptics\" of global warming, to which he has responded, in terms that provide a clear explanation of the issues involved for the public at large, in \"Global Warming and Political Intimidation\", 2011, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, also available in a Japanese translation [2012] by Kagaku Dojin, Tokyo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8772915",
"title": "Hell and High Water (book)",
"section": "Section::::Summary of the book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Part I, comprising the first four chapters of the book, reviews the science of climate change, setting forth the evidence that humans are causing an unprecedented increase in carbon emissions that is, in turn causing global warming. The book describes the consequences of unchecked climate change, such as destruction of coastal cities due to rising sea levels and mega-hurricanes; increasing droughts and deadly water shortages; infestation of insects into new ranges; and increased famines, heat waves, forest fires and desertification. The book sets forth the research on \"feedback loops\" that would contribute to accelerating climate change, including: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9462962",
"title": "The Weather Makers",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The book includes 36 short essays predicting the consequences of global warming and has been translated into over twenty languages. The book reviews evidence of historical climate change and attempts to compare this with the current era. The book argues that if atmospheric carbon dioxide levels continue to increase at current rates, the resulting climate change will cause mass species extinctions. The book also asserts that global temperatures have already risen enough to cause the annual monsoon rains in the Sahel region of Africa to diminish, causing droughts and desertification. This in turn, according to Flannery, has contributed to the conflict in the Darfur region through competition for disappearing resources. Further consequences, argued in the book, include increasing hurricane intensity, and decline in the health of coral reefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24926293",
"title": "John D. Hamaker",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:Institute For A Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The book specifically examined man's influence on nature and climate change. Topics covered included astrophysics, climatology, geology, glaciology, microbiology, paleobotany, paleontology, palynology, plate tectonics, soil remineralization, seismology, soil science, solar physics and human survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26515241",
"title": "Climate change and ecosystems",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "For the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, experts assessed the literature on the impacts of climate change on ecosystems. Rosenzweig \"et al\". (2007) concluded that over the last three decades, human-induced warming had likely had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems (p. 81). Schneider \"et al\". (2007) concluded, with very high confidence, that regional temperature trends had already affected species and ecosystems around the world (p. 792). With high confidence, they concluded that climate change would result in the extinction of many species and a reduction in the diversity of ecosystems (p. 792).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26406489",
"title": "Physical impacts of climate change",
"section": "Section::::Regional climate change.:General effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In a literature assessment, Hegerl \"et al.\" (2007) assessed evidence for attributing observed climate change. They concluded that since the middle of the 20th century, it was likely that human influences had significantly contributed to surface temperature increases in every continent except Antarctica. The magazine \"Scientific American\" reported on December 23, 2008, that the 10 places most affected by climate change were Darfur, the Gulf Coast, Italy, northern Europe, the Great Barrier Reef, island nations, Washington, D.C., the Northwest Passage, the Alps, and Uganda.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4gq882
|
reverse entropy
|
[
{
"answer": "imagine you have a jar of marbles that you tip over. The marbles all go out in different directions, ricochet off of eachother, and settle. Now, you must put them back how they were before. How? That's impossible, that's so much data to somehow learn, which way each marble went and what it hit and how at what angle and so on to reach it's final resting spot.\n\nimagine if you could look through time, though. You'd see the path that every single marble took and the way they scattered would look very apparent to you, like a tree with branches. You could easily tell how they got there and how to reverse it. \n\nReverse entropy is only possible by timetravel, but we cannot do that. As time advances, the past is braided, so to speak, into one singular universe, the universe we at this very moment are at the head of. In the future there's infinite possibilities but as we travel through the fourth dimension, we collapse/destroy all those universes into the one we right now are witnessing. The past is beyond our reach, and the future doesn't exist yet, or rather it exists in every infinite way. So we're kinda stuck in the present, just like how a 3D apple passing through a 2D world would only exist to the 2D world as that slice of 2D it is at that current time, we're that apple, and time is what we're passing through, and we can only experience the world as it is at this very moment we are advancing through it. And as such, it's not possible for us to go back and look how the marbles fell and scattered... But the secret to reversing entropy might hold the way to look back in time, and vice versa. Just like in that 2D world they have no concept of ALL of the apple in one physical 3D existence, only slices of it. They might have the cognition to imagine a 3D apple, just like how we humans have memory and forethought of the past and future, but it's really just a makeshift bandaid solution. \n\nIt's all very theoretical stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23432356",
"title": "Linear entropy",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The linear entropy then is obtained by expanding ln \"ρ\" = ln (1−(1−\"ρ\")), around a pure state, \"ρ\"=\"ρ\"; that is, expanding in terms of the non-negative matrix 1−\"ρ\" in the formal Mercator series for the logarithm,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25513458",
"title": "Reverse salient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A reverse salient refers to a component of a technological system that, due to its insufficient development, prevents the system in its entirety from achieving its development goals. The term was coined by Thomas P. Hughes, in his work \"Networks of power: Electrification in western society, 1880-1930\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9891",
"title": "Entropy",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and descriptions.:Reversible process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "Entropy is conserved for a reversible process. A reversible process is one that does not deviate from thermodynamic equilibrium, while producing the maximum work. Any process which happens quickly enough to deviate from thermal equilibrium cannot be reversible. In these cases energy is lost to heat, total entropy increases, and the potential for maximum work to be done in the transition is also lost. More specifically, total entropy is conserved in a reversible process and not conserved in an irreversible process. For example, in the Carnot cycle, while the heat flow from the hot reservoir to the cold reservoir represents an increase in entropy, the work output, if reversibly and perfectly stored in some energy storage mechanism, represents a decrease in entropy that could be used to operate the heat engine in reverse and return to the previous state, thus the \"total\" entropy change is still zero at all times if the entire process is reversible. An irreversible process increases entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1937658",
"title": "Time reversibility",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "A deterministic process is time-reversible if the time-reversed process satisfies the same dynamic equations as the original process; in other words, the equations are invariant or symmetrical under a change in the sign of time. A stochastic process is reversible if the statistical properties of the process are the same as the statistical properties for time-reversed data from the same process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409951",
"title": "Isothermal process",
"section": "Section::::Entropy changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Once obtained, these formulas can be applied to an irreversible process, such as the free expansion of an ideal gas. Such an expansion is also isothermal and may have the same initial and final states as in the reversible expansion. Since entropy is a state function, the change in entropy of the system is the same as in the reversible process and is given by the formulas above. Note that the result \"Q\" = 0 for the free expansion can not be used in the formula for the entropy change since the process is not reversible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6538595",
"title": "Outline of transhumanism",
"section": "Section::::Technological evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- Extropy – opposing concept of entropy. It poses that culture and technology will aid the universe in developing in an orderly progressive manner. So extropy is the tendency of systems to grow more organized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4700845",
"title": "Entropy (classical thermodynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Entropy change in irreversible transformations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "An irreversible process degrades the performance of a thermodynamic system, designed to do work or produce cooling, and results in entropy production. The entropy generation during a reversible process is zero. Thus entropy production is a measure of the irreversibility and may be used to compare engineering processes and machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6zgvsl
|
how do companies like walmart profit from selling gift cards to other services when a gift card costs the amount of credit it's worth?
|
[
{
"answer": "it is a strategy used to get people in the door, much like a sale, it is ok to not make as much money on one or two items because usually when people come in they buy more than they were intending to in the first place, it happens. so to get people in the door it is actually more profitable to sell some things at a reduced price or even at a loss if it means you are making more profit on other goods and or services",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting. I always just assumed that they worked out a deal with those companies. Say Starbucks will sell Walmart a $25 card at the cost of $20. Now Walmart is +$5 and Starbucks is still getting at least most of their profit margin. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lost and not redeemed cards ale happen a lot. A radio ad runs in my area that offers to mKE gift cards for businesses and they talk about only 85% or something get redeemed",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Walmart buys the cards for less than their face value. They make money on the difference. \n\nThe exception is Visa/MC gift cards, which are actually sold at a premium (spend $35 for a $25 MC gift card, for example.) In that case Walmart gets part of the premium.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally speaking, the merchant selling the gift card gets a small commission on the sale.\n\nExample: Target sells a $100 Red Lobster gift card. Target activates the card and collects a $5 commission, the other $95 goes to Red Lobster. The customer goes out to eat, gets the check for $100 and pays using the gift card.\n\nIn reality it's a bit more complicated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always assumed that they made a lot of money from lost gift cards and when there was such a minuscule amount left on one that it just gets thrown away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They dont make or lose anything from gift cards other then labor cost to put them on shelves..Its to generated foot traffic. If you come in to buy it some times while you wait in line you will buy say a drink or a candy bar and thats profit. Also not everyone uses all the money on a gift card. \n\n For example you might get a $25 gift card and you spend $24 of it. Now you have $1 left and there is nothing that is worth $1. So now you have to decide either A. throw away the gift card and lose out on $1 meaning the company gains a $1 profit or B. You spend say $5 and to use that $1 and end up spending $4 out of pocket meaning the company profits from you spending more money beyond the gift card",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Retail stores *really* like when customer have their gift cards. When someone buys a target gift card, it's basically* guaranteed sales for them. By selling gift cards in other stores, they extend their reach, and make sales to customers who might not have otherwise stepped foot or thought about target in the first place.\n\nIn return for this extra sales opportunity, they're willing to share back a little bit of that sale to whatever company is selling the card for them. Really popular gift cards like Apple will pay out 1% of the card value. Less popular cards like regional restaurant will pay out a higher amount, usually up to 5%, to entire other businesses into carrying their cards. Since most stores make much more then 5% on each sale, it's worth it to them to give a \"cut\" to some other store to sell their gift card - they'll still make a profit when the card is redeemed.\n\nBut even this amount would usually not be enough to get a store to sell your product. A regular grocery store will make between 15% and 30% on every item they sell, so a 5% gift card is not very profitable. To offset this, gift card malls (the industry term for selling other store gift cards in your store) have a few other advantages.\n\n1. They're low risk. The merchant doesn't have to buy the cards - they're given to them for free. The cards don't have any value until activated, so theft is not a problem for the store selling them. Compare that to regular products, which they have to pay for up front, and if they're stolen the store is out the cost of the item. Gift cards also don't affect their on hand inventory value, which means they don't drive up insurance costs.\n\n2. They don't take up shelf space. Shelf space in a store is a valuable commodity - most products need to be on a shelf, and the more space you have, the more stuff you can sell. Compare a small independent convenience store to a Walmart - the reason the convenience store is crammed full of stuff is because they are trying to maximize the limited space they have. Gift card malls can be hung on a wall, put on a spinner and shoved in a corner, or left in front of a register. Most stores can find a space where the cards are essentially taking up 0 space that could have been filled with more profitable products. \n\n3. They draw in more customers. Even if 90% of the shoppers who buy a gift card don't buy anything else, the 10% who realize they need milk and grab a gallon from the back are \"free\" extra sales the store might not have gotten anyway. \n\n**Source** - I used to work for a company that pushed gift card malls as a value added option with our POS platform, to independent grocery stores.\n\n\\* Some people are saying stores love them because they keep the money from un-redeemed gift cards. This isn't quite accurate. In the US, gift cards cant expire for at least five years. Some states don't let them [expire ever](_URL_0_). Businesses are required to hold the money they get from selling the gift cards in a separate holding account while waiting for the cards to be redeemed, at which point they can pull the cash into their usual revenue. The exception is when a business shuts down, then they can take any outstanding gift card balances as cash. Most companies would rather have the gift card redeemed quick so they can realize the revenue now, rather then wait five years, even if the payoff could be bigger. Revenue means growth, cash sitting in an account they can't access means accounting costs. (Edited for accuracy)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The gift card companies pay a commission to the stockist. They can afford to do this as something like 30% of all gift cards are not redeemed within their validity period. And the provider of the card (iTunes, whatever), has a profit margin on their goods. $50 of music downloads doesn't cost $50 to Apple. So the combination of unredeemed value and margin for profit more than covers the commission the retailer receives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the face value of the gift card is only the consumer cost not the actually profit margin of the item. Along the supply chain of an item are multiple profit margins ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They get a cut obviously. Most of those gift card racks are from one vendor who's the middleman. They literally buy that space in the store. Maybe it's a percentage of sales but likely it's a fixed price. X vendor pays Y retailer a set price to have 2 kiosks in every location for a year. The vendor come regularly and fills the racks and makes sure nothing is spoiling the sight lines etc that they pay for. Coke pays for shelf space in a grocery store and so does Pepsi, Tide, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You likely won't use the whole amount. If you have a 50 dollar card maybe you spend 46 and forget to use the rest. Assume most people do it they get pure profit. Some people just never use them or lose it. That's cash to the company bottom line",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what other folks are saying about guaranteed sales (i.e. you have a gift card to Le Shoppe Manifique, you're going to use it there), there's also the significant portion of them that\n#never gets used\n\nIf 5% of them never get used, then you, as Le Shoppe Manifique's owner, just realized a 5% price increase on everything sold via gift cards. Free money!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "195809",
"title": "PayPal",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Business model evolution.:Phase 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "In fact, many sellers could not qualify for a credit card Merchant account because they lacked a commercial credit history. The service also appealed to auction buyers because they could fund PayPal accounts using credit cards or bank account balances, without divulging credit card numbers to unknown sellers. PayPal employed an aggressive marketing campaign to accelerate its growth, depositing $10 in new users' PayPal accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905419",
"title": "Credit card fraud",
"section": "Section::::Profits, losses, and punishment.:Credit card companies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "Credit card merchant associations, like Visa and MasterCard, receive profits from transaction fees, charging between 0% and 3.25% of the purchase price plus a per transaction fee of between 0.00 USD and 40.00 USD. Cash costs more to bank up, so it is worthwhile for merchants to take cards. Issuers are thus motivated to pursue policies which increase the money transferred by their systems. Many merchants believe this pursuit of revenue reduces the incentive for credit card issuers to adopt procedures to reduce crime, particularly because the cost of investigating a fraud is usually higher than the cost of just writing it off. These costs are passed on to the merchants as \"chargebacks\". This can result in substantial additional costs: not only has the merchant been defrauded for the amount of the transaction, he is also obliged to pay the chargeback fee, and to add insult to injury the transaction fees still stand.. Additionally, merchants may lose their merchant account if their percent of chargeback to overall turnover exceeds some value related to their type of product or service sold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Credit card issuers (banks) have several types of costs.:Rewards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "Many credit card customers receive rewards, such as frequent flyer points, gift certificates, or cash back as an incentive to use the card. Rewards are generally tied to purchasing an item or service on the card, which may or may not include balance transfers, cash advances, or other special uses. Depending on the type of card, rewards will generally cost the issuer between 0.25% and 2.0% of the spread. Networks such as Visa or MasterCard have increased their fees to allow issuers to fund their rewards system. Some issuers discourage redemption by forcing the cardholder to call customer service for rewards. On their servicing website, redeeming awards is usually a feature that is very well hidden by the issuers. With a fractured and competitive environment, rewards points cut dramatically into an issuer's bottom line, and rewards points and related incentives must be carefully managed to ensure a profitable portfolio. Unlike unused gift cards, in whose case the breakage in certain US states goes to the state's treasury, unredeemed credit card points are retained by the issuer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33965397",
"title": "Credit card kiting",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Self payment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Many payment services, such as PayPal and Square, allow people to receive credit card payments for low prices, which could be made to oneself. These could be used to pay off balances. In this case, the kiter is creating cash while avoiding legally entitled cash advance fees. This is a violation of PayPal and Square Terms of Service contracts and agreements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697301",
"title": "Financial transaction",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Credit card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "In order to collect the money for their item, the seller must apply to the credit card company with a signed receipt. Sellers usually apply for many payments at regular intervals. The seller is also charged a fee of normally 1–3% of the purchase price by the credit card company for the privilege of accepting that brand of credit card for purchases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "743068",
"title": "Gift card",
"section": "Section::::Pitfalls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "A quarter of gift card recipients still have not spent gift cards a year after receiving them, according to a Consumer Reports survey, and a majority of people say they end up spending more than the value of the card once they get to the store. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2502077",
"title": "Sales taxes in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Taxable items.:Taxable sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Purchases of gift cards are not subject to sales tax in all states. These purchases are considered to be similar to exchange of cash. The sales tax will be charged when gift cards are used as a method of payment for taxable goods or services. There was a proposal in New York State to impose a sales tax when a gift card is purchased instead of imposing it when the card is used, but it failed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fktav
|
Why are owls associated with intelligence?
|
[
{
"answer": "To answer the former question: Athena was the protector of Athens. Athena had an owl because owls were abundant in Athens. There's a proverb that says \"bring owls to Athens\" for a pointless venture.\n\n\nedit: I was answering the question of why owls are associated with the Greek goddess Athena.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Owls have long been considered deeply connected with magic and shamanism (even such as in our tales of Arthur, Harry Potter, etc) and that, coupled with the ability that they can see at night and their eyes are in a fixed position makes them seem like they are more intuitive and intelligent, seeing (otherworldy) things that humans cannot. Owls also share similar personality traits with cats, another animal long regarded for it's intellect and cunning. \n\nEdit: Since there seem to be quite a few downvotes-without-retort, here are just a couple of easily google-able pages that will show the same claims.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question is somewhat biased - owls are not associated with wisdom in much of the world. In Africa, for example, they are harbingers of evil and associated with black magic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Owls of Athena [Wikipedia article](_URL_0_) has an interesting alternate theory about their vision:\n\n > On the other hand, Cynthia Berger theorize about the appeal of some characteristics of owls —such as their ability to see in the dark— to be used as symbol of wisdom (Berger, Cynthia (2005). [Owls](_URL_1_). Mechanicsburg, PA, USA: Stackpole Books. p. X. ISBN 9780811732130.)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Owls are not always considered intelligent; you need to factor in culture as well. The Hindi word for owl which sounds something like ['oolu'](_URL_0_) actually means foolish. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7036252",
"title": "Stereotypes of animals",
"section": "Section::::Common Western animal stereotypes.:Birds in general.:Owls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 548,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 548,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "BULLET::::- Although owls are often associated with wisdom and intelligence, this is not universal, nor a timeless image. During the Middle Ages owls were seen as stupid and evil helpers of witches. In many paintings of Hieronymus Bosch the bird is seen as a symbol of stupidity and/or evil. The Dutch profanity word \"\"uilskuiken\" (\"owl chick\")\" is used to insult a stupid person; the Dutch saying \"\"Wat baten kaars en bril als de uil niet zien wil?\" (\"What use are a candle and glasses if the owl refuses to see?\")\" reminds people of this opposite view of owls. In Asian culture owls are traditionally seen as dumb instead of wise. Portrayal of owls as evil can also be seen in films such as \"Rock-a-Doodle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169696",
"title": "Falconry",
"section": "Section::::Birds used in contemporary falconry.:Owls (\"Strigidae\").\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Successful training of owls is much different from the training of hawks and falcons, as they are hearing- rather than sight-oriented. (Owls can only see black and white, and are long-sighted.) This often leads falconers to believe that they are less intelligent, as they are distracted easily by new or unnatural noises and they do not respond as readily to food cues. However, if trained successfully, owls show intelligence on the same level as that of hawks and falcons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25374221",
"title": "Tawny owl",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Although many people believe this owl has exceptional night vision, its retina is no more sensitive than a human's and its asymmetrically placed ears are key to its hunting by giving it excellent directional hearing. Its nocturnal habits and eerie, easily imitated call, have led to a mythical association of the tawny owl with bad luck and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4681509",
"title": "Night owl (person)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Some research has found that night owls are more intelligent and creative and more likely to get high-paying jobs than larks. A study among 1000 adolescents by the University of Madrid found that owls are better than early birds in intuitive intelligence, creative thinking and inductive reasoning. However, they lag behind larks in academic performance, and they tend to have unhealthier eating habits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54445",
"title": "Bird of prey",
"section": "Section::::Common names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "BULLET::::- Owls are variable-sized, typically night-specialized hunting birds. They fly almost silently due to their special feather structure that reduces turbulence. They have particularly acute hearing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37654",
"title": "Owl",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Much of the owls' hunting strategy depends on stealth and surprise. Owls have at least two adaptations that aid them in achieving stealth. First, the dull coloration of their feathers can render them almost invisible under certain conditions. Secondly, serrated edges on the leading edge of owls' remiges muffle an owl's wing beats, allowing an owl's flight to be practically silent. Some fish-eating owls, for which silence has no evolutionary advantage, lack this adaptation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3206672",
"title": "Owl of Athena",
"section": "Section::::Classical World.:Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "On the other hand, Cynthia Berger theorizes about the appeal of some characteristics of owls —such as their ability to see in the dark— to be used as symbol of wisdom while others, such as William Geoffrey Arnott, propose a simple association between founding myths of Athens and the significant number of little owls in the region (a fact noted since antiquity by Aristophanes in \"The Birds\" and \"Lysistrata\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42j6i5
|
sound effects
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, sometimes they just go out to a shooting range or go out driving with a bunch of sound equipment.\n\nUsually for movies they just buy the sound effects from someone who already did that and is selling all the sound effects.\n\nEither way, studios end up with libraries of sound effects they use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depending on the budget of the movie (nowadays, it has to be a pretty high budget -- think Transformers, etc), they can record sound effects special for the actual film. This is done during the post production process and overseen usually by an experienced sound supervisor. \n\nHere's an excerpt from Academy Award winning sound designer Dane Davis as he was describing recording sounds for the chase scene in the second Matrix movie: \n\n > \"We had to drop the cars right in the middle of the microphone array, and then keep them from rolling over the mics or over all of us. We also had a couple of wrecking balls — including one that weighed 3,500 pounds — that we dropped through the cars. At one point, one of the balls went all the way through the cars, through the concrete under them, into the dirt and back up through the car, then rolled over a bunch of mic cables and came to rest on a PZM mic, completely crushing it. We got some really great sounds out of that.” [link](_URL_0_)\n\nThese big-production sound effects are often mixed with \"Foley\" recorded in a studio, things like the sound of punching has been made with smashing celery, etc. \n\nFor lower budget films and TV, they will often use small amount of foley recorded in studio if it's a very unique scene or sound. \n\nThere's often \"sound design\" aspects to creating the entire collection of sounds for a film, such as recording something in the wild and then processing it afterwards using digital or analog effects to create the sound needed. I read somewhere that one of the sound designers on the original Star Wars created the lightsaber effect by hitting a wrench against one of those thick guylines that secure a powerline pole (couldn't find a reference for this, I'm sure someone will clarify if I'm wrong). \n\nSound designers and supervisors will have hard drives full of hundreds of thousands (if not millions) of these sounds that they carry around with them, and they will often share them with their peers. Probably the majority of sound effects these days that you will hear, if it's the occasional gunshot or punch or car crash, have been used at least dozens of times before and may have been recorded 10-20 years ago and reused endlessly. \n\n*TL;DR* Yes, they record sound FX by actually recording real guns, cars, etc, but depending on budget they may reuse sounds they already have. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "A sound effect (or audio effect) is an artificially created or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media. These are normally created with foley. In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point \"without\" the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, without necessarily referring to the recording itself. In professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, often are called \"sound effects\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1161724",
"title": "Stock sound effect",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "As far back as Ancient Greece, sound effects have been used in entertainment productions. Sound effects (also known as \"sound FX\", \"SFX\", or simply \"FX\") are used to enhance theatre, radio, film, television, video games and online media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1161724",
"title": "Stock sound effect",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Sound effects were originally added to productions by creating the sounds needed in real time. Various devices and props were utilized to approximate the actual sounds, including coconut shells for horse hooves, and a sheet of metal for thunder. With the advent of radio and specifically radio dramas, the role of sound effects became more important. When cinema went from silent to \"talkies\", sound effects became a large part of this new medium, too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "Section::::Recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "When the required sound effect is of a small subject, such as scissors cutting, cloth ripping, or footsteps, the sound effect is best recorded in a studio, under controlled conditions. Such small sounds are often delegated to a foley artist and foley editor. Many sound effects cannot be recorded in a studio, such as explosions, gunfire, and automobile or aircraft maneuvers. These effects must be recorded by a sound effects editor or a professional sound effects recordist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "Section::::Film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Design sound effects\" are sounds that do not normally occur in nature, or are impossible to record in nature. These sounds are used to suggest futuristic technology in a science fiction film, or are used in a musical fashion to create an emotional mood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "Section::::Aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "When creating sound effects for films, sound recordists and editors do not generally concern themselves with the verisimilitude or accuracy of the sounds they present. The sound of a bullet entering a person from a close distance may sound nothing like the sound designed in the above example, but since very few people are aware of how such a thing actually sounds, the job of designing the effect is mainly an issue of creating a conjectural sound which feeds the audience's expectations while still suspending disbelief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44187",
"title": "Sound effect",
"section": "Section::::Processing effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Once the sound effects are recorded or captured, they are usually loaded into a computer integrated with an audio non-linear editing system. This allows a sound editor or sound designer to heavily manipulate a sound to meet his or her needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
195zt7
|
How important are cyanobacteria to *keeping* the earth's atmosphere oxygenated?
|
[
{
"answer": "Indeed, they are very important. [Here](_URL_0_) is a Nat. Geo. article on this very topic (though they are talking about all phytoplankton, but just cyanobacteria). It's a bit old (2004), but still agrees with several other more recent sources I found. The short answer is that, yes, photosynthetic unicellular marine microorganisms (cyanobacteria being one of the most abundant) are very important for maintaining our atmospheric oxygen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "62694",
"title": "Stromatolite",
"section": "Section::::Fossil record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1317,
"text": "While prokaryotic cyanobacteria reproduce asexually through cell division, they were instrumental in priming the environment for the evolutionary development of more complex eukaryotic organisms. Cyanobacteria (as well as extremophile Gammaproteobacteria) are thought to be largely responsible for increasing the amount of oxygen in the primeval earth's atmosphere through their continuing photosynthesis (see Great Oxygenation Event). Cyanobacteria use water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to create their food. A layer of mucus often forms over mats of cyanobacterial cells. In modern microbial mats, debris from the surrounding habitat can become trapped within the mucus, which can be cemented together by the calcium carbonate to grow thin laminations of limestone. These laminations can accrete over time, resulting in the banded pattern common to stromatolites. The domal morphology of biological stromatolites is the result of the vertical growth necessary for the continued infiltration of sunlight to the organisms for photosynthesis. Layered spherical growth structures termed oncolites are similar to stromatolites and are also known from the fossil record. Thrombolites are poorly laminated or non-laminated clotted structures formed by cyanobacteria, common in the fossil record and in modern sediments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10958",
"title": "Fossil",
"section": "Section::::Sites.:Stromatolites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1287,
"text": "While prokaryotic cyanobacteria themselves reproduce asexually through cell division, they were instrumental in priming the environment for the evolutionary development of more complex eukaryotic organisms. Cyanobacteria (as well as extremophile Gammaproteobacteria) are thought to be largely responsible for increasing the amount of oxygen in the primeval earth's atmosphere through their continuing photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria use water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to create their food. A layer of mucus often forms over mats of cyanobacterial cells. In modern microbial mats, debris from the surrounding habitat can become trapped within the mucus, which can be cemented by the calcium carbonate to grow thin laminations of limestone. These laminations can accrete over time, resulting in the banded pattern common to stromatolites. The domal morphology of biological stromatolites is the result of the vertical growth necessary for the continued infiltration of sunlight to the organisms for photosynthesis. Layered spherical growth structures termed oncolites are similar to stromatolites and are also known from the fossil record. Thrombolites are poorly laminated or non-laminated clotted structures formed by cyanobacteria common in the fossil record and in modern sediments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18878850",
"title": "Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes that have existed on Earth for an estimated 2.7 billion years. The ability of cyanobacteria to produce oxygen initiated the transition from a planet consisting of high levels of carbon dioxide and little oxygen, to what has been called the Great Oxygenation Event where large amounts of oxygen gas were produced. Cyanobacteria have colonized a wide diversity of habitats, including fresh and salt water ecosystems, and most land environments. Phylogenetically, \"Synechocystis\" branches off later in the cyanobacterial evolutionary tree, further from the ancestral root (\"Gloeobacter violaceus\"). \"Synechocystis\", which is non-diazotrophic, is closely related to another model organism, \"Cyanothece\" ATCC 51442, which is a diazotroph. Thus, it has been proposed that \"Synechocystis\" originally possessed the ability to fix nitrogen gas, but lost the genes required for a fully functioning nitrogen fixation (\"nif\") gene cluster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23982752",
"title": "Light-dependent reactions",
"section": "Section::::In bacteria.:Cyanobacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Earth's primordial atmosphere was anoxic. Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present-day oxygen-containing atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "129618",
"title": "Cyanobacteria",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Cyanobacteria are arguably the most successful group of microorganisms on earth. They are the most genetically diverse; they occupy a broad range of habitats across all latitudes, widespread in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, and they are found in the most extreme niches such as hot springs, salt works, and hypersaline bays. Photoautotrophic, oxygen-producing cyanobacteria created the conditions in the planet's early atmosphere that directed the evolution of aerobic metabolism and eukaryotic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria fulfill vital ecological functions in the world's oceans, being important contributors to global carbon and nitrogen budgets. – Stewart and Falconer\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "719534",
"title": "Carbon fixation",
"section": "Section::::Oxygenic photosynthesis.:Evolutionary considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Somewhere between 3.8 and 2.3 billion years ago, the ancestors of cyanobacteria evolved oxygenic photosynthesis, enabling the use of the abundant yet relatively oxidized molecule HO as an electron donor to the electron transport chain of light-catalyzed proton-pumping responsible for efficient ATP synthesis. When this evolutionary breakthrough occurred, autotrophy (growth using inorganic carbon as the sole carbon source) is believed to have already been developed. However, the proliferation of cyanobacteria, due to their novel ability to exploit water as a source of electrons, radically altered the global environment by oxygenating the atmosphere and by achieving large fluxes of CO consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1418389",
"title": "Phototroph",
"section": "Section::::Photoautotroph.:Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Cyanobacteria, which are prokaryotic organisms which carry out oxygenic photosynthesis, occupy many environmental conditions, including fresh water, seas, soil, and lichen. Cyanobacteria carry out plant-like photosynthesis because the organelle in plants that carries out photosynthesis is derived from an endosymbiotic cyanobacterium. This bacterium can use water as a source of electrons in order to perform CO reduction reactions. Evolutionarily, cyanobacteria's ability to survive in oxygenic conditions, which are considered toxic to most anaerobic bacteria, might have given the bacteria an adaptive advantage which could have allowed the cyanobacteria to populate more efficiently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wpgez
|
is it true that if you eat human flesh your body will uncontrollably shake? if so, why?
|
[
{
"answer": "It could happen, yes. It's due to a prion disease called Kuru: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not quite.\n\nTremors from cannabalism is a result of 'Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy', and it results from eating brain tissue that contain certain prions (a kind of defective protein that can act like an infectious agent). Its akin to Mad Cow Disease, which is caused by cows eating infected brain tissue from sheep remains that had been added to the cow feed for added protein.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "482629",
"title": "Scavenger",
"section": "Section::::In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In modern humans, necrophagy (eating of dead/decaying flesh) occurs rarely in most societies. This is likely an adaptation to the risk of disease, due to humans having lower levels of protective acids in the digestive tract, compared to species that are dedicated scavengers. Many instances have occurred in history, especially in times of war, where necrophagy and cannibalism can emerge as a survival behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146311",
"title": "Shock (circulatory)",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "One of the key dangers of shock is that it progresses by a positive feedback mechanism. Poor blood supply leads to cellular damage, which results in an inflammatory response to increase blood flow to the affected area. This is normally very useful to match up blood supply level with tissue demand for nutrients. However, if enough tissue causes this, it will deprive vital nutrients from other parts of the body. Additionally, the ability of the circulatory system to meet this increase in demand causes saturation, and this is a major result, of which other parts of the body begin to respond in a similar way; thus, exacerbating the problem. Due to this chain of events, immediate treatment of shock is critical for survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Pathology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1180,
"text": "Although nerves tend to lie deep under the skin except in a few places such as the ulnar nerve near the elbow joint, they are still relatively exposed to physical damage, which can cause pain, loss of sensation, or loss of muscle control. Damage to nerves can also be caused by swelling or bruises at places where a nerve passes through a tight bony channel, as happens in carpal tunnel syndrome. If a nerve is completely transected, it will often regenerate, but for long nerves this process may take months to complete. In addition to physical damage, peripheral neuropathy may be caused by many other medical problems, including genetic conditions, metabolic conditions such as diabetes, inflammatory conditions such as Guillain–Barré syndrome, vitamin deficiency, infectious diseases such as leprosy or shingles, or poisoning by toxins such as heavy metals. Many cases have no cause that can be identified, and are referred to as idiopathic. It is also possible for nerves to lose function temporarily, resulting in numbness as stiffness—common causes include mechanical pressure, a drop in temperature, or chemical interactions with local anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1351954",
"title": "Issedones",
"section": "Section::::Cannibalism controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Murphy and Mallory do not exclude the possibility that the flesh removed from the bodies was consumed. Archeologically these activities remain invisible. But they point out that elsewhere, Herodotus names another tribe (Androphagi) as the only group to eat human flesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33719735",
"title": "Nuku Hiva",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Those to be eaten were tied and hung up in trees until needed, then had their brains bashed out on execution blocks with a club. Women and children seem to have been cannibalized just for food, whereas warriors killed in battle were offerings to the gods and were eaten by their conquerors to absorb their power; their skulls were kept by their slayers for the same reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24559497",
"title": "Meat on the bone",
"section": "Section::::Health issues.:Injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Meat and fish served on the bone can present a risk of accident or injury. Small, sharp fish bones are the most likely to cause injury although sharp fragments of meat bone can also cause problems. Typical injuries include bones being swallowed and becoming trapped in the throat and bones being trapped under the tongue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146311",
"title": "Shock (circulatory)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Shock is the state of not enough blood flow to the tissues of the body as a result of problems with the circulatory system. Initial symptoms may include weakness, fast heart rate, fast breathing, sweating, anxiety, and increased thirst. This may be followed by confusion, unconsciousness, or cardiac arrest as complications worsen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rk4cs
|
how is the sugar coating on sour candy so much different than table sugar?
|
[
{
"answer": "From Wikipedia: *Sour sanding, or sour sugar, is a food ingredient that is used to impart a sour flavor, made from citric or tartaric acid and sugar. It is used to coat sour candies like Sour Patch Kids or to make hard candies tart, such as acid drops or SweeTarts.* It's not quite the same thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Sugar candy is made by dissolving sugar in water or milk to form a syrup, which is boiled until it reaches the desired concentration or starts to caramelize. Candy comes in a wide variety of textures, from soft and chewy to hard and brittle. The texture of candy depends on the ingredients and the temperatures that the candy is processed at.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "The final texture of sugar candy depends primarily on the sugar concentration. As the syrup is heated, it boils, water evaporates, the sugar concentration increases and the boiling point rises. A given temperature corresponds to a particular sugar concentration. These are called sugar stages. In general, higher temperatures and greater sugar concentrations result in hard, brittle candies, and lower temperatures result in softer candies. Once the syrup reaches or higher, the sucrose molecules break down into many simpler sugars, creating an amber-colored substance known as caramel. This should not be confused with caramel candy, although it is the candy's main flavoring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42259610",
"title": "Candy making",
"section": "Section::::Hard candy.:Sugar stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The final texture of candy depends on the sugar concentration. As the syrup is heated, it boils and the sugar concentration increases as water evaporates. A given temperature corresponds to a particular sugar concentration because the boiling-point elevation of the sugar solution is a colligative property (i.e., it is related to the concentration of the solution), so temperature is used as a marker for the necessary concentration. In general, higher temperatures and greater sugar concentrations result in hard, brittle candies, and lower temperatures result in softer candies. The stages of sugar cooking are as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1685248",
"title": "Sugaring (epilation)",
"section": "Section::::Sugaring paste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Sugaring paste can be prepared with common household food items such as water, sugar, lemon juice, cornstarch, honey and molasses. Lemon juice is added for its acidity, which breaks up the sucrose into fructose and glucose. As in candy making, this gives the finished sugaring wax a non-crystalline, or amorphous, structure. Getting the correct consistency takes practice for most users. Pre-made sugar paste is also sold. This includes professional and retail versions, which may contain guar gum for texture or essential oils to condition skin. Since sugaring paste is water-based and water-soluble, the substance can be easily cleaned up with warm water. Sugaring is sometimes preferable to waxing because it has no resins, except for guar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362677",
"title": "Rock candy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Rock candy or sugar candy (in British English), also called rock sugar, is a type of confection composed of relatively large sugar crystals. This candy is formed by allowing a supersaturated solution of sugar and water to crystallize onto a surface suitable for crystal nucleation, such as a string, stick, or plain granulated sugar. Heating the water before adding the sugar allows more sugar to dissolve thus producing larger crystals. Crystals form after 6 to 7 days. Food coloring may be added to the mixture to produce colored candy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1666561",
"title": "Sugar candy",
"section": "Section::::Traditional uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Sugar candy is often used to sweeten tea. Northern Germany, specifically East Frisia, has an established tea culture, where a large crystal of sugar candy \"(Kandiszucker\" or in the regional dialect \"Kluntje)\" is placed at the bottom of the cup and the hot tea added, which cracks and dissolves the crystal. Similarly in Iran, tea is consumed with sugar candy (called \"nabat\") placed either in the tea or in the mouth. In China, sugar candy is used to sweeten Chrysanthemum tea as well as Cantonese dessert soups and the liquor \"baijiu\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1154736",
"title": "Pop Rocks",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "As described by a 1980 patent, the candy is made by dissolving sugars in water and is evaporated at until the water content is 3% by mass. The water and sugar mixture is then cooled to , and while being intensely stirred it is pressurized with carbon dioxide at . The mixture is then kept under pressure and allowed to cool and solidify, embedding the carbon dioxide bubbles in candy. The majority of the resultant carbon dioxide bubbles are between in diameter. When the pressure on the cooled and solidified candy is released, it shatters into pieces that vary in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ivxvy
|
how are airplanes able to travel through the air despite being heavier than air? also, what exactly is jet propulsion?
|
[
{
"answer": "Airplanes fly by generating lift. Their wings are shaped in such a way that when they are moving through the air, the air passing over the top of the wing is moving faster than the air moving under the wing. The faster that air moves, the lower pressure it has. Since the faster moving air on top of the wing has less pressure than the slower moving air on the bottom of the wing it generates lift and causes the plane to rise. \n\nJet engines work by taking in a large amount of air and compressing it into a small space. Fuel is then added to the compressed air and it is ignited, or basically blown up. The more air that can be pushed in and the more it can be compressed, the more powerful the explosion will be. The force of the explosion pushes out of the back of the jet engine causing forward thrust. In reality it creates more pressure pushing forward on the jet engine than at the rear of the jet engine, the thrust isn't actually pushing off of anything behind it. That's why boosters still work in space where there is no air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "159472",
"title": "Flight",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "There are different approaches to flight. If an object has a lower density than air, then it is buoyant and is able to float in the air without expending energy. A heavier than air craft, known as an aerodyne, includes flighted animals and insects, fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft. Because the craft is heavier than air, it must generate lift to overcome its weight. The wind resistance caused by the craft moving through the air is called drag and is overcome by propulsive thrust except in the case of gliding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849",
"title": "Aircraft",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "An aircraft is a Vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, paramotors and hot air balloons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1553856",
"title": "Aircraft flight mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Straight and level flight of aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "In flight a powered aircraft can be considered as being acted on by four forces: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. \"Thrust\" is the force generated by the engine (whether it be a jet or a propeller driven craft) and acts in a forward direction for the purpose of overcoming drag. \"Lift\" acts perpendicular to the vector representing the aircraft's velocity relative to the atmosphere. \"Drag\" acts parallel to the aircraft's velocity vector, but in the opposite direction because drag resists motion through the air. \"Weight\" acts through the aircraft's centre of gravity, towards the centre of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738149",
"title": "Kármán line",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "An aircraft can only stay aloft by constantly traveling forward relative to the air (rather than the ground), so that the wings can generate lift. The thinner the air, the faster the plane must go to generate enough lift to stay up. The amount of lift provided (which must equal the vehicle's weight in order to maintain level flight) is calculated by the lift equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849",
"title": "Aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Methods of lift.:Heavier-than-air – aerodynes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term \"aerodyne\". There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849",
"title": "Aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Methods of lift.:Heavier-than-air – aerodynes.:Fixed-wing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are not considered aircraft. They \"fly\" efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed the \"Caspian Sea Monster\"). Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with a minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1396249",
"title": "Airplane",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Worldwide, commercial aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners and transports more than 200 billion tonne-kilometres of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled such as drones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
483ggs
|
when you forget something, why does retracing your steps often make you remember? (such as going back to a webpage you closed or redoing the activity you were doing)
|
[
{
"answer": "For me, it tends to be that something in what I was doing was the impetus for the thought to begin with. When that stimulus occurs again, the thought happens again in the same way it did initially.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685627",
"title": "Motivated forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Suppression.:Directed forgetting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "There are two theories that can explain directed forgetting: retrieval inhibition hypothesis and context shift hypothesis. The Retrieval Inhibition Hypothesis states that the instruction to forget the first list hinders memory of the list-one items. This hypothesis suggests that directed forgetting only reduces the retrieval of the unwanted memories, not causing permanent damage. If we intentionally forget items, they are difficult to recall but are recognized if the items are presented again. The Context Shift Hypothesis suggests that the instructions to forget mentally separate the to-be-forgotten items. They are put into a different context from the second list. The subject's mental context changes between the first and second list, but the context from the second list remains. This impairs the recall ability for the first list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10963",
"title": "Forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Impairments and lack of forgetting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as amnesia caused by an accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34029114",
"title": "Retrieval-induced forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Prior and related research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Although the term \"retrieval-induced forgetting\" was first used in 1994, it was described in an earlier review by Robert A. Bjork in terms of suppressing memories that become active but are not relevant for a given situation. Bjork described a study by Neely and Durgunoğlu who found that participants were slower at recognizing words when they were shown a related word immediately beforehand. The researchers hypothesized that participants were actually trying to suppress the related words during recognition, as it was irrelevant and unhelpful information in completing the recognition task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685627",
"title": "Motivated forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The main theory, the \"motivated forgetting theory\", suggests that people forget things because they either do not want to remember them or for another particular reason. Painful and disturbing memories are made unconscious and very difficult to retrieve, but still remain in storage. Retrieval Suppression is one way in which we are able to stop the retrieval of unpleasant memories using cognitive control. This theory was tested by Anderson and Green using the Think/No-Think paradigm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685627",
"title": "Motivated forgetting",
"section": "Section::::Suppression.:Directed forgetting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The directed forgetting paradigm is a psychological term meaning that information can be forgotten upon instruction. There are two methods of the directed forgetting paradigm; item method and list method. In both methods, the participants are instructed to forget some items, the to-be-forgotten items and the to-be-remembered items.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7619669",
"title": "Slowness (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Major themes.:Slowness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Kundera ties slowness to the act of remembering, and speed to the act of forgetting. When one wants to savour, remember, or prolong a moment, one moves and acts slowly. On the other hand, one travels fast in order to forget a past experience. For example, after Vincent's disastrous night at the chateau, he gets on his motorcycle and drives home as fast as he can in order to leave behind the site of his failed romantic endeavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60621622",
"title": "Memory and retention in learning",
"section": "Section::::Why learned information is forgotten.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Retrieval failure provides another explanation for why we forget learned information. According to this theory, we forget information because it is inaccessible in long-term memory stores. Access to this information depends on retrieval cues, and the absence of these cues causes difficulties in recalling retained information. Forgetting learned information occurs most often when the context and state are very different when encoding and retrieving. In these situations, there are no retrieval cues which can result in cue-dependent forgetting. For example, many people do not remember much about their childhood. However, once returning to an old house or school; which provide retrieval cues, childhood memories usually begin to return. Retrieval failure and an absence in cues can be very influential for forgetting learned information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a8a86r
|
Is radioactive decay temperature-dependent?
|
[
{
"answer": "Typically is not, the nucleus is so much smaller than the atom that it doesn't \"care\" what's happening around it (imagine a marble at the center of one of those giant human hamster balls). There are maybe a few small exceptions. \n\nOne could argue that the electron-capture mechanism (sometimes called inverse beta decay) depends on the probability of the electron being found in the nucleus, which depends on the lattice arrangement which depends on temperature. The difficulty with testing this is that the functioning of particle detectors for measuring decay also depends on temperature. There were a few studies purporting to find temperature dependence, [but a more precise study](_URL_0_) did not.\n\nThere's also the phenomenon that a superheated gas might have atoms that experience time dilation and appear to have slower decay rate. It's not feasible to make a gas that hot with current technology, but slower decay rates of nuclei have been observed in a particle accelerator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "197767",
"title": "Radioactive decay",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics of radioactive decay.:Universal law of radioactive decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "The mathematics of radioactive decay depend on a key assumption that a nucleus of a radionuclide has no \"memory\" or way of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not \"age\" with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time, but stays constant no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may vary greatly between different types of nuclei, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change. This is in marked contrast to complex objects which do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time, that increases from the moment they begin their existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7683",
"title": "Creation science",
"section": "Section::::Areas of study.:Creationist geology.:Radiometric dating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "The constancy of the decay rates of isotopes is well supported in science. Evidence for this constancy includes the correspondences of date estimates taken from different radioactive isotopes as well as correspondences with non-radiometric dating techniques such as dendrochronology, ice core dating, and historical records. Although scientists have noted slight increases in the decay rate for isotopes subject to extreme pressures, those differences were too small to significantly impact date estimates. The constancy of the decay rates is also governed by first principles in quantum mechanics, wherein any deviation in the rate would require a change in the fundamental constants. According to these principles, a change in the fundamental constants could not influence different elements uniformly, and a comparison between each of the elements' resulting unique chronological timescales would then give inconsistent time estimates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197767",
"title": "Radioactive decay",
"section": "Section::::Mathematics of radioactive decay.:Decay timing: definitions and relations.:Half-life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability, each process could as easily be described with a different constant time period that (for example) gave its \"(1/3)-life\" (how long until only 1/3 is left) or \"(1/10)-life\" (a time period until only 10% is left), and so on. Thus, the choice of and \"\" for marker-times, are only for convenience, and from convention. They reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that the \"same proportion\" of a given radioactive substance will decay, during any time-period that one chooses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37257",
"title": "Radioactive waste",
"section": "Section::::Nature and significance.:Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The radioactivity of all radioactive waste weakens with time. All radionuclides contained in the waste have a half-life — the time it takes for half of the atoms to decay into another nuclide — and eventually, all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements (i.e., stable nuclides). Since radioactive decay follows the half-life rule, the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long-lived isotope like iodine-129 will be much less intense than that of a short-lived isotope like iodine-131. The two tables show some of the major radioisotopes, their half-lives, and their radiation yield as a proportion of the yield of fission of uranium-235.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19600416",
"title": "Isotope",
"section": "Section::::Radioactive, primordial, and stable isotopes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Theory predicts that many apparently \"stable\" isotopes/nuclides are radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (discounting the possibility of proton decay, which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Some stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay products have yet been observed, and so these isotopes are said to be \"observationally stable\". The predicted half-lives for these nuclides often greatly exceed the estimated age of the universe, and in fact there are also 31 known radionuclides (see primordial nuclide) with half-lives longer than the age of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197767",
"title": "Radioactive decay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Radioactive decay is a stochastic (i.e. random) process at the level of single atoms. According to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed. However, for a collection of atoms, the expected decay rate is characterized in terms of measured decay constants or half-lives. This is the basis of radiometric dating. The half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26298",
"title": "Radiometric dating",
"section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Radioactive decay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "For most radioactive nuclides, the half-life depends solely on nuclear properties and is essentially a constant. It is not affected by external factors such as temperature, pressure, chemical environment, or presence of a magnetic or electric field. The only exceptions are nuclides that decay by the process of electron capture, such as beryllium-7, strontium-85, and zirconium-89, whose decay rate may be affected by local electron density. For all other nuclides, the proportion of the original nuclide to its decay products changes in a predictable way as the original nuclide decays over time. This predictability allows the relative abundances of related nuclides to be used as a clock to measure the time from the incorporation of the original nuclides into a material to the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w89u3
|
batteries: rechargeable vs disposable
|
[
{
"answer": "Rechargable batteries have different chemistry from disposable batteries. And the different chemistries result in various pros and cons.\n\nA NiMH AA has a voltage of 1.2, but an alkaline AA is 1.5. But most electronics tolerate these small differences.\n\n\nA more significant difference for a user would be the problem of auto-discharge. Rechargeable cells like a NiMH, even when not plugged in, lose charge with time.\n\nSo while your remotes, mouse, and game controllers can utilize recharging cells, you should NOT use rechargables for something like an emergency-kit's flashlight which you store away for hurricane season, because chances are you won't be charging them periodically waiting for the unexpected to happen.\n\nSo there are legitimate reasons to use alkalines, but their use obviously is too common to be explained by those circumstances. My guess is selling disposable batteries is more profitable for them, or that people are too lazy, or both.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "201487",
"title": "Rechargeable battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term \"accumulator\" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201487",
"title": "Rechargeable battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24130",
"title": "Energy storage",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Electrochemical.:Rechargeable battery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "A rechargeable battery, comprises one or more electrochemical cells. It is known as a 'secondary cell' because its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt grid systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4316371",
"title": "Rechargeable alkaline battery",
"section": "Section::::Recharging of disposable alkalines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Manufacturers do not support recharging of disposable alkaline batteries, and warn that it may be dangerous. Despite this advice, alkaline batteries have been recharged, and chargers have been available. The capacity of a recharged alkaline battery declines with number of recharges, until it becomes unusable after typically about ten cycles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1765073",
"title": "Zinc–air battery",
"section": "Section::::Cell types.:Mechanical recharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Rechargeable systems may mechanically replace the anode and electrolyte, essentially operating as a refurbishable primary cell, or may use zinc powder or other methods to replenish the reactants. Mechanically recharged systems were investigated for military electronics uses in the 1960s because of the high energy density and easy recharging. However, primary lithium batteries offered higher discharge rates and easier handling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24130",
"title": "Energy storage",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Electrochemical.:Rechargeable battery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than non-rechargeable (disposable) batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same form factors as disposables. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very cheaply and used many times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Secondary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Secondary batteries, also known as \"secondary cells\", or \"rechargeable batteries\", must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kortk
|
why was microsoft criticised for bundling a browser and media player with their os, but is apple allowed to bundle a computer with their os?
|
[
{
"answer": "Microsoft was leveraging its monopoly to put a much smaller rival out of business.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difference is that Windows is very widely used for more than normal computing, servers and other uses are common. Not to mention that you can install windows on basically anything where as OSX can only be installed on MACs (easily) \n\nPeople aren't as upset when a mac comes with extra software like that since thats what they bought it for but many pc users bought windows to use as a barebones OS instead of a \"normal\" computer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Honestly, it is because lawyers and judges are idiots.\n\nWhen the the browser bundling issue came up in the Microsoft anti-trust case in 2001, the legal system was clueless when it came to technology. From a technical perspective, the charges against Microsoft were nonsensical, and Microsoft's defense was equally incoherent.\n\nThere were no good guys or bad guys here, just a bunch of idiots, and no valid conclusions can be drawn from that case.\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You've gotten a few answers but I don't think they tell the whole story.\n\nYou have to remember this was a while ago now and the market was a bit different. There was a time when people paid money for web browsers. You literally went to a physical store and bought Netscape Navigator. So Netscape was charging for its browser and the MS, who dominated the computer market, started offering Internet Explorer for free.\n\nMS was leveraging their monopoly on the PC to but IE in front of everyone's face, so why would anyone pay for Netscape? Even after Netscape moved to a free model IE was the default browser on the default operating system and if you were not tech savvy you probably didn't even know Netscape existed.\n\nApple is not in a dominate market position therefore they cannot abuse a monopoly situation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody cares about \"anti-competitive\" practices by a small player. There has never been much of a risk of Apple becomming a monopoly the way there was with MSFT. It's all about market share. Everyone is going to go after the one on top.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Legally, tying arrangements are only a problem if they involve tying a product that dominates its market to another product that doesn't in an effort to stifle competition in the market for the second product. Apple does not dominate either computer or OS market, so tying one to the other isn't legally a problem. In the Microsoft cases, Microsoft dominated the operating system market and by tying its browser to its operating system it was (theoretically) extending that dominance into the market for browsers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20770",
"title": "United States v. Microsoft Corp.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "The plaintiffs alleged that Microsoft had abused monopoly power on Intel-based personal computers in its handling of operating system and web browser integration. The issue central to the case was whether Microsoft was allowed to bundle its flagship Internet Explorer (IE) web browser software with its Windows operating system. Bundling them is alleged to have been responsible for Microsoft's victory in the browser wars as every Windows user had a copy of IE. It was further alleged that this restricted the market for competing web browsers (such as Netscape Navigator or Opera), since it typically took a while to download or purchase such software at a store. Underlying these disputes were questions over whether Microsoft had manipulated its application programming interfaces to favor IE over third-party web browsers, Microsoft's conduct in forming restrictive licensing agreements with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), and Microsoft's intent in its course of conduct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1873016",
"title": "History of Internet Explorer",
"section": "Section::::Browser wars (1997-2001).:United States v. Microsoft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In a legal case brought by the US Department of Justice and twenty U.S. states, Microsoft was accused of breaking an earlier consent decree, by bundling Internet Explorer with its operating system software. The department took issue with Microsoft's contract with OEM computer manufacturers that bound the manufacturers to include Internet Explorer with the copies of Microsoft Windows they installed on systems they shipped. It would not allow the manufacturer to put an icon for any other web browser on the default desktop in place of Internet Explorer. Microsoft maintained that integration of its web browser into its operating system was in the interests of consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867860",
"title": "Netbook",
"section": "Section::::Operating systems.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Mac OS X has been demonstrated running on various netbooks as a result of the OSx86 project, although this is in violation of the operating system's end-user license agreement. Apple has complained to sites hosting information on how to install OS X onto non-Apple hardware (including \"Wired\" and YouTube) who have reacted and removed content in response. One article nicknamed a netbook running OS X a \"Hackintosh.\" The Macbook Air can be considered an expensive netbook.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10255072",
"title": "Trash (computing)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Apple Inc. sued to prevent other software companies from offering graphical user interfaces similar to its own. Apple lost most of its claims but courts agreed Apple's Trash \"icon\" was original and protected by copyright. Non-Apple software may use other metaphors for file deletion, such as Recycle Bin, Smart Eraser, or Shredder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "709683",
"title": "Criticism of Microsoft",
"section": "Section::::Advertising and public relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "In August 2004, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) ordered Microsoft to pull ads in Britain that claimed that the total cost of ownership of Linux servers was ten times that of Windows Server 2003. The comparison included the cost of hardware, and put Linux at a disadvantage by installing it on more expensive but poorer-performing hardware compared to that used for Windows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2450846",
"title": "Hackintosh",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues and Apple objections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "The macOS EULA forbids installations of macOS on a \"non-Apple-branded computer\". On July 3, 2008, Apple filed a lawsuit against Psystar Corporation for violating this restriction, among other claims. Apple claimed Psystar \"violated the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) by dodging copy-protection technologies Apple uses to protect .\" Apple employs technological protection measures that effectively control access to Apple's copyrighted works. Specifically, Apple charged Psystar with acquiring or creating code that \"avoids, bypasses, removes, descrambles, decrypts, deactivates or impairs a technological protection measure without Apple's authority for the purpose of gaining unauthorized access to Apple's copyrighted works.\" This brief revealed that Apple considers the methods that it uses to prevent macOS from being installed on non-Apple hardware to be protected by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33879",
"title": "Windows XP",
"section": "Section::::Editions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "As the result of unfair competition lawsuits in Europe and South Korea, which both alleged that Microsoft had improperly leveraged its status in the PC market to favor its own bundled software, Microsoft was ordered to release special versions of XP in these markets that excluded certain applications. In March 2004, after the European Commission fined Microsoft €497 million (US$603 million), Microsoft was ordered to release \"N\" versions of XP that excluded Windows Media Player, encouraging users to pick and download their own media player software. As it was sold at the same price as the version with Windows Media Player included, certain OEMs (such as Dell, who offered it for a short period, along with Hewlett-Packard, Lenovo and Fujitsu Siemens) chose not to offer it. Consumer interest was minuscule, with roughly 1,500 units shipped to OEMs, and no reported sales to consumers. In December 2005, the Korean Fair Trade Commission ordered Microsoft to make available editions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 that do not contain Windows Media Player or Windows Messenger. The \"K\" and \"KN\" editions of Windows XP were released in August 2006, and are only available in English and Korean, and also contain links to third-party instant messenger and media player software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20aw9h
|
why do some nutrition labels read "total carbohydrates 30g" but sugars will say "sugars 22g"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sugars are a simple type of carbohydrate. \n\nFibre (cellulose) is technically a carbohydrate, but it is not digestible and has no direct nutritional value. It is therefore not included in the total carbohydrates of food.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50606554",
"title": "List of sugars",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "This is a list of sugars and sugar products. Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. The various types of sugar are derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also known as dextrose), fructose, and galactose. \"Table sugar\" or \"granulated sugar\" refers to sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. In the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into fructose and glucose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208092",
"title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)",
"section": "Section::::Food pyramid published by the WHO and FAO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "The World Health Organization, in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization, published guidelines that can be effectively represented in a food pyramid relating to objectives in order to prevent obesity, improper nutrition, chronic diseases and dental caries based on meta-analysis though they represent it as a table rather than as a \"pyramid\". The structure is similar in some respects to the USDA food pyramid, but there are clear distinctions between types of fats, and a more dramatic distinction where carbohydrates are categorized on the basis of free sugars versus sugars in their natural form. Some food substances are singled out due to the impact on the target issues that the \"pyramid\" is meant to address. In a later revision, however, some recommendations are omitted as they automatically follow other recommendations while other sub-categories are added. The reports quoted here explain that where there is no stated lower limit in the table below, there is \"no\" requirement for that nutrient in the diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32714132",
"title": "Free sugars",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The principal definition of free sugars was to split the term \"carbohydrate\" into elements that relate more directly to the impact on health rather than a chemical definition, and followed on from meta-studies relating to chronic disease, obesity, and dental decay. It also led to the WHO and FAO to publish a revised food pyramid that splits up the classic food groups into more health-directed groups, which appears, as yet, to have had little impact on the food pyramids in use around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19153656",
"title": "Sugar packet",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A typical sugar packet in the United States contains 2 to 4 grams of sugar. Some sugar packets in countries such as Poland contain 5 to 10 grams of sugar. Sugar packet sizes, shapes, and weights differ by brand, region, and other factors. Because a gram of any carbohydrate contains 4 nutritional calories (also referred to as \"food calories\" or kilo-calories), a typical four gram sugar packet has 16 nutritional calories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Scientifically, \"sugar\" loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called \"simple sugars,\" the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has the molecular formula . The names of typical sugars end with -\"ose\", as in \"glucose\" and \"fructose\". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water () per bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Recommended dietary intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "On May 20, 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list \"Added sugars\" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the World Health Organization. To put this in context, most 12 ounce (335 mL) cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and 99 g/day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fuevro
|
what do the schrödinger and dirac equations describe and what's the difference?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Schrödinger equation (ih d/dt psi = H psi) is a very general statement about quantum mechanics: the phase of a state changes (it ”turns”, in a way) proportional to its energy. It can describe many different things as long as you use the correct H. Note that I’m NOT talking about the common formulation ih d/dt psi = -h^2 / 2m psi + V psi, which is the specific case for a singe nonrelativistic (slow) particle. The Dirac equation is another specific instance of it, describing relativistic (very fast) spin-1/2 particles (like electrons) and has spin and antiparticles built into it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4110552",
"title": "Lippmann–Schwinger equation",
"section": "Section::::Derivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "the Schrödinger equation is turned into an integral equation. The \"in\" and \"out\" states are assumed to form bases too, in the distant past and distant future respectively having the appearance of free particle states, but being eigenfunctions of the complete Hamiltonian. Thus endowing them with an index, the equation becomes\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39407",
"title": "Dirac equation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In particle physics, the Dirac equation is a relativistic wave equation derived by British physicist Paul Dirac in 1928. In its free form, or including electromagnetic interactions, it describes all spin- massive particles such as electrons and quarks for which parity is a symmetry. It is consistent with both the principles of quantum mechanics and the theory of special relativity, and was the first theory to account fully for special relativity in the context of quantum mechanics. It was validated by accounting for the fine details of the hydrogen spectrum in a completely rigorous way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14225",
"title": "Hydrogen atom",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical analysis.:Schrödinger equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The Schrödinger equation allows one to calculate the stationary states and also the time evolution of quantum systems. Exact analytical answers are available for the nonrelativistic hydrogen atom. Before we go to present a formal account, here we give an elementary overview. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59874",
"title": "Schrödinger equation",
"section": "Section::::Equation.:Time-dependent equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The form of the Schrödinger equation depends on the physical situation (see below for special cases). The most general form is the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (TDSE), which gives a description of a system evolving with time:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59874",
"title": "Schrödinger equation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The Schrödinger equation is a linear partial differential equation that describes the wave function or state function of a quantum-mechanical system. It is a key result in quantum mechanics, and its discovery was a significant landmark in the development of the subject. The equation is named after Erwin Schrödinger, who postulated the equation in 1925, and published it in 1926, forming the basis for the work that resulted in his Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59874",
"title": "Schrödinger equation",
"section": "Section::::Equation.:Time-dependent equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The term \"\"Schrödinger equation\"\" can refer to both the general equation, or the specific nonrelativistic version. The general equation is indeed quite general, used throughout quantum mechanics, for everything from the Dirac equation to quantum field theory, by plugging in diverse expressions for the Hamiltonian. The specific nonrelativistic version is a strictly classical approximation to reality and yields accurate results in many situations, but only to a certain extent (see relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58071309",
"title": "Unitary transformation (quantum mechanics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation describes how a system changes with time. It does this by relating changes in the state of system to the energy in the system (given by an operator called the Hamiltonian). Therefore, once the Hamiltonian is known, the time dynamics are in principle known. All that remains is to plug the Hamiltonian into the Schrödinger equation and solve for the system state as a function of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8hiidl
|
English (Latin?) certainly made its view of left-handed people clear (sinister - left handed) but are there any cultures were left-handedness is seen as better than right-handedness?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might try /r/Askanthropology. There may be someone here with the answer, but this other sub has a concentration of people with a background in comparative ethnography.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::In culture.:Negative appeal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Moreover, apart from inconvenience, left-handed people have historically been considered unlucky or even malicious for their difference by the right-handed majority. In many European languages, including English, the word for the direction \"right\" also means \"correct\" or \"proper\". Throughout history, being left-handed was considered negative. The Latin adjective \"sinister\" means \"left\" as well as \"unlucky\", and this double meaning survives in European derivatives of Latin, including the English words \"sinister\" (meaning both 'evil' and 'on the bearer's left on a coat of arms') and \"ambisinister\" meaning 'awkward or clumsy with both or either hand'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30533724",
"title": "Bias against left-handed people",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Beyond being inherently disadvantaged by a right-handed bias in the design of tools, left-handed people have been subjected to deliberate discrimination and discouragement. In certain societies, they may be considered unlucky or even malicious by the right-handed majority. Many languages still contain references to left-handedness to convey awkwardness, dishonesty, stupidity, or other undesirable qualities. Even in relatively advanced societies, left-handed people were historically (and in some cases still are) forced as children to use their right hands for tasks which they would naturally perform with the left, such as eating or writing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Left-handedness\" is far less common than right-handedness. Left-handed people are more skillful with their left hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 10% of the world population is left-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30533724",
"title": "Bias against left-handed people",
"section": "Section::::Language.:Expressions and colloquialisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "There are many colloquial terms used to refer to a left-handed person, e.g. \"southpaw\" (USA). Some are just slang or jargon words, while other references may be offensive or demeaning, either in context or in origin. In some parts of the English-speaking world, \"cack-handed\" is slang for left-handed, and is also used to mean clumsy. The origin of this term is disputed, but some suggest it is derived from the Latin \"cacare\", in reference to the habit of performing ablutions with the left hand, leaving the right hand \"clean\". However, other sources suggest that it is derived from the Old Norse word \"keikr\", meaning \"bent backwards\". Australians frequently use \"cacky-handed\". A less common Australian slang word for a left-handed individual is the term \"Molly-Dooker\", whose origins cannot be determined with certainty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Right-handedness\" is by far the most common type. Right-handed people are more skillful with their right hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 90% of the world's population is right-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39691237",
"title": "Left-Handed v Right-Handed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Left-Handed v Right-Handed was an occasional first-class cricket fixture held in England between 1790 and 1870. There were four such fixtures in all where a team titled \"Left-Handed\" played a team titled \"Right-Handed\". Additionally, a left-handed team played in two other matches against Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). There are no instances of a right-handed team except in the four matches against left-handed teams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8018602",
"title": "Vamachara",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Left-handed and right-handed modes of practice may be evident in both orthodox and heterodox practices of Indian religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism and is a matter of taste, culture, proclivity, initiation, \"sadhana\" and dharmic \"lineage\" (\"parampara\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kaocu
|
obama's new jobs bill.
|
[
{
"answer": "good one! I can't wait for an answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can read about it [Right Here](_URL_0_) from a previous ELI5. Cheers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "good one! I can't wait for an answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can read about it [Right Here](_URL_0_) from a previous ELI5. Cheers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33028210",
"title": "American Jobs Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The American Jobs Act () (H. Doc. 112-53) and (H.R. 12) is the informal name for a pair of bills recommended by U.S. President Barack Obama in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress on September 8, 2011. He characterized the proposal as a collection of non-controversial measures designed to get Americans back to work, and he repeatedly urged Congress to pass it \"right away\"; he also said that the bills would not add to the national deficit and would be fully paid for.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27586834",
"title": "Mo Brooks",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "While at a monthly breakfast meeting of the Madison County Republican Men's Club, Brooks referred to the jobs bill proposed by President Obama as the \"Obama 'kill jobs' bill.\" He told the crowd that it adds to the debt, promotes \"frivolous lawsuits,\" and creates new government agencies. He challenged the president's promotion of the bill saying, \"If Barack Obama is serious about jobs, how about repealing Obamacare, dealing with illegal immigration and urging the Democratic-controlled Senate to pass pro-jobs bills that have already cleared in the House.\" At the same meeting, Brooks compared the recession of 2008 (and its after effects) with the Great Depression, saying that the problems associated with the Great Depression are \"a cakewalk compared to what can happen to our country if we don't start acting responsibly in Washington, D.C., to try to get this deficit under control.\" Brooks believes that if the national debt of the United States continues to grow, the damage done to the nation will be catastrophic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28688759",
"title": "Unemployment in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political debates.:2010–present debates.:American Jobs Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "President Barack Obama proposed the American Jobs Act in September 2011, which included a variety of tax cuts and spending programs to stimulate job creation. The White House provided a fact sheet which summarized the key provisions of the $447 billion bill. However, neither the House nor the Senate has passed the legislation as of December 2012. President Obama stated in October 2011: \"In the coming days, members of Congress will have to take a stand on whether they believe we should put teachers, construction workers, police officers and firefighters back on the job...They'll get a vote on whether they believe we should protect tax breaks for small business owners and middle-class Americans, or whether we should protect tax breaks for millionaires and billionaires.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339186",
"title": "Tom Carper",
"section": "Section::::United States Senate.:Political positions.:Employment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "On September 21, 2011, \"The Wall Street Journal\" noted that President Obama's job-creation plans were drawing resistance from Senate Democrats. The article quoted Carper as saying, \"I think the best jobs bill that can be passed is a comprehensive long-term deficit-reduction plan. That's better than everything else the president is talking about combined.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40854576",
"title": "Wefunder",
"section": "Section::::Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Tommarello, Norman, and Belote extensively lobbied with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and in the United States Congress for the passing of the JOBS Act so much that they were in Washington, D.C. to watch President Barack Obama sign the bill on April 5, 2012. The JOBS Act, which allows startups to advertise and generally solicit for investments, is set to be fully implemented by mid-2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21295611",
"title": "Economic Recovery and Middle-Class Tax Relief Act of 2009",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The bill was a counter-proposal to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 introduced by President Barack Obama. HR 470 proposes to stimulate the economy without new government spending by implementing a permanent five-percentage point income tax cut for all taxpayers; it also would make permanent current capital gains and dividend tax rates at 15% (current law will allowing rates to rise after 2010). The bill proposes to index capital gains for inflation, and reduce the corporate tax rate to 25% from 35%, and repeal the Alternative Minimum Tax for individuals. The bill proposes a one-percent reduction in all non-defense discretionary spending for the fiscal year ending in 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28688759",
"title": "Unemployment in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political debates.:2010–present debates.:Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "The Congressional Research Service summarized the bill as follows: \"Creating American Jobs and Ending Offshoring Act—Amends the Internal Revenue Code to: (1) exempt from employment taxes for a 24-month period employers who hire an employee who replaces another employee who is not a citizen or permanent resident of the United States and who performs similar duties overseas; (2) deny any tax deduction, deduction for loss, or tax credit for the cost of an American jobs offshoring transaction (defined as any transaction in which a taxpayer reduces or eliminates the operation of a trade or business in connection with the start-up or expansion of such trade or business outside the United States); and (3) eliminate the deferral of tax on income of a controlled foreign corporation attributable to property imported into the United States by such corporation or a related person, except for property exported before substantial use in the United States and for agricultural commodities not grown in the United States in commercially marketable quantities.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
356fh1
|
what makes the noise in an engine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its either the engine lifter's noise, valve noise, the combustion, bearing noise, or the exhaust of the car itself you're talking about at the moment.\n\n\nVroom vroom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A short answer: the explosions cause by the sparks within the pistons (or cylinders) cause the sound. Vroom Vroom, if you will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5706269",
"title": "Virginia V",
"section": "Section::::Engine and boiler.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "In recent years, the engine has developed a noise, referred to as \"The Squeak\". While the cause of this noise is not definitively known, it is presumed to come from the low pressure valve. There are no physical indications of scuffing, galling, or damage to components indicating a metal-to-metal contact. The squeak is more pronounced as the engine warms up, and goes away as the engine speed increases. The problem has so vexed the engineers that they have started a tongue-in-cheek fund, whereby visitors are required to donate $1 to the repair fund if they wish to talk to an engineer about it. (This fund may also be diverted to a beer fund, at the discretion of the engineer.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1649792",
"title": "Lancia Montecarlo",
"section": "Section::::Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The engine noise in the interior of the car was sometimes criticized; \"Road & Track\" listing noise as one of their biggest complaints about the car, with \"little joy listening to the wheeze of an emission equipment-stifled 4-banger\", and \"Motor\" calling the engine noise a \"raucous cacophony\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21108206",
"title": "Noise and vibration on maritime vessels",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The main producers of mechanically created noise and vibration are the engines, but there are also other sources, like the air conditioning, shaft-line, cargo handling and control equipment and mooring machinery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9640",
"title": "Engine",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Sound levels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "In the case of sound levels, engine operation is of greatest impact with respect to mobile sources such as automobiles and trucks. Engine noise is a particularly large component of mobile source noise for vehicles operating at lower speeds, where aerodynamic and tire noise is less significant. Generally speaking, petrol (gasoline) and diesel engines emit less noise than turboshafts of equivalent power output; electric motors very often emit less noise than their fossil fuel-powered equivalents. Thrust-outputting engines, such as turbofans, turbojets and rockets emit the greatest amount of noise because their method of producing thrust is directly related to the production of sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537949",
"title": "Desmodromic valve",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "While the design can be noisy, it is typically masked by wind noise and other engine components such as intake and exhaust noise. Though stated above the noise is \"uncomfortably loud in engines with four or more cylinders\", if true, this is limited (in terms of Ducati) to the MotoGP, MotoGP Race Replica bikes, and the 2018 Ducati Panigale V4, which are the only current production desmodromic engines that feature four cylinders. (Note that exhaust noise levels can exceed 110 dB on full race systems.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877441",
"title": "LS based GM small-block engine",
"section": "Section::::Problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 410,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 410,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "In the early production run of the LS-series engine, some engines encountered 'piston slap' during the first few minutes after a cold engine start; this sound is caused by the pistons rocking slightly in the cylinder until they reach operating temperature/size. 'Piston slap' sometimes sounds more like a knock or the sound of a diesel engine running. It is typically only present when the engine is cold and disappears as the engine reaches operating temperature. The noise of 'piston slap' often is louder when listening for it below the oil pan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1244901",
"title": "Walschaerts valve gear",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "This sudden pulse of pressure causes the loud “choo” sound that members of the public associate with steam engines, because they mostly encounter engines at stations, where efficiency is sacrificed as trains pull away. A steam engine well adjusted for efficiency makes a soft “hhHHhh” sound that lasts throughout the exhaust stroke, with the sounds from the two cylinders overlapping to produce a nearly constant sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26z988
|
what is al qaeda fighting for?
|
[
{
"answer": "Islamic caliphate - A worldwide dominance of Islam and governance according to sharia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here is a letter from Osama Bin Laden to America](_URL_0_) The basis of this is that we are supporting acts of aggression against Muslims via Israel, occupying their Holy Land, and we are not Muslims.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its not a simple answer because Al Qaeda is NOT a simple terrorist group.\n\nThe point of Al Qaeda, as laid out by Bin Laden, is not a single group with a single goal, but as the Arabic translation plainly tell us, to be \"the base\" for multiple related but not 100% similar groups, causes, and goals. \n\nThis is NO single thing Al Qaeda wants because the is NO single Al Qaeda. There's Al Qaeda in Iraq (now fracturing into AQI and ISIS), there's Al Qaeda in the Maghreb (AQM), Al Qaeda in the Arab Peninsula, also Al Qaeda in the Horn of Africa. The original Afghanistan franchise is also still present with the remnants of the Taliban in the Pakistan Tribal areas. Plus these franchises, literally they are franchises, they use the Al Qaeda name and sometimes share finances/fighters but they have semi-independent leadership and act towards separate goals. \n\nBin Laden states goals where many, but the usual demands in his fatwa videos included: Removal of US soldiers and sailors from Saudi Arabia, end of US support of Israel, the overthrow of several western friendly Middle East governments, and the replacement of them with a unified Islamic Caliphate or one super Arab-Muslim state in the gulf. \n\nOthers linked to Al Qaeda have also demanded the forced conversion of all non-Muslims, the replacement of civil law with Sharia religious law, the complete destruction of Israel, or for an Islamic Caliphate to extend beyond the middle east and conquer the world. \n\nTo accomplish these, Al Qaeda was supposed to be a linked network of terrorism support groups. The training camps in pre 9/11 Afghanistan hosted terrorists from all over the world. Al Qaeda would link financier X with group Y to move money. They would provide their franchise groups with better planning of attacks and strategy. You could share bomb makers. One guy learns an IED to defeat armored Humvees, Al Qaeda would hook up other groups with him. It was envisioned as a one stop terrorist super store/support line. \n\nEach individual group had its own motivations, usually less about Islam and infidels, and more about seizing regional power and taking political control. Al Qaeda in Iraq talks a good game about hating Jews and Americans, but really they just bomb and kill other Iraqi Muslims so that AQI can get more political control over the west of Iraq. They couldn't care less about Al Qaeda in the Maghreb fighting in Libya or Algeria or the Taliban's fight in Afghanistan. Bin Laden simply built them a common support network for training, money, and strategy; but not a governing body where they vote on the general platforms of terrorism. \n\nThis split has only gotten bigger since most of the senior leadership have been killed or captured since 9/11. Al Qaeda is less about the spectacular overseas attacks (9/11, London bombings, Madrid train attacks) of which OBL and KSM were proponents and more about these regional franchises attacking regionally for regional gain. \n \n**TL:DR** What exactly Al Qaeda wants depends on which Al Qaeda you are talking about. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Radical jihad has not been global for long. Even the \"Afghan Arabs\" who fought the Soviets in the 1980s generally saw themselves as training to confront enemy regimes back home. It was not until the mid-1990s that Osama bin Laden launched the globalist strategy of giving priority to attacking the \"far enemy\" in the West. Later still, Ayman al-Zawahiri reversed his long-standing concentration on the \"near enemy\" (the Egyptian regime), joined forces with bin Laden, and became number two in the al Qaeda hierarchy. \"\n\nAfter Reagan pulled out of Lebanon in the wake of one suicide bombing and Clinton left Somalia, Bin Laden saw the USA as a paper tiger; whereas the domestic regimes were seen as only being able to crush the rise of Islamist governments because they were supported by the USA. The logic was (up until 9/11): scare the far enemy into pulling support for the near enemy with attacks and the illegitimate regimes will collapse. This strategy seems misguided and a miscalculation, setting aside the obvious ethical problems.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As I understand it (I'm far from an expert), Al Qaeda is one of the more recent strains of a pan-islamist reactionary movement aimed at ending the state of de facto subjugation of the Arab world by western powers and extirpating their influence in the heartlands of Dar al-Islam. Remember that the islamic world stood as one more or less unified domain for the better part of 1,500 years, and for a great part of that time their empires were more advanced than the west. It's only been one century since the Ottoman empire was dismantled, after all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A common mistaken assumption is that all of these militant groups we find in the Third World are fighting for some well-thought out political agenda. In reality, many of them are glorified bandits, their leaders fighting for a much more shallow business interest (ie control of diamonds or coltan), and their ranks populated by easily misguided young men without many more productive opportunities in life. For that last reason alone, it could be hard to disarm them (ie put down their guns, so they could do what, dig dirt instead? In 100F+ heat, shitty pay?)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TIL nobody knows who the Al Qauda are, nor who they're fighting for",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why don't you ask mr. Bin Laden himself\n_URL_1_\nTL:DR \nIsrael\nhere is some guy explaining it really nice ex CIA\n_URL_0_\nnoone is going to blow himself up because girls go to school ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So that they can be in charge and be as corrupt as those who are already in charge. Simple they want power and will do anything to get it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch the BBC documentary called \"the power of nightmares\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They want everyone to be muslim and date goats.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's important to point out, as well, that the type of Islam that Al Qaeda wants is a variant called Wahabism. Wahabism is, more or less, a strict and by most views corrupted vision of Islam. It is against anything western, as well as entertainment, education (unless it is Wahabi teachings), increased female roles in society. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mos Def asked a similar question to Christopher Hitchens and Salman Rushdie on Real Time with Bill Maher. [Watch](_URL_0_) their reply.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They fight for the legitimacy of the American military industrial complex, and it's right to exist.\n\nOh - you wanted a serious answer: They hate us for your freedoms.\n\n/s\n\nOn a really serious note, everything you've been told about the \"War on Terror\" and 'al qaeda' is a lie. Made up. Why do you think everything that happens in the terror world somehow goes full circle in supporting US interests? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Read up on [Sayyid Qutb](_URL_1_) and [Ayman al-Zawahiri](_URL_0_). Qutb is the idealogical father of al-Queda, and Zawahiri was his best student and has been leader of al-Queda since 1998. bin Laden was just the money man and propaganda tool. The goal was to establish a world-wide caliphate under their interpretation of Sharia law. This was established 25 years before al-Queda was formed in 1988.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What was the Spanish inquisition for? (you don't follow my religion to the letter so now you must DIE!)\n\nYes, the US, went to their aid to help to defend against Russia, but to insinuate they're mercs hired by the CIA.. is just plain stupid. \n\nIt was simply a case of the old enemy of my enemy thing. \n\nHopefully, some day, we can just agree to disagree and be satisfied with some people believing A. some B, and some C.. personally, I'm a strong believer in Z!\n\nCan't we all just get along?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow. The comments here are mostly really wrong and ignorant.\n\nHere is what they want:\n\n1. US troops out of Saudi Arabia because it's a Holy place for Islam.\n\n2. An end to US support of Israel in the form of military aid and vetoes of UN resolutions against Israel. The US is one of the five veto powers in the UN and regularly vetoes general assembly resolutions against Israel. \n\n\nThey want other things too, but that is what they want specifically from the United States. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something I've always wondered. Being a Canadian and someone who pays little attention to the news here nor there. \n\nDoes the average member of Al Queda want me dead? Do the organizations?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The various terrorists will often create long and sometimes silly lists if demands, but it all basically boils down to one thing: the spread of western culture. The western culture bug has bitten countries all over the world, and it's reaching the middle east, much to their dismay. Ideas like women's rights (or allowing them to show their faces at all), free markets, individual liberties, consumerism, religious freedom, gay rights, the whole enchilada. It very much bothers them to see their youth thinking and acting in ways that aren't in line with their culture, and they point the finger of blame at America, who is sort of the poster child for western culture. \n\nThe sad thing is that before 9/11, it was a very, very small group of people who 1) hated western culture that much 2) blamed its spread on America, and 3) were willing to resort to terrorism to fix it. But after 9/11 and our massive invasions every which way in the middle east, Al Qaeda suddenly had a perfect recruitment tool, saying \"Look at what America is doing to your cities and governments! They must be stopped at all costs!\" Because this makes a much more compelling argument that \"our kids are copying American TV so let's blow shit up\", their numbers multiplied in the years following. \n\nTl;dr: It started as an intimidated hatred of American culture, but turned into a hatred of America's actions in the middle east. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a redditor who wrote an interesting book that helps to explain Al Qaeda. It's called Tremble the Devil:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bigger al qaeda is an invention by the US white house kept alive by the state department and it's accepted by various group in the middle east because it sounds kick-ass. It's just a general term for islamic militants.\n\nThere is actually a 'real' al queda now though, as in an organized cooperating grouping, but for some reason media are told to play that down and ignore it. it's ISIL, you can see their recognizable flag everywhere from the fighters in syria to the videos from boko haram and libya and mali.\n\nAnd now it's best for everybody including me you downvote me into oblivion. Thank you.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "easy answer: US foreign policy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Al Qaeda is a jewish creation so we can fight wars for Israel. Here are some Jewish folk pretending to be American Al Qaeda. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To replace everyone's religion with their own by force. And kill people who dont agree with them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Controlled and funded by the CIA through Saudi Arabia, acts as a platform for western involvement in the east. First it was the communists, now its the Muslims. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Whatever the CIA tells them they are fighting for I'd imagine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Back pay from the CIA. They are particularly upset with Orrin Hatch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the intention of the question is to understand what motivates fundamentalist groups like Al Qaeda then a better question would be 'What is Al Qaeda fighting *against*?' and the answer is not, as has so often been simply portrayed, 'our freedom'. I'm not setting out to apologise for these groups or demonise the West but it is naive to think they appeared out of nowhere, hellbent on world domination, as others in this thread have suggested. \n\nThese groups are a violent reaction to Western secular modernisation and globalisation in the language and conceptual framework of Islam. Their emergence can also not be separated from the geo-political meddling of Western States in the region and the legacies of European colonialism.\n\nA simple illustration of this point is the fact that the Nigerian Al Qaeda affiliate is called 'Boko Haram' meaning 'reject western teachings'. They are not called 'build Muslim empire'. \n\nSome context because we can't know nutin' without some context -\n\nThe Muslim world was at times through history more advanced than the West, it was a proud civilisation then was colonised by the more advanced European societies which was has left a major scar in the collective Muslim/Arabic consciousness. Imagine being told that your ways of life, your practices, your knowledge systems were backward and 'exotic'. \n\nFastfwd to 20th century - decolonisation and the rise of Arab Nationalist dictatorships. \n\nFundamentalist 'political Islam' is a modern phenomenon that has emerged in opposition to Arab Nationalism. The roots of Al Qaeda can be traced to the 20th century political Islam movements like the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt which formed in the 1920s as an alternative model and opposition to the ruthless Arab Nationalist governments that took over after the European empires collapsed. These Arab Nationalist governments (think Assads Syria, Mubaraks Egypt or Saddam Husseins Egypt) were secular one party states and while they were ruthless to their opposition they help to understand why 20th century Arab world wasn't torn apart by war. \n\nThese secular regimes were supported throughout the 20th century by the West and set about modernizing their respective countries and in large part did so. For much of the 20th Century countries like Syria and Iraq were in many ways egalitarian, modern nations with high literacy rates and good healthcare etc. \n\nBut they did not take kindly to opposition and despite being secular religion remained central to the way of life of many of the people in the region and became the language and framework through which opposition became organised and articulated. A rallying point to combat injustice for the disenfranchised. As groups like the Muslim Brotherhood became persecuted, they were radicalised and for that reason it is said that religious fundamentalism was born in the dungeons and torture chambers of the likes of Nasser's Egypt.\n\nFastfwd to the 80s and 90s and the west is propping up all sorts of dictatorships in the region, there is the situation in Palestine and so on. The Russians are at war with the Mujahadeen in Afghanistan, the latest of thousands of years of wars with foreign invaders etc. More than anything at this time the Islmaic thinking and indigenous practices were under threat as the 'McDonaldisation' of the world was well underway. \n\nEnough to really grind your gears - look at peaceful Muslim countries like Indonesia (the worlds biggest Muslim country) there isn't fundamentalism there. It is the product of war, foreign domination etc. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The American military industrial industry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fourteenth century. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody ever explains much in ELI5 like ELI5 should be.\n\nSo for argument's sake, I'm going to explain it like your five.\n\nal Qaeda is a Muslim religion group composed mostly of male believers. They believe in using all manner of extreme violence to get their message across.\n\nThey hate Western Culture. They hate the United States and they hate, more than the United States, Israel. Jews to al Qaeda are the worst and since the USA supports Jews, they hate the USA. They also hate the USA for being in the Persian Gulf.\n\nSo al Qaeda nas vowed to bring American soldiers to the Middle East to fight them in any way they can, which includes blowing up children so they can blow up soldiers.\n\nTheir leaders are cowards and instead of coming out in the open, they recruit many illiterate, poor people to commit the acts they want, such as suicide bombers. They then promise them if they do what they need, they'll help their families, which is a lie.\n\nAnd to any potential al Qaeda member reading this. Just remember that 'Great Satan' who you hate so much, you're using his Internet, his Reddit, his E-mail systems and his computer codes to communicate. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Al Qaeda - literally 'the base' - a reference to the CIA covert offensive operation against the USSR in Afghanistan in the 70's/80's and specifically the US training facility set up there at the time. I know what you're asking but literally and factually speaking Al Qaeda is the proxy militia of the CIA. Always have been. From Afghanistan to Bosnia to Saudi Arabia (9-11 operatives were nearly all from there remember, not Afghanistan) and now Syria and Lybia - they will be around as long black ops are in the budget and drugs are illegal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Al-Qaeda was created by the CIA through Victor Brzezinski in 1979 in order to fight the Soviets. \n\nSince then the power elites in the West and the USA particularly have been using Al-Qaeda(which as former British foreign minister Robin Cook said is nothing more than a database of known mujaheddin and arms smugglers that were created by the CIA in the first place) to overthrow foreign governments and use that as an excuse to take away rights and freedoms at home all in the name of security. \n\nThe terrorist threat is mostly fake, and what little real threat there is is insignificant as you have 5x times more chance to get hit by lightning than die in a terrorist attack. \n\nMost terror attacks are staged and/or provocateured. To know more research **FALSE FLAG OPERATIONS** and do some research into operation Gladio, Northwoods and Gulf of Tonkin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Al-Qaeda is now not just the group that bin-Laden created and led in the 90's and early 2000's. It can now be very crudely divided into the few remaining core members left and then its franchises. I will focus mostly on the former because the later have mostly local grievences.\n\nAl-Qaeda proper, the group founded and lead by bin-Laden and later his successor, Ayman Al-Zawahiri, gave many a rambling sermon regarding his grievances but the most important of them were political in nature. \n\nHe viewed many of the regimes in the Middle East as particularly beholden to Western interests or even puppets of them because of the oil they possess.\n\nFor instance, the US used to base a number of troops in Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda demanded that the US leave the peninsula, the land of the two holy places and surely not ground where troops of a secular, capitalist, power should be housed.\n\nAl-Qaeda and similar groups, it should be noted, view the corrupt regimes of the Middle East as just as bad if not worse than the US and Western Europe. But they also proffer that the US and Western Europe does much to keep those corrupt regimes in power, not a ridiculous claim.\n\nAl-Qaeda also, at least nominally, fights for justice in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. I'm unsure what their exact demands in this regard, but its safe to say they take issue with how Israel has conducted itself since its inception. \n\nVery simply, Al-Qaeda proper fights for the liberation of Muslims from the corrupt, US-backed regimes of the Middle East and the conclusion of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict which would be extremely favorable to the Palestinian people.\n\nIn a way what they demand is not so crazy. In fact many of the regimes in the Middle East ARE at least partially reliant on US assistance (military, not economic if we're talking about the Gulf) and are extremely repressive and corrupt. Additionally, any fair observer would say that the Palestinians have been pretty screwed over by Israel. \nOf course, what they want to replace the regimes with (a probably very repressive theocracy) would probably be no better, if not far worse, than the regimes already in place. Additionally (obviously), the tactics they employ are despicable. \n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The foundations of al-qaeda were laid back when russia invaded afganistan - which was run by a group of people called the taliban. \n\nthe usa wanted to help the taliban defeat the communist russians - so they asked pakistan to act as a go-between and supply weapons and training to the taliban to help stop the march of the red russian army. it worked!\n\nthen iraq invaded kuwait. thinking they would also try to invade saudi the americans sent armies to saudi to help stop saddam and liberate kuwait. thus by gaining alot of powerful oil owning friends.\n\nosama argued that americans should not be allowed to defend saudi and instead take his taliban and do it. he was eventually assured that once saddam was stopped the americans would leave. \n\nsaddam and osama had very different thoughts on how islam should be. needless to say they didnt see eye to eye. \n\nso end of the war osama said the americans should go back now. the americans refused saying it was in the interests of the region for them to maintain a presence. the saudi govt also said this going back on the assurances they gave to osama. \n\nthe heirarchy was already set of al-qaeda in the form of osama and the taliban. he'd already proved himself as a very able general of a rag tag army and as such changed the objectives to troubling the americans to leave the saudi.\n\na fair few rich saudi's agreed with him and bank rolled the process. some saying that this money was also being given to him by none other than the saudi govt. \n\nthe al qaeda of today is now fighting to \"protect\" islam but only the islam that matches their school of thought. the top tiers of power have long been removed and now its a free for all al-qaeda with many factions that rarely talk to each other as one but still go under the same umbrella and some are put there by the media",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "DURKA JUERKA MUHHAMED JIHAD ALLAH FUK AMERIKA ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're devout Muslims. Islamic theology commands that Muslims are supposed to fight the infidels until Allah's religion reigns supreme over the entire world. They want to overthrow governments that they view to be un-Islamic so that Islamic theocracies based on Islamic Sharia law can be erected in their place. They then want to unite these Islamic states under a Sunni Islamic empire called a Caliphate. Then they want to invade the rest of the world through imperialist jihads and force every single man, woman and child on this planet to live under Islamic Sharia law. \n\nThey also support mass Muslim immigration to infidel countries for the purpose of [subverting](_URL_4_) them from within and growing 5th column Islamic enclaves. \n\nThey believe that this ultimate global victory for Islam will bring on the end of days where the prophets of Islam like Jesus (they believe that Jesus and Old Testament prophets were actually Muslims whose teachings have been twisted by Jews and Christians) will come back to the Earth, destroy all of the Christian crosses, slaughter all of the Jews and send the disbelievers to hell and the good Muslims to heaven. \n\nThis isn't just al Qaeda ideology. This is orthodox Islamic theology. Which is why Islamic terrorism is so [common and widespread](_URL_3_) throughout the entire world. Muslims are just currently too weak to wage conventional imperialist jihads like they did in the past (the Caliphate was also abolished after WWI). That's why they've resorted to terrorism, insurgencies, unconventional warfare and various sorts of dawah (spreading the faith through aggressive and sophisticated proselytization) and taqiyya (lying to infidels when in a position of weakness for the purpose of cloaking their true intentions and protecting the cause). \n\nWatch some [lectures](_URL_1_) or read some of the [books](_URL_0_) by the much-maligned Robert Spencer of [Jihad Watch](_URL_2_). He's a courageous beacon of light on this issue. He's one of the few Islam experts with the courage to expose Islamic theology for how depraved it really is. He also exposes how the subversive Western Left [are in bed](_URL_5_) with Muslims. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "they're not. they're just an excuse for america to inflict imperialism on and rob countries of their resources worldwide, while trying to scare the shit out of americans into rationalizing said robbery. Also, we're backing al-qaeda in syria. It wouldn't surprise me if a bunch of the dudes attacking places and claiming it was al-qaeda are CIA spooks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you rearrange the letters in Al Qaeda, it actually spells out 'excuse we made up to perpetrate and prosper off of the military industrial complex on a global scale while keeping it ambiguous enough for the general complacent public to not question' -- somehow seems like extra letters got in that word jumble somehow, but you get what im sayin... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Their right to party. Obvious.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm just wondering why they thought it would be a good idea for Al-Qaeda to attack via 9/11 if they wanted the U.S. out of their country. Did they not expect the U.S. to wage war?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The overarching goal of Islam is to Islamify the world. Their adherents follow the word of a 1400 year old delusional war monger. Please spare me your absolving of Islam by pointing out the deficiencies with Christianity or other religions. All religion is insane but Islam has a special place for itself on crazy bus.\n\nSource: I'm of Turk descent. Turkey is the most moderate, liberal an sensible muslim nation and among the younger generations Islam plays a minimal role in our lives but even we still have our islamist lunatics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nothing. There is no such thing as an Al Qaeda. Now, step away from the window. And go back to sleep. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It used to be the expulsion of all non-Muslims from Arabia. Now, everyone who wants some publicity link themselves to the group and thus the goals are no longer set.\n\nEveryone has their own goal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "cia...that was pretty simple..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no Al Qaeda. There are of course militant groups that use that name. Our military industrial complex doesn't use that name in serious discussions. Of course the media uses that name. Politicians do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First and foremost, they want US troops out of the Arabian Peninsula (specially Saudi Arabia/Qatar/Bahrain/Jordan and so on) \nSecond they want to remove the current Saudi kingship and replace it with more austere and hard-line form of fundamental Islamic rule (Salafi ideology).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seriously? No one?\n\nEnemy of my enemy....\n\nAl Qaeda was original funded by the US government to fight our enemy (Russia) without directly intervening during the Afghan soviet War. We gave them weapons and money. That's how they went from small time \"community watch\" organization to multinational super cell.\n\n\n\nthis was our original intention, obviously. \n\n\nJust google it or watch Charlie Wilson's war if you find it hard to believe.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the commentary here, also consider anything by Michael Scheuer on the subject.\n\nI also highly recommend Faisal Devji's \"Terrorist in Search of Humanity\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think they know, now that [Iris is dead](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the right to party!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Their goal is to rid the Islamic State of western influences. Therefore they must destroy the \"infidels\" (Western People/Culture) that is present in their native land, to re establish a true Islamic State where man made laws are replaced by religious and traditional secular laws aka Sharia Law. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A [serious] tag would be nice. \"The right to party\" being every other comment is pretty fucking stupid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mustard. They love mustard. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think terrorists really fight \"for\" something, they rather fight against something.\n\nWhat counts with terrorism is the means not the ends. Al qaeda is big so they can shape their ends in whatever form they want to reach their goals and especially recruit people.\n\nI think overall Al qaeda is against american imperialism in general and how influential, powerful, christian nations tend to cause trouble to smaller poorer countries, which is an easy, simple, short, efficient opinion to get around with in the recent years, especially with situations like Israel, the 1991 Iraq wars, Iran plots, and how the US in general replaced some small governments.\n\nUnfortunately, some politicals beliefs of al qaeda can be matched with anti-imperial, anti-american sentiments throughout the world. Only of course, al qaeda uses money and violence to reach those goals.\n\nYou could say they fight \"for\" a muslim world, but I think they use extreme religious groups as a mean to recruit and indoctrinate people (extremism works pretty well on people with a lack of proper education), pretty much like the same political tactic any revolutionary like Fidel Castro used to get in power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To put it really, really simply - they want to convert anyone who will listen to their absolute, stone age, literal interpretation of Islam, kill anyone who doesn't and their punishment for ignoring them is death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the C.I.A.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Shifty humans doing shifty human things because other shifty humans want to force their shifty human things on them and don't want to have the first group of shifty humans to force their shifty human things on them.\n\nDamn auto correct shifty=shitty",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Whatever CIA tells them to",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also.. It is my understanding that one of the pillars of islam is preservation of the faith. Western influence is seen as a corrupting factor so radicalized faith groups (ala al qaeda) use particular tactics in an attempt to fight back (ala terrorism).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine what you would do if there were numerous bombings in the US and your family was blown to pieces for nothing other than the invading force wanting to show they have the power to do so and to possibly target someone who you barely knew that had contact with someone who had contact with someone who they did not like.\n\nI am sure that most Americans would come out fighting and use guerrilla tactics to seek revenge against the enemy.\n\nAnyone can become a terrorist , at the moment a terrorist is described as anyone who either fights against insurgent american or allied forces or plans attacks in retaliation for their family being bombed into tiny pieces, how would you feel if Russia had the power to do what America is doing now in the middle east on American soil , having bombing runs on LA and San Fransisco and targeting schools and residential areas, how would your mind be twisted if walking home you saw babies bodies in pieces next to other children and woman's body parts and you recognized some body parts as those that belonged to your baby and wife and pre teen children. You would lose it and do anything to retaliate. Now imagine that this happened to you and those around you on a daily or weekly basis with no way to retaliate.\n\nThis I believe is one reason for terrorists, but then again many are funded by Saudi Arabia and Iran just to mess with US forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Al Qaeda is a group of particularly powerful people, who have a distorted interpretation of the Qu'ran. Their belief is that Allah is the only true god, (a reasonable belief, lots of christians and other religious people have similar beliefs) but they also believe that everyone should be Muslim, and they preach a global Jihad. Jihad can be interpreted in a number of ways, and most sensible muslims believe it to be a inner spiritual struggle. However, islamic extremists quote it as a \"holy war\" against \"the enemies of islam\".\n\nHowever, a lot of the people who fight for Al Qaeda do not have such archaic interpretations; they become members of the movement as it is one of the only ways to fight back against western powers who have been having their way with the middle east for years. Al Qaeda uses these people, preaching extremism to them, some of which is not even loosely based on the Qu'ran, manipulating them into terrorism and genocide.\n\nThe sad thing is, a lot of the people who turn to extremism are perfectly justified in their misery and desperation. It is up to the western countries (not just the US, but especially the US) to stop committing atrocities in the middle east, as all they are doing is fueling more hatred in the people who live there; who are in danger of turning to extremism as a potential solution.\n\nBasically, what Al Qaeda want is everyone to think the same way as them. By no means, should my opinion or your opinion of Islam be tainted by those who misuse it to manipulate people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "still doesn't matter, they are all anti-Merica faggots\n\n\n'Merica",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A terrorist born Al Qaeda is not real. It is our creation in order to have an enemy to fight just as the Red Scare was not real. Business of war is the most profitable business and there are those that have become very rich off the blood of those that have died on both sides of this business model \"conflict\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Al Qaeda is fighting for he CIA",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no ELI5 for this sort of question, but I can try. \n\nAl Qaeda, specifically the more current active cells, have become more of an idea than an organization. This idea is more 'apparent' in one of their newer names \"Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant\". These organizations will traditionally have a extremist and political front (ie, the Nusrah Front in Syria and ISIL). It's also important to remember that AQ is Sunni Islam who are in a continuous battle against Shia Islam and western influence. Think of it like Republicans VS Democrats in the united states, there is a history of not getting along, but they both dislike Communism. So while they both fight each other, they are also against the spread of communism. Extremist Muslims will look for anything that might be seen as an act against their people. (ie, replacing a powerful position with a Shia when it was a Sunni leader previously)\n\nIn addition to these conflicts of interest, you also have major government support from different countries because it secures your borders and/or spreads your ideology. Iran who likes the idea of Shia Islam and Saudi Arabia who likes the idea of Sunni Islam. \n\nSo you could say that Al Qaeda is a way of life that Extremist Sunni's are willing to fight for. They use media to their advantage to show how oppressed they are and bait law enforcement into killing them so they can continue to recruit based off of this idea. As mentioned many times in this thread they desire a Caliphate, but it's an impossible destination because there are too many different ideas on how it would function and thus violence is the answer, because democracy doesn't change your religion and beliefs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please do not downvote me until you have read the research and formed an opinion yourself:\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_7_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_5_\n\n_URL_8_\n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nTL;DR\n\nAl-Qaeda is fighting for whatever the CIA and the intelligence agencies want them to fight for, there is a lot of controversy over the actual legitimacy of the group as a whole. For no one has ever truly seen Al-Qaeda outside of what the Military Industrial complex corporately funded media machines tell them is Al-Qaeda, even though it very well may not be that group. It's a walking contradictory logical fallacy; and yet people swear up and down that they are the biggest threat to something because that's what the TV told them. I was tricked too!\n\nAll in all Al-Qaeda is simply a media and intelligence community creation used to steer public opinion for the War on (of) Terror.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The truth is being downvoted. They are created by the intelligence community as a cog in the machine. They are smoke and mirrors. \"\n\nAnybody saying otherwise has bought into the agenda and are compromised. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nWatch it.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nWatch that too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the right..... TO PAAAAAARTY! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"The United States of Fear\" is an excellent read on this issue. Highly recommended! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Firstly, Al-Qaeda was made up by the American neo-cons post 9/11 to create an umbrella term for the \"terrorist network\" - Binladen never actually used the word Al-Qaeda.\n\nSecondly, Al-Qaeda is basically fighting for Islamic fundamentalism. They detest the western standard of living and seek to uphold the Quran as the political/social/economic standards by which we should live.\n\nI've just written a 3000 word essay on Islamic fundamentalism, if you need any further information I'll be more than happy to send you my bibliography.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same thing the United states fights for, control. Since you know._URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was a great question. I now understand a lot more about what's going on in the middle east. Thank you, bunnyhopskotch and thisisntnamman.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two types of organizations in this world (I'm generalizing because it's not really so black and white) -- those who want to see everyone get along with each other and grow as a species, and those who want to have control and power.\n\nHaving control and power in a small group or leader is starting to slowly become a little bit antiquated. Think back to the time of kings and queens and dictators. They want to rule their kingdom the way *they* want.\n\nNowadays, we have to learn to work together to take care of our planet. There's a physicist called Michio Kaku who talks about different types of civilizations. A type 0 civilization is one that still has civil wars, famine, uses fossil fuels and other planetary resources. A type 1 civilization is one that is peaceful, harnesses the power of the sun, controls the weather, etc.\n\nWe're on the verge of either becoming a type 1 civilization, but there are still lots of people who want to be dictators and rule people. These types of people are terrorists. Very simply put, Al Queda is a group that wants to control people instead of see everyone get along peacefully.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1921",
"title": "Al-Qaeda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1471,
"text": "Al-Qaeda operates as a network of Islamic extremists and Salafist jihadists. The organization has been designated as a terrorist group by the United Nations Security Council, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the European Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, India, and various other countries (see below). Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on non-military and military targets in various countries, including the 1998 United States embassy bombings, the September 11 attacks, and the 2002 Bali bombings. The United States government responded to the September 11 attacks by launching the \"War on Terror\", which sought to undermine al-Qaeda and its allies. The deaths of key leaders, including that of Osama bin Laden, have led al-Qaeda's operations to shift from the organization and planning of attacks, to the planning of attacks which are carried out by associated groups and \"lone-wolf\" operators. Al-Qaeda characteristically employs attacks which include suicide attacks and the simultaneous bombing of several targets. Activities which are ascribed to al-Qaeda involve the actions of those who have made a pledge of loyalty to bin Laden, or to the actions of \"al-Qaeda-linked\" individuals who have undergone training in one of its camps in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq or Sudan. Al-Qaeda ideologues envision the removal of all foreign influences in Muslim countries, and the creation of a new caliphate ruling over the entire Muslim world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11320004",
"title": "Fatah al-Islam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Fatah al-Islam (, meaning \"Conquest of Islam\") is a radical Sunni Islamist group that formed in November 2006 in a Palestinian refugee camp, located in Lebanon. It has been described as a militant jihadist movement that draws inspiration from al-Qaeda. It became well known in 2007 after engaging in combat against the Lebanese Army in the Nahr al-Bared UNRWA Palestinian refugee camp. Following its defeat at Nahr el-Bared, the group relocated to the Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp near Sidon in 2008. As of 2014, after the death or capture of many members, most of the surviving members of Fatah al-Islam are thought to have joined other groups in Lebanon and Syria including the Free Syrian Army, Al-Nusra Front, Ahrar al-Sham, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566821",
"title": "Islamic terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Examples of organizations and acts.:Transnational.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 283,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 283,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Al-Qaeda's stated aim is the use of jihad to defend and protect Islam against Zionism, Christianity, Hinduism, the secular West, and Muslim governments such as Saudi Arabia, which it sees as insufficiently Islamic and too closely tied to the United States. Formed by Osama bin Laden and Muhammad Atef in the aftermath of the Soviet–Afghan War in the late 1980s, al-Qaeda called for the use of violence against civilians and military of the United States and any countries that are allied with it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9087364",
"title": "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant",
"section": "Section::::Countries and groups at war with ISIL.:Global Coalition to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.:Al-Qaeda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 306,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 306,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Al-Nusra Front is a branch of al-Qaeda operating in Syria. Al-Nusra has launched many attacks and bombings, mostly against targets affiliated with or supportive of the Syrian government. There have been media reports that many of al-Nusra's foreign fighters have left to join al-Baghdadi's ISIL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6107650",
"title": "Osbat al-Ansar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "It has been designated as a terrorist group by the United Nations, Canada, Russia, the UAE, the United Kingdom and the United States. It is on the United States' list of terrorist organizations for alleged connections with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda, and the American administration decided to freeze all assets of Osbat al-Ansar following the attacks on September 11th, 2001. The group has reportedly received funding from Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "566821",
"title": "Islamic terrorism",
"section": "Section::::Examples of organizations and acts.:Middle East/Southwest Asia.:Lebanon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 264,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 264,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Fatah al-Islam is an Islamist group operating out of the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp in northern Lebanon. It was formed in November 2006, by fighters who broke off from the pro-Syrian Fatah al-Intifada, itself a splinter group of the Palestinian Fatah movement, and is led by a Palestinian fugitive militant named Shaker al-Abssi. The group's members have been described as militant jihadists, and the group itself has been described as a terrorist movement that draws inspiration from al-Qaeda. Its stated goal is to reform the Palestinian refugee camps under Islamic sharia law, and its primary targets are the Lebanese authorities, Israel and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174557",
"title": "Al-Qaeda involvement in Asia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Al Qaeda involvement in Asia. It is believed that members of Al-Qaeda are in hiding along the border of Afghanistan and northwest sections of Pakistan. In Iraq, elements loosely associated with al-Qaeda, in the Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad organization commanded by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, have played a key role in the War in Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4gzeho
|
why does styrofoam melt when it comes into contact with superglue/adhesives?
|
[
{
"answer": "Super glue and other adhesives contain some organic solvents (e.g. acetone, ethyl acetate). Styrofoam is made from thousands of styrene molecules linked together. Styrene by itself really wants to dissolve in these organic solvents, but since so many of them are linked together it can't because it's simply too big. So instead of dissolving, you get melting effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31689204",
"title": "Low pressure molding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Two: Adhesion: Polyamide materials are basically high performance hot-melt adhesives. The adhesive properties of polyamide is what seals a chosen substrate. The type of adhesion is purely mechanical i.e. no chemical reaction takes place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3155923",
"title": "Hot-melt adhesive",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Hot-melt adhesives are as numerous as they are versatile. In general, hot melts are applied by extruding, rolling or spraying, and the high melt viscosity makes them ideal for porous and permeable substrates. HMA are capable of bonding an array of different substrates including: rubbers, ceramics, metals, plastics, glass and wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56343748",
"title": "Laser welding of polymers",
"section": "Section::::Laser welding techniques.:Through transmission laser welding (TTLW).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The two components are held by the lower fixture to control alignment and a small clamping force is added to the upper part to form intimate contact. A melt layer is then created at the interface between the two components, composed of a mixture of two plastic materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1848956",
"title": "Heat sealer",
"section": "Section::::Types of heat sealing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hot melt adhesive can be applied in strips or beads at the point of joining. It can also be applied to one of the surfaces during an earlier manufacturing step and reactivated for bonding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4208402",
"title": "Nonwoven fabric",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing processes.:Melt-blown.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Melt-blown nonwovens are produced by extruding melted polymer fibers through a spin net or die consisting of up to 40 holes per inch to form long thin fibers which are stretched and cooled by passing hot air over the fibers as they fall from the die. The resultant web is collected into rolls and subsequently converted to finished products. The extremely fine fibers (typically polypropylene) differ from other extrusions, particularly spun bond, in that they have low intrinsic strength but much smaller size offering key properties. Often melt blown is added to spun bond to form SM or SMS webs, which are strong and offer the intrinsic benefits of fine fibers such as fine filtration, low pressure drop as used in face masks or filters and physical benefits such as acoustic insulation as used in dishwashers. One of the largest users of SM and SMS materials is the disposable diaper and feminine care industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28627",
"title": "Sputtering",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "Another mechanism of physical sputtering is called \"heat spike sputtering\". This can occur when the solid is dense enough, and the incoming ion heavy enough, that collisions occur very close to each other. In this case, the binary collision approximation is no longer valid, and the collisional process should be understood as a many-body process. The dense collisions induce a heat spike (also called thermal spike), which essentially melts a small portion of the crystal. If that portion is close enough to its surface, large numbers of atoms may be ejected, due to liquid flowing to the surface and/or microexplosions. Heat spike sputtering is most important for heavy ions (e.g. Xe or Au or cluster ions) with energies in the keV–MeV range bombarding dense but soft metals with a low melting point (Ag, Au, Pb, etc.). The heat spike sputtering often increases nonlinearly with energy, and can for small cluster ions lead to dramatic sputtering yields per cluster of the order of 10,000. For animations of such a process see \"Re: Displacement Cascade 1\" in the external links section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2416422",
"title": "Cross-linked polyethylene",
"section": "Section::::Preparation methods.:Degree of crosslinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Upon further crosslinking (crosslinking degree about 80%), the individual macromolecules are eventually connected to a network. This crosslinked polyethylene (PE-X) is chemically seen a thermoset, it shows above the melting point rubber-elastic behavior and can not be processed in the melt anymore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y9sro
|
how do services like pandora and spotify work
|
[
{
"answer": "same way any business operates. sell it for more than you buy it.\n\nif it costs $10,000 for Pandora to buy the rights for a song, and they play it on 1million users and get advertising $0.01 per play, then that's profit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261504",
"title": "Pandora Radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Pandora (also known as Pandora Media or Pandora Radio) is an American music streaming and automated music recommendation internet radio service powered by the Music Genome Project. The service, operated by Sirius XM Satellite Radio, is available in the United States. The service plays songs that have similar musical traits. The user then provides positive or negative feedback (as thumbs up or thumbs down) for songs chosen by the service, and the feedback is taken into account in the subsequent selection of other songs to play. The service can be accessed either through a web browser or with its mobile app. Pandora is a freemium service; basic features are free with advertisements or limitations, while additional features, such as improved streaming quality, music downloads and offline channels are offered via paid subscriptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261504",
"title": "Pandora Radio",
"section": "Section::::Advertising.:Methods of advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Advertising on Pandora works through a method of collecting data from the users online browsing activity. Once the data is collected, the company uses the data to show the user target ads. This process of advertising is also known as behavioral advertising. Pandora offers its users the option of submitting out of the targeted ads, by an opt-out configuration on its website. Opting-out will only prevent targeted ads, meaning users may continue to see generic (non-targeted ads) from these companies after they opt-out. Eventually, Pandora offers either targeted advertisements or generic advertisements for its non-subscribed users. However, Pandora's advertising does not offer local content such as the local news, weather, traffic, and talk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426504",
"title": "Playlist",
"section": "Section::::Computers and the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Pandora is another music streaming service that is available on the Internet. Pandora is one of the few music services that is free (no subscription required) to users. The user can select genres that are played back at random on Pandora's playlists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261504",
"title": "Pandora Radio",
"section": "Section::::Advertising.:Methods of advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "There are a few different methods of advertising on Pandora. Audio advertising comes in spots of 15 to 30 seconds, and run once every 20 minutes. However, users only encounter ads if they are engaging with the site, like contributing a thumbs up or a thumbs down when changing a song or station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261504",
"title": "Pandora Radio",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "In September 2016, Pandora announced additional features and subscription options, including a mid-level subscription service known as \"Pandora Plus\" that offers advertisement-free streaming, offline playback support using a prediction mechanism and more skips and replays. Users of the free service were also provided more skips and replays in exchange for watching an advertisement. Pandora also announced the launch of an on-demand service similar to competitors such as Apple Music and Spotify.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261504",
"title": "Pandora Radio",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "On March 13, 2017, Pandora launched \"Pandora Premium\", a new service allowing users to listen to and create playlists of individual songs on demand. Pandora's suggestions engine suggests and recommends songs and albums, as well as generates playlists based on similar songs. Pandora also emphasized a use of machine learning and manual curation, and that it had filtered \"karaoke tracks, knock-off covers and pet sounds (but not \"Pet Sounds\") that slow down other services\" from its library.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261504",
"title": "Pandora Radio",
"section": "Section::::Technical information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "The Pandora media player is based on OpenLaszlo. Pandora can also be accessed through many media streaming devices such as Roku, Reciva-based radios (from companies like Grace Digital, Sanyo, and Sangean), Frontier Silicon-based connected audio systems, Slim Devices, Sonos, and HEOS by Denon. product(s). On July 11, 2008, Pandora launched a mobile version of their software for the Apple iPhone and iPod Touch through the iTunes App Store. Pandora is also available for Windows Phone, Windows 10, Android phones, BlackBerry platforms, HP webOS (used on the Palm Pre, Palm Pixi, Palm Pre 2, and HP Veer) . Pandora was the provider for MSN Radio until MSN discontinued their internet radio service on June 18, 2008. A modified version of Pandora has been made available for Sprint. Pandora is available on Comcast's X1/X2 cable TV products. A GNU/Linux-based application, called Pithos, which is available for accessing Pandora Radio, is available for most distributions via their repositories and is also available to build from source. SoundSpectrum's iOS-based visualizing application Tunr has native support for Pandora, but requires a ONE subscription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21c9ta
|
putting down animals in zoo
|
[
{
"answer": "Did you read the rest of the article? They explained exactly why they did it.\n\nThey didn't have the money to relocate the animals, and the new animals they were getting would have killed the old animals -- euthanasia makes a little more sense than a zoo snuff show.\n\nIt's more important to look at the population of the species as a whole than any one individual animal -- with regards to the species as a whole, the zoo was doing exactly what it should.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12213861",
"title": "Isle of Wight Zoo",
"section": "Section::::Main species.:Zoo At Home Animal Cafe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Formerly the reptile house, Zoo At Home is a zone for pet animals. It was adapted with the assistance of Pets At Home. It is also currently home to the zoo's Madagascan giant jumping rats. As of September 2012 the area became the Animal Cafe, where visitors can eat as they watch the animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28130057",
"title": "Tirana Zoo",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "On 2015 it was closed because a video footage was released, in which a bull attacked a donkey and nothing was done to help the poor animal. Animal Activists and Environmentalists always pressured the local authorities to close the zoo down and end the cruelty towards the animals kept there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5008012",
"title": "Wild Things Zoofari",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "There have long been allegations that animal shows, reptile shows, and exotic petting zoos are abusive and not helpful to the species involved. Animal rights group PETA argues that petting zoos such as Wild Things Zoofari cause undue stress to animals and are not adequately regulated by the USDA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9096372",
"title": "Zoo",
"section": "Section::::Live feeding and \"baiting\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "In many countries, feeding live vertebrates to zoo animals is illegal, except in exceptional circumstances. For example, some snakes refuse to eat dead prey. However, in the Badaltearing Safari Park in China, visitors can throw live goats into the lion enclosure and watch them being eaten, or can purchase live chickens tied to bamboo rods for the equivalent of 2 dollars/euros to dangle into lion pens. Visitors can drive through the lion compound in buses with specially designed chutes which they can use to push live chickens into the enclosure. In the Xiongsen Bear and Tiger Mountain Village near Guilin in south-east China, live cows and pigs are thrown to tigers to amuse visitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7014636",
"title": "World Association of Zoos and Aquariums",
"section": "Section::::Support for zoos and aquariums of the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "In the view of the rest of the zoo community, which is committed to the principles of animal welfare and conservation, these roadside zoos do a lot of damage to the image of zoos in general and should be either assisted to reach a level of minimum standard or be closed down (which raises the problem what should be done with the animals they keep).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "523133",
"title": "Zookeeper",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "A zookeeper, sometimes referred as animal keeper, is a person who manages zoo animals that are kept in captivity for conservation or to be displayed to the public. They are usually responsible for the feeding and daily care of the animals. As part of their routine, the zookeepers may clean the exhibits and report health problems. They may also be involved in scientific research or public education, such as conducting tours and answering questions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6431248",
"title": "Bowmanville Zoo",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "In December 2015, the Bowmanville Zoo owner, Michael Hackenberger was accused by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) of animal cruelty. PETA released a video taken secretly which showed Hackenberger cursing and cracking a whip numerous times at a young Siberian tiger named Uno.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a2ai3x
|
why is it easier to fall asleep to background noise (radio, tv etc.) than just the plain dark?
|
[
{
"answer": "In my experience, a little background noise (white noise) helps cut out any outside noise that might wake you up ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This happens because when there's noise around us we feel that someone is near us.\nThus we feel safe and can let go of the tension and fall asleep.\nThis is an evolutionary thing and has been embedded in our DNA. Humans are primarily social animals and keep each other safe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If everything is silent, you are able to hear every noise - the person walking past outside, a family member moving about and other fairly normal noises become prominent and obvious, so you hear them and have to decode them to figure out of they are dangerous - you are deciding whether you need to kick in your 'fight or flight' response and act, or whether the sound is normal and not a worry - for example whether the sound of someone walking past is your neighbor coming home from a bar late at night, or someone nefarious lurking outside your house. Is that humming noise the natural sound of the fridge, or is it something that has been left on accidentally?\n\nWhite noise (or other familiar sound) covers all of this up and let's you relax - if you cannot hear the sound of someone walking past outside over the natural sound in your home then you won't have to go through the evaluation process to determine if it is a danger or not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another reason is because of hearing damage. If you have tinnitus you might hear a constant sounds that aren’t there; often a high pitched ringing or whine. Background noise can cover this perceived sound and be more comfortable for sleeping. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All of the other comments are totally accurate, but I'm surprised no one's said this: When it's completely silent, many people's brains make an attempt to fill the void with thoughts. So, instead of sleeping, you're now having an existential crisis, or wondering what would've happened if you asked that one girl out, in 3rd grade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233996",
"title": "Hostel",
"section": "Section::::Communal accommodation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Noise can make sleeping difficult on occasions, whether from snoring, talking and social activities in the lounge, people staying up to read with the light on, someone either returning late from bars, or leaving early, or the proximity of so many people. To mitigate this, some wear earplugs or eye-covering sleeping masks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24044309",
"title": "Sleep induction",
"section": "Section::::Darkness and quiet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Dim or dark surroundings with a peaceful, quiet sound level are conducive to sleep. Retiring to a bedroom, drawing the curtains to block out daylight and closing the door are common methods of achieving this. When this is not possible, such as on an airplane, other methods may be used, such as masks and earplugs for sleeping which airlines commonly issue to passengers for this purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268981",
"title": "Sleep hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Recommendations.:Sleep environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time passing when trying to fall asleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "945775",
"title": "Earplug",
"section": "Section::::Types and use cases.:Sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497973",
"title": "Fire alarm notification appliance",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "More recent research suggests that strobe lights are not effective at waking sleeping adults with hearing loss and suggest that a different alarm tone is much more effective. Individuals in the hearing loss community are seeking changes to improved awakening methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38500724",
"title": "Electronic media and sleep",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "A 2010 review concluded that \"the use of electronic media by children and adolescents does have a negative impact on their sleep, although the precise effects and mechanisms remain unclear\", with the most consistent results associating excessive media use with shorter sleep duration and delayed bed times. A 2016 meta-analysis found that \"Bedtime access and use of media devices was significantly associated with inadequate sleep quantity; poor sleep quality; and excessive daytime sleepiness\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39026769",
"title": "Light pollution in Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:On neighbourhoods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "In heavily mixed residential developments such as Mong Kok and Sham Shui Po, some residents have trouble sleeping as they have strong neon lights shining through their bedroom windows, emitted by billboards. Some precincts have been described as being lit up like football stadiums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c1abiu
|
how are amputees able to control the fingers in their bionic arm ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Conventional myoelectric prostheses, what 99% of the bionic hands on the market use, are controlled by two inputs. Two sensors on the forearm (in the case of a below elbow amputee) pick up muscle signals. The amputee can either open or close the hand. Programming in the hand and using a variety of combinations of input codes can trigger different grips. For example, triggering open and close at the same time can engage one grip. Holding an open signal for a fixed time can trigger another grip. Sending a very fast/strong open signal can teigger a third grip. Same with a close impluse. \n\nWith practice, it can become somewhat natural. \n\n\nPattern recognition uses many more electrode sensors to pickup more fine movements that can directly pickup more detailed inputs from the remaining muscles, but it still is not at the individual finger control level yet. \n\nTo control 5 individual fingers of flexing and extending. You need 10 different inputs. This level of detail is only possible with inplanted electrodes. To control every joint of each finger like you can with your natural hand, you will need about 35 different inputs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The company I work at actually exclusively works on this!\n\n/u/WashingtonFierce post is incorrect, we do not yet have commercial technology designed specifically to physically interact with the brain and detect limb movement. The amount of time, money, and risk is prohibitively monumental. Imagine being an ethics review board member having to review an experiment about splitting a subject's head open to insert a sensor that you may or may not know will work effectively and reliably unless you try.\n\n/u/TheLazyD0G has more or less explained it correctly, and I can add some additional info.\n\n* Your brain sends signals to nerves in the arm, and the nerves are connected to the arm muscles. What actually happens when your arm muscle contracts is a bunch of sodium and Potassium ions moving about the cell walls of your muscles. Since these ions have positive charges to them, their movement generates a very very tiny voltage. The two sensors that sit in the prosthetic socket and touch the forearm are sensitive enough to pick up this change in voltage. This concept is called [EMG](_URL_1_).\n\n* [So depending on the voltage change, the sensors can detect how hard you're flexing, or even at all.](_URL_2_)\n\n* [The way the hands are programmed are in that they cycle through different pre-set grip modes, and the patient can only open and close them in the different modes.](_URL_0_) The bebionic3, for example, you start out in Tripod grip (so you only close index, middle, and thumb) and can only close and open in that formation. You have to press the button on the back to change to Power grasp, and then you can only open and close them in a fist. You then have to press the button, AGAIN, to go into another grip, say Precision grasp, and then you can only open and close the thumb and index finger together. In a sense, they're just hand-shaped swiss army knives.\n\n\n\n* The patient opens and closes them by flexing their limb in one direction or another. Imagine flexing your wrist towards your chest. That's close. Now flex your wrist away from you. That's open.\n\n* This can get tedious (how many times did I have to press the button?) and can get frustrating if you make a mistake in a high-pressure situation (e.g. getting change into your wallet after the cashier hands it to you)\n\n* The pattern recognition that /u/TheLazyD0G mentions attempts to use multiple (3+) sensors and machine learning to have the arm change the grip based on which hand gesture you trained it to do earlier. However, this concept is still bogged down by the hand's programming of only changing between different pre-set gestures.\n\n* We have not yet achieved the level of fineness in detecting individual finger movements, largely to the concept of \"Crosstalk\". With the current size of these skin sensors, the region of muscle they observe can't distinguish whether a movement was for one finger versus another. Implantable sensors can theoretically solve this issue, but research into them so far have been very preliminary.\n\nLet me know if you have other questions!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the exact type of bionic arm; but in general, the bionic limbs got sensors somewhere in the body (sometimes at the stump itself, sometimes elsewhere in the body) that measures either muscle contraction or nerve/neuron activity directly and interprets the different signals into limb position or movement velocity. Some variations are more intuitive to control than others, but in general over time the person learns how to control it with a bit more dexterity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "None of y’all ELI5. Either that or your 5 year olds are are intellectual prodigy.\n\nAhem...\n\nNERVES AND WIRES.\n\nWe control our fingers with NERVES like we control most things in our body.\n\nNerves are like wires that go down our arms from our brain to our fingers in a bundle.\n\nIf we loose an arm by accident, the wires are still in our arm bit we still have, they just don’t go to any fingers anymore. The best doctors find the out these finger control wires... nerves... and make them go to the arm muscles on the arm bit that we still have instead.\n\nNow when we think of moving our fingers, our arm skin moves instead, just a little bit.\n\nThey make the robot arm scan the real arm where the wires have been put by the doctor to move the skin! The cup bit where it attaches has the sensors.\n\nWhen the robot arm senses the arm skin make a move, it moves the robot fingers instead!\n\nThey swap the lost human wires in the arm with robot WIRES!\n\nEDIT: Thx for the gold stranger! First one! I need to find the ELI5 for what it means now...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25101",
"title": "Pittsburgh",
"section": "Section::::Health care.:Health discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 223,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 223,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The Lancet published a 2012 UPMC study of two 9 year quadriplegics being able to move a robotic arm by thought, to pick up objects, shake hands, and even eat. Wiring the brain around spine damage to restore arm and leg muscle function was successful using robotic arms controlled via an embedded computer to translate signals near a small group of neurons with 200 needles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72750",
"title": "Prosthesis",
"section": "Section::::Current technology and manufacturing.:Myoelectric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 1364,
"text": "A myoelectric prosthesis uses the electrical tension generated every time a muscle contracts, as information. This tension can be captured from voluntarily contracted muscles by electrodes applied on the skin to control the movements of the prosthesis, such as elbow flexion/extension, wrist supination/pronation (rotation) or opening/closing of the fingers. A prosthesis of this type utilizes the residual neuromuscular system of the human body to control the functions of an electric powered prosthetic hand, wrist, elbow or foot. This is different from an electric switch prosthesis, which requires straps and/or cables actuated by body movements to actuate or operate switches that control the movements of the prosthesis. There is no clear evidence concluding that myoelectric upper extremity prostheses function better than body-powered prostheses. Advantages to using a myoelectric upper extremity prosthesis include the potential for improvement in cosmetic appeal (this type of prosthesis may have a more natural look), may be better for light everyday activities, and may be beneficial for people experiencing phantom limb pain. When compared to a body-powered prosthesis, a myoelectric prosthesis may not be as durable, may have a longer training time, may require more adjustments, may need more maintenance, and does not provide feedback to the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2291786",
"title": "Jesse Sullivan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "His bionic arm, a prototype developed by the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, differs from most other prostheses, in that it does not use pull cables or nub switches to function and instead uses micro-computers to perform a much wider range of complex motions. It is also the first prototype which enables him to actually sense pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37974009",
"title": "Bebionic",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The bionic hand is said to receive instructions from sensors that detect the movement of the muscles in the patient’s arm. These instructions are processed, which are then directed to the 337 mechanical parts, which are present within this bionic hand that eventually, mimic natural human movements. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13536160",
"title": "Proto 2",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Researchers are experimenting with injectable myoelectric sensors (IMES) that detect muscle activity and wirelessly transmit commands to the prosthetic arm- in order to eliminate the bulkiness. A wire coil wrapped over the shoulder supplies wireless power to the implants and relays signals to computers in the prosthetic that decipher the command and tell the arm to move. The team is also considering implanting electrodes directly on nerves. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228284",
"title": "Radial nerve",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The radial nerve and its branches provide motor innervation to the dorsal arm muscles (the triceps brachii and the anconeus) and the extrinsic extensors of the wrists and hands; it also provides cutaneous sensory innervation to most of the back of the hand, except for the back of the little finger and adjacent half of the ring finger (which are innervated by the ulnar nerve).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237439",
"title": "Flexor digitorum profundus muscle",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The lumbricals, intrinsic muscles of the hand, attach to the tendon of flexor digitorum profundus. Thus, the flexor muscle is used to aid the lumbrical muscles in their role as extensors of the interphalangeal joints. As the lumbrical muscles originate on the palmar side of the hand and attach on the dorsal aponeurosis, power is transferred from the flexor digitorum profundus muscle to fully extend the fingers as well as flex the metacarpophalangeal joints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fsidc
|
I have a weird question about micro-gravity.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll attempt to answer part of this question seriously. I wouldn't know anything about the first two questions, but in terms of the third question you may be interested in [this nice Slate piece](_URL_1_) which has quite a bit of information.\n\nIn addition, you have several problems with radiation. Cosmic rays can damage male sperm -- not to the point of infertility, as many astronauts have conceived after sometimes extended stays in space -- but more importantly can seriously harm human fetuses. [Link.](_URL_2_)\n\nFinally, female rats in microgravity have rather difficult labours. [Link, behind paywall.](_URL_0_) This doesn't bode well for humans, who have rather difficult labour already.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > So what happens in space? does it cause discomfort to astronauts?\n\nThe testicles may ride higher in microgravity. I don't think that it would cause discomfort. Think of it this way: when lying down, gravity is not pulling the testicles downward. Is it uncomfortable to lie down?\n\n > Also does micro-gravity increases the risk of testicular torsion?\n\nIt's feasible. There is [some evidence](_URL_0_) to link torsion to colder weather. One explanation for this is that a sudden exposure of cold causes tension in the cremaster muscle, potentially pulling a loose torsion tighter. This could apply to microgravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5638",
"title": "Combustion",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Micro-gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere.). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "However, there are no current practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth (g).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58862800",
"title": "International Space Station United States National Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Life Sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "All living organisms on Earth are continually influenced by gravitational forces on both macro and molecular levels. The microgravity conditions in space induce changes in DNA regulation, expression of genes and cell structure and function. Understanding the impact of gravitational force on living systems and their biochemical processes advances research in the fields of biology, genetics, health care, medicine, microbiology, plant and crop sciences, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical and regenerative medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "523822",
"title": "STS-65",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Research on IML-2 was dedicated to microgravity and life sciences. Microgravity science covers a broad range of activities from understanding the fundamental physics involved in material behavior to using those effects to generate materials that cannot otherwise be made in the gravitational environment of the Earth. In life sciences research, a reduction of gravitation's effect allows certain characteristics of cells and organisms to be studied in isolation. These reduced gravitational effects also pose poorly understood occupational health problems for space crews ranging from space adaptation syndrome to long-term hormonal changes. On IML-2, the microgravity science and life sciences experiments were complementary in their use of SL resources. Microgravity science tends to draw heavily on spacecraft power while life sciences places the greatest demand on crew time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31631838",
"title": "Hypergravity",
"section": "Section::::Bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Recent research carried out on extremophiles in Japan involved a variety of bacteria including \"Escherichia coli\" and \"Paracoccus denitrificans\" being subject to conditions of extreme gravity. The bacteria were cultivated while being rotated in an ultracentrifuge at high speeds corresponding to 403,627 times \"g\" (the normal acceleration due to gravity on Earth). Another study that has been published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reports that some bacteria can exist even in extreme \"hypergravity\". In other words, they can still live and breed despite gravitational forces that are 400,000 times greater than what's felt here on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7491994",
"title": "Paracoccus denitrificans",
"section": "Section::::Growth under hypergravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Recent research carried out on extremophiles in Japan involved a variety of bacteria including \"Paracoccus denitrificans\" being subject to conditions of extreme gravity. The bacteria were cultivated while being rotated in an ultracentrifuge at high speeds corresponding to 403,627 times \"g\" (the normal acceleration resulting from gravity at the Earth's surface). \"Paracoccus denitrificans\" displayed not only survival but also robust cellular growth under these conditions of hyperaccelaration which are usually found only in cosmic environments, such as on very massive stars or in the shock waves of supernovas. Analysis showed that the small size of prokaryotic cells is essential for successful growth under hypergravity. The research has implications on the feasibility of the existence of exobacteria and panspermia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50506253",
"title": "Locomotion in space",
"section": "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Artificial gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Artificial gravity (AG) is the increase or decrease of gravitational force on an object or person by artificial means. Different types of forces, including linear acceleration and centripetal force, can be used to generate this artificial gravitational force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3srgnb
|
why haven't we seen the us (and its partners in the fight against isis) engage in a siege of raqqah, the "de facto capital of isis"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Isis doesn't wear uniforms, man. They blend in with civilians, that is their defence tactic. Raqqah has a population of like 300k, how many more innocents need to die ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Raqqa is surrounded by other territories controlled by Islamic State, so to surround it you need to fight IS on at least two fronts (both sides of the Euphrates).\n\n2. Any effective form of siege could have to involve cutting off food, water, or electricity, which would result in massive civilian casualties and would be a PR disaster. Remember, IS is already surrounded by countries that are hostile to it, the softest of which is Turkey which still tries to prevent them from using the border. They manage to get weapons and soldiers despite this.\n\n3. No one wants another war. America is tired from Iraq and Afghanistan, and Russia still has bad memories from Afghanistan and Chechnya.\n\n4. Surrounding Raqqa would involve putting American troops in Syrian soil. America does occasional special forces raids into Syria (two that I can think of off the top of my head), but long-term troop deployments is something else entirely. It would be a diplomatic nightmare.\n\n5. Raqqa is arguably not the most important city in the Islamic State. Their military equipment is spread everywhere, and the city of Mosul is larger and more important. Raqqa is only the capital because it is the first big city they captured. \n\n6. There are already powerful groups fighting ISIS, including but not limited to: Jaysh al-Islam, the Army of Conquest coalition, Iraqi government, Syrian government, the SDF and New Syrian Army, Iraqi Kurdistan, YPG, PKK, FSA, and Hezbollah. For foreign governments, it is easier to simply support one of these groups with weapons or airstrikes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9087364",
"title": "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant",
"section": "Section::::History.:Islamic State (2014–2019).:Capture of territory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "On 3 August 2014, ISIL captured the cities of Zumar, Sinjar and Wana in northern Iraq. Thousands of Yazidis fled up Mount Sinjar, fearful of the approaching hostile ISIL militants. The stranded Yazidis' need for food and water, the threat of genocide to them and to others announced by ISIL, along with the desire to protect US citizens in Iraq and support the Iraqi government in its fight against ISIL, were all reasons given for the 2014 American intervention in Iraq, which began on 7 August. A US aerial bombing campaign began the following day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59926068",
"title": "Timeline of the Battle of Mosul (2016–2017) Phase Three",
"section": "Section::::February: Attack on west Mosul.:Declaration of victory and capturing the final pocket of resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 213,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 213,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Heavy clashes and shelling continued even after al-Abadi's victory declaration, specifically in the al-Maydan area of the Old City, with multiple airstrikes pounding the area. An Iraqi official stated that the military activity was due to clearing operations, targeting hidden militants. On 13 July, the US stated there could be 200 ISIL fighters remaining in the city, and the Coalition conducted airstrikes against 19 ISIL fighting positions. Most of those remaining ISIL forces were holding a small pocket of territory in the Old City's Maydan District, about the size of a city block in Manhattan, New York City. Another 22 fighting positions and a tunnel were destroyed by the CJTF-OIR the next day, as Iraqi forces hit further pockets of resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43638765",
"title": "Siege of Amirli",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Siege.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The siege began in June, after Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIL) forces advanced on Iraqi positions in Northern Iraq. They attacked the town, but failed to capture it after townspeople armed with AK-47s put up resistance. However, ISIL had more powerful weapons compared to the local militia, prompting fears that they would try to storm the town. ISIL forces continued to fire mortars and rockets into the town and launched raids against it. 20,000 citizens in Amirli were in danger from being killed by ISIL, dying from thirst or hunger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15653208",
"title": "Baghdad Belts",
"section": "Section::::Iraq 2014.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "During the offensive that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant launched against the Iraqi Government in June 2014, some US analysts speculated that the group's strategy was to follow Zarqawi's plan of capturing the Baghdad Belts area before laying siege to Baghdad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52203959",
"title": "Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)",
"section": "Section::::The offensive.:Phase Three: Isolating Raqqa from its eastern countryside.:Opening of a new front.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "On 27 February, the plan that the Pentagon submitted to US President Donald Trump to significantly speed up the fight against ISIL included a significant increase in US participation in the Raqqa campaign, with the possibility of the US increasing its ground presence on the Raqqa front to 4,000–5,000 troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40829982",
"title": "Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign",
"section": "Section::::Offensives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "BULLET::::- Battle of Yarmouk Camp (2015): the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS or ISIL) invades Yarmouk Camp, with aid from al-Nusra Front, and manages to capture 95% of the camp on 7 April, before Syrian rebel groups and the Syrian Army launch a counterattack on 12 April to drive ISIL and al-Nusra Front out of the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45619584",
"title": "Salahuddin campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The cities of Baiji and Tikrit (Saddam Hussein's birthplace and stronghold) fell to ISIS and the group even reached the city of Samarra itself but could not wrest control of it due to the resistance it encountered by the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the Shi'ite paramilitaries. Both the United States and Iran intervened in order to stem the tide against ISIS and were relatively successful in the breaking of the Siege of Amirli in which both parties played a significant role (however they did not and still do not officially cooperate or coordinate their respective efforts with one another). Although in the First Battle of Tikrit ISIS consolidated their control over the city and strongly repulsed any attempts at its recapture by Iraqi security forces and militia contingents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lsovb
|
Was there any ethnic tension between Germans, Slovaks, Slavs, etc... in the early 1900's and leading into the second World War? If so, what was it like?
|
[
{
"answer": "Of course there was. In the early days of Czechoslovakia, tensions between Czechs and Germans were a major issue that would later play a part in the months preceding the Second World War and the occupation of Czechoslovakia, and that would only be resolved until after the war. And even then only via the highly controversial Benes Decrees.\n\nGermans have lived alongside Czechs (or Bohemians and Moravians, if you will) since the earliest days of a Czech state, colonizing parts of it from about the 10th century onwards in what we now call the Ostsiedlung - settling of the east. This was caused by both a growing population in German lands as well as local rulers actually welcoming and encouraging settlers to come to Bohemia.\n\nHowever, after the Habsburgs had taken over some centuries later, Czech lands have been subjected to gradual Germanization and German culture as well as language became the norm for upper classes, politics and the like. This in turn led to the advent of nationalism and the Czech National Revival, a story that ought to sound quite familiar to many nationalities all over Europe around the 19th century.\n\nFinally this leads us to the end of the Great War, and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. The multiethnic monarchy had faced calls for independence or fair representation in politics from its constituent nations for quite a long time now, and the war had only postponed the resolution of these issues. Austria-Hungary did not survive, after the war, Czechoslovakia and others have declared independece and the empire soon ceased to exist.\n\nThis is where things get rather interesting. The idea of a Czechoslovak nationality is an artificial concept promoted by the leaders of the independence movement and future presidents Masaryk and Benes. It does have its roots in reasonable assumptions as the two groups have mutually intelligible languages, are close culturally and have lived in close proximity for centuries, but ultimately it was a calculated decision much influenced by the political situation.\n\nYou see, according to the 1921 census, there were 8 759 701 Czechoslovaks (roughly two million of which were Slovaks) and 3 123 305 Germans in Czechoslovakia, with other sizeable minorities such as Hungarians. This was a direct result of the newly independent country keeping its historical borders which, however, included the regions with a sizeable German population – Sudetenland.\n\nThe Germans had actually called for some sort of exclusion from this arrangement or self-determination, such as becoming a part of Austria – indeed, in the spirit of Wilson's Fourteen Points and the general post war atmosphere that allowed various peoples to declare their independence – but the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ended their hopes as the lands of the Bohemian Crown were preserved in their historical shape.\n\nIn the two decades that followed, the relations between Czechoslovaks and Germans have deteriorated, albeit rather slowly at first. German was preserved as an official language in areas with a considerable German population, Germans were represented in the parliament, but on the other hand Czechoslovakia was ultimately a Czechoslovak nation and many policies reflected that, such as a clear preference for Czech officials in local politics.\n\nAn important point that I feel has to be made is that although this was at a time when Nazis were on the rise in Germany, Germans in Sudetenland were not yet particularly strong sympathizers of the new regime. Henlein's separationist Sudetendeutsche Partei only came under Hitler's major influence from 1937 onwards, two years after securing 44 seats in the chamber of deputies, more than any single Czech party, and 23 seats in the senate, tied with the agrarian party.\n\nGermany portrayed the situation in Czechoslovakia as extremely untenable, Hitler made no secret of his ties to Henlein's party, with the Sudetendeutsche leader in turn exerting internal pressure on Czechoslovakia presenting mostly unacceptable demands including autonomy to the government. Besides overt political action, Germany also prepared for a military conflict if their demands were met.\n\nFaced with the possibility of war and at the same time the less than ideal German situation in Czechoslovakia, France and Britain kept with their policy of appeasement, sided with Germany, and the Munich Agreement was signed in 1938 with the Czechs not having much say in the matter, ruling that Sudetenland would become a part of Germany.\n\nIn the end the Germans in Sudetenland were a minority with many of the problems this presents for those labelled this way, as well as for those who would form the majority. Centuries of tension did not help either, nor did the fact that they were not afforded the same treatment as other nationalities when it came to the collapse of the monarchy. However, Austria-Hungary was on the losing side of the war, the Czechs had only kept their historical borders, and although their relationship was often problematic, never subjected Germans to harsh treatment minorities sometimes suffer before the war.\n\nThat everything played out the way it did was a result of the build up to the Second World War by Germany rather than historical relations and ethnic tension between Germans and Czechs in a single country.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1796806",
"title": "Ridgewood, Queens",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "After World War I, the population expanded with an influx of Gottscheers—an ethnic German population from Slovenia who were dislocated in the aftermath of World War I—and Irish, followed soon after by Italians. In April 1934, a large, 9,000-person boycott of Nazi Germany resulted in brawls between Nazi sympathizers and Jewish Communist groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1420157",
"title": "Demographics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia",
"section": "Section::::History of national minorities in SFR Yugoslavia.:1940s and 1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1320,
"text": "Some of the largest non-Slavic ethnic minorities – Hungarians of Serbia, Germans (predominantly Danube Swabians), Kosovar Albanians and Istrian Italians – had been considered \"troublesome\" by Yugoslav authorities already in the first, interwar Yugoslavia, in part for supporting their ethnic interests and nation states as opposed to pan-Slavic ambitions during World War I. Minority rights of non-Slavs were neither guaranteed nor upheld, but rather stifled if they had proved \"anti-Yugoslavian\". Education in Hungarian and German was limited, a number of Hungarian and German cultural societies had been banned in the Kingdom until the late 1930s, when the country drifted towards pro-axis positions. Nonetheless, local Germans collaborated with the Nazi occupation forces during World War II, and ethnic Hungarians generally welcomed the return of Bačka region to Hungary. The Yugoslav communist partisan movement was unpopular among those minorities, with the German Ernst Thälmann unit existing merely on paper and the Hungarian Petőfi unit numbering mere hundred men. After the occupation forces were pushed out of Yugoslavia, Germans, Hungarians and Italians who had collaborated with German and Italian military were either imprisoned in labor camps (such as Goli Otok prison) or executed in summary executions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "421829",
"title": "Education in Czechoslovakia",
"section": "Section::::Before the Communist era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "Before World War I, education was the chief instrument for dealing with ethnic diversity. Perhaps in no other aspect of public life did Czechoslovakia more effectively address the disparities among Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Ukrainians, and Germans. Eight years of compulsory education in the native language of each ethnic minority did much to raise literacy rates, particularly among Slovaks and Ukrainians. An expanded program of vocational education increased the technical skills of the country's growing industrial labor force. Some disparities remained, however. Germans and Czechs predominated disproportionately in secondary schools and universities. Both in the Czech lands and in Slovakia, compulsory education, had begun in 1774, on the initiative of Maria Theresa. In the Czech lands, prosperous farmers and even cottagers and tenants had a long history of boarding their children in towns or cities for secondary, vocational, and higher education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9895550",
"title": "Territorial evolution of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Interbellum.:Territorial claims of German nationalists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "By World War I, there were isolated groups of Germans or so-called Schwaben as far southeast as the Bosphorus (Turkey), Georgia, and Azerbaijan. After the war, Germany's and Austria-Hungary's loss of territory and the rise of communism in the Soviet Union meant that more Germans than ever constituted sizable minorities in various countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10713733",
"title": "Stefan Jäger",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The 1930s and 1940s were a major crisis point for this community, as for the other East European ethnic Germans. During the Second World War, they were perceived as - and some of them were - collaborators with Nazi Germany's occupation. Specifically, many Danube Swabians were drafted to the Waffen-SS - officially as volunteers, though it was claimed that they had in fact little choice in the matter. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42858",
"title": "Sudetenland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Within the Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "According to the February 1921 census, 3,123,000 native German speakers lived in Czechoslovakia—23.4% of the total population. The controversies between the Czechs and the German-speaking minority lingered on throughout the 1920s, and intensified in the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31649474",
"title": "Ethnic minorities in Czechoslovakia",
"section": "Section::::Germans in Czechoslovakia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "There were two German minorities in the interwar Czechoslovakian Republic, the Sudeten Germans in Bohemia and Moravia (present-day Czech republic) and the Carpathian Germans in Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia (present-day Ukraine).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7m4e2p
|
when did the storefront name of "arcade" go from being a kids' video-game hangout, to being an 18+ slot machine parlour?
|
[
{
"answer": "It happened due to home gaming consoles.\n\nOlder redditor here. I used to play the quarter-munchers back in the days before everyone with teens or kids had at least a couple game consoles... and the earlier generations were really shitty. So you'd go to the \"pinball arcade\" to play games with much better features like actual voices, graphics that didn't look like potato-splats, and... pinball.\n\nFast forward to when the average 15 year old that finds they have an interest in electronic games has their own Steam account or PS4 or XBOne, and the biggest source of quarter-by-quarter funding for \"arcades\" dried up. So, with the exception of a few that feed our senses of nostalgia, they largely went out of business.\n\nSo the word \"arcade\" was ripe for repurposing... and they did that by assigning it to legal-gambling slot machines instead because a lot of gambling addicts and participants drop WAY more money into those machines so it's a viable business mode.\n\nBut why \"arcade\"? Before it was \"video arcade\" it meant \"penny arcade\", which meant coin-operated devices. With the exception that they now use bills or tokens instead, it's still currency-operated... and so the term still very much applies.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4170510",
"title": "Paddock Arcade",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The arcade was built by Watertown native Loveland Paddock and designed by architect Otis Wheelock. It was based on similar arcades built during that era in the United States and Europe. Shops occupied the bottom floor, while the upper floors were used for office space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1563328",
"title": "Teddy Boy Blues",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The name of the arcade version was a reference to a 1985 hit song entitled \"Teddy Boy Blues\" by then-popular Japanese pop star Yōko Ishino, an instrumental version of which constantly played in the background during the game. An animated version of Ishino also appeared on the title screen and during the bonus rounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7381135",
"title": "The Arcade (joystick)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The Arcade is a joystick that was produced by Suzo International, usually marked as S.T.C. Rotterdam (Suzo Trading Company), for the European market. It distinguished itself from the competition because of its robust construction as the stick had a reinforced inside made of steel and used microswitches for the controls (but not the fire buttons, which used leaf springs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49827",
"title": "Arcade game",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "An arcade game or coin-op game is a coin-operated entertainment machine typically installed in public businesses such as restaurants, bars and amusement arcades. Most arcade games are video games, pinball machines, electro-mechanical games, redemption games or merchandisers. While exact dates are debated, the golden age of arcade video games is usually defined as a period beginning sometime in the late 1970s and ending sometime in the mid-1980s. Excluding a brief resurgence in the early 1990s, the arcade industry subsequently declined in the Western hemisphere as competing home video game consoles such as the Sony PlayStation and Microsoft Xbox increased in their graphics and game-play capability and decreased in cost. The eastern hemisphere retains a strong arcade industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88375",
"title": "Amusement arcade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "An amusement arcade (often referred to as \"video arcade\" or simply \"arcade\") is a venue where people play arcade games such as video games, pinball machines, electro-mechanical games, redemption games, merchandisers (such as claw cranes), or coin-operated billiards or air hockey tables. In some countries, some types of arcades are also legally permitted to provide gambling machines such as slot machines or \"pachinko\" machines. Games are usually housed in cabinets. The term used for ancestors of these venues in the beginning of the 20th century was penny arcades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50666418",
"title": "The Arcade Machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The Arcade Machine is game creation system written by Chris Jochumson and Doug Carlston for the Apple II and published by Broderbund in 1982. Louis Ewens ported it to the Atari 8-bit family. Broderbund ran a contest from January-June 1984 where the best user-created was awarded a prize of $1,500 in hardware and software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32401",
"title": "History of video games",
"section": "Section::::1990s.:Resurgence and decline of arcades.:Transition to 3D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The gap left by the old corner arcades was partly filled by large amusement centers dedicated to providing clean, safe environments and costly game control systems unavailable to home users. These newer arcade titles offered games based on driving, sports like skiing or cycling, and rhythm games like \"Dance Dance Revolution\" and path-based shooting gallery games like \"Time Crisis\", which have taken a large part of the market. Dave & Buster's and GameWorks are two large chains in the United States with this type of environment. Aimed at adults and older kids, they feature full service restaurants with full liquor bars and have a wide variety of video game and hands on electronic gaming options. Chuck E. Cheese's is a similar type of business for younger children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
308jls
|
what is the difference between readings books (any kind) and reading various reddit articles/threads?
|
[
{
"answer": "Reddit posts & articles are usually fairly short. There's not a lot of depth or nuance going on - especially the front page, which is full of image, memes and other such easily digestible things (not to mention all the articles that get commented on by people who never read the link).\n\nA book, or long-form article requires more commitment & attention paid to it. It's able to express more complex ideas, commit more time to them & explore themes in more depth.\n\nHaving reddit as your primary reading source is like eating candy & stacks instead of eating a full meal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1547375",
"title": "Language arts",
"section": "Section::::Reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Reading, by definition, is the ability and knowledge of a language that allows comprehension by grasping the meaning of written or printed characters, words, or sentences. Reading involves a wide variety of print and non-print texts that helps a reader gain an understanding of the material that is being read. Reading of texts that are often included in educational curriculum include fiction, nonfiction, classic, and also contemporary works. Reading goes beyond calling words to understanding the information presented in a written or a visual context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5817497",
"title": "Reading series",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "A reading series is a recurring public literary event featuring writers reading from their work to a live audience. Some reading series are curated, some have themes, and some also feature music or other multimedia collaborations. Others simply focus on the act of listening to the written word, read out loud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15830436",
"title": "Balanced literacy",
"section": "Section::::Reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Shared reading is when the students read from a shared text. Often this is a big book, a book on screen using a website or documents camera. If possible students should have their own copies also. Students and the teacher read aloud and share their thinking about the text.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19611313",
"title": "Why I Will Never Ever Ever Ever Have Enough Time to Read This Book",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- A \"Book Links\" review says, \"The \"meta\" part is that we are reading the very same book that she is reading, and we often see her reading a page in her book which looks the same as the page we are reading.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "970458",
"title": "Book discussion club",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "A practice also associated with book discussion, common reading program or common read, involves institutions encouraging their members to discuss select books in group settings; common reading programs are largely associated with educational institutions encouraging their students to hold book discussion meetings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54632699",
"title": "Gaurav Sharma (author)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "\"Books give us the ability to see things from different perspectives. They educate us, entertain us, force us to think upon certain issues. And reading a book or reading, in general, is an excuse for those who are less sociable like me for not socialising much. And guess what, it works most of the times.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7720438",
"title": "Daughters of Abraham",
"section": "Section::::Meetings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Members suggest books at the meetings. Periodically, they review all the suggestions, then by consensus, choose the books that will be read. If anyone strongly objects to reading a particular book, it is not read.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9v7eea
|
Was Cato the Younger a Pleb or patrician?
|
[
{
"answer": " > When Clodious , who was from a minor patrician family\n\n*Minor*?! The *gens Claudia* was one of the largest and most prestigious patrician *gentes*, outstripped only in surviving patrician lines by perhaps the *gens Cornelia*. To call Clodius a member of a minor family is like calling the sun a little hot.\n\n[You're completely misunderstanding what a plebeian (the singular of plebs is plebs, it's a collective singular) means.](_URL_0_) Patrician does not mean senator, and most senators were not patricians by far. Cato was a plebeian, like Cicero, Crassus, Pompey, Antony, Cassius, Lucullus, both Bruti, etc. The *gens Porcia* was a plebeian *gens*, and was heavily involved in the final stages of the Conflict of the Orders, during which members of the family passed several important *leges Porciae*, at least one of which protected soldiers on campaign from *coercitio* by extending *provocatio* to them",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216821",
"title": "Cato the Younger (Rome character)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to the historical Cato.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The real Cato was much younger than his fictional counterpart appears: in 52 BC, the year the series opens, he was 43, seven years younger than Caesar. He was also not as contemptuous of plebeians as the series makes him: he established a provision of state-subsidised grain to poor Romans, and Cato was himself a plebeian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83606",
"title": "Anchises",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Anchises (; , \"Ankhísēs\") was a member of the royal family of Troy in Greek and Roman legend. He was said to have been the son of King Capys of Dardania and Themiste, daughter of Ilus, who was son of Tros. He is most famous as the father of Aeneas and for his treatment in Virgil's \"Aeneid\". Anchises' brother was Acoetes, father of the priest Laocoon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75861",
"title": "Cato the Elder",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "Cato the Elder was born in the municipal town of Tusculum, like some generations of his ancestors. His father had earned a reputation as a brave soldier, and his great-grandfather had received a reward from the state for having had five horses killed under him in battle. However, the Tusculan Porcii had never obtained the privileges of the Roman magistracy. Cato the Elder, their famous descendant, at the beginning of his career in Rome, was regarded as a \"novus homo\" (new man), and the feeling of his unsatisfactory position, working along with the belief of his inherent superiority, aggravated and drove his ambition. Early in life, he so far exceeded the previous deeds of his predecessors that he is frequently spoken of not only as the leader, but as the founder of the Porcia Gens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216821",
"title": "Cato the Younger (Rome character)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to the historical Cato.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Cato was, in reality as in the series, a staunch traditionalist and Julius Caesar's most implacable political opponent. He was known, in a time when electoral corruption was rife, as a man of great integrity and probity. Philosophically he was a Stoic. He lived an austere lifestyle, avoiding luxury and modern fashions- which is reflected in the series by his wearing the toga pulla, favoured by workmen and mourners. He was a defender of the ideals of the Roman Republic and fierce opponent of those he saw as overly ambitious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216821",
"title": "Cato the Younger (Rome character)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Cato the Younger is a historical figure who features as a character in the HBO/BBC2 original television series \"Rome\", played by actor Karl Johnson. He is depicted as an extreme traditionalist, against political and social decay, and a staunch defender of the Roman Republic. The real Cato the Younger was a Roman orator and politician.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15668453",
"title": "Porcia (gens)",
"section": "Section::::Branches and cognomina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The surname \"Cato\" is said to have been bestowed upon Cato the Elder in consequence of his shrewdness; before this, Plutarch says that he bore the cognomen \"Priscus\", \"the elder\". However, it may be that like \"Major\", \"Priscus\" simply distinguished him from his descendant, Cato Uticensis, and was erroneously supposed to have dated to the elder Cato's lifetime. The same man also bore the epithets of \"Sapiens\", the wise, \"Orator\", and most famously, \"Censorius\", from his tenure as censor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75861",
"title": "Cato the Elder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "He came from an ancient Plebeian family who were noted for their military service. Like his forefathers, Cato was devoted to agriculture when not serving in the army. Having attracted the attention of Lucius Valerius Flaccus, he was brought to Rome and began to follow the \"cursus honorum\": he was successively military tribune (214 BC), quaestor (204 BC), aedile (199 BC), praetor (198 BC), junior consul (195 BC) together with Flaccus, and censor (184 BC). As praetor, he expelled usurers from Sardinia. As censor, he tried to save Rome's ancestral customs and combat \"degenerate\" Hellenistic influences. His epithet \"Elder\" distinguishes him from his equally famous great-grandson Cato the Younger, who opposed Julius Caesar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1352eq
|
Why did the Irish Rebellion in 1798 fail?
|
[
{
"answer": "In short (don't have much time, so perhaps someone can expand on this)\n\n1. Three of the United Irishmen's top brass were arrested on the eve of the uprising.\n\n2. Artillery stationed in Ireland had been upgraded and increased in size. One Lieutenant was to describe that the 'Grapeshot (cannister) worked like a wonder'\n\n3. The rising was more of a massive rural peasant riot that lacked proper cohesion and goals. While mobs would rise in a certain area, those with leadership abilities would come to the forefront, however their attacks were limited to local barracks etc\n\n4. The United Irishmen were under-armed and were facing a fairly sizeable government army which had at it's disposal 9000 regular troops, 25000 militia and 40000 yeomanry (civilians with arms). The well disciplined regulars were more than enough to change the tide in a number of critical locations.\n\n5. While the French did land in Co. Mayo I believe it was just too late, and once again it was a half hearted attempt like every other invasion of Ireland by Spain and France to support the nationalists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19466681",
"title": "Henry Boyle, 3rd Earl of Shannon",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Parliament of Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "The Irish Rebellion of 1798 was assisted by a French invasion force under Jean Joseph Amable Humbert. The rebellion and the invasion failed. To secure control of Ireland, the Parliament of Ireland and the Parliament of Great Britain negotiated a merger of the two kingdoms. The Act of Union 1800 resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The final passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was achieved with substantial majorities, achieved in part, according to contemporary documents, through bribery, in the form of peerages and honours to critics to get their votes. Whereas the first attempt had been defeated in the Irish House of Commons by 109 votes against to 104 for, the second vote in 1800 produced a result of 158 to 115. By agreement, Ireland gained 100 seats in the British House of Commons and 32 seats in the House of Lords: 28 representative peers elected for life, and four clergymen of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland, chosen for each session.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877358",
"title": "Irish Rebellion of 1798",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "The Irish Rebellion of 1798 () was an uprising against British rule in Ireland. The United Irishmen, a republican revolutionary group influenced by the ideas of the American and French revolutions, were the main organising force behind the rebellion, led by Presbyterians angry at being shut out of power by the Anglican establishment and joined by Catholics, who made up the majority of the population. Many Ulster Protestants sided with the British, resulting in the conflict taking on the appearance of a sectarian civil war in many areas, with atrocities on both sides. A French army which landed in County Mayo in support of the rebels was overwhelmed by British and loyalist forces. The uprising was suppressed by British Crown forces with a death toll of between 10,000 and 30,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22633907",
"title": "Action of 24 October 1798",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "In May 1798, the arrest of a number of the leaders of the United Irishmen provoked the Irish Rebellion of 1798, a widespread uprising across Ireland. The Rebellion took the British authorities by surprise, but the introduction of regular British Army troops rapidly defeated the Irish armies and the last resistance was brought to an end in September with the surrender of a small French force at the Battle of Ballinamuck. The French authorities had also been taken by surprise by the uprising, and were consequently unprepared: the forces they deployed were inadequate to face the much larger British armies operating in Ireland at the time. News of this defeat had still not reach the continent by October, when a second French invasion force set out. Closely watched by the Royal Navy as soon as it left Brest, the squadron was defeated on 12 October 1798 at the Battle of Tory Island: fewer than a third of the French ships returned to France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8921498",
"title": "Bully's Acre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The 1798 rebellion was inspired by the United Irishmen against British rule. Britain was united since the 1707 Act of Union between England and Scotland, and after the failure of the rebellion the Act of Union (1801) brought Ireland into the unitary state, previously being a separate entity under a common monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460319",
"title": "Irish Rebellion of 1641",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "The Irish rebellion broke out in October 1641 and was followed by several months of violent chaos before the Irish Catholic upper classes and clergy formed the Catholic Confederation in the summer of 1642. The Confederation became a de facto government of most of Ireland, free from the control of the English administration and loosely aligned with the Royalist side in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The subsequent Irish Confederate Wars continued in Ireland until the 1650s, when Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army decisively defeated the Irish Catholics and Royalists, and re-conquered the country. The 1641 Irish Rebellion is seen as a key event in the mid-17th century collapse of the Stuart monarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460319",
"title": "Irish Rebellion of 1641",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The Irish Rebellion of 1641 () began as an attempted \"coup d'état\" by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for Catholics. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into an ethnic conflict between the Gaelic Irish and old English Catholics on one side, and both ethnically English Protestants and Scottish/Presbyterian planters on the other. This began a conflict known as the Irish Confederate Wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76655",
"title": "Fenian Brotherhood",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Shocked by the scenes of starvation and greatly influenced by the revolutions then sweeping Europe, the Young Irelanders moved from agitation to armed rebellion in 1848. The attempted rebellion failed after a small skirmish in Ballingary, County Tipperary, coupled with a few minor incidents elsewhere. The reasons for the revolt's failure can most likely be attributed to the general weakening of the Irish population after three years of famine, and the premature promptings to rise up early resulting in inadequate military preparations which contributed to disunity among the rebellion's leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b5s4wd
|
why can paying off your student loans hurt your credit score? it seems like it would be a good thing.
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of a credit score is being able to prove you can pay off debt, which requires having debt to begin with. That’s why people who have never had a credit card or loan generally don’t have good credit. Without any debt, you can’t prove you have the ability to pay it off, hence the lower score.\n\nTo summarize, lots of debt = bad / no debt = bad / some debt = good",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Making payments on time on your student loans is good. Everything in your credit report ages out over time. The day you make your last payment is the local maximum for your credit score, if you don't have any other transactions. Years later, your score will be lower, because your last good report will be older.\n\nSo, if you run off to be homeless in the forest and live your life with cash, you don't have a very good credit score. This sorta makes sense, you might be an anti-social nutcase that wouldn't pay back the money if someone loaned it to you. It's not proof you are, but it's uncertainty that you might.\n\nSo, you need to make sure that there are good reports every month. And you need to relationship between the credit limit and the actual payments is favorable. There are many, many weights used in the calculation, all of which are proprietary to keep people from gaming the system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A credit score is an indicator of how good a customer you would be to creditors. Part of that is proving that you can pay your bills on time, which is why missed payments or having too much debt can cause damage to a credit score. But another part of it is showing that you're actually willing to take on debt in the first place, and proving that you can manage it and pay it. So if you're ever in a position where you have no debt whatsoever, it can adversely affect your score as well. After all, creditors want to know that you'll actually be a customer - someone who never takes anything on credit is someone they'll never earn money from.\n\nThis means that there's a weird limbo where having too much debt is bad and having too little debt is also bad. If you're hoping to improve your credit score, having some debt - like a car loan or modest credit card usage - is important, because it helps establish you as a customer that people should want to lend to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A [search](_URL_0_). Near but not identical threads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Paying off student loans early doesn't \"hurt\" your credit score, but it does have an opportunity cost where your credit score could have been higher if you would have paid them over time. \n\nSomeone that has made consistent and regular payments for 10+ years is more valuable than someone that zeroed their loans 5 years ago and hasn't had to keep steady payments since. \n\nThe bank KNOWS the 10+ year guy can handle regular payments and has a proven track record of making sure there's always enough in the checking account to make his payments, even if they're unemployed. \n\nThe 5 year guy is probably good too, but the bank doesn't KNOW if he can keep his payments regular. For all they know he's a chronic gambler that got lucky 5 years ago and paid off his debts. If they give him a loan today he could go lose it all on black at the casino and miss payments. \n\nWith all that said, pay off your loans in order of highest interest. If you're under 30 everything you buy is going to be debt financed anyway, so you're going to be building a history no matter what. Just be smart and zero the 20% credit card before zeroing your 3% student loans. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most important thing to know here is that there's a common misconception of what a credit score actually means. \n\nMany people think it's a number that says if you repay your debts. And while that's true it's not the only reason the score exists.\n\nThe score is actually a store representing how likely the lender is to make money from you. A big part of that is the likelihood that you will default (therefore the bank loses the money they lent you). But also if you repay loans before significant interest is paid, the bank doesn't make any money off the transaction. \n\nThis is the key. Pay off your loans early and the bank won't make any money off you. That makes you a bad customer because they are not likely to make much profit. Loans always have costs, there's an innate risk but also the money they spend to evaluate the transaction and determine if they want to lend you money. If you constantly repay loans before the banks can recoup those costs, you actually become someone they don't want to lend money too!\n\nSo the credit score is a score the bank can look at and ask themselves \"if we loan this guy money, will we make a profit in the deal?\". The truth is that the actual score is far too little information for most banks and most take the actual underlying data on your credit report and use it to generate their own internal score for you as a client. But the ultimate indicator is not exclusively the risk of default, it's the potential for profit. Defult is just one element of profit potential.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Paying off your student loans won't hurt your credit very much, and its not something you should worry about.\n\nif you are making a payment on time every month, that shows you are reliable. Once the loan is repaid, you are no longer making a monthly payment. You might have become unreliable. Maybe you lost your job. Its hard for the bank to know. Unknown = risk. Risk = lower credit score.\n\nI don't think you'll see this affect if you have other bills and pay those bills on time.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "464990",
"title": "Student loan",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "In coverage through established media outlets, many borrowers have expressed feelings of victimization by the student loan corporations. There is a comparison between these accounts and the college credit card trend in America during the 2000s, though the amounts owed by students on their student loans are almost always higher than the amount owed on credit cards. Many anecdotal accounts of the hardships caused by excessive student loan debt levels are chronicled by the organization Student Loan Justice which is founded and led by consumer rights advocate and author Alan Collinge. Student loans cannot be discharged in a bankruptcy proceeding unless the debtor can demonstrate \"undue hardship.\" After the passage of the bankruptcy reform bill of 2005, even private student loans are not discharged during bankruptcy. This provided a credit risk free loan for the lender, averaging 7 percent a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3861448",
"title": "Debt settlement",
"section": "Section::::Common objections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Damages credit - Credit reports will show evidence of debt settlements and the associated FICO scores will be lowered temporarily as a result. However, if a \"paid in full\" letter is obtained from the creditor, the debtor's credit report should show no sign of a debt settlement. Additionally, as debtors settle their accounts the score starts to go back up again. Some Debt Settlement companies offer Credit Repair in their programs in order to erase some of the negative remarks on credit reports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178748",
"title": "Debt relief",
"section": "Section::::Personal debt relief.:Contemporary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The increasing size of the non-housing personal debt market and ease with which one can obtain personal credit has led to some consumers falling behind on payments. As of Q3 2017, student loans have the highest rates of serious delinquency (90 or more days delinquent) with approximately 9.6% of all student loan debt falling into this bucket. Credit card debt and auto loan debt have serious delinquency rates of 4.6% and 2.4% respectively. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "631175",
"title": "Payday loan",
"section": "Section::::Proponents' stance and counterarguments.:Markets provide services otherwise unavailable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "These arguments are countered in two ways. First, the history of borrowers turning to illegal or dangerous sources of credit seems to have little basis in fact according to Robert Mayer's 2012 \"Loan Sharks, Interest-Rate Caps, and Deregulation\". Outside of specific contexts, interest rates caps had the effect of allowing small loans in most areas without an increase of \"loan sharking\". Next, since 80% of payday borrowers will roll their loan over at least one time because their income prevents them from paying the principal within the repayment period, they often report turning to friends or family members to help repay the loan according to a 2012 report from the Center for Financial Services Innovation. In addition, there appears to be no evidence of unmet demand for small dollar credit in states which prohibit or strictly limit payday lending.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1476274",
"title": "Credit history",
"section": "Section::::Adverse credit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Credit scores assess the likelihood that a borrower will repay a loan or other credit obligation based on factors like their borrowing and repayment history, the types of credit they have taken out and the overall length of their credit history. The higher the score, the better the credit history and the higher the probability that the loan will be repaid on time. When creditors report an excessive number of late payments, or trouble with collecting payments, the score suffers. Similarly, when adverse judgments and collection agency activity are reported, the score decreases even more. Repeated delinquencies or public record entries can lower the score and trigger what is called a negative credit rating or adverse credit history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3842655",
"title": "Credit score",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "It is very difficult for a consumer to know in advance whether they have a high enough credit score to be accepted for credit with a given lender. This situation is due to the complexity and structure of credit scoring, which differs from one lender to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19264478",
"title": "Alternative data",
"section": "Section::::Alternative data for credit in North America.:United States.:Current use of alternative data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Since the financial crisis of late 2008, many Americans have struggled with the negative change to their credit score. Reduced credit lines resulting in a new group of consumers in need of liquidity forced this growing consumer segment to seek alternative financial services providers. Businesses relying on traditional credit reports to make credit decisions have had limited to no visibility on the new credit usage behaviors of this growing portion because alternative data is not information that the traditional bureaus capture or tend to report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
cbefmn
|
What was the primary warship of the Indian Ocean before the advent of the modern period?
|
[
{
"answer": "One particular aspect of maritime situation in the Indian ocean in the second half of fifteenth century which is often emphasized by scholars, is the *relative* peacefulness and *absence* of large scale naval conflicts. The accent here is really on the word *relative* as piracy was abundant and there was plenty of naval combat in the form of smaller neighboring states fighting each other, or a commercial center port subjugating its immediate surroundings. \n\nBut what you won't see, is the kind of power projection across the seas, sending combat fleets far way from home, or establishment of maritime empires backed by sea domination which you might associate with, for example Italian medieval merchant states. Again, before someone gets their pitchforks out, I am mostly referring to the *fifteenth century* and the setting in place in time of European arrival. It is quite possible somewhere back in time Indian ocean was full of such naval empires, I really wouldn't know.\n\nThe following consequence of such situation is that there really wasn't much large scale naval battles (like e.g. battle of Zonchio in 1499 in Mediterrenean) and for that matter, there were no clear large dedicated warships that might be considered an analgoue to European galleys, or later galleons or ship-of-the-line. And that's perfectly fine! In fact it is probably the Mediterrenean that was an outlier as in 14th century both England and France were raising their navies by commandeer and adapting merchant ships rather then having dedicated warships.\n\nIn those conditions, the naval fleets, when assembled, had usually consisted of a number of large merchant sailing ships taken for the occasion and filled with soldiers, augmented with a large number of oared vessels. Such combined fleet of smaller oared ships together with larger merchant ships were encountered several times by the Portuguese, in their fights at Hormuz, Chaul/Diu, Malacca, etc.\n\nThe smaller oared ships could vary in size (and have a mast with a sail, same as galleys) but were as a rule smaller then galleys as Portuguese often applied the term *fusta* to describe them, and *fusta* was a European type of small galley. if anything would be considered a warship of Indian ocean, it would be these oared vessels. Unfortunately, I can't find much information on them as they seemed to pass under the radar of most works. \n\nThe merchant ships, primarily propelled by sailing would be what you term dhows. That is if we are talking about the western part of the Indian ocean - the Arabian sea - where most ships were of this type. Most of the Portuguese descriptions (sorry for dealing with Portuguese sources, but it seems those are the main sources most of scholarship draws from. Hopefully the situation has changed and I am just out of date...) describe them as well built ships built, and particularly accent that they were built without nails (actually some sources disagree, but vast majority confirm) and instead either wooden pegs were used or the planks were sewn together, another interesting feature many sources agree with. By size those ships were just as big, and on more then one occasion even bigger then Portuguese naus they were up against. Yet unlike Portuguese ships it seems that the ship board artillery wasn't really a thing. Or it was, but the artillery it self was much weaker then the ones brought from Europe.\n\nIn the eastern part of Indian ocean, there was a considerable additional influx of SE Asian designs of such large ships, which Portuguese dubbed \"junks\" (juncos). Those had some Chinese influence in origins, but were actually heavily influenced by native SE Asian design. Unlike dhows, those are much more often described as having nails and in general had a different look and feel. They also had two side rudders instead of a stern rudder, a fact Portuguese wrote down with interest as they considered it a weakness in battle. They were also larger then Portuguese ships, and had multiple layers of planking which allowed some of those junks to resist even the largest cannon fire from Portuguese ships. The ships were still at a disadvantage against the Portuguese, and seems in the early days when Portuguese conquered Malacca they also succeeded in winning most of the few naval battles they had.\n\nTo conclude here are some of the 16th century (european) images of the ships. We are not sure if those are realistic first hand accounts or just imaginations of authors back in Europe.\n\n[Ships of the Arabian sea: a dhow and a 9-masted large ship - 1519 ](_URL_0_) \n\n[Ships from Java / SE Asia: junks - 1598](_URL_2_)\n\n[Ship from SE Asia: jong/junk - 1613](_URL_1_)",
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"answer": "In medieval India, the Muslim rulers (such as the Deccan Sultanates and Mughal Sultanate) had mostly ignored the naval arm of their military forces. It may be because they came overland from the North and won decisively in land battles. \n\nThis scenario changed, however, when the Portuguese arrived in India and started monopolizing and controlling trade on the western coast of the continent. Chhatrapati Shivaji (known as the father of the Indian navy) realized the importance of a strong navy; the first keel of a Maratha naval vessel was laid down in a creek near Kalyan circa 1654.\n\nShivaji took up the task of constructing multiple naval bases along the coast of present-day Maharashtra. He organized two fleets – one under the command of Admiral Mainak Bhandari and the other under Daulet Khan.\n\nThe Maratha Navy consisted mostly of native Konkani sailors; however, it was commanded mostly by mercenaries, including Siddi and Portuguese. Circa 1659, the Maratha Navy consisted of around 20 warships. \n\nHiring mercenaries was relatively common in Maratha military culture and the Navy was no exception to this practice. Portuguese naval officer Rui Leitão Viegas was hired as fleet commander, in part because the Maratha wanted to get insight into the Portuguese naval technology and capabilities. \n\nThe Maratha Navy was primarily a coastal “green water” navy, compared to an ocean-going or \"blue water\" navy. Their ships were dependent on land/sea breezes. The Maratha did not build ships large enough to engage the British out at sea far from the coastal waters.\n\nAs for the ships. here are three:\n\n[Galbat](_URL_2_): The Galbats were larger row boats but of smaller dimensions. These rarely exceeded seventy tons. They had two masts of which the mizzen was very slight. The main mast had one large triangular sail. When hoisted, its peak went much higher than the mast itself. The Galbats were usually covered with a spar-deck, made up of split bamboos for lightness. They carried only 'patteraroes' which were mounted with six or eight pieces of cannon ranging from two to four pounders.\n\n[Gurab](_URL_0_): The Gurabs had usually not more than two masts, although some had three masts. The capacity of three masted Gurabs was about 300 tons, and that of smaller ones, the capacity was about 150 tons. These warships were covered with a strong deck which was on the same level as that of the main deck of the vessel. On the main deck, under the fore-castle there were two pieces of cannon from nine to twelve pounders pointing forward through the portholes cut in the bulk head.\n\n[Pal](_URL_3_):The Pal was the biggest battleship of Marathas. The Pal had three masts perpendicular to the hull. They were made up of two pieces joined together just below the square sails. The stern of the Pal was square and had a spacious decorated deck. This was meant for the captain. The broadside of the Pal had four guns peeping through the portholes. \n\nSources:\n\n1. [Battles of the honorable East India Company: Making of the Raj - M.S Naravane](_URL_1_)\n\n2. [The Anglo-maratha campaigns before the conquest of india - Randolf G.S cooper](_URL_4_)",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1359350",
"title": "Portuguese Navy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "For the most of the 16th century, the Portuguese India Armadas and fleets, then the world leader navy of shipbuilding and naval artillery, dominated most of the Atlantic Ocean south of the Canary Islands, the Indian Ocean and the access to the western Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1359350",
"title": "Portuguese Navy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late 19th century to World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In the 1830s, the Portuguese Navy incorporated its first steamships. The last Portuguese ship of the line, the 80-gun \"Vasco da Gama\", was built in Lisbon in 1841 and the last sailing frigate, the 60-gun \"Dom Fernando II e Glória\", was built in Daman (Portuguese India) in 1845. From the late 1850s, the navy gradually replaced its sailing ships by steam or mixed propulsion ships, its principal warships becoming the mixed-propulsion corvettes for the high seas operations and the gunships mainly for coastal and colonial patrols. In 1880, the Portuguese fleet includes one armored corvette, six corvettes, 13 gunships, three training ships and four support ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1359350",
"title": "Portuguese Navy",
"section": "Section::::History.:The 18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Portuguese Navy ended the 18th century with a fleet that included 13 ships of the line, 16 frigates, three corvettes, 17 brigs and eight support ships. In addition, the Portuguese naval forces also included the Navy of India, based in the Indian Ocean, with a ship of the line and six frigates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7171338",
"title": "Indian Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:British India (1857 to 1947).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "The Royal Indian Navy was first established by the British while much of India was under the control of the East India Company. In 1892, it became a maritime component as the Royal Indian Marine (RIM).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "604522",
"title": "Indian Navy",
"section": "Section::::History.:1612 origins to independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 725,
"text": "The origins of the Indian Navy date to 1612, when an English vessel under the command of Captain Best encountered the Portuguese. Although the Portuguese were defeated, this incident along with the trouble caused by the pirates to the merchant vessels, forced the British to maintain fleet near Surat, Gujarat. The British Honourable East India Company (HEIC) formed a naval arm, and the first squadron of fighting ships reached the Gujarat coast on 5 September 1612. Their objective was to protect British merchant shipping off the Gulf of Cambay and up the Narmada and Tapti rivers. As the HEIC continued to expand its rule and influence over different parts of India, the responsibility of Company's Marine increased too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "29374",
"title": "Steam turbine",
"section": "Section::::Marine propulsion.:Cruising machinery and gearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "When US Navy warship construction resumed in the early 1950s, most surface combatants and aircraft carriers used / steam. This continued until the end of the US Navy steam-powered warship era with the s of the early 1970s. Amphibious and auxiliary ships continued to use steam post-World War II, with , launched in 2001, possibly the last non-nuclear steam-powered ship built for the US Navy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1071155",
"title": "Mediterranean Fleet",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "In the last decade of the nineteenth century, the Mediterranean Fleet was the largest single squadron of the Royal Navy, with ten first-class battleships—double the number in the Channel Fleet—and a large number of smaller warships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2ppwgh
|
when i'm tired, every now and then i will go through bouts of extreme drowsiness where i can't even keep my head up and eyes open, but after about 5-10 minutes i am awake again and completely fine. what are these cycles and how do they work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could be a bunch of things, but generally that's not normal. Could be blood sugar or blood pressure drops, narcolepsy, etc... Should see a doctor.\n\nIn my case, this would go on for an hour or two every couple days. I had a 3x2 inch tumor (what they call a \"schwannoma\", noncancerous) in my neck that was butted against my spine, putting a ton of pressure on surrounding nerves, and causing fatigue. Since I had it removed last month I no longer have these issues.",
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"answer": "This can't be as abnormal as other posters are making it out to be. I experience the same problem sometimes if I did not get much rest the night before and I am doing something uninteresting. I try to think about how important it is that I stay awake in a meeting with my boss, for example, but sometimes I find it legitimately impossible to keep my eyes open, so I pinch myself ceaselessly until I wake up...",
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"answer": "wait, this isn't normal? This happens on a regular basis to me, especially if I'm driving. I just get really, REALLY sleepy. If someone then starts talking to me, the drowsiness dissappears completely, almost right away. Shots of adrenaline, like from my tires hitting the rumble strips only jerks me up for about 30sec, then it's like it never happened (ie. back to feeling sleepy). I'd love an answer to why this happens, and if it's not actually a normal thing...",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I know this feeling. You just battle it out, and then if you managed to stay awake, you're back to normal. \n\nI think its a mix of boredom, heat and exhaustion. If you're driving, sing along to your favorite songs, roll windows down or pull over and nap.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Like others have said, it could be a lot of things. I imagine a lot of people's fatigue is diet based. Usually after a meal there's a spike in blood sugar, depending on the meal and the composition of the meal. Meals high in sugar will jack up the blood sugar. You will be pretty energetic. The body will overcompensate and release a ton of insulin, plummeting the blood sugar. This will make you woozy and what not. The body will then try and correct the aggressive over correction, releasing glucagon, bringing the blood sugar back up to normal levels. ",
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"answer": "It could be one of two things I'd say.\n\n1) Basic Rest and Activity Cycles.\n\nIn humans, the BRAC cycle seems to last 90-120 minutes. The first 75-100 minutes are a period of alertness and activity, with the last 15-20 minutes of the cycle being a period of marked somnolence, a dreamy (day-dreamy), drowsy state of consciousness. It is thought to be the inverse of the sleep cycles, where SWS and REM occur in similar 90 minute intervals.\n\nThe purpose of the BRAC cycle may have to do with brain electrolyte restoration. The rhythm has been found on EEG readings of the brain. It is also present in other animals. My personal experience suggests that these rhythms are very suggestible, sometimes unnoticeable if not absent at times. At other times, they can be like clockwork. It depends on what you're doing at the time, and your general state of health I'm sure.\n\n2) Microsleeps.\n\nIn states of marked sleep deprivation, humans can enter states of microsleep. These are very short episodes of sleep, lasting seconds on occasion. Whether or not they are beneficial or just side effects of sleep deprivation is unknown.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Jeez, people trying to spout claims of cancer and trying to prescribe drugs for this completely normal occurrence. This is normal, OP. Many people do not let themselves get tired enough to experience this, but those that have gone long stretches without sleep and had a period of minimal activity/movement/thought will know exactly what you're talking about.\n\nI don't have the correct terms off the top of my head, but I can assure you that there is nothing unusual about this.\n\nPart of you is trying to enter sleep, but you consciously decline the aggressive offer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I have suffered something similar for as long as I can remember now. I could fall asleep in a cold hall curled up in a doorway in under 5 mins. I sleep for 10hrs without difficulty, love my bed and feel as though I could sleep for a 100 years. I constantly feel like im dragging my body around behind me. There are only two times in my life when i have felt 'full of beans' and full of energy. I regularly have to pull over for a sleep and this excessive tiredness makes me short tempered, miserable and has been a constant pain my entire life. Fucking sucks.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "_URL_0_ \n \n\nIts called a micronap or microsleeping and it means that you're internally exhausted but you keep telling your brain to stay awake. So, during boring or times where your brain doesn't have to \"work hard\" or focus, it nods off for brief moments of time. (Because its tired and wants to sleep.) This is prone to happening while we are doing activities that we are very comfortable with and don't require a lot of movement. (Driving, Watching T.V., Games, etc. ) If this is happening to you, you need to caatch up on some back sleep. If not, you're gonna go into sleep debt. \n \n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Same thing happens to me but I also have narcolepsy",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I used to have these symptoms. Turns out that I have sleep apnea. If you snore when sleeping you may have sleep apnea as well. After getting treatment for it, I no longer get bouts of drowsiness. You might get yourself checked out.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm sure it's correlated to brain wave activity. Think of a car's engine. You press on the accelerator, and when you reach a certain speed, you lower the pressure on the pedal. After a bit, especially in older engines, you'll lose speed and have to press the accelerator again. If you're not paying attention, you might accidentally go from 60mph down to 45 and not even notice. Your brain goes through the same struggle. A tired brain is analogous to an old engine. Like you, it tries to maintain the 60mph (beta frequency / alert work). If your brain is too tired to keep up, it slows down to 50 mph (alpha / calm, steady work and thought). If you stay in that relaxed state, you'll eventually hit 40mph (theta state /drowsiness and heavy-headedness), and from there go down to 15mph (delta waves / deep sleep). \nYour brain can't maintain 60mph beta alertness for too long either since it burns alot of gas (calories), but it's much less efficient if it didn't get the proper maintenance (sleep).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Are you overweight? I had similar symptoms - falling asleep at my desk, in meetings, etc. - and was diagnosed with Sleep Apnoea. That's fairly serious. I've since lost about 70 pounds and I sleep like a baby. I feel great every day now. You should probably talk to your doctor about this, rather than reddit.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Man, a lot of people are really eager to diagnose sleep disorders. \n\nFor the record, I don't think you are describing narcolepsy, sleep apnea, or anything like that. It sounds more like you are talking about a [liminal state](_URL_0_).\n\nMost of the time someone uses that term they are talking about life changing events or religious experiences. But it just means \"threshold\" and you sometimes hear it used to refer to the state between waking and sleeping.\n\nWhen we think of sleeping we tend to think of it as a very smooth process where our conscious minds just switch off. It doesn't quite work that way. It's more of a fuzzy cycling process between awake and asleep. For the first few minutes of sleep you bounce in and out of wakefulness. This happens every time. You just don't remember it. Why?\n\nEr, well, because it takes right around 30 minutes before short term memories can be converted into long term memories. If this process is disrupted, say by going to sleep, you just lose the memories. So that last memory you have before going to sleep was not the last moment you were conscious. That could have taken place up to half an hour after that point.\n\nBut, as I was saying, your brain and your body start settling into a more relaxed state. As this happens and you drift in and out of sleep, the periods of waking get shorter and shorter and the periods of sleeping get longer and longer.\n\nIt doesn't just end there, either. During the entire night you'll repeat this process over and over again. Around every 90 minutes or so in fact. You drift down into sleep from waking, bouncing in and out, and gradually settle into a deeper sleep. Then you start waking back up. You may actually even wake up briefly but, again, if it is less than 30 minutes you'll forget it. Back down you go. \n\nSo, back to your original question, what you are probably experiencing is that moment where your body is drifting to sleep. You may even have been asleep for a moment (someone else mentioned microsleeps and that's sort of right but most of the time someone talks about microsleep they are actually referring to when chronically exhausted people may fall asleep for a few seconds to a few minutes and wake up during a normal waking period). You were doing something that caused your brain to relax and you started the process of going to sleep. However, when you drifted back out you interrupted that cycle and forced your brain and body into a higher activity level. Since you are forcing yourself to be awake for long enough for the memories to transfer to long term memory, this time you recall your dozing off state. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Perhaps your body is saying you need sleep so it starts release melatonin, which makes you sleepy. When it realizes you are not going to be sleeping it stops releasing melatonin and you become less drowsy. Probably similar to how you are still sleepy when you first wake up. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33384768",
"title": "Second wind (sleep)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Duration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The wake maintenance zone generally lasts 2 to 3 hours, during which one is less inclined to fall asleep. While potentially useful for completing urgent tasks, it may have a potentially unwanted side-effect of keeping one awake for several hours after the task has been completed. The hypervigilance and stimulation brought on by a second wind can cause fatigue, which, in the case of infants, can be literally painful. Thus, an infant may begin crying when sleep habits are disrupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2353519",
"title": "Wake therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Wake therapy is a form of sleep deprivation used as a treatment for depression. The subject stays awake all night, or is woken at 1AM and stays awake all morning, and the next full day. While sleepy, patients find that their depression vanishes, until they sleep again. Combining this with bright light therapy make the beneficial effects last longer than one day. Partial sleep deprivation in the second half of the night may be as effective as an all-night sleep deprivation session.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294793",
"title": "Sensory deprivation",
"section": "Section::::Restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST).:Flotation REST.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "For the first 40 minutes, it is reportedly possible to experience itching in various parts of the body (a phenomenon also reported to be common during the early stages of meditation). The last 20 minutes often end with a transition from beta or alpha brain waves to theta, which typically occur briefly before sleep and again at waking. In a float tank, the theta state can last for several minutes without the subject losing consciousness. Some use the extended theta state as a tool for enhanced creativity and problem solving. Spas sometimes provide commercial float tanks for use in relaxation. Flotation therapy has been academically studied in the US and in Sweden with published results showing reductions of both pain and stress. The relaxed state also involves lowered blood pressure, lowered levels of cortisol, and maximal blood flow. Apart from physiological effects, REST seems to have positive effects on well-being and performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2353519",
"title": "Wake therapy",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Wake therapy involves one to three rounds which consist of complete sleep avoidance for the night and entire day after, then the cycles are separated with nights of recovery sleep (a full night's sleep). The treatment lasts between two and five days, depending on the number of rounds done. Relapse into depression typically occurs immediately after any amount of sleep. The intervention is done in a hospital or sleep center in order to make sure the program is done properly and full effects are established.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47216393",
"title": "Sleep hollow",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The affected persons fall asleep during day-to-day activities and always feel sleepy. One of the doctors said, \"You wake them up, they can speak to you, reply to you, but as soon as you stop talking and ask what bothers them, they just want to sleep, sleep, sleep.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Temperaments, basis for Iranian traditional medicine.:Everything has a temperament.:Sleeping and wakefulness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In any cases that one is forced to get less sleep (having to study for an exam, being under mental pressure or having to finish a project) the brain and the body would get warmer and drier so in order to control the excessive warmness or dryness in the body one should cut back on warm and dry food stuff. Additionally taking a short nap during the day (20 minutes) especially in warm climates and seasons is highly recommended to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29560139",
"title": "Sleep inversion",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Individuals with the delayed sleep phase type of the disorder exhibit habitually late sleep hours and an inability to change their sleeping schedule consistently. They often show sleepiness during the desired wake period of their days. Their actual phase of sleep is normal. Once they fall asleep, they stay asleep for a normal period of time, albeit a period of time that starts and stops at an abnormally late time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
2olx19
|
suitjacket, sportcoat, and blazer? which situation calls for which jacket?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sport coats have patterns, unlike blazers, which are solid and have contrasting buttons. Suit jackets are smooth, have tonal buttons, and should never be worn with anything other than matching suit trousers.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Generally, suit for formal occasions, sport coat in winter and blazer with light slacks in spring or all year if you're a frat boy. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "suit jacket - this one will have matching pants so its best for business \nsportcoats - this one is also good for business, especially young prof. who want more bang for their buck (you can mix up the pants to create more looks). \nblazer - these tend to be just like sportcoats - but are navy in most cases. Also can be dressed up or down. \n\nTL;DR - sportcoat/blazer casual, and suit jacket less casual (tho not formal) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you tried this question on the folks over at /r/malefashionadvice?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was taught a little differently growing up about suits, sport coats, and blazers. \n\nAgreed with previous posters: suit coats should only be worn with matching suit pants. Generally worn with a collared button down shirt like an Oxford. Many variations of ties (long, bow, bolo) or no tie/ascot acceptable. Generally darker cool colors, greys, and blacks. \n\nSport coats are generally a different color than the slacks and are often worn for morning events or sporting events. It is acceptable to wear suit pants with a sport coat, but generally lighter color slacks are worn with sport coats. Never black. \n\nBlazers are often solid or a heavier weave pinstripe and are most commonly paired with more casual bottoms such as chinos, khakis or jeans. Blazers may have elbow patches and lapels of a different pattern/fabric. Blazers can be worn any time. \n\nFor true formal occasions, none of these are appropriate menswear: tuxedo only. \n\nThis info is probably no longer in style or correct and was handed down from my grandfather and great uncle when I was young. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3084058",
"title": "Sport coat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "A sport coat, also called a sport jacket (sports coat or sports jacket in American English), is a men's lounge jacket designed to be worn on its own without matching trousers, traditionally for sporting purposes. Styles, fabrics, colours and patterns are more varied than in most suits; sturdier and thicker fabrics are commonly used, such as corduroy, suede, denim, leather, and tweed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1378845",
"title": "Blazer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "A blazer is a type of jacket resembling a suit jacket, but cut more casually. A blazer is generally distinguished from a sport coat as a more formal garment and tailored from solid colour fabrics. Blazers often have naval-style metal buttons to reflect their origins as jackets worn by boating club members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31959246",
"title": "Blouson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "A blouson or blouse jacket is a jacket that is drawn tight at the waist, causing it to blouse out and hang over the waistband. Some of them have a hood. It takes most of its modern traits from the American flight jacket and police blouson. It is related to the Eisenhower jacket. It is considered to be both sportswear and casual civilian clothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2623689",
"title": "Norfolk jacket",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "A Norfolk jacket is a loose, belted, single-breasted jacket with box pleats on the back and front, with a belt or half-belt. It was originally designed as a shooting coat that did not bind when the elbow was raised to fire. It was named either after the Duke of Norfolk or after the county of Norfolk and was made fashionable after the 1860s in the sporting circle of the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, whose country residence was Sandringham House in Norfolk. The style was long popular for boys' jackets and suits, and is still used in some (primarily military and police) uniforms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3084058",
"title": "Sport coat",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "A shooting jacket is a type of sport coat worn, as the name suggests, originally while participating in the sports of shooting or hunting. It usually comes with a leather patch on the front shoulder to prevent recoil wear from the butt of a shotgun or rifle, and frequently has matching leather patches on the elbows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305133",
"title": "Waistcoat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "A waistcoat ( or ; colloquially called a weskit, derived from the French \"veste\"), or vest, is a sleeveless upper-body garment. It is usually worn over a dress shirt and necktie and below a coat as a part of most men's formal wear. It is also sported as the third piece in the traditional three-piece male lounge suit. Any given vest can be simple or ornate or for leisure or luxury. Historically, the vest can be worn either in the place of or underneath a larger coat dependent upon the weather, wearer, and setting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8557389",
"title": "Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology",
"section": "Section::::Legends.:Yellow Jackets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The term Yellow Jacket or Yellowjacket has been used to refer to students and the various sports teams as early as the 1890s. Fans of Georgia Tech would often wear yellow jackets to sporting events in support of the early Georgia Tech teams. The early football teams, lacking gold fabric for jerseys, wore yellow jerseys. John Heisman told the Atlanta Constitution that he wanted his teams to be referred to as the Yellow Jackets in October 1905. In November 1906, the Atlanta Journal portrayed a University of Georgia football player being attacked by a yellowjacket with the words \"Somebody's going to get stung\" as the caption. This would be the first time and not the last time that the Georgia Tech sports teams would be referred to as the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yvmjh
|
why are so many large companies headquartered in minneapolis?
|
[
{
"answer": "Minneapolis has a well educated population, the standard amenities of a major city, is a hub for a major airlines, has a high livability index, and still maintains a relatively low cost of living compared to other major cities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32022",
"title": "Economy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Notable companies and markets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 220,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 220,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "In 2011, the 20 largest U.S.-based companies by revenue were Walmart, ExxonMobil, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Fannie Mae, General Electric, Berkshire Hathaway, General Motors, Ford Motor Company, Hewlett-Packard, AT&T, Cargill, McKesson Corporation, Bank of America, Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, Apple Inc., Verizon, JPMorgan Chase, and Cardinal Health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328591",
"title": "Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 305,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 305,
"end_character": 1874,
"text": "Dallas and its suburbs have one of the highest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the United States. Business management and operations is a major part of the economy. The metroplex also contains the largest Information Technology industry base in the state (often referred to as Silicon Prairie or the Telecom Corridor, especially when referring to US-75 through Richardson just north of Dallas itself). This area has a large number of corporate IT projects and the presence of numerous electronics, computing and telecommunication firms such as Microsoft, Texas Instruments, HP Enterprise Services, Dell Services, Nokia, Cisco, Fujitsu, i2, AT&T, Alcatel-Lucent, Ericsson, CA, Google, and Verizon in and around Dallas. On the other end of the business spectrum, and on the other side of the metroplex, the Texas farming and ranching industry is based in Fort Worth. According to the \"Dallas Business Journal\" s 2006 Book of Lists, American Airlines is the largest employer in the metroplex. Several major defense manufacturers, including Lockheed Martin, Bell Helicopter Textron, and Raytheon, maintain significant operations in the metroplex, primarily on the \"Fort Worth side.\" They are concentrated along State Highway 170 near I-35W, commonly called the \"Alliance Corridor\" due to its proximity to the Fort Worth Alliance regional airport. ExxonMobil, the #2 corporation on the Fortune 500 listings, is headquartered in Irving, Texas. Toyota USA, in 2016, relocated its corporate headquarters to Plano, Texas. Southwest Airlines hold their headquarters in Dallas. The airline has more than 53,000 employees as of October 2016 and operates more than 3,900 departures a day during peak travel season. In October 2016, Jacobs Engineering, a Fortune 500 company and one of the world’s largest engineering companies, relocated from Pasadena, California to Dallas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22018",
"title": "Nashville, Tennessee",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Fortune 500 companies with offices within Nashville include BNY Mellon, Bridgestone Americas, Ernst & Young, Community Health Systems, Dell, Deloitte, Dollar General, Hospital Corporation of America, Nissan North America, Philips, Tractor Supply Company, and UBS. Of these, Community Health Systems, Dollar General, Hospital Corporation of America, and Tractor Supply Company are headquartered in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102607",
"title": "Minneapolis–Saint Paul",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 293,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 293,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "The Minneapolis–Saint Paul area is home to 18 of Minnesota's 19 Fortune 500 headquarters - UnitedHealth Group, Target, Best Buy, CHS, 3M, US Bancorp, Supervalu, General Mills, Land O'Lakes, Ecolab, CH Robinson Worldwide, Ameriprise Financial, Xcel Energy, Thrivent Financial, Mosaic, Patterson, Securian Financial and Polaris. A number of private companies are also headquartered in the Twin Cities area, including Cargill, the country's largest private company, Carlson, Radisson Hotel Group, Mortenson, Holiday Stationstores, and Andersen. Foreign companies with U.S. headquarters in the Twin Cities include Aimia, Allianz, Canadian Pacific, Coloplast, Medtronic, Pearson VUE, Pentair and RBC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11388236",
"title": "Seattle",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1208,
"text": "Large companies continue to dominate the business landscape. Five companies on Fortune 500's 2017 list of the United States' largest companies (based on total revenue) are headquartered in Seattle: Internet retailer Amazon.com (#12), coffee chain Starbucks (#131), department store Nordstrom (#188), freight forwarder Expeditors International of Washington (#429) and forest products company Weyerhaeuser (#341). Other Fortune 500 companies commonly associated with Seattle are based in nearby Puget Sound cities. Warehouse club chain Costco (#16), the largest retail company in Washington, is based in Issaquah. Microsoft (#28) is located in Redmond. Furthermore, Bellevue is home to truck manufacturer Paccar (#164). Other major companies headquartered in the area include Nintendo of America in Redmond, T-Mobile US in Bellevue, Expedia Inc. in Bellevue, and Providence Health & Services (the state's largest health care system and fifth largest employer) in Renton. The city has a reputation for heavy coffee consumption; coffee companies founded or based in Seattle include Starbucks, Seattle's Best Coffee, and Tully's. There are also many successful independent artisanal espresso roasters and cafés.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283806",
"title": "San Francisco Bay Area",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1217,
"text": "Several major corporations are headquartered in the Bay Area. Among the Fortune 500 companies located in the region include technology companies Google, Apple Inc., Hewlett Packard, Intel, Applied Materials, eBay, Cisco Systems, Symantec, Oracle, Netflix, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Electronic Arts, and Salesforce; energy companies Chevron and PG&E; financial service companies Charles Schwab Corporation, Visa Inc., and Wells Fargo; apparel retailers Gap Inc., Levi Strauss & Co., and Ross Stores; aerospace and defense contractor Lockheed Martin; local grocer Safeway; pharmaceutical company McKesson; and biotechnology companies Genentech and Gilead Sciences. The largest manufacturers include Tesla Inc., Lam Research, Bayer, Chevron, and Coca-Cola. Oakland is the site of the fifth-largest container shipping port in the United States and is also a major rail terminus. In research, NASA's Ames Research Center and the federal research facility Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory are based in Mountain View and Livermore respectively. In the North Bay, Napa and Sonoma counties are known for their famous wineries, including Fantesca Estate & Winery, Domaine Chandon California, and D'Agostini Winery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9988008",
"title": "History of Minneapolis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Minneapolis is the largest city by population in the U.S. state of Minnesota, and the county seat of Hennepin County. The origin and growth of the city was spurred by the proximity of Fort Snelling, the first major United States military presence in the area, and by its location on Saint Anthony Falls, which provided power for sawmills and flour mills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a88scv
|
why are b.c. (before christ) and a.c. (after christ) the reference points we have chosen to use for historical measure, as opposed to any other major historical event?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nowadays you often see “BCE” which stands for “Before the Common Era.” “BC/AC” was just a handy reference since many Western historians were/ are Christian. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the rest of the non-Christian world other systems are used. In fact entirely different calendars are used.\nHowever due to the outsized influence of Christian based European countries, much of the world also uses the European based calandar for commerce. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Christians in Europe were the one who brought that system to much of the rest of the world when they explored and colonized and plundered it. Other local systems kept being used but the benefits of a more or less unified calendar that worked well and was sued by everyone else won out in the end.\n\nCurrent alternatives that are still used include the Hebrew calendar and the Islamic calendar which count from the beginning of the world (not really) and the birth of the prophet Mohamed respectively. They are not as appealing to wider use because the Hebrew calendar sort of has no fixed length and the Islamic calendar is lunar based which does not really work as well in latitudes were season are an important thing.\n\nSome places like North Korea have taken the Gregorian calendar (because it works) slapped traditional local names on the months and set the Year one to be based on the birth Kim Il-sung.\n\nMany places have a traditional calendar that only gets used for festivals and religious rites and use the normal Gregorian calendar for everything else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35695",
"title": "525",
"section": "Section::::Events.:By topic.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dionysius Exiguus, Scythian theologian-mathematician, inaugurates at Rome the practice of using A.D. (Anno Domini) for calendar dates after the birth of Jesus Christ (who was actually born in 7 B.C. or later). Dionysius produces also his tables for computing the date of \"\"Cyclus Paschalis\"\" (\"Easter Tables\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6088",
"title": "Common Era",
"section": "Section::::Similar conventions in other languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BULLET::::- In Spanish, common forms used for \"BC\" are aC and a. de C. (for \"antes de Cristo\", \"before Christ\"), with variations in punctuation and sometimes the use of J.C. (Jesucristo) instead of C. In scholarly writing, AEC is the equivalent of the English \"BCE\", \"antes de la Era Común\" or \"Before the Common Era\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1400",
"title": "Anno Domini",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with \"AD\" counting years from the start of this epoch, and \"BC\" denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55931",
"title": "Chronology",
"section": "Section::::Calendar and era.:Ab Urbe condita era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "\"Ab Urbe condita\" is Latin for \"from the founding of the City (Rome)\", traditionally set in 753 BC. It was used to identify the Roman year by a few Roman historians. Modern historians use it much more frequently than the Romans themselves did; the dominant method of identifying Roman years was to name the two consuls who held office that year. Before the advent of the modern critical edition of historical Roman works, AUC was indiscriminately added to them by earlier editors, making it appear more widely used than it actually was.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6088",
"title": "Common Era",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.:Opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Some oppose the Common Era notation for explicitly religious reasons. Because the BC/AD notation is based on the traditional year of the conception or birth of Jesus, some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to him in era notation. The Southern Baptist Convention supports retaining the BC/AD abbreviations. Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option as, in his view, using the designation BCE/CE is a \"return... to the most bigoted Christian colonialism\" towards non-Christians, who do not necessarily consider the time period following the beginning of the calendar to be a \"common era\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6088",
"title": "Common Era",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.:Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians, but who are not themselves Christian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1507208",
"title": "Church of God (Restoration)",
"section": "Section::::Eschatology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Some reject the date of 1880 and claim the dates 270 and 1530 hold no historical significance and were only obtained by back-dating from 1880. They also point out that while there is Biblical authority to use the symbol of one day for a year (Num 14:34; Eze 4:6), there is no Biblical authority to use one day as a century or one hour as a century, which the Church of God (Restoration) uses to get the 350 years of the Protestant age and the 50 years of the silent time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7h4fr1
|
if most psychopaths become psychopathic due to their childhood or a birth defect, why are most psychopaths male?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because contrary to what you might have been told, gender is not actually a social construct. Our brains are wired differently, and when they malfunction, they malfunction in different ways. Just like women are much more likely to suffer from unipolar depression, men are more likely to become psychopaths.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The debate about whether psychopaths are the result of nature vs nurture is still very much ongoing.\n\nIf and to the extent it is due to nature then the sex difference in psychopathy is likely to be due to the sexual dimorphism in the brain. Both women's and men's brains are mainly formed by estrogen, but the male estrogen is slightly different than the female estrogen because the estrogen in men is due to conversion of testosterone.\n\nIf and to the extent it is due to nurture then it is likely to be due to differences in how we raise boys vs girls. For example the amygdala - the center for emotions - is about 18% smaller for psychopaths. But newer research shows that the brain structure itself is due to the how we use the brain, especially in the formative years. The neural pathways we use as kids are the neural pathways that will dominate our brains as adults. Research shows that a young child dressed up as a boy receives less affection than a child dressed as a girl, and this will affect both personality development and brain structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. first of all psychopathy isnt a term used in psychology anymore.\n2. What you may be referring to is anti social disorders\n3. I personally think its a nature thing\n4. Sexism affects men, believe it or not\n5. The role of a \"man\" in our society might be more financially lucrative, but there are many downsides\n6. Men and boys are expected to be emotionless. People tell 4 year old boys to stop crying and act like \"men\" that might mess a kid up in the future if it happens frequently\n7. This directly relates to the idea of \"an emotionless killer\" women are allowed to have emotions in our society, men are not\n8. This explains why most serial killers are men\n9. Fun fact, if a person is raised without social contact in their formative years, they cannot function properly later on and it cannot be fixed and many end up in homes for the mentally ill. This really shows how much environmental factors have an impact on young people, how suppressing boys emotions might have a large impact in their future selves",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don’t think most psychopaths are male, I think most psychopaths *we hear about* are male. Basically society encourages men to be violent. When you hear about psychopaths on the news it’s because they have done something horrible like murder, and since men are more prone to violence the psychopath in question will most likely be male. I’m sure the psychopathic women are out there— just not committing any terrible newsworthy crimes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7753430",
"title": "Psychopathy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Offending.:Sexual offending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "Psychopathy has been associated with commission of sexual crime, with some researchers arguing that it is correlated with a preference for violent sexual behavior. A 2011 study of conditional releases for Canadian male federal offenders found that psychopathy was related to more violent and non-violent offences but not more sexual offences. For child molesters, psychopathy was associated with more offences. A study on the relationship between psychopathy scores and types of aggression in a sample of sexual murderers, in which 84.2% of the sample had PCL-R scores above 20 and 47.4% above 30, found that 82.4% of those with scores above 30 had engaged in sadistic violence (defined as enjoyment indicated by self-report or evidence) compared to 52.6% of those with scores below 30, and total PCL-R and Factor 1 scores correlated significantly with sadistic violence. Despite this, it is reported that offenders with psychopathy (both sexual and non-sexual offenders) are about 2.5 times more likely to be granted conditional release compared to non-psychopathic offenders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28959409",
"title": "James Cantor",
"section": "Section::::Views.:BDSM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "When asked by columnist Dan Savage to respond to a mother concerned about her son developing into a sexual sadist, Cantor wrote, \"It is true that psychopathic sex killers have violent sexual fantasies, but it doesn't work the other way around: Having violent sexual fantasies doesn't mean anyone is likely developing into a psychopathic sex killer. The great majority of people who enjoy violent (or violent-looking) porn are into healthy BDSM. Going just by the numbers, this is (by far) the most likely outcome….Healthy members of BDSM/kink communities are essentially the opposite of psychopaths. Although they are sexually aroused by violent (or violent-looking) images, they are very highly attuned to the feelings of their partners and very much want to take extreme care never to hurt them. Their arousal includes the idea that what they're doing is providing pleasure, even though it might not look pleasurable to vanilla folks.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36140778",
"title": "History of psychopathy",
"section": "Section::::Mid-20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "On the other hand, various analysts began to identify \"successful\" psychopaths in society, some even suggesting it was but an adaption to the social or economic mores of the age, others noting they could be hard to spot either because they were so good at hiding their lack of conscience, or because many people showed the traits to some degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47993932",
"title": "Externalizing disorders",
"section": "Section::::Psychopathic traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Individuals with psychopathic traits, including callous-unemotional (CU) traits, represent a phenomenologically and etiologically distinct group with severe externalizing problems. Psychopathic traits have been measured in children as young as two-years-old, are moderately stable, are heritable, and associated with atypical affective, cognitive, personality, and social characteristics. Individuals with psychopathic traits are at risk for poor response to treatment, however, some data suggest that parent management training interventions for youth with psychopathic traits early in development may have promise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7753430",
"title": "Psychopathy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Offending.:Violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The Federal Bureau of Investigation reports that psychopathic behavior is consistent with traits common to some serial killers, including sensation seeking, a lack of remorse or guilt, impulsivity, the need for control, and predatory behavior. It has also been found that the homicide victims of psychopathic offenders were disproportionately female in comparison to the more equitable gender distribution of victims of non-psychopathic offenders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35543022",
"title": "Callous and unemotional traits",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1516,
"text": "Due to the potential severity of antisocial and violent traits seen in adult psychopathy, research has focused on identifying the associated traits in childhood. In adult psychopathy, individuals with primarily [[affect (psychology)|affective]] and interpersonal deficits show a distinct etiology. Similarly, different subtypes of aggressive and antisocial behaviors in youth may predict distinct problem-behaviors and risk factors. There have been a number of attempts to officially designate psychopathic-like traits in antisocial youths based on the affective and interpersonal traits of psychopathy. The third edition of the \"[[DSM III|Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]\" (DSM III) divided conduct disorder into four subtypes: undersocialized-aggressive, undersocialized-nonaggressive, socialized-aggressive, and socialized-nonaggressive in an attempt to recognize the existence of psychopathic traits in children. The distinction between \"socialized\" and \"undersocialized\" children was the most pertinent in distinguishing between psychopathic-like youths. According to these definitions, \"undersocialized\" children exhibited characteristic behaviors of psychopathy, including: lack of empathy, lack of affection, and inappropriate social relationships (DSM III). This differed from \"socialized\" individuals, who were able to form healthy social attachments to others, and whose aggressive and antisocial acts typically derived from engagement in a deviant social group (e.g. youth gangs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18280830",
"title": "Dark triad",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Psychopathy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Considered the most malevolent of the dark triad, individuals who score high on psychopathy show low levels of empathy combined with high levels of impulsivity and thrill-seeking. The similarity between psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder have been noted by some researchers. Psychopathy has been found to correlate with all of the Big Five personality factors: extraversion (r = .34), agreeableness (r = −.25), conscientiousness (r = −.24), neuroticism (r = −.34) and openness (r = .24).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7o96qt
|
What problems was fascism intended to solve?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi there. There's always room for more discussion (and follow-up questions) but you might be interested in [this older answer of mine](_URL_0_) about the prelude to Mussolini's rise. [This great answer](_URL_1_) by u/Klesk_vs_Xaero is also great overview of Italy's descent into dictatorship\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Fascism aimed at fixing a score of new or recurring problems of the Italian nation – while some of those were considered defining traits of a general crisis of the liberal state, others were of course contingent, which is expected over a twenty years time span. For clarity I have chosen to begin with the pre-fascism issues that fascism attempted to find a fix for, starting right in the middle of the crisis of the liberal State.\n\nI also must say that in this Fascism wasn't really different from most governments, that sooner or later had to deal with “everything that doesn't work already” and often end up putting their hands to what was already working. I'll try to highlight those attempted fixes that had a firmer ideological root (or rather a stronger fascist tone), but the two fields mix together a lot.\n\nAlso; focusing on the weak points of the liberal state may give rise to the belief that Fascism was somehow unavoidable, a necessary consequence of the system's ailments. There is no reason to make such a statement; rather the judgement of the posterity over the liberal state has generally been more favourable than that of the contemporaries.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nThe liberal State existed, with ups and downs, from 1861 to 1922. Its trajectory was fraught with difficulties, such as the impressive backwardness of many of the Italian regions immediately after the unification, a systematic commercial deficit, wide differences in economical and social structure between north and south (average salaries varied over five times moving down from Liguria to Calabria). Despite some of these difficulties being almost insurmountable, there are good reasons to cast on the old liberal state a more indulgent look.\n\nThe view of the contemporaries was less rosy.\nThe failures of the liberal state to solve some of the more dramatic issues had led to a (some times legitimate, sometimes overly) critical view of the Government's actions; with a consistent thread of north-south polemics, that crossed the political field from “left to right” and grew to include socialists and Catholics as soon as they became relevant.\n\nBoth socialists and Catholics appealed to masses. The liberal establishment (those “left” and “right” that held control of the Nation from the Risorgimento years, until after WW2) did not. They really couldn't find a way how – and this went beyond the general difficulty for a traditional political group to survive in an age of expanded representation.\nThe liberals were – for better and worse – an aristocracy of administrators. They had grown and made their first political steps in an age when politics was the activity of a smaller minority, followed by the interest of a slightly larger minority. The man of government was not a leader, he did not inspire the people – he handled their goods (the Nation) for them, because they couldn't do so by themselves. Acknowledging this point was to them the key of the democratic process: the people understanding that they needed the politicians in the same way a sick man needs a physician, or a healthy one looks for someone to handle his finances.\n\nWith the influence of the masses on society growing, the reaction of the old liberals was either to try and turn into mass politicians (failing, as proved by the experience of A. Salandra, that largely appealed to the interventionist public during the “radiant days” that led to Italy's intervention) or to just wait and see, hoping the masses would prove themselves – well – good. When discussing the possibility of a socialist participation to his Government, Giovanni Giolitti argued that the program did not matter, that an agreement was possible with good natured men such as the socialist leader Filippo Turati. That the masses could refuse the agreement did not cross his mind; and not – this must be said – for malicious reasons; as Giolitti had been throughout his fifty years long political career one of the key proponents of expansion of suffrage and political participation. Just, his concept of political participation ended right there, where the people gave charge to the politicians. That a political system could not hold for long on such foundations was apparent – and various observers argued that was only Giolitti's mastery of the “parliamentary” institutions that held it together. Conservative liberal, Luigi Albertini, observed that *when it was the statesman that shaped the majority, that built it around himself from the most different corners, through the most tenuous pacts, grounded on every kind of transactions [...] and then he made the program, and more so established the supreme convenience not to bother with the program and bent his followers to every contradiction without even thinking of solving them [...] then the politician might do some good [...] but the corruption of the parliamentary system was getting deeper and deeper and leading to grave danger in the future. At that point it was no longer a majority government, but a personal government and the function of oversight, to which the Parliament was needed, even more than for the people's representation, was substantially non existent.*\n\n\nStill, if we look at general economical-social indicators, the Giolitti era (1901-1913) appears to have been one of remarkable success (with the most favourable estimates giving a yearly rise in industrial production over 7 points). It was also that period when the criticism or downright opposition to the liberal system became more “dramatic”, to the point of gaining the denomination of *anti-giolittismo*, that was common occurrence already at the time [and has been discussed thoroughly by E. Gentile in various works – such as *Le origini dell'ideologia fascista* and *Il mito dello stato nuovo*]. That the growth of a fascist ideology owes much to the concept, imported from Sorel and Bergson, of a “political myth” - which essentially is an irrational theme the masses could rally behind, without requiring a level of understanding that is only possible for an individual – is a key element of Gentile's analysis. And it is rewarding to look at fascism almost in musical terms, as a composition of themes, either pre-existent or new. But, first, back to reality.\n\nGiolitti's Ministry followed a tradition of extra-parliamentary parliamentarism; a praxis where the Parliament and governative action were established and sanctioned outside and independently from the Chambers. The Parliament became thus ancillary to the legislative function, that should have been its primary reason of existence. This situation was broadly acknowledged by the liberals, even those who were part of the Government groups. In the last Chamber session of 1917, liberal Giuseppe Sanarelli argued for a reform of the Chamber's regulations pointing out that the Parliament regulations *were outdated already before of the war* as they contained no preventive measure *against the undeniable, progressive disrepute of the parliamentary institutions*. *The Country had often bemoaned [the Parliament's] waste of time and the poor performance of the parliamentary engine* whereas, *even the most valuable and esteemed* of its members have been accused of *limiting their action to purely verbal manifestations*. It was therefore necessary to devise a way to *translate into practice and effective value the good will and special abilities of the Parliament members*.\n\nThe reforms *would have re-established the value of the Parliament, allowing it to work as it is its right and duty*. Furthermore these institutions would have *restrained, corrected and channelled the impetuous stream of bureaucratic imperialism*; as the Parliament had been reduced to nothing more than *the highest advisory committee for the bureaucracy* to the point where the Ministries themselves had became *delegates of the majority to the Administration*. \n\n*The Parliament still loved that Idea […] of personal and individual freedom of the government* but in fact *lack of decision power as well as excess of decision power* were not *acts of individual choice* but *chronic ailments […] of every democratic system*.\n\nAccording to Sanarelli the state of things *was responding to neither the letter nor the spirit of the constitutional chart, which established […] the existence of a legislative power, not just distinct, but superior to the executive one*. On practical ground in fact, the situation was much different as the Parliament was *content with academical dissertations over the balance [under the Statute, approval of budget was a key element of influence of the Chamber on the governments action], without ever promoting modifications or revisions* or *abstract discussions over law projects devised by the bureaucracy and promoted by the ministries*.\n\nSuch a situation had become more apparent during the war through *the relations between the organisms of military power, those of political power and those of parliamentary power*. As Giuseppe Bevione had denounced, *as far as military action was concerned, the Supreme Command had enacted an undeniable dictatorship, updating the Government only summarily* and *established a State within the State, a Government above the Government*. At the same time *relations between the Government and the Chamber had been just as week and sporadic*; *the work of the Chamber was reduced to either confirm or deny confidence to the Ministry*.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5454193",
"title": "Definitions of fascism",
"section": "Section::::By Marxists.:Clara Zetkin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "\"Fascism is the concentrated expression of the general offensive undertaken by the world bourgeoisie against the proletariat... fascism [is] an expression of the decay and disintegration of the capitalist economy and as a symptom of the bourgeois state’s dissolution. We can combat fascism only if we grasp that it rouses and sweeps along broad social masses who have lost the earlier security of their existence and with it, often, their belief in social order... It will be much easier for us to defeat Fascism if we clearly and distinctly study its nature. Hitherto there have been extremely vague ideas upon this subject not only among the large masses of the workers, but even among the revolutionary vanguard of the proletariat and the Communists... The Fascist leaders are not a small and exclusive caste; they extend deeply into wide elements of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8907680",
"title": "Palingenetic ultranationalism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "Roger Griffin argues that fascism uses the \"palingenetic myth\" to attract large masses of voters who have lost their faith in traditional politics and religion, by promising them a brighter future under fascist rule. This promise is not made exclusively by fascists: other political ideologies also incorporate some palingenetic aspects in their party programs, since politicians almost always promise to improve the situation. More radical movements often want to overthrow the old order, which has become decadent and alien to the common man. This powerful and energetic demolition of the old ways may require some form of revolution or battle, but this is represented as glorious and necessary. Such movements thus compare the (recent) past with the future, which is presented as a rebirth of society after a period of decay and misery. The palingenetic myth can also possibly stand for a return to a golden age in the country’s history, so that the past can be a guidebook to a better tomorrow, with an associated regime that superficially resembles a reactionary one. Fascism distinguishes itself by being the only ideology that focuses strongly on the revolution in its myth, or as Griffin puts it:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "544317",
"title": "Roger Griffin",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Griffin's theory of fascism suggests that a heuristically useful ideal type of its definitional core is that it is a form of palingenetic ultranationalism. In other words, it seeks, by directly mobilising popular energies or working through an elite, to eventually conquer cultural hegemony for new values, to bring about the total rebirth of the nation from its present decadence, whether the nation is conceived as a historically formed nation-state or a racially determined 'ethnos'. Conceived in these terms, fascism is an ideology that has assumed a large number of specific national permutations and several distinct organizational forms. Moreover, it is a political project that continues to evolve to this day throughout the Europeanized world, though it remains highly marginalised compared with the central place it occupied in inter-war Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65668",
"title": "Mixed economy",
"section": "Section::::Political philosophy.:Fascism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "Although fascism is primarily a political ideology that stresses the importance of cultural and social issues over economics, fascism is generally supportive of a broadly capitalistic mixed economy. Fascism supports a state interventionism into markets and private enterprise, alongside a corporatist framework referred to as the \"third position\" that ostensibly aims to be a middle-ground between socialism and capitalism by mediating labour and business disputes to promote national unity. 20th century fascist regimes in Italy and Germany adopted large public works programs to stimulate their economies, state interventionism in largely private-sector dominated economies to promote re-armament and national interests. Scholars have drawn parallels between the American New Deal and public works programs promoted by fascism, arguing that fascism similarly arose in response to the threat of socialist revolution and similarly aimed to \"save capitalism\" and private property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52875747",
"title": "Aristotle Kallis",
"section": "Section::::\"Genocide and Fascism: The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Kallis's \"Genocide and Fascism: The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe\" focuses on National Socialism as the key driver of the most radical outcome, that transformed the \"eliminationist\" policies into genocide in the service of the desired homogeneous nation-state. A review at H-Net finds, that although the author still sees parallels between fascism and Nazism, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26224103",
"title": "Fascism in Its Epoch",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Fascism is anti-Marxism which seeks to destroy the enemy by the evolvement of a radically opposed and yet related ideology and by the use of almost identical and yet typically modified methods, always, however within the unyielding framework of national self-assertion and autonomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12083679",
"title": "Economic ideology",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Fascism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "Fascism as an economic system takes the middle ground between capitalism and socialism. It promotes the pursuit of individual profit while promoting corporations through government subsidies as the primary tool of economic progress as long as their activities are in line with the goals of the state. In fascist economies, profits or gains are individualized while losses are socialized; these economies are often compared to the third way due to being heavily corporatized. Fascist economies of the mid 20th century such as Italy and Germany often used bilateral trade agreements, with heavy tariffs on imports and government subsidized exports to developing nations around the world. While economically fascism is oriented towards self-sufficiency, politically fascist countries of the mid-20th century were oriented to war and expansion; two seemingly contradictory motives. The goal of fascist nations was to create a closed economic system, self-reliant, but also ready to make war and expand. Fascist economies can then be seen as a sort of capitalist economy, with little state intervention usually in the form of business subsidies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ca43l
|
Why is it that the inside of fresh water pipes that feed houses don't need regular cleaning?
|
[
{
"answer": "They need. If you use a pipe system for 20+ years there is gonna be a lot of build up. Most of the time its not necessery bad.\nThe thing is nobody thinks about it. \n\nIn germany the situation is as the following: the main pipes up until to the house are the responsibility of the city.\nEverything after that is the one of the owner. Industrial Buildings have to get checked more often, private ones not as often.\n\nNot quite sure about the intervals though I guess it was something between 2 - 5 years.\n\nHow it is handled in America? No idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, galvanized pipes can get a buildup of calcium and magnesium from electrolytic reduction of the ions. And I suppose you might be able to get some mineral build up from very hard water, but generally the more or less constant flow of water prevents that.\nOtherwise, what would build up that would result in it needing cleaning?\nWith the lack of bacteria, and the movement of water, there should not be any real thing in the pipes to build up--other than the a fore mentioned calcium and magnesium.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do need regular service, but not many people bother. Usually if you have more than a few faucets running at once the flow will clean them out. \n\nI have opened up a pipe to a shower in the basement that only runs every once in a while and found sediment closing off more than half the pipe. \n\nWhen the water stops, then you call a plumber to replace them. You're not going to find anyone willing to swab your household pipes. You could top your water main, drain your pipes and start them again. That will mix up any sediment in them and let you know if there's an issue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are designed so that there are no blind ends or dead angles, where bacteria or deposit could build up. An example of how this failed was a case where the cooling system of a power plant had a blind end in their piping. *Legionella* bacteria found the place, made a little colony and then spread around the area with the mist from the cooling tower, infecting many people.\n\nSecond, tap water is chlorinated, even if it's pure at the source, exactly in order to avoid bacterial buildup. Small concentrations of chlorine are good enough to prevent growth, even if they can't be used for desinfection as such. A little ammonia is added, because when chlorinated, it forms more persistent nitrogen chlorides that retain the active chlorine in the water better than plain chlorine, which gives only a chlorine solution. If there's a breach of the integrity of the piping or a problem at the source, a \"shock chlorination\" is done to actually desinfect the pipes.\n\nEven so, buildup is a thing. Fortunately, much of it is inorganic, like calcium and iron salts. Because it's washed continuously with water, it attains a pseudo-steady state where it releases little material into the water. However, over time, it can build up to such a point that it affects the water pressure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add what everyone else is saying, in the United States, many water pipes are made from either copper or a plastic called PEX. Copper has shown remarkable antibacterial characteristics while PEX doesn't support bacterial growth",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "411528",
"title": "Drain cleaner",
"section": "Section::::Chemical drain cleaners.:Danger and Usage considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Moreover, because the acidic or basic drain cleaners themselves are washed down the drain, this contributes to pollution in the water supply. The heat generation can also soften plastic PVC pipes, and the pressure buildup by gas generation can cause older pipes to burst. Commercial chemical based solutions can cause corrosion and other damage to your pipes and sewer lines\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239918",
"title": "Tap water",
"section": "Section::::Potable water supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Modern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the distribution system. It is important that the clean water not be contaminated by the waste water (disposal) side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been the largest killer of humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411528",
"title": "Drain cleaner",
"section": "Section::::Hydro-mechanical drain cleaners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. I.E., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a -inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping, the vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17041543",
"title": "Patapo District",
"section": "Section::::Human Presence.:Basic Infrastructure.:Plumbing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "The majority of residents lack access to regular tap water. While the water is clean, due to the weakness of the pumps, water is only available at certain times of the day. Many residents take this time to stock up on water for the day. The households lucky enough to have regular water have installed a water tank, a massive tank usually installed on the roof of houses which fills up completely during the brief period water is available and stores it. This water tank connects with the home's plumbing system and allows for taps, toilets, and showers to have running water. Additionally, the sheer size of the tank ensures that the water won't run out before normal service is restored. Common tank brands are Rotoplas, Eternit, and Maestro. Most homes lack a boiler or another heating system, so the temperature of the water is usually cold unless it is sitting around on a tank (they heat up easily.) Bills are issued by the Municipality of Patapo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36218534",
"title": "Starch production",
"section": "Section::::Potato starch production.:Dewatering of refined starch milk and starch drying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The water which is used in starch production (dirty water) for transportation and cleaning does not have to be totally clean. That is why clarifier usage enables application of closed cycle which noticeably reduces amount of cleaning water that is needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "555732",
"title": "Plumbing fixture",
"section": "Section::::Common fixtures.:Waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Each of these plumbing fixtures has one or more water outlets and a drain. In some cases, the drain has a device that can be manipulated to block the drain to fill the basin of the fixture. Each fixture also has a \"flood rim\", or level at which water will begin to overflow. Most fixtures also have an overflow, which is a conduit for water to drain away, when the regular drain is plugged, before the water actually overflows at the flood rim level. However, water closets and showers (that are not in bathtubs) usually lack this feature because their drains normally cannot be stopped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24341799",
"title": "Integrated urban water management",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Many household cleaners contain ingredients which can’t be removed by a typical grey water filtration system. This requires an assessment of which substances will alter the quality of the grey water. Additionally, not all household appliances should be used for grey water recycling. Some should be diverted separately to sewage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9k4bp
|
what makes our ears ‘clog’ in high altitudes and what makes them pop by yawning?
|
[
{
"answer": "Im pretty sure when there’s low air pressure it messes around with how your inner ear functions and yawning sorta stretches it making it “pop”.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Air in your middle ear is at a higher pressure than the surrounding air; popping is allowing that air to equilibrate with surrounding air (via a connection to the throat).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you go from a lower altitude to a higher altitude, the ambient air pressure decreases. Because the air inside of your eardrum is semi-trapped (you can clear them) it expands as you go higher and puts pressure on the eardrum. When you yawn/chew/etc it helps open up the eustachian tubes that go from the backside of your eardrum to your throat and equalize the pressure.\n\nSource: I have 2200+ skydives and had to clear my ears a lot. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, creating a rumbling noise from within the head. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body, including arms, neck, shoulders and back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found, that, when a subject wearing earplugs yawned, a breeze is heard, caused by the flux of the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen, the pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen, or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "Section::::Brain involvement.:Involuntary expiration.:Yawning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Yawning is considered a non-respiratory gas movement. A non-respiratory gas movement is another process that moves air in and out of the lungs that don't include breathing. Yawning is a reflex that tends to disrupt the normal breathing rhythm and is believed to be contagious as well. The reason why we yawn is unknown, but some think we yawn as a way to regulate the body’s levels of O and CO. Studies done in a controlled environment with different levels of O and CO have disproved that hypothesis. Although there isn’t a concrete explanation as to why we yawn, others think people exhale as a cooling mechanism for our brains. Studies on animals have supported this idea and it is possible humans could be linked to it as well. What is known is that yawning does ventilate all the alveoli in the lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Yawning (\"oscitation\") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This \"contagious\" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1731,
"text": "Still another hypothesis suggests yawns are caused by the same chemicals (neurotransmitters) in the brain that affect emotions, mood, appetite, and other phenomena. These chemicals include serotonin, dopamine, glutamic acid, and nitric oxide. As more (or fewer) of these compounds are activated in the brain, the frequency of yawning increases. Conversely, a greater presence in the brain of opioid neurotransmitters, such as endorphins, reduces the frequency of yawning. Individuals in opioid withdrawal exhibit a greatly increased frequency of yawning. Patients taking the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Paxil (paroxetine HCl) or Celexa (citalopram) have been observed yawning more often. Excessive yawning is more common during the first three months of taking the SSRIs. Anecdotal reports by users of psilocybin mushrooms often describe a marked stimulation of yawning while inebriated, often associated with excess lacrimation (eyes producing tears) and nasal mucosal stimulation, especially while \"peaking\" (undergoing the most intense portion of the psilocybin experience). While opioids have been demonstrated to reduce this yawning and lacrimation provoked by psilocybin, it is not clear that the same pathways that induce yawning as a symptom of opioid abstinence in habituated users are the mode of action in yawning in mushroom users. While, even, opioid-dependent users of psilocybin on stable opioid therapy often report yawning and excess lacrimation while undergoing this entheogenic mushroom experience, there are no reports on mushrooms in the literature regarding habituated users experiencing other typical opioid withdrawal symptoms, such as cramping, physical pain, anxiety, gooseflesh, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "Section::::Proposed causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ca9h5
|
Imagine an empty room with no windows/doors or any point of entry and escape with just a light bulb inside and a light switch outside. What will happen to light if I open the light for 10 seconds and turn the switch off? Will the brightness remains or will fade? Why?
|
[
{
"answer": "The light will fade almost instantly. As the light strikes the wall, part of it is reflected and part of it is absorbed. The reflected light will bounce away from the wall until it hits another wall (or floor/ceiling) and then again, part of it is absorbed and part reflected. With every bounce the intensity of the remaining light decreases. And with the speed of light being very high compared to the size of an average room, there are many bounces in a short period.\n\nConsider the following, we have a room with 10 meters between two walls and a light source at one end, shining a straight beam in the direction of the other wall. All walls are made of very high quality mirrors that reflect 99% of the incoming light. How much is left of a light pulse after 1 milisecond?\n\nIn 1 milisecond, light travels 300,000 meter, so that's 30,000 bounces. Each bounce reduces the intensity by 1%, so that means we have a fraction of 0.99^30,000 remaining: Approximately 10^-131. So after 1 milisecond, a thousandth of a second, any light will be completely gone. And that is in the scenario with very high quality mirrors. With regular walls only reflecting a small part of the incoming light, the intensity will become too small to detect in microseconds or even less. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The visible light will almost instantly, as explained by /u/rannasha, but the energy will remain within such a closed system in the form of heat. If it were a 60 Watt light bulb that you were lighting, then it would instead act more as a 60 Watt heater. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59118097",
"title": "Edificio del Seguro Médico, Havana",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.:Residential module.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The width of the rooms is further subdivided into three sections of and this module determines the width of doors, windows and passages between rooms within the apartment. The wooden windows have two sets of nine movable slats that can be independently controlled to modulate the natural light in the room, they can be completely closed to make the room totally dark, even in bright days. The pattern of the windows and door and the bearing walls (9.40 meters apart) are expressed on the Calle N elevation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6022695",
"title": "The Lost Room",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:The Room.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Any time the door is closed with the key outside the room, the Room \"resets\": everything that is not an Object disappears, including people. Multiple people can enter the room at once, but they must exit the room when the Key does. When the Room resets, any Objects in the Room will return to their original position at the time of the Event. A benefit of this is that an Object enclosed within something else, such as a safe, may be retrieved by leaving it inside and resetting the room. This can also be use to distinguish real Objects from fakes, since fakes will disappear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6022695",
"title": "The Lost Room",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:The Room.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Objects, when outside the Room, possess special powers and are indestructible. When inside the Room, Objects lose their special properties and can be destroyed. According to the Occupant, a new Object will take the destroyed Object's place, a phenomenon he refers to as the Law of Conservation of Objects. The Occupant states that there are many Rooms, and so any non-Object left in the Room is not erased, but exists in a different instance of the Room. The reset, in turn, represents a confluence of these Rooms, allowing the Occupant (the only Object with consciousness) to retrieve things lost during a reset, provided he has a clear idea of what he wishes to retrieve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48729052",
"title": "Caesars Palace",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.:Interior.:Caesars Forum and gambling facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "One author noted that due to the combination of darkness and enclosure of the gambling room, never being lit with light from the outside, it \"disorients the occupant in space and time\", and one \"loses track of where he is and when it is\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "433827",
"title": "Pepper's ghost",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "When the lights are bright in the main room and dark in the blue room, the reflected image cannot be seen. When the lighting in the blue room is increased, often with the main room lights dimming to make the effect more pronounced, the reflection becomes visible and the objects within the blue room seem to appear in thin air. A common variation uses two blue rooms, one behind the glass and one to the side, which can be switched visible or invisible by alternating the lighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234273",
"title": "Separation of concerns",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Common examples include separating a space into rooms, so that activity in one room does not affect people in other rooms, and keeping the stove on one circuit and the lights on another, so that overload by the stove does not turn the lights off. The example with rooms shows encapsulation, where information inside one room, such as how messy it is, is not available to the other rooms, except through the interface, which is the door. The example with circuits demonstrates that activity inside one module, which is a circuit with consumers of electricity attached, does not affect activity in a different module, so each module is not concerned with what happens in the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5146334",
"title": "Over illumination",
"section": "Section::::Energy and economic considerations.:Leaving lights turned on.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Likewise, not switching off the lights when exiting a room will also cause higher energy consumption. Some people avoid frequently turning off CFL bulbs because they think that doing so will cause them to burn out prematurely. While this is true to a certain extent, the US Department of Energy recommends that 15 minutes is an appropriate time frame. If someone plans to leave the room for less than 15 minutes, then the light should be left on. If the room will be unoccupied for more than 15 minutes, then the light should be switched off. Another concern is that turning on a fluorescent bulb consumes large amounts of energy. While fluorescent bulbs do need more energy to turn on, the amount of electricity consumed is equal to only a few seconds of normal operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8y3rcf
|
why are surgical gowns, masks, and gloves green or blue?
|
[
{
"answer": "They used to be white. There's a sort of 'surgeon legend' about the green being used because it was easier to see in a surgical field (brightly lit + whites = too bright). But then also that green/blue is actually opposite red and makes it easier to see blood. But I think it's kind of one of those \"was written down somewhere once\" and became cannon type of things. Whether it's true or not. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was always told it was so you wouldn't notice the reverse color image that's been burned into your retinas after staring at a brightly lit, blood red surgical field for hours when you glance away from the field. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115187",
"title": "Academic dress of the University of Nottingham",
"section": "Section::::Gowns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "All gowns, other than the dress gowns of doctors, are made from black material. The dress gowns of Doctors of Philosophy and other doctors of this level (such as DBA, DArch and EdD) are made in claret, while those of higher doctors are made from scarlet cloth. For this purpose, the degree of Doctor of Medicine was originally classed as a higher doctorate. In recent years, however, Nottingham Doctors of Medicine have been observed in the claret-coloured gown instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19099472",
"title": "Scrubs (clothing)",
"section": "Section::::History of surgical attire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "By the 1970s, surgical attire had largely reached its modern state—a short-sleeve V-necked shirt and drawstring pants or a short-sleeve calf-length dress, made of green cotton or cotton/polyester blend. Over this was worn a tie-back or bouffant-style cloth cap, a gauze or synthetic textile mask, a cloth or synthetic surgical gown, latex gloves, and supportive closed-toe shoes. This uniform was originally known as \"surgical greens\" because of its color, but came to be called \"scrubs\" because it was worn in a \"scrubbed\" environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17599355",
"title": "White",
"section": "Section::::Associations and symbolism.:Cleanliness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "White is the color most associated with cleanliness. Objects which are expected to be clean, such as refrigerators and dishes, toilets and sinks, bed linen and towels, are traditionally white. White was the traditional color of the coats of doctors, nurses, scientists and laboratory technicians, though nowadays a pale blue or green is often used. White is also the color most often worn by chefs, bakers, and butchers, and the color of the aprons of waiters in French restaurants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1506024",
"title": "Crystal violet",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Engineering students in Canada use gentian violet to dye their skin and jackets, a tradition started in honor of Naval Engineers whose purple armbands would leave their skin dyed after countless days spent in the boiler rooms. Another story being that purple was the colour of the Titanic's engineers who stayed behind to delay the sinking of the ship\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19099472",
"title": "Scrubs (clothing)",
"section": "Section::::History of surgical attire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Originally, operating room attire was white to emphasize cleanliness. However, the combination of bright operating lights and an all-white environment led to eye strain for the surgeon and staff. By the 1950s and 1960s, most hospitals had abandoned white operating room apparel in favor of various shades of green, which provided a high-contrast environment, reduced eye fatigue, and made bright red blood splashes less conspicuous. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6937185",
"title": "Cosmetic camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Cosmetic camouflage creams were first developed by plastic surgeons during World War II to cover the massive burns received by fighter pilots. Nowadays, men, women and children can use cosmetic camouflage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55614",
"title": "Nurse uniform",
"section": "Section::::Nurse uniforms vs. scrubs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "In many parts of the world, nurses continue to wear a uniform consisting of a dress, pinafore and cap. The traditional white uniform for male nursing staff is now going out of fashion, except for student nurses. A tunic of either the dental surgeon style or a V-neck with a collar is very often used. The colours vary with grade, area of work, and hospital; however, the male equivalent of a sister (that is, charge nurse) tend to be shades of blue or dark green: often, this is the only colour to be recognised by the public as signifying a person in authority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32eegb
|
In medieval times, how long could a knight physically fight in a battle? The swords were heavy, the armor was heavy. Nutrition was poor. Could they last more than 30 minutes?
|
[
{
"answer": "This doesn't directly answer the question, but I think you may be overestimating the weight carried/worn by a knight.\n\nThe average sword weighed somewhere around 3lbs, an M16 with full ammo weighs about 9lbs.\n\nA suit of full-plate would generally weigh less than 60lbs (sometimes significantly less), such armor was also custom fitted and designed to be relatively easy to wear with little strain. A full set of modern combat gear tops 60lbs, and is \"one-size fits most\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Medieval times' is to big a timeframe to answer really. In early medieval period 'knights' would be nobility. While knowledge of nutrition was poor most nobility had a strong diet of meat. While poor in vitamins it's pretty great for getting muscle. They also had less plate in this time and relied more on mail and gambersons. For mail I want to point out it's worn on the hips with a belt and not hanging from the shoulders. That really helps with the strain. \n\nIn the later period most 'knights' were in fact man at arms, professional warriors not of noble birth. While plate was dominant at that time plate is form fitted to the wearer. It's not heavier then what a modern infantry man wears. \n\n > \"In Afghanistan, soldiers routinely carry loads of 130 to 150 pounds for three-day missions, said Jim Stone, acting director of the soldier requirements division at the Army Infantry Center at Fort Benning, Ga. In Iraq, where patrols are more likely to use vehicles, loads range from 60 to nearly 100 pounds, he said.\"\n\n_URL_0_\nThat's double a full set of plate. Of course you still got a weapon to wield. But most weapons are pretty light, less then a modern rifle and perfectly balanced. A well balanced weapon isn't exhausting to wield. \n\nHowever full plate wearers did have one problem to overcome, heat. Wearing undercloths, a gamberson, some mail and plate was a pretty hot combination so I see over-heating being more of a problem then weight. \n\nAs for cleaving, you don't cleave with a sword. Against a user in plate you'll be stabbing with thin blades or crushing with a mace. For a mace you'll be keeping momentum and not ending your swing while the stabbing will be quick. Getting knocked down was a death sentence, beside that getting up wasn't that hard. Just laying there opened so many openings for a stab with a dagger.\n\nWhile yes wielding a melee weapon is more tiring on the arms I doubt combat was that much more physically demanding back then for a 'knight'. Modern soldiers carry around lots of gear, a M249 weights a lot, a WW2 browning MG even more. Preferably a duel/fight lasts as little moves as possible, you don't keep hitting the other guy till one drops like a boxing match. But I can't give you an exact timeframe.\n\nThis might interest you, while not being a direct answer it does go on about the weight of armor and the comfort of wearing it.\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35757696",
"title": "Deadliest Warrior (season 1)",
"section": "Section::::Episode 4: Pirate vs. Knight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to the given statistics, the Knight had a size advantage of 1 inch and 10 lbs; roughly equal by the standards of Deadliest Warrior matchups. However, the Knight's gear was 50 lbs heavier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28173937",
"title": "List of Deadliest Warrior episodes",
"section": "Section::::Season 1 Deadliest Warrior.:Episode 4: Pirate vs. Knight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to the given statistics, the Knight had a size advantage of 1 inch and 10 lbs; roughly equal by the standards of Deadliest Warrior matchups. However, the Knight's gear was 50 lbs heavier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2146448",
"title": "Pauldron",
"section": "Section::::Jousting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Typical tournament armor for jousting would be padded with cloth to avoid damage from an opponent's lance, and prevent to metal of the pauldron from scraping against the breastplate. This protective cloth pad would extend about half an inch from the rolled edge of the armor, and it was secured in place with rivets along the entire edge. In battle, this cloth protection could not be too thick, else the knight would have no arm mobility for battle. However, in a safer tournament setting, mobility was less important compared to safety, thus leading to heavier padding. In fact, knights in this era could be padded to the point where they look \"more wide than tall\", as compared with contemporary depictions of jousting armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22389653",
"title": "Warfare in Medieval Poland",
"section": "Section::::Human sources and tactics.:In the 14th and 15th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The weapon of the knight changed a little: swords were longer, some with long cruciform hilts with grips over 15 cm in length (providing room for two hands), straight double-edged blades often over 90 cm in length, and weigh typically between 1.2 and 1.4 kg (so called longswords or bastards). On the contrary armour transformed significantly. Mail was gradually enriched with iron plates, which covered the most of endangered parts of the body, and in the beginning of 15th century was replaced with full plate armour. Worth to know that the armour was covered with outer garment of tunic form, open at the sides and so usually belted, usually emblazoned with coats of arms, known as tabard. Uncomfortable great helms went out of use, replaced with first visored bascinets, typically fitted with an aventail and hinged visor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "Section::::Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "By the end of the 15th century, knights were becoming obsolete as countries started creating their own professional armies that were quicker to train, cheaper and easier to mobilize. The advancement of high-powered firearms eradicated the use of plate armour, as the time it took to train soldiers with guns was much less compared to that of the knight. The cost of equipment was also significantly lower, and guns had a reasonable chance to easily penetrate a knight's armour. In the 14th century the use of infantrymen armed with pikes and fighting in close formation also proved effective against heavy cavalry, such as during the Battle of Nancy, when Charles the Bold and his armoured cavalry were decimated by Swiss pikemen. As the feudal system came to an end, lords saw no further use of knights. Many landowners found the duties of knighthood too expensive and so contented themselves with the use of squires. Mercenaries also became an economic alternative to knights when conflicts arose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493913",
"title": "Plate armour",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance.:Jousting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Specialised jousting armour produced in the late 15th to 16th century was heavier, and could weigh as much as 50 kg, as it was not intended for free combat, it did not need to permit free movement, the only limiting factor being the maximum weight that could be carried by a warhorse of the period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14945290",
"title": "Age of Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "BULLET::::- Heavy Knights are the slowest and most heavily armoured of all classes. Using either a large battleaxe (for the Agathia Knights) or a maul (for the Mason Order), heavy knights are able to deal massive amounts of damage, often killing their opponents in a single hit. The high damage and armour make this class particularly attractive to newcomers, who may not feel comfortable with the faster weapons. The heavy knight lacks a shield, making him vulnerable to archers. It is the only class that has access to the hard-hitting throwing axe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ol96w
|
If I were to travel ten light years going the speed of light, would it seem like an instant to me, but ten years for an outside observer?
|
[
{
"answer": "You *cannot* travel *at* the speed of light, so this question becomes pseudo-scientific.\n\nBut let's say you were travelling *really* close to the speed of light. Like *really, really* close. Like 99.999...999% with a billion, billion 9s after the decimal place. Then yes, what you say is correct. To you, the journey would be nearly instantaneous. To me, standing on the Earth, the journey took you a little more than ten years (assuming you travelled 10 light-years). \n\nBut, if I could measure your clock during your journey, I would notice that your clock has come to a near standstill. You and I would both agree that, to you, the journey was nearly instantaneous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question has already been answered, but I'll try to answer it in a slightly different way.\n\nImagine that all objects, including yourself, have a certain amount of energy. Objects can use this energy for two things: move through space and move through time. The faster you move through space, the less energy there is left to move through time. Once you travel at the speed of light, there is no more energy to move through time. Time is no longer a thing when you're traveling at the speed of light.\n\nLet's just go through the question you asked piece by piece. A light year is the distance traveled by light in one year. When will this year pass from your point of view? It doesn't. It's undefined. This means that for your point of view, it's simply not a thing. You just can't travel at the speed of light. This is because you have a mass. An outside observer would experience time, so let's take the perspective of the outside observer now. When you travel 10 light years from the outside observer's perspective, it will indeed take 10 years. This is common sense, it's just the definition of a light year. As soon as your perspective is introduced though, everything stops working because time is no longer a thing.\n\nThis whole thing about energy being used to move through space and time is not exactly correct, but it's not far away from the truth either. It's not energy that we're talking about here. But the basic principle is the same. Light under this sort of analogy can travel at the speed of light because it doesn't have mass. The energy used to move is zero. Kimetic energy is (m*v^2 )/2, so any velocity requires 0 energy. Again, this is not the way things actually are. They're even more interesting in reality, but it's a good representation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Possible distance away from Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1631,
"text": "Since one might not travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can never travel further from the Earth than 40 light-years if the traveler is active between the age of 20 and 60. A traveler would then never be able to reach more than the very few star systems which exist within the limit of 20–40 light-years from the Earth. This is a mistaken conclusion: because of time dilation, the traveler can travel thousands of light-years during their 40 active years. If the spaceship accelerates at a constant 1 g (in its own changing frame of reference), it will, after 354 days, reach speeds a little under the speed of light (for an observer on Earth), and time dilation will increase their lifespan to thousands of Earth years, seen from the reference system of the Solar System, but the traveler's subjective lifespan will not thereby change. If the traveler returns to the Earth, they will land thousands of years into the Earth's future. Their speed will not be seen as higher than the speed of light by observers on Earth, and the traveler will not measure their speed as being higher than the speed of light, but will see a length contraction of the universe in their direction of travel. And as the traveler turns around to return, the Earth will seem to experience much more time than the traveler does. So, while their (ordinary) coordinate speed cannot exceed \"c\", their proper speed (distance as seen by Earth divided by their proper time) can be much greater than \"c\". This is seen in statistical studies of muons traveling much further than \"c\" times their half-life (at rest), if traveling close to \"c\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22459",
"title": "Ole Rømer",
"section": "Section::::Rømer and the speed of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second. The modern value is 8 minutes and 19 seconds, and a speed of 299,792.458 km/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49045552",
"title": "The Final Last of the Ultimate End",
"section": "Section::::The Final Last of the Ultimate End.:Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "A man who is a pilot of an experimental project, accelerating a spaceship to the speed of light, reaches extremely far future, due to accidental time dilation. He realizes that the time he is arrived at is the heat death of the universe, which means that he cannot see any person, any living creature, any planet, any star, any reactive atom, nor any active thing what so ever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24896900",
"title": "Rømer's determination of the speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Later measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre (1749–1822) reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.:How far can one travel from the Earth?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Since one can not travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can never travel farther from Earth than 40 light years if the traveler is active between the ages of 20 and 60. One would easily think that a traveler would never be able to reach more than the very few solar systems which exist within the limit of 20–40 light years from the earth. But that would be a mistaken conclusion. Because of time dilation, a hypothetical spaceship can travel thousands of light years during the pilot's 40 active years. If a spaceship could be built that accelerates at a constant 1\"g\", it will, after a little less than a year, be travelling at almost the speed of light as seen from Earth. This is described by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381391",
"title": "Intergalactic travel",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "According to the current understanding of physics, an object within space-time cannot exceed the speed of light, which means an attempt to travel to any other galaxy would be a journey of millions of earth years via conventional flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381391",
"title": "Intergalactic travel",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Manned travel at a speed not close to the speed of light, would require either that we overcome our own mortality with technologies like radical life extension or traveling with a generation ship. If traveling at a speed closer to the speed of light, time dilation would allow intergalactic travel in a timespan of decades of on-ship time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7mgcxp
|
How does pilot wave theory account for quantum fluctuations?
|
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{
"answer": "The guided particle doesn't move through space, it moves through the space of possible positions of all particles, which instead of just 3 dimensions has 3N dimensions, where N is the number of particles. The positions of particles in a measurement device is included in this, so the question of what kinds of measurements are possible is also determined by the motions of the guided particle, which is in turn determined by the pilot wave. \n\nThe pilot wave is just the total wavefunction of all the particles and is *unaffected* by the guided particle, so all the usual aspects of quantum mechanics are already there, including the uncertainty principle. The only role of the guided particle is to bounce around like a ball in a pachinko machine, with the odds of outcomes determined by the pilot wave but only one of them realized by the path of the guided particle. So ultimately the probability of measuring a particle's position or momentum in a given place is determined by the wavefunction, and the statistics of those measurement results must obey the uncertainty principle. ",
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},
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"answer": "In pilot wave theory the whole physics is determined by the pilot wave, which has all the features the regular wave functions have. The particles guided by the waves just tell you which result of a measurement you are supposed to interpret as real (the one with a particle in it, basically).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33426",
"title": "Wave–particle duality",
"section": "Section::::Alternative views.:1. Both-particle-and-wave view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The pilot wave model, originally developed by Louis de Broglie and further developed by David Bohm into the hidden variable theory proposes that there is no duality, but rather a system exhibits both particle properties and wave properties simultaneously, and particles are guided, in a deterministic fashion, by the pilot wave (or its \"quantum potential\"), which will direct them to areas of constructive interference in preference to areas of destructive interference. This idea is held by a significant minority within the physics community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1190887",
"title": "Pilot wave theory",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical foundations.:Mathematical formulation for a single particle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Ordinary quantum mechanics and pilot wave theory are based on the same partial differential equation. The main difference is that in ordinary quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation is connected to reality by the Born postulate, which states that the probability density of the particle's position is given by formula_28. Pilot wave theory considers the guidance equation to be the fundamental law, and sees the Born rule as a derived concept.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54717",
"title": "De Broglie–Bohm theory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hydrodynamic quantum analogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 1349,
"text": "Pioneering experiments on hydrodynamical analogs of quantum mechanics beginning with the work of Couder and Fort (2006) have shown that macroscopic classical pilot-waves can exhibit characteristics previously thought to be restricted to the quantum realm. Hydrodynamic pilot-wave analogs have been able to duplicate the double slit experiment, tunneling, quantized orbits, and numerous other quantum phenomena which have led to a resurgence in interest in pilot wave theories. Coulder and Fort note in their 2006 paper that pilot-waves are nonlinear dissipative systems sustained by external forces. A dissipative system is characterized by the spontaneous appearance of symmetry breaking (anisotropy) and the formation of complex, sometimes chaotic or emergent, dynamics where interacting fields can exhibit long range correlations. Stochastic electrodynamics (SED) is an extension of the de Broglie–Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics, with the electromagnetic zero-point field (ZPF) playing a central role as the guiding pilot-wave. Modern approaches to SED, like those proposed by the group around late Gerhard Grössing, among others, consider wave and particle-like quantum effects as well-coordinated emergent systems. These emergent systems are the result of speculated and calculated sub-quantum interactions with the zero-point field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33426",
"title": "Wave–particle duality",
"section": "Section::::History.:de Broglie–Bohm theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "De Broglie himself had proposed a pilot wave construct to explain the observed wave-particle duality. In this view, each particle has a well-defined position and momentum, but is guided by a wave function derived from Schrödinger's equation. The pilot wave theory was initially rejected because it generated non-local effects when applied to systems involving more than one particle. Non-locality, however, soon became established as an integral feature of quantum theory and David Bohm extended de Broglie's model to explicitly include it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54717",
"title": "De Broglie–Bohm theory",
"section": "Section::::Extensions.:Relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Pilot-wave theory is explicitly nonlocal, which is in ostensible conflict with special relativity. Various extensions of \"Bohm-like\" mechanics exist that attempt to resolve this problem. Bohm himself in 1953 presented an extension of the theory satisfying the Dirac equation for a single particle. However, this was not extensible to the many-particle case because it used an absolute time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54717",
"title": "De Broglie–Bohm theory",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Ontology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Thus, the ontology of pilot-wave theory contains as the trajectory formula_15 we know from classical mechanics, as the wavefunction formula_16 of quantum theory. So, at every moment of time there exists not only a wavefunction, but also a well-defined configuration of the whole universe (i.e., the system as defined by the boundary conditions used in solving the Schrödinger equation). The correspondence to our experiences is made by the identification of the configuration of our brain with some part of the configuration of the whole universe formula_15, as in classical mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38370599",
"title": "Quantum vacuum thruster",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1447,
"text": "The 2016 paper by White highlights that stochastic electrodynamics (SED) allows for a pilot-wave interpretation of quantum mechanics. Pilot-wave interpretations of quantum mechanics are a family of deterministic nonlocal theories distinct from other more mainstream interpretations such as the Copenhagen interpretation and Everett's many-worlds interpretation. Pioneering experiments by Couder and Fort beginning in 2006 have shown that macroscopic classical pilot-waves can exhibit characteristics previously thought to be restricted to the quantum realm. Hydrodynamic pilot-wave analogs have been able to duplicate the double slit experiment, tunneling, quantized orbits, and numerous other quantum phenomena and as such pilot-wave theories are experiencing a resurgence in interest. Coulder and Fort note in their 2006 paper that pilot-waves are nonlinear dissipative systems sustained by external forces. A dissipative system is characterized by the spontaneous appearance of symmetry breaking (anisotropy) and the formation of complex, sometimes chaotic or emergent, dynamics where interacting fields can exhibit long range correlations. In SED the zero point field (ZPF) plays the role of the pilot wave that guides real particles on their way. Modern approaches to SED consider wave and particle-like quantum effects as well-coordinated emergent systems that are the result of speculated sub-quantum interactions with the zero-point field\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bud7iq
|
AskScience AMA Series: I am Jamil Zaki, professor of psychology at Stanford University and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness, which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days. AMA!
|
[
{
"answer": "Excited to read your book! I work in early years education in conflict/post-conflict zones and am constantly looking for ways to include empathy-building in the classroom.\n\nWhat do you think it will take for educational policy to reflect the need for empathy in our curricula?",
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"answer": "Which country do you think must be reaching highest on empathy scale, and why ?",
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},
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"answer": "Are there empathy building exercises that have tangible impact in practical life ? Do such exercises really work or are just scoffed off by adult participants ?",
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"answer": "How far are we from empathy enhancing technology? And is the research done at your lab conducive to such tech?",
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"answer": "Three fast ones for you:\n\n1. How does one measure empathy from year to year etc.?\n2. Would you define empathy as somewhat of a muscle?\n3. What do you think is the reasoning for the decline?",
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"answer": "Do you feel that Sam Harris’ work on free will and the lack of it promotes empathy within the society or does the religious side have a better argument for empathy?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "What scale did you use to measure empathy, and how sure are you that empathy is what was really being measured?",
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{
"answer": "How does empathy fatigue play into your research? Being that we're so connected with the world and other peoples lives, how do we stay empathic without burnout?",
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"answer": "What are your thoughts on the emerging field of \"neuropsychoanalysis\"?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I completely agree with you that empathy is in short supply. That said, how does empathy integrate with game theory, specifically bad-faith participantsbir \"defectors\". It seems there is a fairly consistent trend towards authoritarianism globally. Is empathy a useful tool to address this?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Thank you for taking the time for do this AMA professor. My main questions are about external influences on the decline in global empathy. \n\n- Is empathy declining more rapidly in individualistic countries like the US or in collectivist countries like Japan? \n\n- Do you think people are becoming too quick to attribute things together which results in quick assumptions of a person, that can lead to a decline of empathy? \n\n- This sort of leads to the idea of the whole current #cancelled movement where actors/celebrities are called out for behaviour by accusers. One example is the Kevin Hart and Oscars fiasco. What do you think about that ordeal? \n\nThank you for this opportunity to answer some questions :)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "What does it mean for your research and efforts if the \"empathy defect\" isn't causing the problems that appear to be linked to a lack of empathy? How conclusive are these studies that claim empathy has been declining? How do you ensure that you aren't just aiming at targets that have materialized from sociological hand waving?",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Hi Dr Zaki. Can you tell us what an “optimal” level of empathy is, how to build empathy in ourselves, and also whether the concept of being “overly empathetic” exists? Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How can someone become devoid of empathy on purpose?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Comparing massive urban areas, to smaller urban areas, to rural areas: how does population density affect empathy and, if we can know pertinent information about this, do we have a duty to plan our population density accordingly to maximize empathy?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You seem to be the antagonist to Paul Bloom. How would you argue against his position? Or do you just have different definitions of the word empathy? Sometimes he says \"empathy\" but all I hear is \"emotionally irrational\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks so much. I have two questions. \n1. How do you recommend finding a balance between giving empathy and honoring your own pain? I know they're not exactly in conflict but many of the conversations I see devolve into people comparing someone else's pain to their own instead of each connecting with the other. \n\n\n2. How can we build empathy in professional settings where it is required but hard maintain? I know many healthcare professionals go into the field specifically for empathic reasons but get burned out. Alternatively, many of those in the criminal justice system (lawyers, prison guards, law enforcement) are not deaf to empathy but it is not a focus of the job and many would claim it is antithetical to the jobs purpose.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "What sort of interesting conversations have you had with your colleague Robert Sapolsky on the overlaps between your research and his work on conflict and stress? \n\nWould you say that primate communities are more or less empathetic than human communities? Are our instincts supporting empathy or do we develop empathy in spite of our instincts?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In your studies, have you seen a relationship between a lack of empathy and the feeling of isolation/loneliness? I wonder if the more disconnected people feel in their communities, the less likely they are to relate to those around them. Thank you!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi Dr. Zaki! Can you tell us why sometimes people who can empathise with a community living in distress, in a far away place, find it hard to empathise with people close to them?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While it can be easy to empathize with people we can agree with, it can be very hard to empathize with people we deeply disagree with, such as our political opponents. How do you think we can increase empathy for people who have dramatically different political beliefs? Can empathy be used to decrease political polarization in our hyper-polarized times?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do people naturally end up with empathy, how do they learn to recognize these things without being told?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is empathy \"activated\" through experience with people of various backgrounds or is empathy better off being taught to someone (as opposed to experience)? Or is it more complex than that?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe that the fact empathy is in short supply, and that isolation and tribalism are rampant, are symptoms of a bigger problem. Parents today, \"want to raise their kids to have it better than they did.\" However, I don't think this parenting style is working. Discipline, hard work, and being lead by example, are all important life lessons that go missing under the new style of parenting. When you take away these life lessons, kids get conditioned the wrong way -- and you're pointing out the results. What are your thoughts on this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why do you think people nowadays are less emphatic than before? How does the internet affect this? Do you think that when we encounter the same issue too many times, we are being less sensitive about it, unless we got to experience them first hand",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is your view on psychopaths and their lack of empathy? Do you think they can be taught or programmed to feel a level of empathy for others? Especially regarding the difference between hot and cold empathy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are your thoughts on Dr. Fritz Breithaupt's assertions that some of our current problems with terrorism and incels may actually stem from excessive empathy rather than a deficit and empathy, but excessive empathy in favor only of one's own group, to the exclusion of empathy for others? He has talked about this and some of his recent books and in a recent NPR interview.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "What about someone who had too much empathy?\nI've been told that. At first I thought they were crazy, but now I've started to notice that I do try to think of and please everyone, to the point I often forget myself.\nI enjoy understanding unique positions, and unique people, and I really enjoy seeing people happy. But what do I do if it has taken over my own identity?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you think we can do to bridge the political divide here in America before we devolve into a civil war?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is it so crucial that we practice empathy? And in what ways, if any, (scientific or otherwise) do you think that being empathetic leads to personal gain?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you so much for doing this AMA! I’m a huge fan of your work.\n\nHas there ever been a moment in your life where you felt a strong sense of Empathy for an aspiring researcher, because they were making a similar mistake you might have made?\n\nWhat can the average person do in their life to increase their Empathy? Alternatively, what small things can people do to help someone else change their Empathy towards others?\n\nYou probably get this question a lot (I’m sorry): What advice would you give young people who are aspiring to have careers in psychology research?\n\nThank you so much!! :)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "First off, thank you so much for doing this important work. I've witness a dramatic decline in empathy among those I know, both online and IRL, and people in general, and I've become extremely despondent about it all.\n\nWhenever I've attempted to discuss this general lack of empathy, especially as it concerns tribalism and \"the Other\", I find that my friends and acquaintances immediately become defensive. They typically immediately fire back that \"Tribalism only exists among \\[the other side - usually \"the Right\" from their perspective\\]\", and have told me if I think tribalism exists anywhere else, I'm just believing \"their\" right-wing / racist / nationalist propaganda. This is clearly a) false, and b) part of the exact problem I've described, but they refuse to see the forest for the trees.\n\nHow can a layperson like myself push back against these stereotypes and change minds with legit information? Can you recommend any credible and (relatively) easy-to-digest published material to help regular people overcome the echo chambers and see that this is a problem affecting all of us?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks for doing this AMA. \n\nMy friend asks, is there a relationship between emotion regulation and empathy. If there is, is emotional regulation capable of enhancing or diminishing empathy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would you advocate for teaching empathy skills to criminals? In what way do you think this should be implemented?\n\nThank you for your time!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's the most important advice you can give an early-career cognitive neuroscientists trying his best to improve science and increase our body of knowledge? Thank you!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is there some study which describes the relation between empathy and religiousness? i.e are religious people more/less likely to empathize as compared to non-religious people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What has been the recent paradigm shifts with regards to advances in neurosciences and its effects on psychology as a field? Has the \"hard science\" of biochemistry been connected to the \"softer ones\"?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Which religion had the highest levels of empathy? My money would be on Buddhism, but I'm curious to see if this would be correct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of my questions you've already answered but I would like to say that I really enjoyed this post and your insight. I am currently studying for my bachelor's in psychology and addiction counseling. Empathy building skills has been a huge part. I certainly believe there has been a large decline of general empathy in the world, its discouraging at times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do we help the unempathetic want to change? For example, schools are rife with bullies and ‘mean girl cliques’. What would motivate those young people to feel empathy for the less fortunate/popular/athletic and cease their hurtful behavior?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is there evidence that high levels of empathy has become more of a negative trait than a positive one? I.e empathetic people being more stressed by the news, experience more suffering, etc?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kindness is great but empathy and kindness are such vague concepts and it's very individualistic. It doesn't work on systemic problems or collectively like feminism or socialism. Did you ever consider these concerns to your work ? I guess we should all be empathy warriors in the war for kindness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What line of work would be somewhat profitable for someone who's very empathetic? I don't mean caregiving and similar. I want to do good for my fellow humans, but also make a decent buck along the way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does killing your enemy with kindness really work?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are there people with no empathy but not actual *sociopaths* if so what would be the signs of that?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is there a thing like being overempathic? Sometimes to de-stress myself i imagine myself doing random acts of kindness to people. For instance talking a depressed individual away from suicidal thoughts or sacrificing myself to save a little girl. I also feel dissatisfied while enjoying things for myself (excluding things that can only be enjoyed by a person) say like eating a snack. I feel if i hadn't shared it i really haven't eaten it (although the hunger does go). I always sacrifice myself when an opportunity can be given to someone else. I try to relate to people so much either in fiction or real-life just to understand how they feel. An ordinary commute will see me observe little details of persons for that. I'm confused because at times i know it shouldnt concern me and at times i feel i might be unfair to myself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are religious people more likely to be less empathetic than the average person?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you for doing this AMA. I'm highly interested in this subject, though I am just now beginning to comprehend it and have never really read about it in depth. I'll surely listen to your book. That said, and this is a really silly question, why are there two versions of your book on Audible, both equal in length and almost equal in price?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How does apathy and empathy work together? Can they coexist?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's your take on the abuse of empathy by social media for monetary gains? You mention burnout due to bad news but most bad news are intentionally exaggerated because outrage gives more views, to the point that some people have a worldview completely manufactured by bogus information, and I'm taking the whole ideological spectrum here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Happy birthday to Jamil’s mom!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi Dr. Zaki! I attended SANS this year and really loved your presentation (congrats on the award, by the way). I don't really have a question (outside of, uh, can I post-doc in your lab in a couple years??), just wanted to say hi and I'll be purchasing your book! Best of luck with your future endeavors!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Of the people I know with Aspergers, some tend to exhibit extreme empathy while others struggle with an extreme lack of empathy. \nIs it common that people with Aspergers tend to fall into polar extremes?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in an industry that we are taught empathy in a way, at least we are asked to think about it. From personal experience and speaking to my colleagues, very hard to emphasis when the person we are trying to be empathetic with is unknown to us, when there wast personal experience in anything we need to involve empathy. We need a strong personal will to be able scratch a surface of empathy, so if someone is genuinely emphasising with you, don’t take it for granted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can you describe your understanding of the closely related concept of boundaries, specifically healthy boundaries, how they are determined empirically, and how they correlate with empathic function? Can you give an empirically based definition for empathy?\n\nAlso can you discuss how unhealthy empathy (codependence) works in contrast with healthy empathy, and it's relation to pathological narcissism vs. healthy narcissism? Please give as much/many empirical definitions and standards for your answer as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I haven't read any comments yet, I just want to say that I love the idea of this book and will be buying it.\nAs an RBT and (former) student of Psychology, I believe empathy and kindness are the most important skills to share with others on a daily basis",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've struggled since having graduated with my masters to make sense of my experience with my supervisors. It seems to be a generally unaddressed problem but to most who have gone to grad school it seems most have some negative experiences (work looking at depression in grad students seems to support this). After reading your AMA part of it clicked in me. I didn't feel like my supervisor really related or empathized, which struck me as a bit strange since he was once upon a time a grad student. I don't think this is isolated to this specific situation (though maybe it's more precarious because the rest of your future can heavily depend on a supervisor because of recommendation letters, etc) but is probably true for any situation having similar power dynamics. I was wondering if you had any insight into how power dynamics and empathy affect one another?\n\n\nThann you for the very insightful AMA.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fantastic! I can’t wait to read this. I did spend some time on the farm, myself. I have complex ptsd and I’ve been studying rapists and the brain, to try and require my brain. Do you have any suggestions on other books I should read to help me with my studies and help with my ptsd? I’m currently finishing a book by Vander kolk, ‘Body keeps the score. I have been stuck at home for a few years now and couldn’t finish school, one day I will. Do you need any scut monkeys to volunteer?\n\nEdit: rewire my brain*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you think your research into empathy building can be used to help rehabilitate those convicted of sex crimes (or other violent crimes)? I remember reading that a major personality component behind rapists and murders was a profound lack of empathy for their victims. Would you have any advice on how a rehabilitative organization would implement that?\n\nHappy bday to your mom!!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I try to empathize with everyone, but this becomes controversial when empathy is directed towards terrible criminals or people who have done horrible things. In fact, in these cases we as a society have decided that these people do not deserve empathy. Even the concept of mildly defending someone who has done something terrible is looked down upon. What are your thoughts on this situation? Is the restriction of our empathetic capabilities when it comes to the law a good thing?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why do psychologists tend to be liberal? Aren’t Christians (and other conservatives as well) also drawn to the prospect of helping people suffering from mental issues?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi Jamil! Personally I believe in the fact that one of the biggest things we as humans have lost due to our rapid and dynamic lifestyle resulting from an exponential progress as a species over the past century is empathy.\n\nSo my question to you is, which of the major developments or milestones achieved by us according to you has contributed to it the most.\n\nAlso, to what extent do you think this lack of empathy in humans are being exploited by people like politicians in a political climate which seems dangerously divisive, and can it be stopped? Or is it too late?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hello Dr. Zaki, I am so excited to buy your book! Please tell me, how do you nurture empathy for yourself?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Do people with less empathy tend to be more financially successful than people with high empathy?\n2. How do empathy towards people and environmentally friendly behaviour correlate?\n3. Are people with a lower amount of empathy correlated to a certain tendency towards a political spectrum (left/right)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reading Lakoff and putting things in a political perspective, he might say that someone shopping and seeing a homeless person might make themselves feel better by reasoning that the person perhaps made some bad choices and the wealth ramp is there to teach us to do the right things. A war for kindness will have to break that linguistic frame. How?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your name translates to \"Pretty Smart\" and that's just some good RNG",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How would you suggest breeding empathy in couples? Learning to be there for each other or detect emotional need or pain?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What effect does social media have on young people's ability to socially connect, and their ability to develop empathy and kindness? Also, what did you think of Matthew Lieberman's book Social: Why Our Brains are Wired to Connect?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow! Now I need to read your book. I’m an ER Nurse and I would say I practice empathy deeply every day I work. I think it is what makes a good nurse, great. I’ve considered researching it further for a possible PhD, put simply I think nursing is the practice/job of empathy. Thanks for giving me more to consider. I look forward to reading your book. Have you spoken to/worked with any nurses?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does it go over empathy and its role in social justice?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi Jamil, your work is certainly interesting and appreciated. Well done.\n\nLiving in Christchurch, New Zealand we have just witnessed sad events which have really shocked\n\nand asked us to reassess how empathetic we really are. Jacinda Ardern- prime minister, has been noble in tasking everyone to rethink\n\nour empathy and become more skillful in applying it.\n\nAll the best\n\nA.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey!\nWhat an interesting book. I may be too late but here are a few questions:\n\nIs empathy self-reported? \n\nDo you find that people over or underestimate their level of empathy?\n\nIs there a danger of being too empathetic? This is mostly related to the term “empaths” (not sure if this is recognized in the scientific community). Either way— I would love to hear your thoughts on it. \n\nThanks for doing this!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When talking about children specifically the first 3 years of life. What interactions with children would you say build empathy? Is it crucial for them to begin early, would it effect the way they build relationships if they don't? I ask because my 18 month old seems highly unbothered with any kind of empathy (someone is crying, or someone gets hurt) when I watch him in these situations it seems he realizes what's going on and removes himself from the room altogether if he can. I was told it may be a sign of autism but docs say they don't believe he is autistic because he shows no other signs... should I worry? What can I do to help him develop?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a parent how can we foster kindness and empathy in our young children. What reward system would most accurately incentivize kindness and empathic behaviors?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In case you are still taking questions! \n\nHave you found that there is an age in which populations have a pattern of reaching \"peak empathy\"? To rephrase, do people younger than 18, or in their mid 20s, or in their late 80s, etc. experience more/less empathy than other age groups?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17849783",
"title": "Genes to Cognition Project",
"section": "Section::::Information Sharing.:G2Conline: Educational Web Site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "G2Conline is an interactive educational website that provides extensive background information on key topics in neuroscience and brain disorders. There are many video clips of interviews with scientists, including Nobel laureates James Watson and Eric Kandel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1582764",
"title": "Association for Psychological Science",
"section": "Section::::Public outreach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "APS publicizes psychology research in an effort to increase public understanding of psychological science. The APS website serves as a news portal for psychological science, distilling research results for a general audience, while maintaining a scientific approach to the field. In addition, the site houses the archive for the blogs \"We're Only Human\" and \"Full Frontal Psychology\" by science writer Wray Herbert. A version of his blogs appeared on \"The Huffington Post\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "33224838",
"title": "Michael McCullough (psychologist)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Michael McCullough (born July 27, 1969) is an American psychologist and author. He received a PhD from Virginia Commonwealth University in 1995 and an honorary doctorate from the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) in 2015. He is a Professor of Psychology at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, FL, where he directs the Evolution and Human Behavior Laboratory. He studies the functions of human behavior and mental processes using the conceptual tools of evolutionary psychology and cognitive science. His research on revenge, gratitude, forgiveness, religion, and self-control has led him to be widely cited as an expert in both the scientific literature and media in general. He is the author of \"Beyond Revenge: The Evolution of the Forgiveness Instinct\". He is currently writing a book on the evolution and cultural history of human generosity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20824873",
"title": "Alison Gopnik",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Alison Gopnik (born June 16, 1955) is an American professor of psychology and affiliate professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. She is known for her work in the areas of cognitive and language development, specializing in the effect of language on thought, the development of a theory of mind, and causal learning. Her writing on psychology and cognitive science has appeared in \"Science\", \"Scientific American\", \"The Times Literary Supplement\", \"The New York Review of Books\", \"The New York Times\", \"New Scientist\", \"Slate\" and others. Her body of work also includes four books and over 100 journal articles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59765682",
"title": "Moran Cerf",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Following his time at Caltech Professor Cerf has moved to NYU where he spent three years studying what makes content engaging and looking for ways to translate his neuroscience research to a broader audience. It is the time there that he attributes to his interest in finding ways to understand how to translate brain research to applications and the need to work together with the business world to communicate science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39754637",
"title": "Gerald Koocher",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Gerald Paul Koocher (born March 13, 1947) is an American psychologist and past president of the American Psychological Association (APA). His interests include ethics, clinical child psychology and the study of scientific misconduct. He is Dean Emeritus Simmons College and also holds an academic appointment at Harvard Medical School. Koocher has over 300 publications including 16 books and has edited three scholarly journals including \"Ethics & Behavior\" which he founded. Koocher was mentioned in the Hoffman Report, an APA investigation into psychologists' involvement in interrogation at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5935561",
"title": "Institute for the Psychological Sciences",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The Institute for the Psychological Sciences (IPS) is a graduate school of psychology and an integral part of Divine Mercy University (DMU) in Arlington, Virginia. The institute was founded in 1999 with the mission of basing the scientific study of psychology on a Catholic understanding of the person, marriage, and the family, as well as being an international center for scholarship and professional training. It seeks to educate new generations of psychologists and mental health professionals, as well as open new areas of research for psychological theories that explore the relationship between psychology and the Catholic-Christian understanding of the human person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19thn7
|
Does Anybody have any information on the "Phantom Divisions" of the United States Army during World War II? (Cross Posted From r/Military)
|
[
{
"answer": "Could they be similar in role to the [Ghost Army](_URL_0_)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5591046",
"title": "List of formations of the United States Army during World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "This is a list of formations of the United States Army during the Second World War. Many of these formations still exist today, though many by different designations. Included are formations that were placed on rolls, but never organized, as well as \"phantom\" formations used in the Allied Operation Quicksilver deception of 1944—these are marked accordingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1014230",
"title": "Sgt. Rock",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "\"The Lost Battalion \"also revives other famous World War II–era DC characters, such as The Haunted Tank, and \"Navajo Ace\" Johnny Cloud, and the story itself is mainly narrated by combat journalist William J. Kilroy, and German General Friedrich Wiese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3437395",
"title": "19th Division (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "During the Second World War the division remained inactive. However, it saw service of a kind as a \"phantom division\" as part of Allied deception measures. It was assigned to SHAEF for use in Operation Fortitude South, but was never actually utilized during that endeavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5619925",
"title": "VMFA-531",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 531 (VMFA-531) was a United States Marine Corps fighter squadron consisting of F/A-18 Hornets. Known as the \"Grey Ghosts”, the squadron participated in action during World War II and the Vietnam War. They were decommissioned on March 27, 1992.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5307081",
"title": "The Lost Battalion (1919 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The Lost Battalion is a 1919 American silent war film about units of the 77th Infantry Division (the \"Lost Battalion\") penetrating deep into the Argonne Forest of France during World War I. The film was directed by Burton L. King and features Major Charles Whittlesey and a number of actual soldiers from the 77th who portrayed themselves in the film. It was released July 2, 1919 in North America. The film was remade in 2001 by Russell Mulcahy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15873825",
"title": "Lost Battalion (World War I)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "The Lost Battalion is the name given to the nine companies of the United States 77th Division, roughly 554 men, isolated by German forces during World War I after an American attack in the Argonne Forest in October 1918. Roughly 197 were killed in action and approximately 150 missing or taken prisoner before the 194 remaining men were rescued. They were led by Major Charles White Whittlesey. On 2 October, the 77th launched an attack into the Argonne, under the belief that French forces were supporting their left flank and two American units including the 92nd Infantry Division were supporting their right. Within the 77th sector some units including Whittlesey's 1-308th Infantry were making significant headway. Unknown to Whittlesey's unit, the units to their left and right had been stalled. Without this knowledge, the units that would become known as the Lost Battalion moved beyond the rest of the Allied line and found themselves surrounded by German forces. For the next six days, suffering heavy losses, the men of the Lost Battalion and the American units desperate to relieve them would fight an intense battle in the Argonne Forest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "441242",
"title": "9th Armored Division (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The 9th Armored Division (the \"Phantom Division\") was an armored division of the United States Army during World War II. In honor of their World War II service, the 9th was officially nicknamed the \"Phantom Division.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qrwya
|
why does it seem easier to get stuck in a comfort zone as an adult?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the old days, life changed very slowly. The way the world worked when you were 5 years old was the same when you were 75 years old. So by the time you had reached adulthood you pretty much had figured out what there was to figure out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393633",
"title": "Comfort zone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "A comfort zone is a psychological state in which things feel familiar to a person and they are at ease and (perceive they are) in control of their environment, experiencing low levels of anxiety and stress. In this zone, a steady level of performance is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343419",
"title": "Affectional bond",
"section": "Section::::Attachment through the lifespan.:Attachment style.:Ambivalent-insecure attachment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Ambivalent attachment is characterized by a strong wariness towards strangers. Children get extremely uncomfortable when they do not have a noticeable face in the room. When the parent returns, the child receives no comfort from their return and is inconsolable. In childhood, these children tend to act \"clingy\" towards their parents and tend to heavily rely on others. In adulthood, they have difficulty with trust and feel that their partner does not exhibit the same feelings towards them. Insecurely attached adults tend to act cold and experience many break-ups throughout their life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "225761",
"title": "Proxemics",
"section": "Section::::Human distances.:Interpersonal distance.:Horizontal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Entering somebody's personal space is normally an indication of familiarity and sometimes intimacy. However, in modern society, especially in crowded urban communities, it can be difficult to maintain personal space, for example when in a crowded train, elevator or street. Many people find such physical proximity to be psychologically disturbing and uncomfortable, though it is accepted as a fact of modern life. In an impersonal, crowded situation, eye contact tends to be avoided. Even in a crowded place, preserving personal space is important, and intimate and sexual contact, such as frotteurism and groping, is unacceptable physical contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224495",
"title": "Physical intimacy",
"section": "Section::::Personal space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger or anxiety when somebody encroaches on their personal space without consent. Entering somebody's personal space is normally an indication of familiarity and intimacy. However, in modern society, especially in crowded urban communities, it is at times difficult to maintain personal space, for example, in a crowded train, elevator or street. Many people find the physical proximity within crowded spaces to be psychologically disturbing and uncomfortable. In an impersonal crowded situation, eye contact tends to be avoided. Even in a crowded place, preserving personal space is important. Non-consensual intimate and sexual contact, such as frotteurism and groping, are unacceptable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55813696",
"title": "Rental family service",
"section": "Section::::Service examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Although the phenomenon of social isolation (hikikomori) is well-publicized in Japan and some families have hired rental friends to break that isolation, other clients are not withdrawn but are merely seeking a relationship not defined by societal expectations, i.e., a sympathetic or confessional ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343419",
"title": "Affectional bond",
"section": "Section::::Attachment through the lifespan.:Attachment style.:Avoidant-insecure attachment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Infants and children with avoidant attachment tend to show no preference between their caregivers and the stranger. They do not actively seek much comfort of contact from their parents and usually tend to avoid them. In adulthood, those with avoidant attachment have difficulty maintaining relationships due to the inability to display emotions. They are more likely to engage in casual sex and think about other people or things while they are having sex. Finally, they are not likely to be supportive when other people are in stressful situations and have an inability to look at ideas in another person's perspective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21972885",
"title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Children are afraid to sleep on their own, to be on their own, even to go to the toilet alone. They feel that their parents cannot protect them. Bed wetting is a common manifestation of their anxiety and insecurity. Their parents are similarly anxious and frustrated. It is even difficult to speak of PTSD, for as long as the rockets fall the trauma is renewed daily; we are not even in a post-trauma stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12ztqx
|
Constellations disappearing:
|
[
{
"answer": "Stars rarely just go missing, but the constellations will change over time due to stars moving at different velocities. Here's [what some of them will look like in 50,000 years](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If it's a particularly bright or hazy night, sometimes the faintest stars in constellations can be hard to see. There are 4 stars in Ursa Minor which are of magnitudes 3, 4, 5, 6, (I think those are the numbers, I'm not certain) and based on how many of those you can see, you can estimate the limiting visual magnitude on that night.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586903",
"title": "Officina Typographica",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The constellation appeared in later star atlases through the 19th century but was rarely used by the end of the century; Richard Hinckley Allen noted its most recent use had been in 1878 in Father Angelo Secchi's planisphere, but stated \"it is seldom found in the maps of our day.\". The stars were later absorbed into northern Puppis, and remained permanently there after the setting of the constellation boundaries in 1928.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4030730",
"title": "Former constellations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Some of the northern sky's former constellations were placed in the less populated regions between the traditional brighter constellations just to fill gaps. In the southern skies, new constellations were often created from about the 15th century by voyagers who began journeying south of the equator. European countries like England, France, the Netherlands, German or Italian states, etc., often supported and popularised their own constellation outlines. In some cases, different constellations occupied overlapping areas and included the same stars. These former constellations are often found in older books, star charts or star catalogues. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1449829",
"title": "Uranometria",
"section": "Section::::The charts in \"Uranometria\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Each of the constellations' stars are overlain on an engraved image of the subject of the constellation. For reasons unknown, many of the human constellations are engraved as figures seen from behind whereas they had traditionally been rendered as facing the Earth. This oddity led to some confusion in the literal meanings of certain star names (e.g. the origins of several named stars refer specifically to \"right shoulder\" and the like, which would be incorrect given \"Uranometria's\" illustrations).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5267",
"title": "Constellation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations per se but are used by observers to navigate the night sky. Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation. Examples of asterisms include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus and the False Cross split between the southern constellations Carina and Vela, or Venus' Mirror in the constellation of Orion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33295044",
"title": "Constellations (Miró)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Constellations is a series of 23 small paintings on paper, initiated by Joan Miró in 1939 in Varengeville-sur-Mer and completed in 1941 between Mallorca and Mont-roig del Camp. The Fundació Joan Miró preserves a work of this series and \"The Morning Star,\" one of the most important pieces of the series. The painter gave to his wife and she later donated to the Foundation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1585855",
"title": "Honores Friderici",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The constellation was taken up by some cartographers and not by others, but was increasingly ignored from the latter half of the 19th century, and is no longer in use. Most of it lies within the borders of modern Andromeda, with parts in Cassiopeia, Cepheus and Pegasus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31772",
"title": "Ursa Major",
"section": "Section::::Mythology.:Greco-Roman tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In ancient times the name of the constellation was Helike, (\"turning\"), because it turns around the Pole. In Book Two of Lucan it is called Parrhasian Helice, since Callisto came from Parrhasia in Arcadia, where the story is set. The Odyssey notes that it is the sole constellation that never sinks below the horizon and \"bathes in the Ocean's waves,\" so it is used as a celestial reference point for navigation. It is also called the \"Wain.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a0s2ct
|
Why did Britian use the bolt action Lee-Enfield as their primary battle rifle when repeating technology (M1 Garand, Gewehr 41, etc) was already developed and working?
|
[
{
"answer": "hey, sorry for the very late answer, i hope i don't break any rules by digging up old unanswered questions.\n\nTo answer this question you have to understand how the adoption of a self loading rifle would have worked in britain in the 1930's. \n\nTo get a new rifle adopted, someone in the board ordnance has to be persuaded to the idea of mass issuing a self loading rifle to the rank and file of the British army. Already we are fighting an uphill battle for the following reasons.\n\n > A very limited amount of choice in rifles\n\n halfway the 1930's there was a very limited amount of options for a self loading rifle. If we exclude all designs that aren't able to fire full power .303(the British standard munition of the time)or other full power rifle rounds we are left with weird enfield conversions and unproven prototypes(most of which they aren't even aware). \nThe belgian design ( the later fn49) and french design(the later mas49) were still secret and incomplete at this time too. \nThere is the pederson with a toggle lock, which causes problems in itself. And he zh29, familie of the zb-26(the gun the bren was designed on), but it also has problems that make it unsuited for mass adoption.\nThe most realistic options would be the then avs36(later svt40) and the m1 Garand.\nBoth those rifles would be patented so just copying them would not be an option. Lincensed production is very expensive and thus not really an option. Britain also still has a large arms production industry at this time, so they would design it themselves most likely.\n\n > .303 british\n\n.303 is an obsolescent round at this time, it underperformed compared to other cartridges of it's time and was expected to be replaced in the 1910's with .276 enfield, but testing showed some problems with the munition and ww1 halted this change completely.\nThe problem with .303 is that it is a rimmed cartridge , this causes issues when designing magazines and feed systems as there is a possibility to get the rims of the rounds caught on each other and causing so called 'rimlock'. Fully rimmed cartridges are fine for belt feds, but are very undesired for magazine fed solutions. There are ways to minimize rimlock, but no sane person would design a brand new mass issued main infantry rifle in .303(unless really desperate)\n\nBut changing to another caliber is not really an option at this time, the British empire has a massive stockpile of weapons and ammunition from ww1, and re-barreling existing vickers and enfields and producing all the new ammo is something that the british empire does not want to do in the economic depression of the 30's. They also just adopted the bren in.303 so .303 was there to stay.\n\n > Massive stockpiles of enfields\n\nLike is said in my last paragraph, the British empire has an absolute massive stock pile of enfields of various types in their armories. Most of them were converted to the latest patern or were in the proces of being converted. Building a new self loading rifle and spare parts, and then producing enough for the whole armed forces, takes a lot of time and money, both of which britain didn't want to spend on this. \n\n > Doctrine and tradition\n\nThe British army had a well established infantry doctrine, and the enfield was an important part of it. Those guys loved their enfields, changing to a self loading rifle would require changing doctrine and military tradition, something generals at the time wouldn't have been keen on. \n\nThe British military command took years to remove the magazine cutoff from the enfield, a feature that was almost never used.But some people clinged to it for some odd reason, changing their mind about enfields would be even harder.\n\nAnd we have to be honest here, a self loading rifle is better than a bolt-action, but the self loading rifle you would get at this point would not be a massive improvement. Add to this all the loss of experience with the platform and the gains would be fairly limited.\nAdditionally they would have to rewrite manuals , retrain soldiers, change the logistics as they would undoubtedly use more ammo and so on. These things all take a lot of time. \n\n\nSo if we take all of this together, and we place our selfs in the shoes of the British person at the board of ordnance.\nWe would have to do the following to adopt a selfloading rifle in the 30's :\n\nFirstly we have to design it in Britain because there aren't any real viable designs on the market, and use another cartridge as .303. Which we do not want to do at this time, and if we designed it with .303, we would have to spend time and money preventing problems caused by the cartridge.\n\nThen we have to pass military trials and probably refine the design, then probably do trials again(with the refined rifle).\nThen we have to convince even more generals and the rest of the board of ordnance that this self loading rifle is so much better than their tried and trusted enfields, and that their budget should not be spent on other things like more bren's, vickers, tanks, ... .\n\nAfter all of that we have to refine the design for mass production(not always the case but prototypes are not mass production friendly most of the time.), and tool up one or several factories, creating jigs, tools, milling machines... .\nAnd the military command has to rewrite arms doctrine, and formulate a new manual of arms for the rifle, and so on.\n\nAfter all of that we are probably in the same boat as france, russia, poland and belgium, they started development fairly early, hit some snags and before they could produce any meaningful number of rifles, ww2 had started.\n\nAdopting a self loading rifle during the war is even worse, after dunkirk the british needed to rearm a very large part of their army. They needed to start cranking out rifles, submachine guns, bren's, tanks, ships,aircraft,..., by the millions. The massive undertaking of designing a new rifle and retooling factories at that time is all but impossible.\n\nThe USA was the only country to field a self loading rifle as their standard infantry rifle in ww2, they did not face many of the problems European nations faced for developing a new self loading rifle. And even then it took garand years to get his design right, and for production to ramp up.\n \nAs for the g41, that rifle entered the scene when the war had already started and had some major flaws in itself. Most notably using the bang system to trap gas, instead of a hole in the barrel. Therefor it was never issued in any large numbers.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "149051",
"title": "M1 Garand",
"section": "Section::::History.:Service use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The British Army looked at the M1 as a possible replacement for its bolt-action Lee–Enfield No.1 Mk III, but it was rejected when rigorous testing suggested that it was an unreliable weapon in muddy conditions. However, surplus M1 rifles were provided as foreign aid to American allies; including South Korea, West Germany, Italy, Japan, Denmark, Greece, Turkey, Iran, South Vietnam, the Philippines, etc. Most Garands shipped to allied nations were predominantly manufactured by International Harvester Corporation during the period of 1953–56, and second from Springfield Armory from all periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144484",
"title": "Lee–Enfield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The Lee–Enfield is a bolt-action, magazine-fed, repeating rifle that served as the main firearm used by the military forces of the British Empire and Commonwealth during the first half of the 20th century. It was the British Army's standard rifle from its official adoption in 1895 until 1957. The WWI versions are often referred to as the \"SMLE\", which is short for the common \"Short, Magazine Lee–Enfield\" variant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39186",
"title": "Semi-automatic rifle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gas-operated rifles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nation's bolt-action rifle as the standard-issue infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375767",
"title": "Semi-automatic firearm",
"section": "Section::::Early history (1885–1945).:Notable gas-operated rifles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nation's bolt-action rifle as the standard-issue infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "94166",
"title": "Bolt action",
"section": "Section::::Major bolt-action systems.:Turn-bolt.:Mauser.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "The Mauser bolt action system is based on 19th century Mauser bolt action rifle designs and was finalized in the Gewehr 98 designed by Paul Mauser. It is the most common bolt action system in the world, being in use in nearly all modern hunting rifles and the majority of military bolt action rifles until the middle of the 20th century. The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee–Enfield due to two locking lugs just behind the bolt head which make it better able to handle higher pressure cartridges (i.e. magnum cartridges). The 8×68mm S and 9.3×64mm Brenneke magnum rifle cartridge \"families\" were designed for the Mauser M 98 bolt action. A novel safety feature was the introduction of a third locking lug present at the rear of the bolt that normally did not lock the bolt, since it would introduce asymmetrical locking forces. The Mauser system features \"cock on opening\", meaning the upward rotation of the bolt when the rifle is opened cocks the action. A drawback of the Mauser M 98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily. Many Mauser M 98-inspired derivatives feature technical alterations, such as omitting the third safety locking lug, to simplify production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1058690",
"title": "Lee–Metford",
"section": "Section::::Replacement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "In British service the Lee–Metford was also upgraded to the standards of later rifle patterns (e.g. to charger loading and Short Rifle, the SMLE pattern), though the barrel was almost always switched to one with Enfield pattern rifling. The Lee–Metford was produced commercially and used by civilian target shooters until the outbreak of World War I, as it was considered to be inherently more accurate than the Enfield pattern of rifling. In this context, barrels and boltheads could be replaced as frequently as the owner wished, or could afford. It remained a reserve arm in many parts of the British Empire into WWII, even being issued to the New Zealand Home Guard and the Australian Volunteer Defence Corps until more modern rifles could be obtained. The Lee–Metford is still in ceremonial use with the Atholl Highlanders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144484",
"title": "Lee–Enfield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1308,
"text": "A redesign of the Lee–Metford (adopted by the British Army in 1888), the Lee–Enfield superseded the earlier Martini–Henry, Martini–Enfield, and Lee–Metford rifles. It featured a ten-round box magazine which was loaded with the .303 British cartridge manually from the top, either one round at a time or by means of five-round chargers. The Lee–Enfield was the standard issue weapon to rifle companies of the British Army and other Commonwealth nations in both the First and Second World Wars (these Commonwealth nations included Australia, New Zealand, Canada, India and South Africa, among others). Although officially replaced in the UK with the L1A1 SLR in 1957, it remained in widespread British service until the early/mid-1960s and the 7.62 mm L42A1 sniper variant remained in service until the 1990s. As a standard-issue infantry rifle, it is still found in service in the armed forces of some Commonwealth nations, notably with the Bangladesh Police, which makes it the second longest-serving military bolt-action rifle still in official service, after the Mosin–Nagant. The Canadian Rangers unit still use Enfield rifles, with plans to replace the weapons sometime in 2017–2018 with the new Sako-designed Colt Canada C19. Total production of all Lee–Enfields is estimated at over 17 million rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nvxvz
|
conservation of mass says matter can't be created nor destroyed. do we have any theory of how this fundamental law was originally ignored to create the big bang?
|
[
{
"answer": "The original question not entirely accurate. Mass/energy (they are the same thing) cannot be created or destroyed, but mass *can* be turned into energy, and vice versa. \n\nNuclear reactions attain their vast energy outputs by converting a small (but non-trivial) amount of mass into energy. Even chemical reactions are theorized to do the same, but obviously a far smaller amount. In both cases, the total mass/energy remains the same before and after the reaction occurs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The original question not entirely accurate. Mass/energy (they are the same thing) cannot be created or destroyed, but mass *can* be turned into energy, and vice versa. \n\nNuclear reactions attain their vast energy outputs by converting a small (but non-trivial) amount of mass into energy. Even chemical reactions are theorized to do the same, but obviously a far smaller amount. In both cases, the total mass/energy remains the same before and after the reaction occurs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51173419",
"title": "List of metaphor-based metaheuristics",
"section": "Section::::Algorithms.:Mass and Energy Balances Algorithm (Biyanto 2018).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Mass and Energy Balances is a fundamental \"laws of physics\" states that mass can neither be produced nor destroyed. It is only conserved. Equally fundamental is the law of conservation of energy. Although energy can change in form, it can not be created or destroyed also. The beauty of this algorithm is the capability to reach the global optimum solution by simultaneously work either \"minimize and maximize searching method\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Of discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "An early form of the idea of conservation of mass is the notion that \"Nothing comes from nothing\" in Ancient Greek philosophy, which can be found in Empedocles (approx. 4th century BC): \"For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed.\" and Epicurus (3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that \"the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The law implies that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form. For example, in chemical reactions, the mass of the chemical components before the reaction is equal to the mass of the components after the reaction. Thus, during any chemical reaction and low-energy thermodynamic processes in an isolated system, the total mass of the reactants, or starting materials, must be equal to the mass of the products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Chemical laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "BULLET::::- Law of conservation of mass continues to be conserved in isolated systems, even in modern physics. However, special relativity shows that due to mass–energy equivalence, whenever non-material \"energy\" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear chemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244629",
"title": "Scientific law",
"section": "Section::::Laws of physics.:Conservation laws.:Conservation and symmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "BULLET::::- Conservation of mass was the first law of this type to be understood, since most macroscopic physical processes involving masses, for example collisions of massive particles or fluid flow, provide the apparent belief that mass is conserved. Mass conservation was observed to be true for all chemical reactions. In general this is only approximative, because with the advent of relativity and experiments in nuclear and particle physics: mass can be transformed into energy and vice versa, so mass is not always conserved, but part of the more general conservation of mass-energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.:Fast-moving objects and systems of objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Just as the relativistic mass of an isolated system is conserved through time, so also is its invariant mass.This property allows the conservation of all types of mass in systems, and also conservation of all types of mass in reactions where matter is destroyed (annihilated), leaving behind the energy that was associated with it (which is now in non-material form, rather than material form). Matter may appear and disappear in various reactions, but mass and energy are both unchanged in this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
el8qip
|
The Norse people were shown to be capable raiders, especially in the British Isles. The Anglo-Saxons despite divided were socially and militarily organised, why did they, or others, never seek or attempt to attack Scandinavia?
|
[
{
"answer": "I afraid that I cannot offer a single definitive answer to 'why X didn't Y' type question of OP. Instead I'll make some corrections to OP's premise below. \n\nFirst of all, there was no known unified large-scale kingdom in Scandinavia before the middle of the 10th century (until the rise of the Jelling dynasty in Denmark), possibly except for the kingdom of the Godfred family in its southernmost part (Southern Denmark) in the early 9th century. Three Nordic medieval kingdoms, that is to say, Denmark, Norway and Sweden have primarily been political products since the last decades of the first millennium. In other words, it was not so likely that the majority of the Norse raiders in the middle to late 9th century were under the direct influence of one of such rulers in the unified kingdom, though some Frankish rulers might have misunderstood so that they tried to negotiate the ruler of 'the Danes' to deal with the onslaughts of the raiders mostly in vain. \n\nApart from the apparent problem, navigation durability of the fleet of any non-Scandinavian power at that time from their homeland to Scandinavia (that I personally have much doubt), to annihilate or to conclude a treaty with one or two polities (petty kingdoms) in Scandinavia around 900 to stop raiding would not have eliminated the threat of Norse raiders' invasion since there were probably much more polities remained than the fleet could possibly handle. \n\nAnd yes, there were indeed some attempt of non-Scandinavian European powers, especially some German rulers, to invade the southernmost part of Viking Age Denmark in the 10th century, as I illustrated in [The Danes or Vikings from later Denmark would often raid the Frankish Empire and later what would become the Holy Roman Empire. How were they so successful and how did the Danes avoid being conquered by the big powers?](_URL_0_). I suppose that main force of such German invasions comprised of cavalry and infantry, not the fleet, as long as attested in narrative sources and based on the location of the battlefield (Danevirke, the palisade built by Danish rulers). \n\nOn the other hand, I should also point out the fact that not all the Norse raiders didn't probably directly came to the British Isles from Scandinavia. Many Viking war bands were active around the British Isles as well as the English Channel in the middle of the 9th century, and now researchers suppose that they kept 'stayed' in this area for more than a few years, and sometimes took shelter in one of 'their' new political centers nearby, such as Dublin in Ireland or Rouen in Normandy, or further, York in Northern England, instead of Scandinavia. Then, targeting one of these 'diaspora' polities rather than distant petty kingdoms in Scandinavia would be much more realistic and successful tactic against the Norse raiders, and some local rulers actually did so (note that the Norse ruler was once expelled from Dublin in the early 10th century (from 902 to 917)). \n\nReferences: \n\n* Brink, Stefan & Neil Price (eds.). *The Viking World*. London: Routledge, 2008. \n* Garipzanow, Ildar H. 'Frontier Identities: Carolingian Frontier and the Gens Danorum'. In: *Franks, Northmen, and Slavs: Identities and State Formation in Early Medieval Europe*, ed. Id., Patrick Geary & Przemyslaw Urbancyzk, pp. 113-43. Turnhout: Brepols, 2008.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Medieval conquerors.:Vikings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Almost by definition, opponents of the Vikings were ill-prepared to fight a force that struck at will, with no warning. European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response and would naturally suffer the most to Viking raiders. Viking raiders always had the option to fall back in the face of a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases in what is now Sweden, Denmark, Norway and their Atlantic colonies. As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the \"Great Heathen Army\" that ravaged Anglo-Saxon England in the 9th century. In time, the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58662839",
"title": "Viking Age in Estonia",
"section": "Section::::Transition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "With the rise of centralized authority along with a bolstering of coastal defense in the areas exposed to Vikings, Viking raids became more risky and less profitable. With the growing presence of Christianity and the rise of kings and a quasi-feudal system in Scandinavia, these raids ceased entirely. By the 11th century, the Scandinavians are frequently chronicled as clashing with the pirates from the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, which would ultimately lead to German, Danish and Swedish participation in the Northern crusades and the Scandinavian conquest of Estonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Medieval conquerors.:Vikings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The Vikings were a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks. Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time, the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training. Unlike other raiders, the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe. During the Viking age, their expeditions, frequently combining raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish empire, the British Isles, the Baltic region, Russia, and both Muslim and Christian Iberia. Many served as mercenaries, and the famed Varangian Guard, serving the Emperor of Constantinople, was drawn principally of Scandinavian warriors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12446",
"title": "Germanic peoples",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-migration ethnogeneses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1321,
"text": "Perhaps the final incursions by Germanic people which altered in some ways the ethnographic map of Europe was made by the Vikings. Between the 8th and 11th centuries, these Scandinavian/Norse traders and pirates ravaged most of north and central Europe as well as the British Isles, spreading eastwards as far as Russia and into Byzantium. While their initial exploits were generally raids for plunder, they later settled and mixed with the indigenous people of Europe, which resulted in both conquest and colonization. Other examples of assimilation during the Viking Age include the Norse, who settled in Normandy along the French Atlantic coast, and the societal elite in medieval Russia; among whom, many were the descendants of Slavified Norsemen (a theory contested by some Slavic scholars in the former Soviet Union, who named it the \"Normanist theory\"). Known for their unique ships, there is evidence of the Viking presence all over mainland Europe, as no lands with navigable waters or coastlines escaped their pillaging. Vast territories in eastern England were overrun and occupied by the Vikings and the Danish King, Canute, eventually succeeded to the English crown. Archeological remains on North America even exist which give evidence to the dynamism and territorial ambitions of these Germanic warriors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Medieval conquerors.:Vikings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "At that point, the Scandinavians had entered their medieval period and consolidated their kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. This period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest. The resurgence of centralized authority throughout Europe limited opportunities for traditional raiding expeditions in the West, whilst the Christianisation of the Scandinavian kingdoms themselves encouraged them to direct their attacks against the still predominantly pagan regions of the eastern Baltic. The Scandinavians started adapting more continental European ways, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power – the \"Viking\" clinker-built warship was used in war until the 14th century at least. However, developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the advantage the Scandinavian countries had previously enjoyed at sea, whilst castle building throughout frustrated and eventually ended Viking raids. Natural trading and diplomatic links between Scandinavia and Continental Europe ensured that the Scandinavians kept up to date with continental developments in warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60417",
"title": "Battle of Maldon",
"section": "Section::::The poem \"The Battle of Maldon\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Norse invaders and Norse raiders differed in purpose. The forces engaged by the Anglo-Saxon were raiding, or (in Old Norse) \"\"í víking\"\", to gather loot, rather than to occupy land for settlement. Therefore, if Byrhtnoth's forces had kept the Vikings off by guarding the causeway or by paying them off, Olaf would likely have sailed farther up the river or along the coast, and raided elsewhere. As a man with troops and weapons, it might be that Byrhtnoth had to allow the Vikings ashore to protect others. The poem may, therefore, represent the work of what has been termed the \"monastic party\" in Ethelred's court, which advocated a military response, rather than tribute, to all Norse attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344148",
"title": "History of English",
"section": "Section::::Old English.:Scandinavian influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Vikings from modern-day Norway and Denmark began to raid parts of Britain from the late 8th century onward. In 865, however, a major invasion was launched by what the Anglo-Saxons called the Great Heathen Army, which eventually brought large parts of northern and eastern England (the Danelaw) under Scandinavian control. Most of these areas were retaken by the English under Edward the Elder in the early 10th century, although York and Northumbria were not permanently regained until the death of Eric Bloodaxe in 954. Scandinavian raids resumed in the late 10th century during the reign of Æthelred the Unready, and Sweyn Forkbeard eventually succeeded in briefly being declared king of England in 1013, followed by the longer reign of his son Cnut from 1016 to 1035, and Cnut's sons Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut until 1042.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
1f7823
|
What happened to Dutch painting in the 18th century?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparently during the 18th century the Dutch Republic was seen as being in a decline. Instead of commissioning new works by comtemporary artists, patrons preferred to obtain works from the Golden Age, when their country was more stable and prosperous. And in 1718, Dutch artist Arnold Houbraken published his first volume of biographies of Dutch and Flemish artists, which \"initiated a retrospective assessment of the artistic production of the past century, and thereby marked its end.\"\nSource: A Worldly Art: The Dutch Republic 1585-1718 by Mariet Westermann",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3907977",
"title": "Dutch Golden Age painting",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The enormous success of 17th-century Dutch painting overpowered the work of subsequent generations, and no Dutch painter of the 18th century—nor, arguably, a 19th-century one before Van Gogh—is well known outside the Netherlands. Already by the end of the period artists were complaining that buyers were more interested in dead than living artists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60986336",
"title": "Old Holland",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The beginning of the 17th century saw the rise and development of Dutch painting and the start of the Dutch Golden Age of Painting. This era boasts flourish of Old Masters such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, and Frans Hals. As the demand for paintings grew, more painters and painter’s guilds emerged. As guilds began to grow, they also began to develop and transfer their knowledge about painting techniques and paint production, passing this knowledge down through generations of artists. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57680",
"title": "Culture of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Art and media.:Art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Dutch Golden Age painting was among the most acclaimed in the world at the time, during the seventeenth century. There was an enormous output of painting, so much so that prices declined seriously during the period. From the 1620s, Dutch painting broke decisively from the Baroque style typified by Rubens in neighboring Flanders into a more realistic style of depiction, very much concerned with the real world. Types of paintings included historical paintings, portraiture, landscapes and cityscapes, still lifes and genre paintings. In the last four of these categories, Dutch painters established styles upon which art in Europe depended for the next two centuries. Paintings often had a moralistic subtext. The Golden Age never really recovered from the French invasion of 1672, although there was a twilight period lasting until about 1710.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5115265",
"title": "Dutch art",
"section": "Section::::History.:Golden Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Dutch Golden Age painting was among the most acclaimed in the world at the time, during the seventeenth century. There was an enormous output of painting, so much so that prices declined seriously during the period. From the 1620s, Dutch painting broke decisively from the Baroque style typified by Rubens in neighboring Flanders into a more realistic style of depiction, very much concerned with the real world. Types of paintings included historical paintings, portraiture, landscapes and cityscapes, still lifes and genre paintings. In the last four of these categories, Dutch painters established styles upon which art in Europe depended for the next two centuries. Paintings often had a moralistic subtext. The Golden Age never really recovered from the French invasion of 1671, although there was a twilight period lasting until about 1710.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1794963",
"title": "Hague School",
"section": "Section::::Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1160,
"text": "After the great periods of Dutch art in the Golden Age of the 17th century, there were economic and political problems which diminished activity in art. The fine arts in the Netherlands enjoyed a revival around 1830, a time now referred to as the Romantic period in Dutch painting. The style was an imitation of the great 17th-century artists. The most widely accepted paintings of this period were landscapes and paintings which reflected national history. Andreas Schelfhout was a painter of landscapes, especially winter scenes, but also woodlands and the dunes between The Hague and Scheveningen. His best known pupils included Wijnand Nuyen, Johan Barthold Jongkind, and Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch. Schelfhout's friend and occasional collaborator Hendrik van de Sande Bakhuyzen principally composed pastoral landscapes like those of Golden Age master Paulus Potter, but trained several prominent Hague School artists, notably his son Julius van de Sande Bakhuyzen, Willem Roelofs, , Hubertus van Hove, and Weissenbruch. Wijnand Nuyen was one of the best of the romantic artists of the time and he had a great influence on Weissenbruch and Johannes Bosboom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52688",
"title": "Baroque painting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The prosperity of 17th century Holland led to an enormous production of art by large numbers of painters who were mostly highly specialized and painted only genre scenes, landscapes, still lifes, portraits or history paintings. Technical standards were very high, and Dutch Golden Age painting established a new repertoire of subjects that was very influential until the arrival of Modernism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19906680",
"title": "Museum Catharijneconvent",
"section": "Section::::Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Dutch painting of the 16th and 17th centuries is represented by a selection of works by Jan van Scorel and Pieter Saenredam, and more recent Dutch artworks by Jan Toorop, Shinkichi Tajiri, Frans Franciscus, Guido van der Werve and .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5m4mzf
|
how does an led change colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "A color changing LED isn't one LED in a package but three LEDs along with a small computer to drive them. The LED is made up of red, green and blue LEDs each of which can be controlled by a microcontroller. Since the two legs on the LED that supply the power are connected to the microcontroller and not the LED elements a current limit resistor is not required.\n\nThe microcontroller is able to turn each of the colors on or off, so if the red LED is turned on then the output from the color changing LED is red. When the blue LED is turned on it is blue, if both the blue and red LEDs are turned on then the color changing LED is a shade of purple (called magenta). Similarly combining red with green gives yellow and blue & green gives cyan.\n\nAlthough the color changing LED uses the six colors mentioned above, it slowly changes from one to another. This is still done using the three basic red, green & blue elements. If the red LED is combined with the blue LED, but the blue LED is only driven at 50% of its normal brightness then a color half way between red and magenta is generated.\n\nWhilst the red LED is left turned on, if the blue LED is slowly taken from 0% brightness to 100% brightness then the color will gradually change from red to magenta.\n\nIf a standard LED is turned on and off very quickly, say 100 times every second then as far as the human eye is concerned it looks like it is constantly on. If the amount of time the LED is on for is the same as the time it is off for then it will be on for 50% of the time and 50% of its full brightness.\n\nThis same method can be done with the three LED elements inside the color changing LED. This means it is possible to combine any amount of the red, green and blue to give the desired color. Looking once again at the change from red to magenta, if the blue LED starts mainly turned off, goes to being on and off in even amounts and then to mainly being on then the the color will change as required.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Multicolor LEDs generally have an element for each color. There are RGB LEDs as well. Color can also be slightly adjusted by changing the operating voltage. \n\nEdit. Each element color, they can then be turned on in combinations to make other colors. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Masters Electrical Engineering. Most RGB LED have all three colors in them. You then light a specific one my applying power to the color you want. If you look at large LEDs that can do RGB, they have 4 prongs coming off. You then power the prong you want an bam! Color. One for ground, and then each color gets a prong. If you make a super small RGB LED and then combine a bunch into a massive array, you get a tv.\n\nYou can do it with a single light source, then apply a polarizing filter. The filter is controlled by a small current. This can produce colors as well and is the idea behind LCD displays.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An older style of multi-colour LED is the type that have a red and a green LED in the one package. They usually have three legs. \n\nDespite having a red and green LED, they can actually display a third colour. Light them both and you get yellow, because red and green light combined give you yellow light. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As most have said, they typically contain a red, green, and blue LED in one package. \n\nJust wanted to point out: this is also how a TV or computer monitor works. There is a red, green, and blue pixel in a pattern over and over.\n\nBy controlling each color, you can basically make any color.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a [close-up of a surface mount RGB LED](_URL_0_) that shows you what's going on inside.\n\nYou get different colors by combining the red, green and blue in student quantities. To dim one of the colors, you switch it on and off very quickly. The higher the ratio of on time to off time, the brighter it is.\n\nThey'll often have a diffusing cover to blend the colors together.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow thanks everyone! That would have taken me hours of googling and synthesizing information from multiple sources. This is more than I wanted which is even better. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "By selection of different semiconductor materials, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Multicolor LEDs also offer a new means to form light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. However, this type of LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44234",
"title": "Stage lighting",
"section": "Section::::Qualities in lighting.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "LED fixtures create color through additive color mixing with red, green, blue, and in some cases amber, LEDs at different intensities. This type of color mixing is often used with borderlights and cyclorama lights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.:White.:Phosphor-based LEDs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN) with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs). A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift, which transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the original LED's color, various color phosphors are used. Using several phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted spectrum, effectively raising the color rendering index (CRI).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8969693",
"title": "Grow light",
"section": "Section::::Common types.:Light emitting diodes (LEDs).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Individual LEDs usually provide only a single narrow range of colors, and so different color LEDs are mixed in grow lights in proportions depending on the intended use. It is known from the study of photomorphogenesis that green, red, far-red and blue light spectra have an effect on root formation, plant growth, and flowering, but there are not enough scientific studies or field-tested trials using LED grow lights to recommended specific color ratios for optimal plant growth under LED grow lights. It has been shown that many plants will grow normally if given both red and blue light. However, many studies indicate that red and blue light only provides the most cost efficient method of growth, plant growth is still better under light supplemented with green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118396",
"title": "Band gap",
"section": "Section::::In semiconductor physics.:Light Emitting Diodes and Laser Diodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "LEDs and laser diodes usually emit photons with energy close to and slightly larger than the band gap of the semiconductor material from which they are made. Therefore, as the band gap energy increases, the LED or laser color changes from infrared to red, through the rainbow to violet, then to UV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "952677",
"title": "Backlight",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:LED backlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "RGB LEDs can deliver an enormous color gamut to screens. When using three separate LEDs (additive color) the backlight can produce a color spectrum that closely matches the color filters in the LCD pixels themselves. In this way, the filter passband can be narrowed so that each color component lets only a very narrow band of spectrum through the LCD. This improves the efficiency of the display since less light is blocked when white is displayed. Also, the actual red, green, and blue points can be moved farther out so that the display is capable of reproducing more vivid colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k5iqn
|
How will it affect US economy if bill gates were to transfer all his money to some other country ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The exact disposition of Bill Gates' personal wealth isn't information we can get our hands on, since he's a private citizen and it's none of our business. So instead let's make up a person with the same order of magnitude of wealth, imagine how he would store his wealth, and then answer the question based on that.\n\nSo here's Mr. John Smith, with a net worth of $100 billion, making him very wealthy indeed. To keep things simple, let's assume he carries *no debt at all* (which is implausible in the extreme), so his net worth comes from just the sum total of the value of all his assets.\n\nWhat exactly are those assets?\n\nWell, let's say that a *very small fraction* of that wealth is in cash. Everybody needs to deal in cash transactions on a regular basis (paying for lunch, putting gas in the car and so on), so let's say that Mr. Smith has cash holdings with a value of … oh, let's say $100,000. Just to pick a figure. That's the account he spends his money out of, to pay the electricity bill and such like that.\n\nWhere exactly is that money? If we imagine that it's sitting in *cash* — literal currency, like bills and coins — in a vault somewhere, we'll be quite wrong. Mr. Smith *could* store his cash assets that way, but he doesn't, because that's not a reasonable thing to do. Instead he keeps his cash holdings in a bank account. In that form, his cash wealth (which remember, has a value of $100,000) exists as a *liability* on the books of his bank. Basically, that means Mr. Smith goes to the First National Bank of Wherever and says \"I will give you $100,000 if you promise I can come ask for it back whenever I want.\" The bank says sure, and takes his money, and in return gives him their promise that he can withdraw it at any time. That makes the bank *liable* to Mr. Smith for that money.\n\nIf Mr. Smith wants to move that money overseas, it's no problem at all. He simply goes to the bank and asks for whatever cash they're liable to him for. The bank provides it in whatever form Mr. Smith prefers (currency, or more likely a bank check), and Mr. Smith goes about his merry way. The bank can do this because *banking regulations require* banks to be able to give their depositors the money they're owed whenever they're asked for it. So the bank will always be able to give Mr. Smith what he asks for. If the bank ever *can't* give Mr. Smith what he asks for (as well as all their other depositors), the bank will be *insolvent,* and a regulatory organization called the FDIC will step in to conduct an orderly closure of the bank and transfer of its assets and liabilities to another institution.\n\nSo all that is a very long-winded way of saying that if Mr. Smith wants to withdraw his cash and put it in another bank overseas, he will have no problem doing so, and there will be no effect of his doing so, because banks are regulated to make sure that's true.\n\nWhat about the rest of his assets? Well, Mr. Smith keeps them, as any reasonable person would, in a diversified collection of various things of value. We can broadly divide that collection into two categories: Things which are *easy* to sell, and things which are *hard* to sell. Things that are easy to sell include shares of mutual funds or stocks, for example. Those are things which a great many people want all the time, so if Mr. Smith decides to sell them, he'll have no trouble at all finding a buyer.\n\nLet's imagine Mr. Smith owns 10,000 shares of a particular mutual fund. If he wants to, he can sell those shares at whatever the current market price is, then take the cash and deposit it in his overseas bank account. This will be very easy for Mr. Smith to do; it's just a phone call to his broker, who just has to put a sell order into his computer and then cut Mr. Smith a check for the profits. Mr. Smith then takes that money and sends it to his new overseas bank, where it gets credited to his account.\n\nThat's generally true of all of Mr. Smith's *liquid* assets — that is, assets which are very easily converted into cash. He can sell them quickly and easily for pretty much their nominal value, and then take the cash from those sales and do whatever he wants with it.\n\nSo now Mr. Smith has the $100,000 in cash he withdrew from a US bank and deposited into an overseas bank … and also some huge sum, in the billions of dollars, he had invested in securities which he liquidated and deposited in his overseas account.\n\nBut what about the rest of Mr. Smith's assets? His home, his furniture, his car, all those things? These are called *illiquid assets*, which generally means they're hard to sell. In order to sell his house, Mr. Smith needs to find somebody who wants to buy it. That's not guaranteed to be an easy thing to do! In fact, Mr. Smith might be unable to find *any* buyer for his house without lowering his price to some small fraction of what his house is nominally worth. So either he can choose to sit on those illiquid assets until he finds a buyer for them, or he can sell them at a loss to get out quickly.\n\nSince the premise of the question is that Mr. Smith wants to \"transfer all his money to some other country,\" we'll assume that he wants out even if it costs him money. So we'll say he sells all his illiquid assets for pennies on the dollar. The result here is pretty obvious: Mr. Smith's net worth goes down! He converted assets with a certain nominal value to cash of *less* value, so he's worth less money in total. But the good news is now he has his cash, so he can send that to his new overseas bank as well and deposit it.\n\nNow Mr. Smith has successfully moved all his money to \"some other country.\" What's the net result on the US economy? Essentially none. Mr. Smith's cash holdings were very small, and the bank had no problem covering their liability to him, so that doesn't have any effect. All his liquid assets — shares of stock, mutual funds, bonds and so on — were easy to sell, so other buyers snatched them up at fair market value and no significant change in wealth occurred there; assets just changed ownership. Mr. Smith sold off his *illiquid* assets at a loss, so he took a hit, but other parties got a bargain, so the net result there is pretty much nil as well.\n\nBut of course, now Mr. Smith has a problem. See, all his money (less the losses he took from liquidating his holdings) is in *cash,* and that's not good. Mr. Smith now has to turn around and use his cash to *buy more assets,* so his money can earn him an income. In so doing, he ends up investing his money *right back into the same companies he was holding before,* because they're still the right choice for him. Along the way, Mr. Smith has to cover certain fees incurred by selling and buying securities, so he loses some money, but the total overall net result on the economy is … well, absolutely none, really. Assets changed hands, and a little wealth was created and a little wealth was destroyed, but no significant effects occurred … except for Mr. Smith having to do a heck of a lot of paperwork for no real reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3747",
"title": "Bill Gates",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "In 1999, his wealth briefly surpassed US$101 billion. Despite his wealth and extensive business travel, Gates usually flew coach in commercial aircraft until 1997, when he bought a private jet. Since 2000, the nominal value of his Microsoft holdings has declined due to a fall in Microsoft's stock price after the dot-com bubble burst and the multibillion-dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations. In a May 2006 interview, Gates commented that he wished that he were not the richest man in the world because he disliked the attention it brought. In March 2010, Gates was the second wealthiest person behind Carlos Slim, but regained the top position in 2013, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires List. Slim retook the position again in June 2014 (but then lost the top position back to Gates). Between 2009 and 2014, his wealth doubled from US$40 billion to more than US$82 billion. Since October 2017, Gates was surpassed by Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos as the richest person in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3963024",
"title": "Political positions of Hillary Clinton",
"section": "Section::::Economic policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "According to a report by Moody's Analytics on Clinton's 2016 economic proposals, \"Secretary Clinton's economic policies when taken together will result in a stronger U.S. economy under almost any scenario.\" Clinton's proposals would, if enacted, create 10.4 million jobs during a four-year presidential term (3.2 million more than expected under current law). GDP growth would be 2.7%, as opposed to the 2.3% expected under current law until 2020. The report noted that her immigration proposal would increase the number of skilled workers in the economy, her infrastructure spending would help business productivity, and her paid family leave proposal would bring more people into the workforce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42159950",
"title": "The World's Billionaires 2014",
"section": "Section::::Annual list.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft, added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the 2014 billionaire list. He has topped the list 15 of the previous 20 years, but was last number one in 2009. Mexican tycoon Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years. Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year. American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth. Oracle founder Larry Ellison rounded out the top five. America's Christy Walton was the highest ranking female, placing ninth overall. Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African ever to crack the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion. 24-year-old Perenna Kei, daughter of Chinese real estate developer Ji Haipeng, was the youngest person on the list. At age 99, David Rockefeller was the oldest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4482509",
"title": "Russia–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Economic ties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 236,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 236,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Reuters reported that U.S. companies \"generated more than $90 billion in revenue from Russia in 2017.\" According to the AALEP, \"there are almost 3,000 American companies in Russia, and the U.S. is also the leader in terms of foreign companies in Special Economic Zones, with 11 projects.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25391",
"title": "Russia",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:External trade and investment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Reuters reported that U.S. companies \"generated more than $90 billion in revenue from Russia in 2017.\" According to the AALEP, \"there are almost 3,000 American companies in Russia, and the U.S. is also the leader in terms of foreign companies in Special Economic Zones, with 11 projects.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4510684",
"title": "Bill Browder",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Vladimir Putin statement in Helsinki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1378,
"text": "Putin: For instance, we can bring up Mr. Browder, in this particular case. Business associates of Mr. Browder have earned over $1.5 billion in Russia and never paid any taxes neither in Russia or the United States and yet the money escaped the country. They were transferred to the United States. They sent [a] huge amount of money, $400,000,000, as a contribution to the campaign of Hillary Clinton. (Later, the Russian Prosecutor General’s Office spokesman Alexander Kurennoy clarified that it was not $400 million, but rather $400,000.) Well that’s their personal case. It might have been legal, the contribution itself but the way the money was earned was illegal. So we have solid reason to believe that some [US] intelligence officers accompanied and guided these transactions. So we have an interest in questioning them.\"Politifact\", \"The Washington Post\" and \"The New York Times\" rated Putin's claim about the funding false, noting that there is no evidence to substantiate it. Bill Browder, in his own article for \"Time\", called the accusation \"so ludicrous and untrue that it falls into delusion.\" He maintains that Putin continues to accuse him of false allegations in response to Browder's involvement with the Magnitsky Act. Browder also points out that he is a British citizen and no longer American, therefore Trump would be unable to respond to Putin's request.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3747",
"title": "Bill Gates",
"section": "Section::::Post-Microsoft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "According to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Gates was the world's highest-earning billionaire in 2013, as his net worth increased by US$15.8 billion to US$78.5 billion. , most of Gates' assets are held in Cascade Investment LLC, an entity through which he owns stakes in numerous businesses, including Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts, and Corbis Corp. On February 4, 2014, Gates stepped down as chairman of Microsoft to become Technology Advisor alongside new CEO Satya Nadella.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
awghnc
|
Is there a way to conceptualise complex integration?
|
[
{
"answer": "In complex analysis, an integral is less like the \"Finding the area under a graph\" integral of calc 1, and more like the line integrals of vector fields in calc 3. These path independence results are actually there in normal multi-variable calculus. In this context, integrating a differentiable complex function is similar to integrating on a conservative field, where the path doesn't matter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You still have the \"adding up little bits\" intuition; just not bits of area. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147252",
"title": "Integration by parts",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Integration by parts is a heuristic rather than a purely mechanical process for solving integrals; given a single function to integrate, the typical strategy is to carefully separate this single function into a product of two functions \"u\"(\"x\")\"v\"(\"x\") such that the residual integral from the integration by parts formula is easier to evaluate than the single function. The following form is useful in illustrating the best strategy to take:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15532",
"title": "Integral",
"section": "Section::::Computation.:Symbolic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 178,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Many problems in mathematics, physics, and engineering involve integration where an explicit formula for the integral is desired. Extensive tables of integrals have been compiled and published over the years for this purpose. With the spread of computers, many professionals, educators, and students have turned to computer algebra systems that are specifically designed to perform difficult or tedious tasks, including integration. Symbolic integration has been one of the motivations for the development of the first such systems, like Macsyma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2757224",
"title": "Multiple integral",
"section": "Section::::Methods of integration.:Change of variables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The limits of integration are often not easily interchangeable (without normality or with complex formulae to integrate). One makes a change of variables to rewrite the integral in a more \"comfortable\" region, which can be described in simpler formulae. To do so, the function must be adapted to the new coordinates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26478",
"title": "Real analysis",
"section": "Section::::Scope.:Integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Integration is a formalization of the problem of finding the area bound by a curve and the related problems of determining the length of a curve or volume enclosed by a surface. The basic strategy to solving problems of this type was known to the ancient Greeks and Chinese, and was known as the \"method of exhaustion\". Generally speaking, the desired area is bounded from above and below, respectively, by increasingly accurate circumscribing and inscribing polygonal approximations whose exact areas can be computed. By considering approximations consisting of a larger and larger (\"infinite\") number of smaller and smaller (\"infinitesimal\") pieces, the area bound by the curve can be deduced, as the upper and lower bounds defined by the approximations converge around a common value. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2915506",
"title": "Integrative complexity",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Conceptual integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Conceptual integration uses reasoning that builds upon earlier evaluative differentiations. It is commonly used to help give context to previous evaluative differentiations. For example, it could take the form of explaining why someone may view an event in a different way or in what ways a compromise could be made between conflicting values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105673",
"title": "Integrative psychotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Different routes to integration.:Theoretical integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "The third route to integration commonly recognized in the literature is theoretical integration in which \"two or more therapies are integrated in the hope that the result will be better than the constituent therapies alone\" (Norcross, 2005, p. 8). Some models of theoretical integration focus on combining and synthesizing a small number of theories at a deep level, whereas others describe the relationship between several systems of psychotherapy. One prominent example of theoretical synthesis is Paul Wachtel's model of \"cyclical psychodynamics\" that integrates psychodynamic, behavioral, and family systems theories (Wachtel, Kruk, & McKinney, 2005). Another example of synthesis is Anthony Ryle's model of cognitive analytic therapy, integrating ideas from psychoanalytic object relations theory and cognitive psychotherapy (Ryle, 2005). Another model of theoretical integration is specifically called integral psychotherapy (Forman, 2010; Ingersoll & Zeitler, 2010). The most notable model describing the relationship between several different theories is the transtheoretical model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 2005).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49514",
"title": "Henri Lebesgue",
"section": "Section::::Lebesgue's theory of integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "Integration is a mathematical operation that corresponds to the informal idea of finding the area under the graph of a function. The first theory of integration was developed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC with his method of quadratures, but this could be applied only in limited circumstances with a high degree of geometric symmetry. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz discovered the idea that integration was intrinsically linked to differentiation, the latter being a way of measuring how quickly a function changed at any given point on the graph. This surprising relationship between two major geometric operations in calculus, differentiation and integration, is now known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. It has allowed mathematicians to calculate a broad class of integrals for the first time. However, unlike Archimedes' method, which was based on Euclidean geometry, mathematicians felt that Newton's and Leibniz's integral calculus did not have a rigorous foundation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3impk0
|
cannabis strains classification.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's both. There's a classification system to differentiate between plants, and from the same family of plants.\nAnd with cannabis, naming the strains means that you can get the same product again without confusion; but you can name any strain the name you want. There's no science behind that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That Wired article misses one major problem with the black market - there's no way to tell by looking at it if your \"blueberry kush\" is really a \"blueberry kush\". You don't have paperwork tracing it back to a reputable breeder/grower, you just have to rely on the last guy in the chain being honest (or un-stoned enough to remember).\n\nThere's nothing stopping somebody from deciding to label their boring mid-grade weed (or even some unrelated high-grade) as \"blueberry kush\" because they know that's what everyone's looking for this month.\n\nWhen you have legal marijuana sold in dispensaries, you start seeing them analyze each batch in a lab & give you actual ratings on how much of each of the different chemicals are present in the plant. You're also buying from suppliers that can generally be trusted to *not* mislabel their shit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine a line with Sativa on one end, Indica on the other end, and Hybrids in the middle. Sativa has more THC, while Indica has more CBD. Hybrids are a mix, for example, 60/40 THC/CBD. THC is more of a \"head high\". CBD is more of a \"body high\". So, cannabis is exquisitely customizable. For instance, if you just want something to make you sleepy, and pain free, go with a heavy Indica strain. If you want something to make you get \"high\" and experience a mind altering experience, go with a pure Sativa. Or if you want a blend, Clear Head, Numb Body, go with a Hybrid. I'm from Colorado. If you walk into any weed shop they are very knowledgeable and will ask you specific questions about what you are seeking and customize a solution for you on the spot. The \"names\" are meaningless. What you want to ask is the blend of Indica and Sativa (CBD/THC) that you are getting. The names are just names. What you want to do is be very specific with your bud tender and tell them exactly what you want to get out of it. Do you want to watch movies and giggle, or do you want to melt into the couch and zone out? Are you looking to get rid of pain or just go \"on a trip\"? Be specific and they will know exactly which strain to recommend. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just ask your customer what their favorite strain is. Then in two weeks, call whatever weed you have to sell that strain. It's worked for more for well over 10 years without a single complaint.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38310",
"title": "Cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.:Popular usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type \"Cannabis\". \"Cannabis\" aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. \"Sativa\" is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. \"Indica\" designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. \"Ruderalis\" is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46816075",
"title": "Wikileaf",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "3. They can research cannabis strains based on recommended time of use (morning, afternoon, evening and night), Indica, Sativa or Hybrid. Once a strain is selected, an Overview is provided as well as THC content, Medical use, Effects and reviews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154325",
"title": "Cannabis indica",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.:Difference between \"C. indica\" and \"C. sativa\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "In the recent era of cannabis breeding higher-ratio CBD strains are being developed from Indica origins that may test out as 1:1 (CBD-THC balanced) or even as high as a 22:1 (CBD dominant). The medical interests in Cannabis are taking this further and we will see increasing cultivation trends for more strains developed with CBD-dominant ratios. In California, cities such as Coachella and Desert Hot Springs are re-zoning areas for cannabis cultivation. Even though Californians legalized recreational use of cannabis in late 2016, the LA Times, prior to the vote, reported an entrepreneurial focus on CBD-dominant medical hemp crops, \"The demand for medical products was so high, this [ cultivation expansion] was just to fill the need for that.\" Low anxiety and hallucinogenic properties (psychoactive effects of THC reduced by CBD) make these \"high-CBD strains\" very desirable for chronic treatment programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38310",
"title": "Cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.:Popular usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type \"Cannabis\" often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as \"pure indica\", \"mostly indica\", \"indica/sativa\", \"mostly sativa\", or \"pure sativa\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1232085",
"title": "Cannabidiol",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Plant sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Selective breeding of cannabis plants has expanded and diversified as commercial and therapeutic markets develop. Some growers in the US succeeded in lowering the proportion of CBD-to-THC to accommodate customers who preferred varietals that were more mind-altering due to the higher THC and lower CBD content. In the US, hemp is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the 2018 Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210988",
"title": "Cannabinoid",
"section": "Section::::Phytocannabinoids.:Cannabis plant profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Cannabis plants can exhibit wide variation in the quantity and type of cannabinoids they produce. The mixture of cannabinoids produced by a plant is known as the plant's cannabinoid profile. Selective breeding has been used to control the genetics of plants and modify the cannabinoid profile. For example, strains that are used as fiber (commonly called hemp) are bred such that they are low in psychoactive chemicals like THC. Strains used in medicine are often bred for high CBD content, and strains used for recreational purposes are usually bred for high THC content or for a specific chemical balance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38310",
"title": "Cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of \"Cannabis\" in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, \"C. sativa\", \"C. indica\", and \"C. ruderalis.\" For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that \"Cannabis\" is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, \"C. sativa\" is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, \"C. indica\" is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and \"C. ruderalis\" is short, branchless, and grows wild in Central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by \"Cannabis\" aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed \"sativa\" strains from wide-leafed \"indica\" strains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bpxp5
|
Why are siphonophorae considered "colony organisms"? What's the difference between a morphologically specialized zooid and an organ?
|
[
{
"answer": "the distinction is made based on the origin of the zooids\n\nin everything from a fruit fly to a human the first fertilized cell divides many times into a mass of cells, aligns itsself along some gradient and develops bands of cells with know fates \n\nsiphonophore cells bud off the first fertilized cell with their fate seemingly already determined. as you pointed out the function is the same but the development is distinct ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We consider siphonophores to be a colony organism because of how they develop and are organized compared to other cnidarians.\n\nThe cnidarians body plan generally falls into one of two categories. The medusa or the polyp. The most common example of a medusa form cnidarian is a jellyfish, and a common example of a polyp would be a sea anemone. \n\nMany cnidarian species use both forms during their life cycles. Most jellyfish species start off life as a polyp, which often forms an asexually reproducing colony before transitioning to the free swimming adult medusa.\n\nOther cnidarians also grow as colonies but remain that way for their whole lives. Corals for example reproduce asexually and spread just like jellyfish polyps, though they form a skeleton around themselves. We don't consider a coral colony to be a single organism even though they work together to build the skeleton and have the same DNA. But in many species connections are retained between the polyps that let them share food and resources.\n\nSiphonophores are simply a more advanced version of this same process. They're a colony of organisms that each have specialized function, be it feeding, swimming, defense, reproduction, or what have you. The level of organization is higher than with corals, but the system is basically the same.\n\nSome siphonophores don't reproduce directly. Instead they live as a colony that releases zooids from time to time in the form of medusa, jellyfish-like organisms that are capable of living completely independently. These medusa-zooids are known as eudoxids and they are the sexually mature form of the species. They're the ones that reproduce sexually to make new eggs that develop into siphonophore colonies again.\n\nThe amount of diversity among siphonophores is simply staggering. Some have the free swimming eudoxids like I mentioned, and in some species these eudoxids can even bud off additional zooids that will also live as medusa, but they're unable to asexually produce a new siphonophore colony. \n\nOthers keep the medusa attached to the colony and release eggs and/or sperm directly from the main colony.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "631508",
"title": "Siphonophorae",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Siphonophores are of special scientific interest because they are composed of medusoid and polypoid zooids that are morphologically and functionally specialized. Each zooid is an individual organism, but its integration with others is so strong that the colony attains the function of a larger organism. Indeed, most of the zooids are so specialized, they lack the ability to survive on their own. This is somewhat analogous to the construction and function of multicellular organisms; because multicellular organisms have organs which, like zooids, are specialized and interdependent, siphonophores may provide clues regarding the evolution of more complex bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50558",
"title": "Zooplankton",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Zooplankton is a categorization spanning a range of organism sizes including small protozoans and large metazoans. It includes holoplanktonic organisms whose complete life cycle lies within the plankton, as well as meroplanktonic organisms that spend part of their lives in the plankton before graduating to either the nekton or a sessile, benthic existence. Although zooplankton are primarily transported by ambient water currents, many have locomotion, used to avoid predators (as in diel vertical migration) or to increase prey encounter rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12897472",
"title": "Zooid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The term \"zooid\" has historically also been used for an organic cell or organized body that has independent movement within a living organism, especially a motile gamete such as a spermatozoon (in the case of algae now zoid), or an independent animal-like organism produced asexually, as by budding or fission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54643138",
"title": "Zoothamnium niveum",
"section": "Section::::Polymorphism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Most ciliates live as single-celled organisms in aquatic environments, and the single cell carries out all functions of life, such as nutrition, metabolism, and reproduction. Colonies of \"Z. niveum\" are composed of numerous individual cells that form a feather-like colonial unit, with several different cell types. Old branches of the colony illustrate the polymorphism of the zooids when viewed under the microscope. Three different forms of the individual ciliate cells are present, which are distinct in both form and function. The large macrozooids can transform into swarmers and leave the colony. They settle on suitable surfaces and develop into new colonies. The microzooids are small cells specialized for feeding, which the colony does by consumption of their symbiotic bacteria and other organic particles. At the terminal ends of the colony are specialized zooids that can elongate and facilitate the asexual reproduction of the colony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34235291",
"title": "Perophora",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "A \"Perophora\" colony consists of a system of stolons from which individual zooids arise at intervals. Each zooid has four or five rows of stigmata in the wall of the atrium, the one exception being \"Perophora multistigmata\" which has eight rows. In some cases, the five-rowed species have some stigmata extending over the first and second rows indicating that the primary number of rows is four. In \"Ecteinascidia\", the only other genus in the family, there are always eight or more rows of stigmata, usually twelve to twenty rows. Other distinguishing characteristics are that \"Perophora\" has a horizontal gut loop with a short rectum and a testis with usually one, but up to four lobes, situated in the gut loop. In \"Ecteinascidia\" the gut loop is curved, the rectum long and the testis multi-lobed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3416",
"title": "Bryozoa",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Types of zooid.:Feeding zooids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The most common type of zooid is the feeding autozooid, in which the polypide bears a \"crown\" of hollow tentacles called a lophophore, which captures food particles from the water. In all colonies a large percentage of zooids are autozooids, and some consist entirely of autozooids, some of which also engage in reproduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15223",
"title": "Invertebrate",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Phyla.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "The term invertebrates covers several phyla. One of these are the sponges (Porifera). They were long thought to have diverged from other animals early. They lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges typically feed by drawing in water through pores. Some speculate that sponges are not so primitive, but may instead be secondarily simplified. The Ctenophora and the Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish, are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into organs. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, they are sometimes called diploblastic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
1v19bw
|
Historians, how many of you speak/ have fluency in languages relevant to your areas of study? How important would knowledge of such relevant languages be to you?
|
[
{
"answer": "Before I refocused myself into Early Modern France, I was aiming to be a Classicist with a focus in the Late Roman Republic, so I had to learn Latin and Ancient Greek, the latter of which is still useful in my current focus on Early Modern France since the Habsburgs wrote laws in Latin first.\n\nI am to learn French and Germany to further my ability in the subject as there are a lot of sources that haven't been translated or books that remain in their local language.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm studying for a BA in medieval studies, with emphasis on the British isles. Relevantly, I speak pretty good Latin, tolerable French, good Middle English, and beginning Old English. Less relevantly, I speak tolerable German and Spanish.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in ancient materials, so it's reading, not speaking that's needed. Reading wise, I'm pretty solid in Hebrew and Greek, ok in Syriac. In terms of modern academic languages I can read/write/speak German pretty well. I got a relatively late start on languages and actually consider myself somewhat behind. Before completing the PhD I'll need two languages more minimum, and preferrably four. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Latin American historian here. To graduate with a Ph.D. from my university, it was required that we have fluency in one foreign language relevant to our field, and reading knowledge of a second. I have fluency in Spanish, and reading knowledge of Portuguese. The Spanish is absolutely essential to me, and I use it constantly. I literally couldn't do my job without it. The \"reading knowledge\" of Portuguese I picked up in a six week class that basically taught what minor differences there were from Spanish. I wouldn't really say I'm fluent in any way. I can generally get the gist of what written things say. Honestly, I may find the Portuguese knowledge useful about once a year for something that I probably could have figured out about as well on Google Translate. \n\nI will say that if I wanted to, I could go back to my same university (which I still live near) and pick up Mayan, Nahuatl, or Quechua, which are all offered as classes. Of those, Mayan would likely be the most useful to me, since I focus on Cuba and Mexico.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Studying African history, you would assume that speaking an African language would be useful. However, as I focus on colonies and the post-colonial period, nearly every written source is in English; government documents, memoirs, newspapers, etc. I was lucky enough to learn Afrikaans growing up which means I can make use of any journal articles published in Afrikaans (not that there are many) and I learnt chiShona to help me converse with people when conducting interviews, but honestly, I could do as well just knowing English. However, I have found that despite the majority of people I have interviewed speaking English fluently (you would be hard pushed to find anyone outside of the really rural parts of Zimbabwe who doesn't have a good grasp of English), they really appreciate you making the effort to converse in their own language. It makes them a lot more comfortable and, in my opinion, makes it a lot easier to actually have a conversation with them.\n\nAs a side note, I'm currently learning Portuguese (when I can!) to help with possible future work on Mozambique - now that is a field in which lots of work done is not in English, so Portuguese really is a necessity!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "186467",
"title": "Language education",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th and 20th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "The history of foreign-language education in the 20th century and the methods of teaching (such as those related below) might appear to be a history of failure. Very few students in U.S. universities who have a foreign language as a major attain \"minimum professional proficiency\". Even the \"reading knowledge\" required for a PhD degree is comparable only to what second-year language students read, and only very few researchers who are native English speakers can read and assess information written in languages other than English. Even a number of famous linguists are monolingual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310262",
"title": "Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Sustaining Minority Languages in Europe (SMiLE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Working in collaboration with the Smithsonian initiative , this interdisciplinary research program explores relationships between language revitalization, cultural heritage, and traditional cultural transmission. How much of the culture of a region is embodied in the actual vocabulary of its language? What unique knowledge is lost when a language has lost its last native speaker? These are some of the issues investigated in this research area, which focuses specifically on the indigenous or minoritized languages of Europe. The charge for this inquiry was set forth in 1992 with passage of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which mandates protection and promotion of historical regional and minority languages in Europe. Spotlighting these questions also brings into sharp relief the shadow side of minority language communities, which are characteristically marked by poverty, isolation, segregation, travel restrictions, and censorship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29085581",
"title": "Enduring Voices",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The Language Hotspots model for prioritizing language research was conceived and developed by Dr. Greg Anderson and K. David Harrison at the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages to identify most endangered and least studied languages. It is a new way to view the distribution of global linguistic diversity, to assess the threat of language extinction, and to. Hotspots are those regions of the world having the greatest linguistic diversity, the greatest language endangerment, and the least-studied languages. For the project, Doctors Anderson and Harrison are accompanied by Chris Rainier, a National Geographic Fellow and ethnographic photographer and filmmaker for helping in documenting various linguistic expedition on camera and film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5599373",
"title": "Robert Claiborne",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Science and linguistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Late in life, Claiborne turned to another lifelong interest: linguistics in general and the English language in particular. His \"Our Marvelous Native Tongue\" (also called \"The Life and Times of the English Language\") is a well-known book about the origins and evolution of English, spanning subjects as diverse as the Indo-Europeans, the Saxons, the King James Bible, Pidgin English, and African American Vernacular English (also called 'Ebonics').\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11391817",
"title": "Guaymí language",
"section": "Section::::Research problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "As has been the case over the past 200 years, there is a scarcity of current published research, especially on cultural language use. There are some published colloquial works, educational manuals, and religious translations, although few in number. These include stories from the oral tradition; a translation of the New Testament, \"Kukwe Kuin Ngöbökwe\" and a hymnal, \"Ari Kare Ngöböye.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14848",
"title": "Indo-European languages",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Important languages for reconstruction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the Proto-Indo-European language, some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly linguistically conservative (most notably, Lithuanian). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid poetic meter normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g. vowel length) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written manuscripts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2616528",
"title": "English Spelling Society",
"section": "Section::::Aims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "The Society's main priority at present is to draw attention to the economic and social costs of traditional spelling, with the object of opening up minds to the possibility and desirability of some change. On this matter, the Society believes that recent research, together with the continuing concern of governments in the English-speaking world (ESW) about literacy rates, strengthens its position. In particular it points to evidence that children throughout the ESW take significantly longer than children who speak other major Indo-European languages to learn the basic aspects of reading and writing their native tongue. It quotes evidence that dyslexia is less of a problem in countries such as Italy, which have a highly phonemic spelling system compared with English. (English spelling has the unique disadvantage among Indo-European systems of having letter patterns that represent more than one sound \"and\" sounds that can be represented by more than one letter pattern – the so-called \"spelling double whammy\".) Finally, it points to a recent study by the KPMG Foundation that estimates the total costs to the public purse to age 37 arising from failure to read in the primary school years at £1.73 billion to £2.05 billion a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4uxjwq
|
why airlines don't sell empty seats on flights at cheap rates
|
[
{
"answer": "Because people who purchase tickets last minute usually *have* to travel and will pay the full price.\n\nIt's rare that a plane will be relatively empty. When that happens, it's probably just a fluke. If a route regularly has a lot of empty seats, they airlines will drop one of the flights and put it on a more profitable route.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If airlines offered last minute cheap seats, no one would book too far in advance. \n\nBecause last minute flights are expensive, people book early to save some money, and if their plans cancel, they lose out on the cost of the flight. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Airline companies have a goal of maximizing profits. They do part of this by charging different prices for tickets on the same flight. Their goal is get as much money as possible per flight. They prefer to know how full a flight is going to be earlier, so they can adjust their price accordingly. A flight that is mostly full two months before it takes off will see a large increase in price. Airlines know that the majority of people who buy tickets closer to the departure date need to go and will pay a higher price to do so. If the day before, they dropped prices until every seat was filled, many people (i.e., the ones who let the airline know a couple months in advance how full an airplane will be) would in turn wait until that predictable event to buy the cheap tickets. Airlines would thus lose money because they could not determine the demand for the flight beforehand, and would essentially be filling most of their airplanes at the last minute. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do. It's called flying \"standby\". Generally you can only do this if you have a flight later that day and want to switch to an earlier one or if you are an airline employee or have a 'buddy pass' from an airline employee. You have to arrive at the airport early and are not guaranteed the flight. You can't book it in advance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, many airlines did this in the early days of the Internet. I was a member of Northwest CyberSavers (edit: in the mid-late 90s) - each wednesday they would publish select supercheap fares good for that weekend.\n\nSince the programs universally no longer exist, I must conclude they were overwhelmingly not profitable, or not profitable enough. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7142922",
"title": "Overselling",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.:Airlines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "Airlines may ask for volunteers to give away their seats or refuse boarding to certain passengers in exchange for a compensation that may include an additional free ticket and/or an upgrade in a later flight. They can do this and still make more money than if they booked only to the plane's capacity and had it take off with empty seats. In the past some airlines, like JetBlue Airways, did not overbook as a policy that provides incentive and avoids customer disappointment. They were able to do this and remain profitable as the majority of their customers are tourists, instead of business fliers, and their tickets are non-refundable, thereby lowering the chances of passengers missing their flights. However, since 2017 JetBlue again overbook flights, see page 34 in U.S. Department of Transportation report. A few airline frequent flyer programs actually allow a customer the privilege of flying an already overbooked flight; another customer will be asked to leave. Often, only economy class is overbooked while higher classes are not, allowing the airline to upgrade some passengers to otherwise unused seats while providing assurance to higher paying customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58358519",
"title": "History of non-scheduled airlines in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1319,
"text": "The low fare model required that flights be relatively full, and it was a common occurrence when flying on a non-scheduled airline for customers to learn at the airport their flight had been delayed until tomorrow so that the airline could sell more tickets. Because most companies had only a few planes and just the staff to crew them, delays as a result of weather or mechanical failure could completely incapacitate the airline, forcing it to cancel or postpone flights for which tickets had already been sold. No refunds were given on such tickets, and on one occasion the Burbank police responded to calls from a nearby airfield where an angry crowd of passengers were demanding access to an overbooked flight. Some of the nocturnal nonscheduled carriers attempted to evade landing fees at their destinations by covertly slipping in and out of airports in the middle of the night. However, with the founding of the Aircoach Transportation Association, the trade association and lobbying group of the non-scheduled airlines, stricter policies of etiquette, safety, and consumer protection became standard across the industry. By the close of 1946 non-skeds had become a definite presence within the aviation industry, and they found themselves looked unfavorably upon by executives at the old established airlines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1434747",
"title": "Price floor",
"section": "Section::::Effect on the market.:US airfare before 1978.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Until the late 1970s, government regulated price floors on airfares in the US made flying \"absurdly expensive\" to the point that in 1965, more than 80% of Americans had never flown on a jet. For example, in 1974, US air carriers had to charge at least $1,442 (in inflation-adjusted dollars) for a New York City to Los Angeles trip, a flight that cost as little as $278 in 2013. In 1978, the US government deregulated airfares, on the grounds that flying is not a necessity (like food or prescription drugs), and nor was it addictive (like alcohol). The government deregulated airfares so that increased competition would lead to a drop in airfare prices. By 2011, the inflation-adjusted cost of air travel dropped by half as compared with 1978. By 2000, half of Americans were taking at least one round-trip air flight per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053994",
"title": "Yield management",
"section": "Section::::Use by industry.:Airlines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The airline needs to keep a specific number of seats in reserve to cater to the probable demand for high-fare seats. This process can be managed by inventory controls or by managing the fare rules such as the AP (Advanced Purchase) restrictions. (30 day advance purchase, 21 day advance purchase, 14 day advance purchase, 7 day advance purchase, day of departure/walk up fares) The price of each seat varies directly with the number of seats reserved, that is, the fewer seats that are reserved for a particular category, the lower the price of each seat. This will continue until the price of seat in the premium class equals that of those in the concession class. Depending on this, a floor price (lower price) for the next seat to be sold is set.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52444382",
"title": "Operations management for services",
"section": "Section::::Operations decisions.:Capacity and scheduling.:Revenue management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Revenue management is unique to services, since capacity is perishable. This applies to the airline industry. When the plane leaves the runway, empty seats generate no revenue, but the cost of the flight is almost the same. As a result, mathematical models have been formulated to allocate capacity at various prices and times as the flight is booked in advance. Initially, a certain number of seats are reserved for first class, coach, premium coach and various other categories. Based on the elasticity of demand, seats prices are lowered at the last minute in order to fill empty seats and maximize the revenue of the flight. Similar models have also been developed for revenue management in hotels, where the capacity is also perishable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428422",
"title": "Low-cost carrier",
"section": "Section::::Business model.:Pricing policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The pricing policy of the low-cost carriers is usually very dynamic, with discounts and tickets in promotion. Like other carriers, even if the advertised price may be very low, it often does not include charges and taxes. With some airlines, some flights are advertised as free (plus applicable taxes, fees and charges). Depending on the airline, perhaps as many (or as few) as ten percent of the seats on any flight are offered at the lowest price and are the first to sell. The prices steadily rise thereafter to a point where they can be comparable or more expensive than a flight on a full-service carrier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11487108",
"title": "Airline consolidator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Consolidators enter contracts with major carriers to sell at reduced prices to niche markets, the main benefit being that fares through consolidators will be lower than published rates available from the airlines themselves. Consolidators normally do not buy the seats in bulk for resale, they sell the available seats at contracted rates. Airlines normally preset the selling rates for these fares for sale to sub-agents and to end customers, thereby ensuring that the fares are not undercut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c07io
|
Part 1: What causes a person with Tourette's to shout obscenities? Part 2: What would happen if they never learned any curse words?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would just like to point out that not all verbal tics are curse words— [here is an article about a woman with Tourette's Syndrome who involuntarily says the word \"biscuit\" ~900 times an hour.](_URL_0_) The article also mentions that\n\n > \"Fewer than 10 percent of all patients [with Tourette's] swear or use socially inappropriate words.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1386741",
"title": "Clinomorphism",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Tourette's syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The typical clinomorphism of Tourette's is both an oversimplification and a conflation of various aspects and conditions pertaining to some persons with Tourette syndrome. Some people with Tourette syndrome do have involuntary offensive speech which is termed coprolalia and is sometimes clinomorphised into the term \"compulsive swearing\" or \"compulsive profanity\", terms which have clinomorphic currency outside the use of the term \"Tourette's\". However, coprolalia is actually a relatively rare symptom of Tourette's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33907100",
"title": "Recurring Saturday Night Live characters and sketches introduced 2007–2008",
"section": "Section::::Judy Grimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Judy Grimes is Weekend Update's Travel Expert, played by Kristen Wiig. Grimes suffers from extreme stage fright, causing her to appear visibly nervous and talk in long, fast-paced sentences; she often uses the phrase \"just kidding\" to punctuate her run-on sentences. In her first appearance she talked in small portions and laughed nervously throughout them, but now it has shifted into very long parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49474587",
"title": "List of The Phantom Tollbooth characters",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Minor Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "BULLET::::- Faintly Macabre, (or Aunt Faintly), the Not-So-Wicked Which. When she regulated all words used in public, she became so stingy with them that people became afraid to talk at all. She tells Milo that she can be released from the dungeon with the return of Rhyme and Reason. (She isn't seen at the end of the book, so whether she was released or not is never resolved.) Also Juster's comment \"witches hate loud noises\" was only a plot device that he made up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233407",
"title": "Glossary of British terms not widely used in the United States",
"section": "Section::::W.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 663,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 663,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "BULLET::::- whinge : (informal) complain, whine, especially repeated complaining about minor things (e.g. \"Stop whingeing\" meaning \"stop complaining\"); cognate with \"whine\", originated in Scottish and Northern English in the 12th century. Hence \"whinger\" (derogatory), someone who complains a lot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1026330",
"title": "This Morning with Richard Not Judy",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "\"Curse you, God, for making me this way!\" – A feature of a recurring theme in the series, where someone would be laughed at (in a surreal fashion) due to a misfortune. The victim of the ridicule would always say this, while shaking his or her fists at the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2755038",
"title": "Touch-Tone Terrorists",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "BULLET::::- Junkyard Willie Robinson: A gravelly-voiced African-American man with a bad attitude. He is known for launching off into litanies of curse words and Ebonics, then filibustering during the arguments that ensue. He frequently threatens to \"pee in yo gas tank\" and tells customers to \"calm yo ass down!\" Also often uses variations of phrases that include \"jive turkey\", \"talkin' trash\", and \"old bag\". Willie is from Compton, California, and used to be an operator of a junkyard where he would shine hubcaps. According to at least one tirade against an irate customer, he claims to have been a Drill instructor in the Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6637811",
"title": "'S Up",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Later, an old woman in the shop hears Richie talking to himself and inquires if he is mad, to which Richie responds by threatening to punch her. Then a doctor arrives to buy three bottles of champagne, but makes Richie angry when he calls him \"assistant.\" Richie is in desperation with the state of the nation when Eddie suggests they go up to the roof and watch cricket. Eddie sets up a bell on the door so they know when people are entering the shop. Richie refuses to watch the cricket because he feels responsible for watching the shop, but then changes his mind when the same little old woman comes back with her big tattooed son who punches Richie in the face for threatening her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ekuabf
|
why can't we use the ocean to dump onto fires?
|
[
{
"answer": "So... What about an intercontinental seawater highway? Or a water version of the electric grid? Could we, over time, create a set of pipes (an interconnected series of tubes perhaps? ;-) ), that carry sea water across the nation? Desalinization is still a problem, but it sounds like transporting the water is another problem that could be solved. If we had a water grid, desalinization facilities could be feeders off this grid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the recent California wild fires I saw planes and helicopters picking up water from the ocean to fight fires. They treat it to be a reddish color with a fire retardant then drop it from the buckets or fuselage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would it take too long to desalinate the water before dumping it on the fire?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In some cases we do. My city has powerful backup pumps that can draw directly from the bay in an emergency. The fireboats also pump saltwater directly. I believe the water bombers will use salt water if it is what is closest but it is rarely so.\n \nThen there's the matter of pressure. A million gallons of water does no good if you have no way to get it onto the fire. The civil water system is typically gravity fed which provides extremely reliable and consistent pressure. For the amount of water usually needed to fight fires, it is much easier to just tap off the municipal system than to built an entire parallel network of standpipes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This problem is recurring right? after the fire everything grows back. Use salt water to impede the rapid re growth. Don't use it on pastures of course. \n Here's a thought they use dynamite or some type of explosive to extinguish oil well fire's right (by creating a vacuum) . How about using a daisy cutter/other ordinaance or two to create the same effect",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Saltwater changes the pH of soil and can really hinder the regrowth of plant communities. \n\nIf you consider an area that seldom receives rain then you have a very long time before enough freshwater (rain) has fallen to restore soil chemistry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes you can. There are planes like the CL-415 (scooper) that can skim along the surface and pick up water. \n\nRough conditions (windy, large waves) will not allow the planes to do this. \n\nThe salt in the water can eat away at metal, so the equipment would need to be clean thoroughly after. \n\nThe planes only pick up 2000 or so gallons at a time, so unless the fire was right near the coast, and the ocean the only water source, it would not be a good choice for a water source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can and we do. A lot of harbors have firefighting boats that pump seawater on fires. That has limited reach.\n\nThe farther you get from the coast, the more complex the logistics get. Do you pick up the water and dump on the fire? There are planes that do that, but the loads are very limited. Do you pump the seawater to where the fires are? Very slow to deploy this type of system.\n\nThe reality is that if the fires are not very close to the coast, it is very complicated to put them out with seawater.\n\nForest fires are contained by cutting clear around the burning area to stop the fire from expanding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Why can't we use the ocean to dump onto fires?\n\nWe can, and do. However, most fires do not happen near oceans, so it's not a practical technique most of the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You absolutely can, but it's largely governed by proximity of water sources to the fire. We will take water from the best nearby source. If that's the ocean or a saltwater body of water, so be it. Source: firefighter and operator with NSW aviation command.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21009",
"title": "Marsh gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In some cases there is sufficient heat, fuel, and oxygen to allow spontaneous combustion and underground fires to smolder for some considerable time, as has occurred at a natural reserve in Spain. Such fires can cause surface subsidence, presenting an unpredictable physical hazard as well as environmental changes or damage to the local environment and the ecosystem it supports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22095849",
"title": "Fire-float Pyronaut",
"section": "Section::::Fire-floats in Bristol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "When ships loaded with valuable cargoes are berthed together in crowded docks surrounded by warehouses, a fire can be disastrous. Although land-based fire-engines are able to reach much of the fire ground, waterborne fire-engines, or fire-floats, can fight the fire from the water (outside the UK fire-floats are commonly known as fireboats).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147954",
"title": "Goiás",
"section": "Section::::Ecological issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1182,
"text": "Air pollution from smoke due to intentionally set fires are also a major problem, especially during the dry season. Fire has been a way of life for ranchers and land-owners for many decades, burning grass and vegetation to clear their property for various reasons. While the same result could be achieved by using hand tools or tractors to clear the land, fire is a cheaper, easier and highly efficient method. Recently, a law was passed banning intentional burning, however, it's not enforced by local law enforcement, and thus intentional burning continues. During the early part of the dry season, local fire departments don't recognize these fires as a life or safety hazard and thus do not respond to extinguish them. Commonly these fires burn through empty lots with low intensity next to and around homes and businesses, bumping the walls and property lines and jumping from lot to lot and across roads. However, most buildings are constructed of brick or masonry, and there is no threat of the structures catching fire when flames impinge on them. As the dry season continues and grasses cure and vegetation dries out, fires become very large in scale and are more intense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1493346",
"title": "Fire control",
"section": "Section::::Class-B fires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Some Class B fires (hydrocarbons, petroleums, and fuels on fire) cannot be efficiently controlled with water. Fuels with a specific gravity less than water, such as gasoline or oil, float on water, resulting in the fire continuing in the fuel on top of the water. The application of a combination of fire suppressant foam mixed with water is a common and effective method of forming a blanket on top of the liquid fuel which eliminates the oxygen needed for combustion.The configuration of some fuels, such as coal and baled waste paper, result in a deep seated and burrowing fire, resulting in less effective fire control by the application of water on the outer surfaces of the fuel. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33306",
"title": "Water",
"section": "Section::::Effects on human civilization.:Human uses.:Fire considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. It is dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents, because many organic materials float on water and the water tends to spread the burning liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5987",
"title": "Coal",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Sea coal continues to accumulate on beaches around the world from both natural erosion of exposed coal seams and windswept spills from cargo ships. Many homes in such areas gather sea coal as a significant, and sometimes primary, source of home heating fuel. Scavenging sea coal for heating is still commonplace on both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187359",
"title": "Campfire",
"section": "Section::::Extinguishing the fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "If water is scarce, sand is used to deprive the fire of oxygen. Sand works well, but is less effective than water at absorbing heat. Once the fire is covered thoroughly with sand, water is then added over the fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tt0j9
|
Tuesday Trivia | Missing and Destroyed Documents
|
[
{
"answer": "I wouldn't say it's destroyed (yet), but a lot of Phil Weigand's data is unpublished. Things like aerial photography from before agriculture became more intensive. Locations of looted shaft tombs and guachimontones. Profile drawings of looters pits in structures and tombs. Samples of ceramics from these looted sites. Even drawings of the sites he visited which were sometimes just sketches. His wife currently has all this data as far as we know, but she's not willing to let anyone look at it or see it unless you are going to enshrine Phil in the process. It's a shame, really. He was collecting data since the late 60s up until his death in 2011. We may never fully recover all the data he collected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A number of the papers and documentation related to Anne Boleyn's trial, and that of her brother George and the other four men charged with adultery, are missing or destroyed. For example, no record remains the deposition Jane Boleyn, George's wife, apparently gave, which was a large part of the Crown's evidence against George and Anne.\n\nWith so much of the trial documentation missing, we still don't conclusively know whether Anne was guilty of some or all of the charges laid against her, though most historians now lean towards her innocence. (In contrast, Katherine Howard, Henry's fifth wife and Anne Boleyn's cousin, was almost definitely guilty of adultery on the face of the evidence.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "18 and a half minute gap in the Nixon tapes . . . .\n\nEDIT: Seriously though, the closing of the Chicago Municipal Reference Library is tragic not only for historians of the city but for historians of America. Though much was shifted to the Harold Washington Public Library, documents lost include:\n > The only collection of documents from other taxing bodies in Cook County, municipal codes pre-dating the 1871 Chicago fire, census information from 1890 to the present, original bids and contracts on construction of the airport transit systems, city planning documents, five-year plans for capital improvements, annual reports from every city department, maps of most underground conduits and above-ground airways, two million clippings from all daily newspapers in the area and 23 community and ethnic newspapers.\n\nWahhhhhhhhh. For the deets: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In October of 1833, William Henry Fox Talbot was visiting Lake Como, Italy and attempting to make sketches using a Camera Lucida. Unsuccessful, he began to think of another way to capture the image. He wrote a note to remind himself of potential experimentation on the idea of capturing an image. This essentially marked the first time William Henry Fox Talbot, the inventor of the Calotype, thought about any sort of photographic process. Since then, the note has been lost, but Talbot transcribed it into one of his many journals a couple months after writing the original note. The journal reads:\n\n > Nitrate of Silver. Wash a sheet of paper with it. Place a leaf of fennel or other of complicated form upon it. Press it down with a pane of glass - when blackened with the sunshine place it in something that will alter its property of blackening - qu. Prussiate of potash? Sulp. Acid. Mur Soda. Carb. Soda. Instead of the leaf try several bits of coloured glass - thus a silhouette might be taken, especially in a dark room.\n\n\nThese early ideas for experimentation are what led Talbot to create one of the first photographic processes in our history. I, personally, just think it would be interesting to see and preserve the note. Mostly because it could be labeled as a starting point for the experimentation of the Calotype.\n\n[Source:](_URL_0_) Roger Watson, Helen Rappaport. *Capturing the Light.* New York: St Martins Press. 91-94",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many silent films from the silent film era are (unfortunately) deemed lost. It's really sad to think that there are thousands of hours of film that no longer exist. There may have been movie stars that we have very little or no record of studying. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Letters are excellent sources for the study of late antiquity and the massive *Register* of Pope Gregory the Great stands out even today due to the range of topics covered. He corresponded with emperors, kings and heretics from across the Christian world, making it an outstanding source for the end of the sixth century. Unfortunately, his successors' letter-collections were not preserved in a similar way and we have to make do with only a small number of letters preserved principally in the records of church councils (such as from the Lateran Synod of 649, the Ecumenical Council of 680 and the gazillion Councils of Toledo in Spain), so we get the impression that popes after Gregory were seemingly only interested in doctrinal issues, not political and administrative matters, which was obviously not the case. What is particularly fascinating is the fact that the seventh century was an extended crisis for the Byzantine Empire and that we have no contemporary Greek histories or chronicles to tell us what happened, so we have to reconstruct events from religious and non-Greek sources. From the sources we have, the papacy emerges as a shadowy power acting behind the scenes of major revolts and religious controversies, which I think is a very dramatic demonstration of how western bishops were still intimately involved in Byzantine affairs. \n\nSo what do we know? Pope Honorius I in the 630s had agreed to the monothelete doctrine proposed by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople, an act that must have angered many Chalcedonians in the west, yet from the sources we only hear of eastern dissidents. The papacy then did a volte-face after Honorius' death and condemned monotheletism openly from 640 onwards, which in my opinion directly caused a revolt by the Byzantine governor of North Africa in 646 - what wouldn't I give to read the letters exchanged between Rome and Africa at this time! Pope Theodore I also began to prepare for a synod to be held in Rome to condemn monotheletism, which was again a giant slap to the face of Constantinople. From the list of attendees, it is clear that it was an overwhelmingly Italian synod, yet records also indicate that there was support from Francia and Visigothic Spain, so why were there no attendees from the west? \n\nTheodore died before the council was held, so Martin I became the pope chairing the treasonous proceedings. A Byzantine exarch was sent to arrest the pope in the synod's aftermath, but for some reason the exarch turned against the emperor and began a civil war in Italy on the pope's side in 652! Again, we only have a few hints of what happened in this revolt; we have a few letters from Martin urging bishops across Christendom to side with him, so I do wonder to what extent did he urge for secular officials to join his side too. A bit later there were purges within the Byzantine aristocracy that can plausibly be tied to this too, so my pet theory is that the anti-monotheletes' influence was widespread across the empire and took years to be completely wiped out.\n\nThe exarch died soon after and Martin was arrested (for realsies) in 653. The next two popes were pro-imperial candidates imposed on Rome and they swiftly reconciled with the heretical emperor Constans II. This period is perhaps even less known, since both the papacy and the emperor after 680 (when monotheletism was condemned as a heresy) had no interest in preserving what happened in those years. Still, the hints we have are absolutely fascinating, since it looks like a North African monk served as an imperial ambassador to Francia and was seemingly involved in a plot to bring down Burgundy, whilst another monk, Theodore of Tarsus (incidentally one of the dissidents in 649), was appointed by the pro-imperial Pope Vitalian to the archbishopric of Canterbury. Was Constans II trying to extend imperial influence to Francia and beyond through the papacy? Was he trying to heal the wounds made by rebellious popes from the 650s? All these questions would be answered if only more papal letters survived...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Of the lost works of Archimedes of Syracuse that we know about, the most intriguing to me is *On Sphere-Making*, mentioned in Book VIII of the *Collection* by Pappus of Alexandria (see Chapter 3 in S. Cuomo, *Pappus of Alexandria and the Mathematics of Late Antiquity*). This apparently contains a description of a miniature planetarium Archimedes built, \"a sphere constructed so as to imitate the motions of the sun, the moon, and the five planets in the heavens.\" (Heath, *[The Works of Archimedes](_URL_1_)*, p. xxi). \n\nHere is an excerpt from a description, from Cicero's *De Re Publica*, of a device which he says was Archimedes' \"sphere\" (source and commentary [here](_URL_2_)):\n > But when Gallus began to give a very learned explanation of the device, I concluded that the famous Sicilian had been endowed with greater genius than one would imagine it possible for a human being to possess. [...] this newer kind of\nglobe, he said, on which were delineated the motions of the sun and moon and of those five stars which are called wanderers [the five visible planets], or, as we might say, rovers, contained more than could be shown on the solid globe, and the invention of Archimedes deserved special admiration because he had thought out a way to represent accurately by a single device for turning the globe those various and divergent movements with their different rates of speed.\n\nIt's likely that the contents would bring us some clarity on the mysteries surrounding the [Antikythera mechanism](_URL_3_).\n\nSpeaking of Archimedes and lost works, Johan Heiberg's discovery of the [Archimedes palimpsest](_URL_0_) is an extraordinary lost-and-found story. The codex contains several works by Archimedes, some of which were previously thought to be lost, hidden under a 13-th century Christian religious text. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although a lot of the data has been published so I can't be too upset, the sheer pointlessness of the destruction of the [Nemi ships](_URL_0_) still gets to me. It is also a little frustrating that there is no real certainty over who was to blame, although to be frank the Allies' explanation always struck me as a little mustache-twirly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I deal with formerly classified documents pretty much every day. Government secrecy makes the terms \"missing\" and \"destroyed\" a little tricky to use, because they may be effectively missing and destroyed to most historians, but in reality they are often just being denied to us. Some secret documents do go missing, however, because they get misplaced or misfiled within the gargantuan government bureaucracy that at one point was trying to keep them secret, even if they no longer contain secret information in them. In fact, when it comes to secret documents, being misplaced is more common than being destroyed, because legally you cannot detroy secret documents without leaving a large paper trail — so that means that the documents are usually preserved, _if_ anyone can figure out where they are preserved.\n\nAnyway, on my blog not too long ago I wrote a series of very long posts about my hunt for, eventually success at finding (through unorthodox archival practice), and frustrations with declassification, regarding the legendary unredacted copies of the security hearing of J. Robert Oppenheimer. [Here is the link to part I](_URL_1_), where I describe why I started looking for them and how I found them. [Here is the link to part II](_URL_0_), where I analyze the new transcripts for what they do (and don't) tell us about the Oppenheimer case.\n\nSeparately, a few years back [I wrote about a case where the US government \"lost\" about 4 million pages of secrets](_URL_2_) through misfiling. It happens more often than one might think, if one thought (erroneously) that the US government was very good at keeping track of large amounts of historical paperwork (it is not).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i do a lot of work in the history of islam in america and we lack a ton of valuable documents for most groups that started before 1950, especially african american groups.\n\nI'd say some of the biggest things that scholars would want are:\n\nA) any writings connected to W.D. Fard, the founder of the Nation of Islam (a few of his supposed letters are circulating, though). I think number one on his list would be a book that police found and that was supposedly written by him, entitled \"the bible of islamism\". Also, it would be great if any of the supposedly hundreds of letters written TO him that the police found came up one day. Karl Evanzz supposedly got the Detroit field office FBI file on the NOI which supposedly had details that no other document contained, including info from the local police's files after they arrested original members. However, evanzz gave his papers to Howard Univ, and when I made a request for the Detroit file, they couldn't find it in the collection.\n\nB) documents related to other early black groups such as Satti Majid's Moslem Welfare Society and Abdul Hamid Suleiman's Canaanite Temple (and of course Noble Drew Ali's 1913 Moorish Temple). Of particular value would be the State Department records of the 1922 Shriner push to have Suleiman investigated. Unfortunately, the State Dept says they can't find it. \n\nOther than that, I am proud to say that I recently discovered a document, tucked away in an extremely rare microfilm collection, that no one ever had any idea existed before: A letter used for organizing the very first Sufi group in the US (pre-Inayat Khan)--and perhaps the first Sufi group for ANY modern white europeans/americans ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > As an archivist, it pains me to admit this, but sometimes humanity’s records don’t survive.\n\nMy reasoning for suggesting this topic is was to talk about an instance where missing documents can actually be a good thing, in some sense.\n\nI'm talking about the mountains of documents about Chinese immigration which were destroyed during the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake. On the one hand, these documents would have been invaluable resources for quantitative historical research on early China-to-U.S. immigration of Chinese people. However, the destruction of the documents made life easier for a lot of Chinese people.\n\nSince corroborating documents were all destroyed, Chinese people living in the U.S. that claimed to be natural citizens essentially had to be taken at their world by the federal government. While I can't find an academic citation for this number, I've heard it claimed that if everyone who came forward as a natural citizen actually was, it would have required every Chinese woman to give birth to 800 people. At any rate, it was a widespread phenomenon, allowing Chinese immigrants the ability to secure a lot more rights, all possible only because of the destruction of a massive stack of documents.\n\nThis all had a trickle-down effect to--with so many Chinese claiming natural citizenship, they were then able to import their children. Oftentimes these didn't end up actually being \"their\" children, I've written on the 'paper sons' phenomenon before. The gist is that Chinese-American citizens would sell native Chinese children the right to claim they were the Chinese-American person's children, and thus have a chance at immigrating to the U.S. that way.\n\nLord knows how many fewer Chinese citizens the U.S. would have had in the early 20th Century if it hadn't been for that fateful destruction during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For many documents in my field, it was not that they have been lost, but they were never recovered in the first place. Many African-American newspapers were never saved beyond a few years past their original publication date and thus major sources of ethnic communities have been lost. In addition to seemingly simple sources of history such as newspapers, the whole of African-American history is being tainted by a lack of primary sources, oral interviews are hard to come by (in part due to the traumatic events associated with their communities) and the problems with literacy that were endemic early on leave few letters and diaries in some areas. One thing that actually comes to mind where an important series of artifacts being saved was the donation of the [Richard Samuel Roberts photographic plates](_URL_0_) to the University of South Carolina. Roberts was an African-American photographer in the 1920's and 30's specializing in photographing African-American people and society. After his death, all the remaining glass plates were placed under the house for saving. It was not until the late 1970's that researchers were able to locate and preserve the plates, as well as reprint them in their entirety, has conditions been slightly different, or it had taken longer to recover, these important images would've been lost. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most important letter signed by Soekarno, dubbed Supersemar (Surat Peritah Sebelas Maret) or the March 11^th Command Letter that gave birth to New Order and ended the era of Soekarno is... not really lost, but there are three different versions that are being kept in National Archive right now, and are believe to be [fake.](_URL_0_)\n\nFirst version was issued by the Secretary with Garuda letterhead, was short and to the point. \n\nThe second was issued by the Army with Garuda letterhead, stating Soeharto as Revolution General and added one more command while embellishing the first command. \n\nThe third doesn't have any letterhead whatsoever or any information who issued it, and Soekarno's sign is also slightly different than the other two. \n\nPresident's formal letterhead should be stars with cotton and rice-paddy and not Garuda.\n\nThe letter supposedly gave all the rights for Soeharto, our second president, to take any means necessary to quell the dire situations pasca Indonesian Communist Party riot and subsequent purge. \n\nSoeharto then used this letter as justification for massacring Communist Party members and every person who had ever donated money to the party (mostly Chinese - Indonesian), executed fifteen Soekarno's loyalist generals, and suppressed media's news report at the time. \n\nA year later, Soeharto became President without election. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1621609",
"title": "Abraham Firkovich",
"section": "Section::::Collections.:The Odessa Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Some of these documents deteriorated due to chemical treatment performed by Firkovich. Other documents which were suspected forgeries disappeared; Firkovich claimed they had been stolen. The collection was moved to the Imperial Public Library in 1863.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42484736",
"title": "Gazi Husrev-beg Library",
"section": "Section::::Destruction and safekeeping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "In 1697, an Austrian general Eugene of Savoy, raided the library, destroying many historical works. Some of the most important documents to be lost were the Sarajevo court registers, chronicalling land ownership, marriages, and other important legal events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44380604",
"title": "State Archive Service of Ukraine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "There were a number of rumors about stealing precious documents from state archives. Some of them were available on international auctions like eBay. Most notable cases were in Lviv and Kharkiv archives. It's not clear of how many documents were stolen and absent at the moment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6262635",
"title": "Constitution of Wisconsin",
"section": "Section::::Original document.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The first to discover the original document was missing was historian Lyman Draper, who tried unsuccessfully to locate it in 1882. The topic was first reported by the \"Milwaukee Sentinel\" in 1917, and subsequently reported by many other news outlets over the years, including Madison's \"Capital Times\" in 1935.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11195385",
"title": "Rekidai Hōan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "It is believed that the documents were first formally compiled in 1697 from documents kept at the Naha Tempi Palace. Some documents were already lost at this time, and copies contained errors. It is not known whether the documents had been kept separately or bound prior to this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53906118",
"title": "International Archives for the Women's Movement",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent recoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "Bosch and Everard spent four days in Moscow and inventoried 203 dossiers containing 28,051 documents, discovering hundreds of pictures dated to the 1890s. They found a large portion of Manus' documents but also noted that the collection did not represent the entirety of the stolen artifacts, as most of the 150 periodicals and all of the 4,500 books of the pre-war IAV were absent. When the delays caused concern that the IAV archives might not be returned quickly, the International Institute for Social History microfilmed 14 reels of 33,663 individual images, making the documents accessible once again. Though officials continued to press for the return of the documents bureaucracy delayed any action until an announced 2001 visit by Queen Beatrix to Russia. Finally in January 2002, twenty-two boxes of materials were returned to the Netherlands. Nine boxes, including some of the IAV records were retained because they had not been properly processed. In March 2003, the final nine boxes were sent, and rejoined the archival collection in May.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1265342",
"title": "Academic dishonesty",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "If never formally retracted, fraudulent publications can remain an issue for many years as articles and books remain on shelves and continue to be cited. The case of S. Walter Poulshock, a 1960s early-career historian whose work was found to contain wholly fabricated material, was exposed in 1966 with the \"American Historical Review\" providing a warning on the topic. Nonetheless, his book was never removed from the shelves of many university libraries and (together with his related thesis) was still being cited in 2013, 47 years after it was intended to have been withdrawn by its publisher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
319yt6
|
To what extent was the Japanese government aware of the Manhattan project or similar nuclear weapons project prior to the deployment of the nuclear bombs during WWII? Was there any awareness that such a thing was possible?
|
[
{
"answer": "Practically all physicists knew that atomic bombs were theoretically possible after the discovery of nuclear fission and the nuclear chain reaction in the early months of 1939. Most thought that they were a technology that was not going to emerge for another decade or so, and if they were interested in chain reactions, they focused on the possibility of using them to generate power, which is a much easier problem than that of a bomb. The idea of atomic bombs had been \"in the air\" in a general, science-fiction sense since 1914, but certainly by 1939 they were a common trope in \"gee whiz\" newspaper and magazine stories. When fission was discovered there was plenty of press about its possibilities, though, again, scientists had long grown skeptical about the idea of being able to release atomic energy on an industrial or military scale, because most of the discussion of it had been uninformed nonsense, and there were many technical factors that were still unknown (and, had nature differed in tiny, almost imperceptible ways, would make such weapons impossible, or at least unlikely in the near term). \n\nThe Japanese had a small nuclear project that looked into both of these possibilities. So they were aware of the theoretical potentials, though they also recognized that to develop even the power option would require creating an entirely new industry from scratch, and involve a lot of risk, and that developing a weapons option would be even more difficult.\n\nAs for specific awareness of an Allied projects, there is no evidence that anyone in Japan considered it a real issue. The Japanese scientists concluded that even the Americans would have a tough time of making a nuclear weapon. (They were right — it wasn't easy.) They seem to have made no serious effort to find out whether it was true, however. If they had, I suspect they would have quickly figured out that the United States was expending vast resources on the subject — there was a lot of evidence in plain sight, in the form of leaks and mysterious disappearances (all of the nuclear physicists stopped publishing, for example). But Japanese intelligence in the US mainland was terrible, on the whole, so I tend to just chalk up this lacunae to that fact. \n\nI have never found any evidence that the Germans had much of an indication of the American bomb project either. [I have written on this question a bit here](_URL_0_). Basically, from what sources I have available to me (which are not complete, to be sure), it seems the Germans believed that they were far ahead of the Americans with regards to fission research. They did send information to German spies asking them to look into the question but the very questions they asked indicated that they thought it was small-scale and probably not very sophisticated. (The spies were immediately caught — the Germans also had poor intelligence in the mainland USA.) \n\nThe Soviets are a different story. They had indirect indications of an American bomb project — they noticed that the people who were working on fission right before the war suddenly vanished — and they also had volunteer spies (moles) in both the UK and US portions of the fission work. They had an extensive overview of the project as well as knowledge of many specific technical details as a result, from very early on. So it was not unexpected at all for them.\n\nAs for other countries, one of my favorite episodes is when a group of Indian physicists showed up to the United States during the war and started asking around to find out where the uranium was being enriched. The Manhattan Project security people quickly found them and asked them where they had gotten such an idea. The Indians (quite indignant about being interrogated) told them it was obvious to any competent physicist that this was something the United States must be doing. They were told to stop asking questions and released. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19603",
"title": "Manhattan Project",
"section": "Section::::Foreign intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project. It was believed that the Japanese nuclear weapons program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a bombing and sabotage campaign was carried out against heavy water plants in German-occupied Norway. A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2), to investigate enemy scientific developments. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons. The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General George V. Strong, appointed Boris Pash to command the unit, which was codenamed \"Alsos\", a Greek word meaning \"grove\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97830",
"title": "Nuclear technology",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Ultimately, the Manhattan Project manufactured nuclear weapons based on each of these elements. They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a test code-named \"Trinity\", near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945. The test was conducted to ensure that the implosion method of detonation would work, which it did. A uranium bomb, Little Boy, was dropped on the Japanese city Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, followed three days later by the plutonium-based Fat Man on Nagasaki. In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53374",
"title": "Strategic bombing",
"section": "Section::::History and origins.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "The final development of strategic bombing in World War II was the use of nuclear weapons. On August 6 and 9, 1945, the United States exploded the nuclear bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing 105,000 people and inflicting a psychological shock on the Japanese nation. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan, stating: \"Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is indeed incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should We continue to fight, it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are We to save the millions of Our subjects; or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252881",
"title": "Operation Downfall",
"section": "Section::::Planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "At the time, the development of the atomic bomb was a very closely guarded secret (not even then-Vice President Harry Truman knew of its existence until he became President), known only to a few top officials outside the Manhattan Project, and the initial planning for the invasion of Japan did not take its existence into consideration. Once the atomic bomb became available, General Marshall envisioned using it to support the invasion if sufficient numbers could be produced in time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242883",
"title": "History of nuclear weapons",
"section": "Section::::From Los Alamos to Hiroshima.:Decision to drop the bomb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "After hearing arguments from scientists and military officers over the possible use of nuclear weapons against Japan (though some recommended using them as demonstrations in unpopulated areas, most recommended using them against built up targets, a euphemistic term for populated cities), Truman ordered the use of the weapons on Japanese cities, hoping it would send a strong message that would end in the capitulation of the Japanese leadership, and avoid a lengthy invasion of the islands. Truman and his Secretary of State James F. Byrnes were also intent on ending the Pacific war before the Soviets could enter it, given that Roosevelt had promised Stalin control of Manchuria if he joined the invasion. On May 10–11, 1945, the Target Committee at Los Alamos, led by Oppenheimer, recommended Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama, and Kokura as possible targets. Concerns about Kyoto's cultural heritage led to it being replaced by Nagasaki.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19603",
"title": "Manhattan Project",
"section": "Section::::Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.:Bombings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians. Some questioned whether an \"atomic diplomacy\" would not have attained the same goals and disputed whether the bombings or the Soviet declaration of war on Japan was decisive. The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee's scientific panel. The Szilárd petition, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning President Harry S. Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1917497",
"title": "Nuclear weapons debate",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the Manhattan Project were divided over the use of the weapon. Some—notably a number at the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, represented in part by Leó Szilárd—lobbied early on that the atomic bomb should only be built as a deterrent against Nazi Germany getting a bomb, and should not be used against populated cities. The Franck Report argued in June 1945 that instead of being used against a city, the first atomic bomb should be \"demonstrated\" to the Japanese on an uninhabited area. This recommendation was not agreed with by the military commanders, the Los Alamos Target Committee (made up of other scientists), or the politicians who had input into the use of the weapon. Because the Manhattan Project was considered to be \"top secret\", there was no public discussion of the use of nuclear arms, and even within the U.S. government, knowledge of the bomb was extremely limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mrfm6
|
What causes absorption of right- or left- circularly polarized light by chiral molecules?
|
[
{
"answer": "The difference between molecules of left and right chirality is exactly the same as the difference between left and right circularly polarized light- a mirror symmetry.\n\nThe reason that a non-chiral molecule cannot reflect the two polarizations differently is because that molecule has a mirror symmetry- it remains the same if we mirror it. If we take the scattering of the left-handed light and mirror it, we get the scattering of the right-handed light. Since the physical interaction (electromagnetism) obeys mirror symmetry, this tells us that the amplitude for scattering left-handed and right-handed light is the same.\n\nBut this isn't true for a chiral molecule- if we take the picture of a left-chiral molecule scattering left-handed light, and mirror it, we get the picture of a right-chiral molecule scattering right-handed light. Mirror symmetry says that those two things should be the same. Similarly, the amplitude for left-chiral molecules to scatter right-handed light should be the same as the amplitude for right-chiral molecules to scatter left-handed light.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer lies in the polarized nature of the electric and magnetic fields induced by the light. Polarized light, like all light, will induce magnetic and electric dipoles within the matter it interacts with. These induced dipoles are distortions of the electron clouds around the molecule, and can thus be seen by looking at the absorbance spectra of chiral molecules using polarized light.\n\nSo polarized light will preferentially induce a directional dipole (probably poor language) in the molecule. Because of their chiral nature, chiral molecules have unique dipole moments that lead to absorption.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difference between molecules of left and right chirality is exactly the same as the difference between left and right circularly polarized light- a mirror symmetry.\n\nThe reason that a non-chiral molecule cannot reflect the two polarizations differently is because that molecule has a mirror symmetry- it remains the same if we mirror it. If we take the scattering of the left-handed light and mirror it, we get the scattering of the right-handed light. Since the physical interaction (electromagnetism) obeys mirror symmetry, this tells us that the amplitude for scattering left-handed and right-handed light is the same.\n\nBut this isn't true for a chiral molecule- if we take the picture of a left-chiral molecule scattering left-handed light, and mirror it, we get the picture of a right-chiral molecule scattering right-handed light. Mirror symmetry says that those two things should be the same. Similarly, the amplitude for left-chiral molecules to scatter right-handed light should be the same as the amplitude for right-chiral molecules to scatter left-handed light.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer lies in the polarized nature of the electric and magnetic fields induced by the light. Polarized light, like all light, will induce magnetic and electric dipoles within the matter it interacts with. These induced dipoles are distortions of the electron clouds around the molecule, and can thus be seen by looking at the absorbance spectra of chiral molecules using polarized light.\n\nSo polarized light will preferentially induce a directional dipole (probably poor language) in the molecule. Because of their chiral nature, chiral molecules have unique dipole moments that lead to absorption.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "92193",
"title": "Circular dichroism",
"section": "Section::::Physical principles.:Interaction of circularly polarized light with matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Simply put, since circularly polarized light itself is \"chiral\", it interacts differently with chiral molecules. That is, the two types of circularly polarized light are absorbed to different extents. In a CD experiment, equal amounts of left and right circularly polarized light of a selected wavelength are alternately radiated into a (chiral) sample. One of the two polarizations is absorbed more than the other one, and this wavelength-dependent difference of absorption is measured, yielding the CD spectrum of the sample. Due to the interaction with the molecule, the electric field vector of the light traces out an elliptical path after passing through the sample.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92193",
"title": "Circular dichroism",
"section": "Section::::Physical principles.:Interaction of circularly polarized light with matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "When circularly polarized light passes through an absorbing optically active medium, the speeds between right and left polarizations differ (c ≠ c) as well as their wavelength (λ ≠ λ) and the extent to which they are absorbed (ε≠ε). \"Circular dichroism\" is the difference Δε ≡ ε- ε. The electric field of a light beam causes a linear displacement of charge when interacting with a molecule (electric dipole), whereas its magnetic field causes a circulation of charge (magnetic dipole). These two motions combined cause an excitation of an electron in a helical motion, which includes translation and rotation and their associated operators. The experimentally determined relationship between the rotational strength (R) of a sample and the Δε is given by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17973",
"title": "Liquid crystal",
"section": "Section::::Effect of chirality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Chiral phases usually have a helical twisting of the molecules. If the pitch of this twist is on the order of the wavelength of visible light, then interesting optical interference effects can be observed. The chiral twisting that occurs in chiral LC phases also makes the system respond differently from right- and left-handed circularly polarized light. These materials can thus be used as polarization filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1170166",
"title": "Chirality (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The rotation of plane polarized light by chiral substances was first observed by Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1815, and gained considerable importance in the sugar industry, analytical chemistry, and pharmaceuticals. Louis Pasteur deduced in 1848 that this phenomenon has a molecular basis. The term \"chirality\" itself was coined by Lord Kelvin in 1894. Different enantiomers or diastereomers of a compound were formerly called optical isomers due to their different optical properties. At one time, chirality was thought to be associated with organic chemistry, but this misconception was overthrown by the resolution of a purely inorganic compound, hexol, by Alfred Werner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76992",
"title": "Tartaric acid",
"section": "Section::::Stereochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Whereas the two chiral stereoisomers rotate plane polarized light in opposite directions, solutions of meso-tartaric acid do not rotate plane-polarized light. The absence of optical activity is due to a mirror plane in the molecule [segmented line in picture below].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21505767",
"title": "Linear dichroism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Linear dichroism (LD) or diattenuation is the difference between absorption of light polarized parallel and polarized perpendicular to an orientation axis. It is the property of a material whose transmittance depends on the orientation of linearly polarized light incident upon it. As a technique, it is primarily used to study the functionality and structure of molecules. LD measurements are based on the interaction between matter and light and thus are a form of electromagnetic spectroscopy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2722105",
"title": "Polarizer",
"section": "Section::::Circular polarizers.:Absorbing and passing circularly polarized light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "First note that a quarter-wave plate always transforms circularly polarized light into linearly polarized light. It is only the resulting angle of polarization of the linearly polarized light that is determined by the orientation of the fast and slow axes of the quarter-wave plate and the handedness of the circularly polarized light. In the illustration, the left-handed circularly polarized light entering the polarizer is transformed into linearly polarized light which has its direction of polarization along the transmission axis of the linear polarizer and it therefore passes. In contrast right-handed circularly polarized light would have been transformed into linearly polarized light that had its direction of polarization along the absorbing axis of the linear polarizer, which is at right angles to the transmission axis, and it would have therefore been blocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9a2rj
|
[META] Merry (UTC) Christmas and Happy Holidays to AskHistorians! As an extra-special gift from the Asia flairs, we've completely revamped our book recommendation list! Links below!
|
[
{
"answer": "Now we get to the comments thanking the contributors to the list. Firstly, I’d like to give special thanks to three flairs whose contributions are not (at present) immediately apparent on the list itself.\n\n* Firstly I’d like to thank fellow Asia flairs /u/keyilan [Moderator | Historical Linguistics | Languages of Asia](#flair-moderator) and /u/NientedeNada [Late Edo Period | Meiji Restoration](#flair-asia), who were of great help during the initial planning phases in terms of deciding upon what changes to make, from broader issues like the extent of the rewrite to more minute issues of formatting.\n* I’d like to again thank /u/Georgy_K_Zhukov [Moderator | Post-Napoleonic Warfare & Small Arms | Dueling](#flair-moderator) for taking the time to add affiliate links to the doc, as well as more generally for being such a great mod and such a prominent presence on this sub. Rock on, Georgy!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm glad this is out! So will we be able to add more entries to this? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heads up, the links appear to be in edit mode. Reddit gives me a permission error when I try to view the lists. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you for this! Really excited to read some of these and appreciate the hard work you guys put in! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Looks like a great list, I cant wait to dig into the books. Thanks to all the flairs and folks who put in the work to make it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21069658",
"title": "A Long Vacation",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "\"A Long Vacation\" reached number two on the Weekly Oricon Album Chart and was the eighth best-selling album of the 1980s in Japan. The 20th anniversary edition reached number 13 and the 30th anniversary edition peaked at 19. Following Ohtaki's death in December 2013, the 30th anniversary edition jumped to number 25 and the 1991 edition to number 26 in January 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37018454",
"title": "Judy Fong Bates",
"section": "Section::::Works and honours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In 2005, she published \"Midnight at the Dragon Café\", which was recognized in 2006 by the American Library Association as one of the year's notable books, and was subsequently honoured with an Alex Award in 2008, for having special appeal to young adults. In 2011, this book was chosen by the Toronto Public Library as the \"One Book Selection\", as the single work that Torontonians should read within the year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21509023",
"title": "Asia House Festival of Asian Literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The Festival focuses on the newest and best books about Asia or Asians in an annual series of talks and discussions. Featured are fiction and non-fiction, written by Asians or non-Asians, covering a broad selection of Asian countries from the Persian Gulf in the West, to Indonesia in the East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3028528",
"title": "Happy Birthday to You!",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "It deals with a fantastic land called Katroo, where the Birthday Bird throws the reader an amazing party on their special day. It consists of a running description of a fantastical celebration, narrated in the second person, of the reader's birthday, from dawn to late night. The celebration includes fantastical and colorful gifts, foods and a whirl of activities all arranged by the Birthday Bird for the reader's birthday. It focuses on the reader's self-actualization and concludes with the happy and exhausted reader falling blissfully asleep. A popular Seuss paragraph in this book reads: \"Today you are you, that is truer than true. There is no one alive who is youer than you.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50942121",
"title": "Sales Emporium,Publications Division,Trivandrum",
"section": "Section::::India Year Book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "India Year Book is an annual book published by Publications Division.India-2016 is a comprehensive book which covers almost all the fields of General knowledge, Current Affairs, Sports and various important events & Developments occurred in India in the past one year.This book is highly appreciated by everyone due to its authenticity of facts and data.It is highly recommended for students, competitive exam aspirants, research scholars, academicians, and obviously an asset to the personal book shelf. The reference book is available at Sales Emporium, Trivandrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49777668",
"title": "World Editions",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "World Editions was officially launched in January 2015. The first titles were \"Craving\" by Esther Gerritsen translated by Michele Hutchison, \"Gliding Flight\" by Anne-Gine Goemans translated by Nancy Forest-Flier, and \"Saturday’s Shadows\" by Ayesha Harruna Attah. In 2015, World Editions published books translated from the Dutch, Swedish, Icelandic, Russian, Norwegian, and Chinese. In 2016, Turkish, Italian, French, and Spanish were added to the list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2735876",
"title": "Hong Kong Book Fair",
"section": "Section::::History.:2012.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "\"Reading the World, We Read therefore We Know\" was the theme for this year's book fair which started from 18 to 24 July at the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre. 17 renowned writers from the Chinese mainland, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Taiwan and the United States attended the Renowned Writers Seminar Series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yesv7
|
does piracy actually hurt the profit of corporations?
|
[
{
"answer": "If any brainy person with data can answer this well, I hope they also take into consideration the affect of franchise knock-on, which is often not discussed. And arguably makes up a larger long term profit and vertical integration, or market synergy and all that.\n\n\n\n\nFor example people who may pirate a show still love the show and thus buy shirts and toys and the Happy Meal. So missing out on 3 dollars for ad views is nothing compared to the $300 collected from the new Fan.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11401846",
"title": "Thúy Nga Productions",
"section": "Section::::History.:2000–present: Digital piracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the 21st century, however, the company began to lose revenue due to the piracy of the video and album releases, with chief-executive Marie To commenting, \"Profit? We are barely making it.\" Works released by the company are also banned in Vietnam, which has the largest source of pirates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "Section::::Economic impact of copyright infringement.:Economic impact of infringement in emerging markets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Some countries distinguish corporate piracy from private use, which is tolerated as a welfare service. This is the leading reason developing countries refuse to accept or respect copyright laws. Traian Băsescu, the president of Romania, stated that \"piracy helped the young generation discover computers. It set off the development of the IT industry in Romania.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17015903",
"title": "Piracy off the coast of Somalia",
"section": "Section::::Effects and perceptions.:Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1997,
"text": "According to a 2012 investigative piece by the Somalia Report, the OBP paper and other similar reports that attempt to calibrate the global cost of piracy produce inaccurate estimates based on a variety of factors. Most saliently, instead of comparing the actual costs of piracy with the considerable benefits derived from the phenomenon by the maritime industry and local parties capitalizing on capacity-building initiatives, the OBP paper conflated the alleged piracy costs with the large premiums made by insurance companies and lumped them together with governmental and societal costs. The report also exaggerated the impact that piracy has had on the shipping sector, an industry which has grown steadily in size from 25,000 billion tonnes/miles to 35,000 billion tonnes/miles since the rise of Indian Ocean piracy in 2005. Moreover, the global costs of piracy reportedly represent a small fraction of total maritime shipping expenses and are significantly lower than more routine costs, such as those brought on by port theft, bad weather conditions or fuel-related issues. In the United States alone, the National Cargo Security Council estimated that between $10–$15 billion were stolen from ports in 2003, a figure several times higher than the projected global cost of piracy. Additionally, while the OBP paper alleged that pirate activity has had a significantly negative impact on regional economies, particularly the Kenyan tourism industry, tourist-derived revenue in Kenya rose by 32% in 2011. According to the Somalia Report investigation, the OBP paper also did not factor into its calculations the overall decline in successful pirate attacks beginning in the second half of 2011, a downward trend largely brought about by the increasing use of armed guards. According to Admiral Terence E. McKnight, ransom demands and payments have risen exponentially and the financers and pirates decided they are willing to wait as long as it takes to receive \"high seven-figure payouts\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17015903",
"title": "Piracy off the coast of Somalia",
"section": "Section::::Effects and perceptions.:Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A 2011 report by Oceans Beyond Piracy (OBP) suggested that the indirect costs of piracy were much higher and estimated to be between $6.6 to $6.9 billion, as they also included insurance, naval support, legal proceedings, re-routing of slower ships, and individual protective steps taken by ship-owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32721332",
"title": "Media Piracy in Emerging Economies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Media Piracy in Emerging Economies is a report released by the Social Science Research Council in 2011. It contends that “high prices for media goods, low incomes, and cheap digital technologies are the main ingredients of global media piracy. If piracy is ubiquitous in most parts of the world, it is because these conditions are ubiquitous.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50755582",
"title": "Lost sales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The content industry has endorsed studies concluding that the value of lost sales amounts to billions of U.S. dollars. However, other scholars and free culture and copyleft activists argue that the industry figures are grossly inflated, because some, perhaps most, individuals who obtain pirated copies would not have purchased the content, even if the opportunity for piracy did not exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5278",
"title": "Copyright",
"section": "Section::::Enforcement.:Copyright infringement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Statistics regarding the effects of copyright infringement are difficult to determine. Studies have attempted to determine whether there is a monetary loss for industries affected by copyright infringement by predicting what portion of pirated works would have been formally purchased if they had not been freely available. Other reports indicate that copyright infringement does not have an adverse effect on the entertainment industry, and can have a positive effect. In particular, a 2014 university study concluded that free music content, accessed on YouTube, does not necessarily hurt sales, instead has the potential to increase sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44tvzf
|
Why does male pattern baldness follow the pattern it does? i.e. from the top of the head down, often in a perfectly straight circle around the head.
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't. Sometimes the hair line recedes all the way to the back of the head, sometimes a bald spot appears on top of the head and increases in diameter over time. \n\nSometimes there is even a patch at the front that is missed leaving a little island of hair. \n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So it's well knows that male pattern hair loss is due to dht which is the highly potent version of testosterone which is a steroid promoting tissue growth. Ok anyway dht is known to cause thinning of the follicle. There is a theory on the specific pattern and it's called the gravity theory... Goes like this... As men age there is decreased fat in the face and scalp hence less support and the areas that tend to bald are the areas that have the most gravitational pull leading to damage. The damage then requires testosterone for repair leading to a buildup of DHT in the area... Bada Bing bada boom. Of course this is thought to prove but it is absolutely a fact that there is a buildup of DHT in the balding areas compared to the spared areas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19730812",
"title": "Arthropod eye",
"section": "Section::::Genetic controls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The head patterning is controlled by \"orthodenticle\", a homeobox gene which demarcates the segments from the top-middle of the head to the more lateral aspects. The ocelli are in an orthodenticle-rich area, and the gene is not expressed by the time one gets as lateral as the compound eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753112",
"title": "Cowlick",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Hair on the back of the head usually grows in a circular flattened pattern from a central point; this can also occur on facial hair in men. The definition of a whorl is hairs that rotate round an axis. The point where we find the hair whorl is the spot where the hair changes direction. On top of the head hair grows to the front, on the back of the head it grows towards the nape and hair grows to the left and right side of the head on the sides of the head. The hair whorl can be in the center of the head but it can also be located to the left or right side of the head. In the very center of the scalp it will be visible because the hair lies flat. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200129",
"title": "Hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "There are two types of identification tests for female pattern baldness: the Ludwig Scale and the Savin Scale. Both track the progress of diffused thinning, which typically begins on the crown of the head behind the hairline, and becomes gradually more pronounced. For male pattern baldness, the Hamilton–Norwood scale tracks the progress of a receding hairline and/or a thinning crown, through to a horseshoe-shaped ring of hair around the head and on to total baldness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5165199",
"title": "Pattern hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Classic male-pattern hair loss begins above the temples and vertex (calvaria) of the scalp. As it progresses, a rim of hair at the sides and rear of the head remains. This has been referred to as a 'Hippocratic wreath', and rarely progresses to complete baldness. Pattern hair loss is classified as a form of non-scarring hair loss. The Hamilton–Norwood scale has been developed to grade androgenic alopecia in males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3315213",
"title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
"section": "Section::::Skin and hair.:Hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Although men grow hair faster than women, baldness is much more common in males than in females. The main cause for this is \"male pattern baldness\" or androgenic alopecia. Male pattern baldness is a condition where hair starts to get lost in a typical pattern of receding hairline and hair thinning on the crown, and is caused by hormones and genetic predisposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5165199",
"title": "Pattern hair loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Pattern hair loss is hair loss that primarily affects the top and front of the scalp. In male-pattern hair loss (MPHL), the hair loss often presents itself as a receding hairline, while in female-pattern hair loss (FPHL), it typically presents as a thinning of the hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4954971",
"title": "Vipera ammodytes",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "The color pattern is different for males and females. In males, the head has irregular dark brown, dark gray, or black markings. A thick, black stripe runs from behind the eye to behind the angle of the jaw. The tongue is usually black, and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7pxblx
|
how did some neighborhoods in america came to be known as 'black neighborhoods'? is it mainly because of segregation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Housing segregation enforced by redlining and blockbusting and white flight. \n\nSo, you take a neighborhood, and you line it. Red lines are where black people are able to live. Banks would (and still do) deny black people loans to live outside of the red lines, and designate the loans inside of the red lines high risk. Certain towns would also have housing contracts that said that black people weren't able to live there and that no one would sell their houses to a black family. At the same time, one white family moves out of a white neighborhood, and the house is sold to a black family. The other families then leave because black people bring down property values, thus making that neighborhood a red lined one. \n\n\nThere's a good article about Chicago here:\n _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Both official and unofficial segregation, yes, and some of it still ongoing.\n\nTravel in, say, Texas. You'll see lots of little towns that are directly adjacent to or even entirely surrounded by bigger towns and don't seem to have much reason to exist as separate entities. They were often created to either be white- or black-only (usually white-only). This was enforced by things like deed restrictions (you agree not to sell your property to a non-white family), and unofficially by threats of violence or what-have-you.\n\nRead deed restrictions or HOA documents from the 40's and 50's. They often have explicit restrictions on the race of the property owner.\n\nAlabama went all the way to the Supreme Court for the right to re-draw city boundaries so that in a given city there were mostly white people or whatever, and the way Alabama's government works, city boundaries can be redrawn from the state government almost arbitrarily and cities are very limited in what laws they can pass themselves. This centralization of power in the state government was done immediately after the Civil War for the explicit purpose of making sure the state could divide itself into white and black cities and then deny black cities the power to pass their own laws.\n\nBefore various pieces of legislation (the Civil Rights Acts, the Fair Housing Act, and so on), it was more-or-less legal for banks to deny mortgages to black families who wanted to buy houses in white neighborhoods -- and banks would do so to keep their white customers happy. Even after it was made illegal, Realtors would intentionally not show houses in white neighborhoods to black families, and discourage white families from buying in black neighborhoods.\n\nWhen that was made illegal, Realtors would make sure to include photos of the family or photos of family photos, when photographing the house for sale, to be sure people knew that they were looking at houses in black neighborhoods.\n\nNow that sort of thing is illegal too, and it is getting better, but there's an immense amount of inertia in things like that. Houses aren't movable, and because of their inherent value tend to stay in families for more than one generation more so than other kinds of property. Because the older generation lives where they do and children often want to live near their families when they buy a house, the network effect acts as pressure to keep neighborhood demographics more stable than they might otherwise be.\n\n(Of course that doesn't mean that they *always* stay that way, just that they're slower to change than the demographics of other things like, say, Universities or apartment complexes, which are more flexible.)\n\nBecause of the relative demographic stability of neighborhoods, they're often a pathway to other unofficial racism. School district lines are drawn such that schools are tilted more heavily towards one ethnicity or another, and schools in black neighborhoods are often underfunded. Other city services are often neglected, and so on.\n\n(In 2018 there are still hundreds of court-mandated desegregation orders for school districts, some renewed as recently as 2017, because of cities and school districts maintaining de facto segregation by drawing boundary lines in certain ways. I remember growing up in small-town Texas. We had two high schools for a town of only 12,000 people. Even though the city was 40% black, one high school was 99% white, less than a mile away from the other. I graduated in 1998.)\n\n(Speaking from personal experience, there was a neighborhood here in Austin, in the middle of town, that was still on septic systems. The demographics were mostly black and Hispanic. The city promised to get sewer service to them by 2009. It took until 2016. They promised sidewalks back in 2008...still very few sidewalks. This was all explained as \"not enough money in the budget\" -- but whiter parts of town got new bicycle paths, city-owned bicycle repair stations, covered bus stops, etc, etc, during the same time period when people in this neighborhood were getting their homes condemned because their septic systems were failing and they didn't want to spend $20,000 to fix it just to have to pay more to hook up to the sewer when it finally came in.)",
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"answer": "Covenants were a biggy. There'd be covenants on houses saying you can't sell the house to a non-white person. Those were made illegal (or invalidated) but if you look at some older homes the covenant is still there, it just can't be enforced.\n\nSo black people and other minorities (California is one of the most segregated states if you count in Hispanic, just black and white and NY is the most segregated. The south was actually forced to integrate while the north just got to be racist) couldn't buy homes in certain neighborhoods leading them to find homes where they could buy. Overtime it becomes cultural and people like to stay close to home.",
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"answer": "Part segregation, part economic, part social.\n\nIn housing, segregation was very real, but usually could not be enforced by laws. Instead, banks and realtors would strongly discourage black families from moving into the \"wrong\" neighborhood, and white neighbors would be less than welcoming. Even if you weren't a racist, the fact other racists wouldn't want to live in a mixed neighborhood meant your property values went down, so you might not be thrilled at the prospect either. \n\nAt the same time, working and middle-class blacks were often able to build decent communities in the neighborhoods that already were mixed. A new black family might not be terribly interested in the hassle around living in a white neighborhood, especially if it were more expensive. You also have cultural affinities. Even if segregation was not present, you would expect certain neighborhoods to develop cultural trappings, like food and music, that made it more desirable to people of that culture.\n\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "14426774",
"title": "African-American neighborhood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The formation of black neighborhoods are closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws or as a product of social norms. Despite the formal laws and segregation, black neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of African-American culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "60562",
"title": "Redlining",
"section": "Section::::Current issues.:Racial segregation in American cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 743,
"text": "The United States Federal Government has enacted legislation since the 1970s to reduce the segregation of American cities. While many cities have reduced the amount of segregated neighborhoods, some still have clearly defined racial boundaries. Since 1990, the City of Chicago has been one of the most persistently racially segregated cities, despite efforts to improve mobility and reduce barriers. Other cities like Detroit, Houston, and Atlanta likewise have very pronounced black and white neighborhoods, the same neighborhoods that were originally redlined by financial institutions decades ago. While other cities have made progress, this continued racial segregation has contributed to reduced economic mobility for millions of people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5441736",
"title": "Racial segregation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary segregation.:Residential segregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "As of 2015, residential segregation had taken new forms in the United States with black majority minority suburbs such as Ferguson, Missouri, supplanting the historic model of black inner cities, white suburbs. Meanwhile, in locations such as Washington, D.C., gentrification had resulted in development of new white neighborhoods in historically black inner cities. Segregation occurs through premium pricing by white people of housing in white neighborhoods and exclusion of low-income housing rather than through rules which enforce segregation. Black segregation is most pronounced; Hispanic segregation less so, and Asian segregation the least.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5441736",
"title": "Racial segregation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary segregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 705,
"text": "Black-White segregation is consistently declining for most metropolitan areas and cities, though there are geographical differences. In 2000, for instance, the US Census Bureau found that residential segregation has on average declined since 1980 in the West and South, but less so in the Northeast and Midwest. Indeed, the top ten most segregated cities are in the Rust Belt, where total populations have declined in the last few decades. Despite these pervasive patterns, changes for individual areas are sometimes small. Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remains a residentially segregated society in which blacks and whites still often inhabit vastly different neighborhoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142503",
"title": "African-American culture",
"section": "Section::::African-American population centers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "African-American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African-American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws, or as a product of social norms. Despite this, African-American neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of nearly all aspects of both African-American culture and broader American culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1009410",
"title": "Geographical segregation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Social segregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Another segregation term, the ghetto, has been used in many different contexts over time, generally meaning any physical part of a city predominantly occupied by any particular group of people. It implies that the group may be looked down upon and segregated purposefully. This does not mean that all ghettos are built up communities and buildings specifically for a segregation purpose, although many are. In the case of the United States, segregation of the African-American community was to a degree due to white flight out of the cities, than forcing African-Americans to live in the downtown cores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92903",
"title": "Ghetto",
"section": "Section::::United States.:African-American or black ghettos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Urban areas in the U.S. can often be classified as \"black\" or \"white\", with the inhabitants primarily belonging to a homogenous racial grouping. Forty years after the Civil Rights Movement, most of the United States remains a residentially segregated society in which blacks and whites inhabit different neighborhoods of significantly different quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xji30
|
why were african, australian and native american civilisations so technologically inferior compared to european and east asian civilisations?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are two main explanations. The first is that these places were much more isolated. Traders didn't come over as often (or ever), and so any technological advancements didn't get shared like they did in Europe. So they had to invent everything themselves, while Europeans could steal liberally from the people they traded with.\n\nThe second is a bit trickier. It's the navigable-rivers-through-arable-land theory. Navigable rivers can ship lots of goods cheaply, and arable land means that it's cheap to run cities on these rivers. Europe has a lot of arable land with very good coverage with navigable river, so it's a lot easier to make manufacturing wealth there.",
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"answer": "For one thing, it's cold enough in East Asia and Europe (note they're at similar latitudes) for germs to die every winter, so people live longer and technology can advance accordingly. In the case of Australia, humans inhabited the continent and killed off all the big game before they domesticated anything, so they didn't have the advantage of cows and horses. In Africa, in order to avoid diseases carried by mosquitoes, people traditionally lived in small communities far from water sources, meaning they have to put in a lot of effort to carting water. This means that they lacked the benefits of a city like job specializations, etc. \n\n[\"Guns, Germs and Steel\"](_URL_1_) is a really interesting read to answer this question more fully.\n\n[There was a Cracked article](_URL_0_) that made me think we don't get the whole story about Native Americans. Supposedly they were very advanced, but a plague wiped them out and allowed Europeans to conquer them.",
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"answer": "There's a great book that covers this exact topic, the propagation of civilizations and technology in general, but it talks about why parts of africa, australia, and the america's lagged behind europe and asia. It's called [Guns, Germs, and Steel](_URL_0_). \n",
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"answer": "I answered this in my explanation of why Africa is so fucked up currently, let me repost it for you:\n\nIn Europe, the English, French, Germans, etc... all were in close proximity of one another and had to compete for resources. That's why the military of Europe evolved so fast. They had to be the best of the best to win resources, while Africa is so spacious and devoid of the same resources, especially in the center where its all desert.\nWhen you look at resources available to the Africans versus say, the Europeans or Chinese its easiest to see how successful a society has been based upon their access to key domesticated plants and animals. Almost all of Europe and most of China is suitable for raising animals like pigs, chickens, cows, horses, sheep and other traditional farm animals as well as edible plants like wheat, beans, and apples. These animals and plants are key parts of diets to make sure people get enough essential vitamins and minerals, as well as being staples of the military for hundreds of years. In Africa, the climate is not so suitable for raising the animals that Europe and China had access to, as well as having an abundance of animals that aren't able to be domesticated or take far too long to be useful like lions, elephants, or the African buffalo.\nAdditionally, it has been noted that technology and domesticated animals are easily transferable along the same longitude as all areas along this will have nearly the same climate. Plants and animals that are successful in say, Germany, will most likely be successful in France, Russia, or the United States since they are pretty close to the same longitude. Many of these staple animals from Europe had been brought to Africa when they had been colonized prior to the Berlin Conference, and most were not successful. Animals, plants, and even people died fairly quickly to coming to Africa.",
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"answer": "Africa had a lot of advanced civilisations in the past, the Egyptians for a fucking start. So did South Asia. The Native American empire was also quite strong and actually defeated the Vikings in their attempts to settle America, they got wiped out by disease. Read up on history a little, jesus.\n\nThe world did not begin only like 200 years ago you know....",
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"answer": "Several reasons. Mainly:\n\n* Africa and the Americas are longer north-south, while Eurasia stretches east-west. This makes it easier for cultural innovation to spread in Eurasia, because climate differences are less drastic. Agricultural techniques that work in Canada aren't likely to work in Mexico, but techniques that work in East Asia can work in Europe. Plus it's just easier to travel when climate differences along your route aren't so drastic, and easier travel means more trade and more exchange of ideas. Easier spread of new ideas means civilization advances faster.\n\n* Africa is home to a particularly harsh climate if you're from the northern hemisphere, as well as lots of tropical diseases, which makes it unwelcoming for traders from Eurasia, or sometimes even from other parts of Africa. Again, this cuts down on the spread of new ideas.\n\n* Domesticable plants and animals. Not all plants and animals are equally easy to domesticate; for instance, there's a reason we have domestic sheep and not domestic deer - sheep instinctively bunch together when startled, making them easy to herd, while deer scatter. Similarly, all serious attempts to tame zebras have failed. As it happens, Eurasia has lots of useful crops and animals that are relatively easy to domesticate. The Americas and Africa and Australia, not so much. (The absence of the horse from the Americas and Australia, in particular, is a serious disadvantage.)\n\n* Don't forget that humans didn't arrive and settle down in the Americas ~~and Australia~~ until much later than pretty much anywhere else, so sedentary civilizations in the rest of the world had had a lot more time to develop.\n\nIt's also worth realizing that mainstream education as a general rule tends to downplay the achievements of American, Australian and African civilizations, as they weren't seen as really worth studying by Western scholars until quite recently. This does *not* mean they weren't technologically inferior at the point of contact, but they were a bit more technologically advanced than people generally tend to assume.",
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"answer": "I believe its because of the balance of power in Europe, they had lots of kingdoms in a small area, each one powerful enough to defend itself but not able to overpower the others.\n\nthat means every kingdom would be constantly looking for ways to get ahead of the neighbors, by developing trade and finance, techology, funding expeditions for resources, etc.",
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"answer": "*Guns, Germs, and Steel*. Not exactly 5 year old reading material, but it will answer any and all questions on the matter.",
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"answer": "Randomness, luck. There are a billion reasons that cause technology to advance and a billion reasons that cause it not to. It's just that when you draw the line and add all of them up, some place happens to come up ahead of the other. ",
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"answer": "They weren't.\n\nWe view European and East Asian civilizations as being 'more advanced' because of our views of advancement, which typically revolve around art, science, written literature, human rights, etc. As such, we view the Roman Empire as being very advanced for it's time because it was large, organized around a well-defined political system, and had widespread influence over arts and culture. We consider the Tang Dynasty to be among the greatest of Chinese dynasties because of the art, culture, and religion that came out of it.\n\nThen there are the so-called \"technologically inferior\" societies, such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Africa. In Africa, Egyptian civilization was creating great leaps in science, art, and mathematics before the Classical Era in Greece, and the Mali empire in the 13th century was home to Timbuktu, an educational center for the medieval world. Australia, admittedly, didn't have much in terms of great civilizations, but New Zealand and the pacific had the Maori and many Polynesian groups, which combined made great marvels of architecture, art, and seafaring.\n\nIn North America, the civilizations were on par with Europe at least by the 12th century. The Maya civilization in Central America had advanced understandings of astronomy and space, and were able to accurately predict solar eclipses using mathematics. The Inca civilization of South America are known for their greatest marvel, Machu Picchu, to this very day, which is an architectural and mathematical masterpiece. In North America, the Iroquois people of what is now New York/Ontario had an advanced governmental system, and their culture was actually more liberal towards women upon their first contact with Europeans.\n\nThe notion that these civilizations were 'less technologically advanced' only comes from the idea of technological advancement, which at the time of many of their discoveries, meant military capability. Civilizations in the America's struggled to fight off the influx of Europeans because they had more advanced weaponry (and the fever which wiped out 90% of the indigenous population). African civilizations are seen as less advanced because the people themselves were kidnapped and used as slaves for hundreds of years, and how advanced can a civilization be when it's made up of potential new property?",
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"answer": "High technology isn't developed in isolation. You just don't develop develop it out of the blue.\n\nA lot of our mathematical foundation came from the Arabs and Turks, which came from the Greeks and Indians and Persians, which came from their respective proto-civilizations, etc. \n",
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"answer": "We invented glass! Allowed optics for study via microscopes, battle advancements via telescopes, botany using greenhouses etc. It really did allow us to excell!",
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"answer": "They weren't. Check out the book \"[1491\"](_URL_0_). It does a good job discussing it all. I believe the Mayans or someone around there even invented the concept of zero prior to the mid east. \n\nEdit: Tomorrow evening (PST) I will be glad to post some quotes of my favorite parts.",
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"answer": "I think the most important factor here was the incredible amount of coastline, meaning lots of resources and trade, coupled with a relatively mild climate. Some evidence has also been found that becoming tolerant to lactose greatly increased the nutritional availability for early Europeans.",
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"answer": "From what I recall from \"Guns, Germs and Steel\".\n\nIt has to do with the variety of plants/animals you have that can be domesticated, which started farming. The beginnings of domesticated plant and animals leads to high density populations capable of producing 'specialists' like priests (that justify war) and politicians (that wage war). \n\nIt also depends on WHEN you start domesticating plants and animals, because diseases and technologies take time to evolve (which help conquer others).\n\nAlso, Eurasia is mainly east-west (long) where as North America and Africa are more north-south (tall). This has huge effects on technology transfer as domesticated plants and animals have trouble travelling north-south far distances due to differences in climate. So a plant that works well in one place would die in another place if it travelled too far along the north-south axis because it would be a completely different climate (like past the African dessert). \n\nEurasia, on the other hand, the east-west axis allows technology, people, and plants/animals to be exchanged frequently (wheat could be grown in Germany, Mesopotamia, and also China), thus compounding innovation and growth of societies. \n\nI am sure there were other factors that I am missing out and it would be great if someone could fill me in.\n\n\n\n",
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"answer": "Depends on definition of technology. The Americas featured by far the greatest plant breeders in the world, some very interesting medicine, decorative metallurgy and weaving and at several points cities with arguably the largest populations.",
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"answer": "If you have Netflix you can stream the Guns, Germs, and Steel 3-part TV series.",
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"answer": "In Charles Mann's books 1491, he makes some excellent arguments as to why the Native American cultures were technologically superior in many ways to Europe in spite of being isolated from the rest of the world. His arguments are based on two basic premises: \n\n1) That when the earliest European explorers came to the Americas they brought small pox which wiped out perhaps as much as 90% of the indigenous populations over the next century, so what we think of as the Native Americans are really the devastated remains of a culture, almost a kind of post-apocalypse. \n\n2) Many of the Native American contributions to technology aren't really recognized as such by the wider world. Basically this argument is that the Native Americans made HUGE advances in agriculture/nutrition in particular, as well as in the medicinal (brain surgery), hygiene, textile (they had a Kevlar type armor based on densely layered fabrics) and fine metallurgy technologies. Ironically their cleanliness and good health made them more susceptible to European diseases as Europeans had been living in the SAME rooms as their livestock and had been malnourished for centuries, making their diseases vibrant and abundant. Their agricultural advances don't necessarily represent technologies used today or those developed in any other parts of the world and so they get downplayed and written off. I don't recall all of them but here are some highlights I remember.\n\n-By some estimates 3/5ths off all food eaten today were developed by Native Americans such as corn, tomatoes, potatoes, avocados, squash, peanuts, chocolate and pineapples. \n\n-Corn was essentially a weed in the wild. They somehow genetically engineered/breed it into a diverse food source with over 500 variants. We only use a few of them today but they had corn species for a vast variety of purposes. \n\n-They developed a method of growing corn, squash and beans together in an extreme efficient way where each crop supplemented the other allowing for greater nutrition and field yield. I think this reduced \"rest\" time for fields somehow as well. \n\nHope that helps!",
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"answer": "I will avoid the geography topic, since it seems like that has been covered, but will look at it from historical and political reasons for why they might be perceived as technologically inferior by focusing closely on the Americas.\n\n\nIn terms of the Americas, the overriding contribution for why civilizations such as the Aztec and Inca were overtaken has largely to do with politics and disease. \n\nIn terms of technology, the type of warfare conducted in Meso-America, which was a ritualized warfare with small amounts of casualties and many sacrificial prisoners. Weapons were designed not to inflict death so much as to inflict injury so that warriors could be captured (it was considered more prestigious to capture prisoners). There is also the fact that most weapons were made with stone and wood and were less deadly than many European counterparts. These facts helped contribute to European take-over but hardly explain why it was successful.\n\nDue to the political tensions between the Aztec/Mexica and the city-states they controlled and the general view that they were despotic brutes, Cortez and his men to build favorable alliances and recruit huge mercenary armies to take over Tenochtitlan. Cortez’ small army was really no match for Moctezuma’s vast imperial army without the help of other Meso-American allies. Therefore Cortez’ army of Tlaxcalan and other mercenaries aided his siege of Tenochtitlan. There were many revolts, but since the Spanish were then at the top of the political structure, they were able to command more effectively to put down any insurrections. On top of this was the fact that disease swept through populations in the Americas leaving them weakened and less able to resist foreign rule.\n\nWith the Inca, it was very similar. Political infighting between rival brothers for the throne of the Incan Empire, along with a widespread outbreak of smallpox that decimated the population of the Incas left them vulnerable to European incursion. Pizarro’s ability to sweep into that turmoil and unseat Atahualpa with 150 men, as Cortez had done to Moctezuma, and simply take over the power structures is one of the defining reasons why Spain was able to set itself up so quickly in the New World. There are several instances in which both Pizarro and Cortez could have been squashed like bugs by either emperor, but weren’t for a variety of reasons, and due to the luck and cunning political exploitations of both commanders they were able to brutally fortify their positions as leaders of both empires.\n\nIn terms of Africa, the situation was a bit different, but not completely so. Many African civilizations were quite advanced in the 15th Century, but political upheaval between rival empires and city-states with the introduction the slave trade drove many to war to claim a monopoly as suppliers of slaves. In return for exporting slaves, African states became increasingly reliant on European firearms to subdue their African rivals (a similar thing happened in China and the United States). This led to a dependency that only increased African states’ weakness in light of European advancement. \n\nIn terms of Australia, I am not very qualified to speak on that subject, but I assume it reflects more of US/British intrusion into the west of North America than the previous examples. \n",
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"answer": "I think it's interesting that disease was, by far, the biggest contribution to the European victory in the Americas\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAccording to that, smallpox wiped out 95% (!!!) of the American population after Columbus landed. A fully populated America would have been so much more difficult to conquer that history would have turned out so much different. The weapon difference was significant, but was it significant enough by itself?\n\nFor some interesting alternative history, read the book Pastwatch. A bit preachy, but a cool time travel story about Columbus and the Americas.\n\nAnyway I think your question is better phrased \"why do I mostly only learn about European and Eastern-Asian achievements in school?\" ",
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"answer": "A couple comments on you summary:\n\n > Domesticated animals,\n\n > Close proximity of groups of people encouraged competition and a military tech arms race\n\nDomesticated animals allow more people per square mile, which enabled said competition\n\n > Less disease allowed large groups of people to live together, allow specialisation in particular jobs\n\nLiving at higher densities and in extremely close proximity to domesticated animals actually caused a much higher disease rate (poor sanitation/drinking tainted water/crossover diseases with animals). This made Europeans immune to and carriers of diseases that wiped out large portions of aboriginal populations. \n\n\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "23671111",
"title": "Reindustrialization",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "China, India and South-East Asia were industrial powerhouse for major parts of human history. These countries and regions suffered great loss of industrial production due to colonization during 18th-20th centuries. After many decades of their independence, these countries have started reindustrializing themselves. In last three decades, share of these countries in global industrial output has increased manifold.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "7299",
"title": "Colonialism",
"section": "Section::::Impact of colonialism and colonisation.:Economy, trade and commerce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 496,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 496,
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"text": "For example, one interesting observation is \"the Reversal of Fortune\" – the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas. One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area. Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "56923243",
"title": "Indianization of Southeast Asia",
"section": "Section::::Historiography of South East Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
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"text": "The belief in the idea that South East Asia had never engendered its own civilization,and of indigenous incapacity or external benefaction gained additional support, such was the tremendous evidence of Indian architectural and religious influence in South East Asia and we're fundamentally identified as being derivative and thus Indianization was perceived as occurring more so due to the Indian initiatives rather than the indigenous initiatives of South East Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "106082",
"title": "Jared Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Popular science works.:\"Guns, Germs, and Steel\" (1997).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "His second and best known popular science book, \"\", was published in 1997. It asks why Eurasian peoples conquered or displaced Native Americans, Australians, and Africans, instead of vice versa. It argues that this outcome was not due to biological advantages of Eurasian peoples themselves but instead to features of the Eurasian continent, in particular, its high diversity of wild plant and animal species suitable for domestication and its east/west major axis that favored the spread of those domesticates, people, and technologies for long distances with little change in latitude. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1996872",
"title": "Greater India",
"section": "Section::::Historiography of Indianization.:Indianization of Southeast Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The belief in the idea that South East Asia had never engendered its own civilization, and of indigenous incapacity or external benefaction gained additional support, such as the tremendous evidence of Indian architectural and religious influence in South East Asia and we're fundamentally identified as being derivative and thus Indianization was perceived as occurring more so due to the Indian initiatives rather than the indigenous initiatives of South East Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7391958",
"title": "Great Divergence",
"section": "Section::::Possible factors.:Efficiency of markets and state intervention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "A common argument is that Europe had more free and efficient markets than other civilizations, which has been cited as a reason for the Great Divergence. In Europe, market efficiency was disrupted by the prevalence of feudalism and mercantilism. Practices such as entail, which restricted land ownership, hampered the free flow of labor and buying and selling of land. These feudal restrictions on land ownership were especially strong in continental Europe. China had a relatively more liberal land market, hampered only by weak customary traditions. Bound labor, such as serfdom and slavery were more prevalent in Europe than in China, even during the Manchu conquest. Urban industry in the West was more restrained by guilds and state-enforced monopolies than in China, where in the 18th century the principal monopolies governed salt and foreign trade through Guangzhou. Pomeranz rejects the view that market institutions were the cause of the Great Divergence, and concludes that China was closer to the ideal of a market economy than Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57784300",
"title": "Black legend (Spain)",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Conquest of the Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "All European powers which colonized the Americas, including England, Portugal and the Netherlands, ill-treated indigenous peoples. Colonial powers have been also accused of genocide in Canada, the United States, and Australia. These issues have received greater scholarly attention and the historiographical evaluation of colonialism's effects is evolving. According to William B. Maltby, \"At least three generations of scholarship have produced a more balanced appreciation of Spanish conduct in both the Old World and the New, while the dismal records of other imperial powers have received a more objective appraisal.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t3k4u
|
When I donate blood, I sometimes wonder: What happens if the blood recipient is allergic to something I recently ate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Food allergies typically act on tissues the food encounters before digestion, such as the oral and esophageal mucosa, resulting in swelling or rashes of the throat leading to constricted airways. Once the food enters the stomach the allergens are broken down before entering the bloodstream, so blood to blood transmission of allergens is minimal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some cases of this happening, but they are incredibly rare. I think I've read about a handful of cases of nut allergens being transferred. It's possible there are other cases, but I haven't seen them or been warned about that sort of interaction. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The last time I went to give blood I was turned away and asked to not come back please, since the *opposite* can apparently happen. If the donor is allergic to something, the antibodies in the blood will be transfused along with everything else, and if the recipient is then subjected to whatever the donor is allergic to, this can lead to allergic reactions.\n\nI can only assume that the effect is much reduced, since the blood is diluted, but on the other hand the recipient will have no idea what he is now temporarily allergic to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Transfusions are generally packed cells... very little antibody is transfered.\n\nFun point of interest though, you can get (or lose) allergies from a bone marrow transplant. e.g. if a person is allergic to peanuts and donate marrow, the recipient can become allergic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59371886",
"title": "Allergic transfusion reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Allergic reactions from blood transfusion may occur from the presence of allergy-causing antigens within the donor's blood, or transfusion of antibodies from a donor who has allergies, followed by antigen exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11675935",
"title": "Drug allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "An allergic reaction will not occur on the first exposure to a substance. The first exposure allows the body to create antibodies and memory lymphocyte cells for the antigen. However, drugs often contain many different substances, including dyes, which could cause allergic reactions. This can cause an allergic reaction on the first administration of a drug. For example, a person who developed an allergy to a red dye will be allergic to any new drug which contains that red dye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18945023",
"title": "Karl Landsteiner",
"section": "Section::::Discovery of the blood groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "These donor-recipient relationships arise due to the fact that type O-negative blood possesses neither antigens of blood group A nor of blood group B. Therefore, the immune systems of persons with blood group A, B or AB do not refuse the donation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58859",
"title": "Allergen",
"section": "Section::::Types of allergens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "An allergic reaction can be caused by any form of direct contact with the allergen—consuming food or drink one is sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander (inhalation), or brushing a body part against an allergy-causing plant (direct contact). Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the body's overreaction to the allergen, and allows for the patient to be transported to a medical facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212210",
"title": "Whole blood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Side effects include allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis, red blood cell breakdown, high blood potassium, infection, volume overload, and lung injury. Whole blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma. It is best within a day of collection; however, can be used for up to three weeks. The blood is typically combined with an anticoagulant and preservative during the collection process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55309",
"title": "Blood type",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Universal donors and universal recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because of dilution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59371886",
"title": "Allergic transfusion reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "An allergic transfusion reaction is when a blood transfusion results in allergic reaction. It is among the most common transfusion reactions to occur. Reported rates depend on the degree of active surveillance versus passing reporting to the blood bank. Overall, they are estimated to complicate up to 3% of all transfusions. The incidence of allergic transfusion reactions is associated with the amount of plasma in the product. More than 90% of these reactions occur during transfusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x9p9x
|
what exactly does this mean (pic in post)?
|
[
{
"answer": "In some locations, failing to upkeep a property means it can be forfeited to a new owner who does want to care for the property. The sign was posted by essentially squatters who want to prove no one cares for the property. \n\nIts called adverse posession. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "168313",
"title": "Pictogram",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Pictographs are often used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters are to a considerable extent pictorial in appearance. A pictogram may also be used in subjects such as leisure, tourism, and geography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33291",
"title": "WYSIWYG",
"section": "Section::::History.:Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BULLET::::- The phrase was coined in 1982 by Larry Sinclair, an engineer at Information International, Inc. (\"Triple I\") to express the idea that what the user sees on the screen is what the user gets on the printer while using the \"page layout system\", a pre-press typesetting system first shown at ANPS in Las Vegas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23075496",
"title": "SEE-I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "SEE-I is a method of clarification and understanding. It stands for State, Elaborate, Exemplify, and Illustrate. This method provides a way to better understand and/or clearly communicate a concept or topic. SEE-I also lends itself to a natural descriptive style of writing where important concepts or topics are described in a clear, repetitive manner. This same method is sometimes referred to as the “C-I paradigm”. SEE-I was originated by Richard Paul and Linda Elder and further refined into the current form by Gerald Nosich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7375715",
"title": "Visual 50",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The Visual 50 is a terminal created by Visual Technology, Inc., which was located in Tewksbury, Massachusetts. Visual's slogan was \"See for yourself\". It merged with White Pine Software in 1993, which became CU-SeeMe Networks, in turn absorbed into RadVision in 2001.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48695217",
"title": "Perspective-n-Point",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:P3P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Let \"P\" be the center of projection for the camera, \"A\", \"B\", and \"C\" be 3D world points with corresponding images points \"u\", \"v\", and \"w\". Let \"X = |PA|\", \"Y = |PB|\", \"Z = |PC|\", formula_13, formula_14, formula_15, formula_16, formula_17, formula_18, formula_19, formula_20, formula_21. This forms triangles \"PBC\", \"PAC\", and \"PAB\" from which we obtain a sufficient equation system for P3P:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2862007",
"title": "Hyderabadi Urdu",
"section": "Section::::Distinctive features.:Lexical features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- Katey - it is often used when a person mentions something told by someone else. It could be translated as \"it seems\". Usage: \"Kal unay bahar jaara katey\" means \"It seems he is going outside tomorrow\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21212793",
"title": "Put You in the Picture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "\"Put You in the Picture\" is a song written by Midge Ure, and performed by his group PVC2, who comprised Ure on guitar and lead vocals, Kenny Hyslop on drums, Billy McIsaac on keyboards and Russell Webb on bass guitar. The song was released on 30 August 1977 by Zoom Records, in an eponymous EP, which was the last single and recording of Midge Ure with the remaining members of Slik, who later resurged as Zones, with another singer and guitarist, Willie Gardner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d8v8u
|
why does my cat insist on having me constantly feed him, even though he still has food in the bowl?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cats are assholes?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My cat literally meows for me to watch him eat. I'll be in my room and will hear him meowing from downstairs so I'll go down thinking he wants me to let him outside. When I get downstairs he leads me to his food bowl and just eats in front of me. \n\nHe's a dick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My cat does this. My mom, who runs her own pet care taking business (not that it makes her an expert, but she knows a hell of a lot more than me about pets), says that he most likely wants **fresh** food in his bowl, because the old food has lost some of its scent/appeal. This is of course for dry/kibble food - you give my cat (and in my own experience, any cat really) canned food or meat, and he will NOT let that go to waste.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a combination of things. There's the term \"creature of habit\". Your cat has a habit of eating while you are there. When you are not there, Something Is Wrong. Cats can also be particular about the dish, the floor covering, foot traffic in the room, and so on. Also, you and the cat have a learned behavior. You have learned to hang out with the cat when he eats and the cat has learned to eat when you are in the room.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5579795",
"title": "King-Size Canary",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Once inside the cat searches for food in the kitchen, but comes up empty. His luck finally changes when he finds a can of cat food. He quickly opens the can and out of the can pops a mouse who is plopped down onto a dinner plate. The cat is about to dig in with a fork but the mouse puts a quick stop to that. He says that the cat can't eat him because he has already seen the cartoon they are in and that he winds up saving the cat's life later. The feline understands but wants some food as he is starving. The mouse points into the other room and tells him that there is a huge, fat, tasty canary in there. The cat charges out into the other room and stuffs the unseen canary into a sack heading back to the kitchen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "A cat's eating pattern in domestic settings are essential for the cat/owner bond to form. This happens because cats form attachments to households that regularly feed them. Some cats ask for food dozens of times a day, including at night, with rubbing, pacing, and meowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28789487",
"title": "The Enemy's Cosmetique",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "The conversation between Texel and Angust continues, and Texel tells another story from his childhood. When Texel was around 12 years old he lived with his grandparents, and one of his jobs was to mix the cat food and serve it to the cats. He hated the job, as the fish and rice concoction always nauseated him and he had to close his eyes while he mixed it. One day however, he forced himself to eat it, and found it so appealing that he ravenously ate all of the cat food himself while the cats looked on. Texel explains that he does not believe in God or the Devil, but rather in \"l'ennemi,\" the self's personal enemy that is inside of everyone. At this point, Angust decides he has heard enough and tries to block out Texel's words by covering his ears with his hands. Eventually however, his arms become tired and he is forced to lower them. The conversation continues. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1132820",
"title": "Cat food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Cat food is food for consumption by cats. Cats have specific requirements for their dietary nutrients. Certain nutrients, including many vitamins and amino acids, are degraded by the temperatures, pressures and chemical treatments used during manufacture, and hence must be added after manufacture to avoid nutritional deficiency. The amino acid taurine, for example, which is found in meat, is degraded during processing, so synthetic taurine is normally added afterwards. Long-term taurine deficiency may result in retinal degeneration, loss of vision, and cardiac arrest. Contrary to popular belief, most cats dislike insects and probably eat them mistakenly, which may cause gastrointestinal upset and vomiting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16176078",
"title": "Cat health",
"section": "Section::::Diet and nutrition.:Malnutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Malnutrition in cats is currently uncommon due to complete and balanced diets being formulated and fed. Yet it can still occur if the cat's food intake decreases beyond what the food can provide, if interactions occur between ingredients or nutrients, if mistakes are made during formulation or manufacturing, and if the food is stored for a lengthy amount of time. If a cat becomes malnourished, a deficiency of energy, protein, taurine, essential fatty acids, minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium), vitamins (A, D, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin), and trace elements (iron, copper, zinc, iodine, selenium) can occur, causing a multitude of deficiency symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947654",
"title": "Feline hepatic lipidosis",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Anorexia always precedes liver disease, with the cat refusing to eat enough food for days, or weeks. This may be amplified by frequent vomiting when the cat does choose to eat. A lack of appetite causes the cat to refuse any food, even after it has purged its system of all stomach contents. Severe weight loss proceeds as the liver keeps the cat alive off body fat, causing a yellowing of the skin (jaundice). When the cat runs out of fat to process, severe muscle wasting (cachexia) takes place as the body converts protein into energy. Eventually the body cannot give the brain enough energy to function properly and the cat dies from malnutrition. In addition, an overworked liver can eventually fail causing total system collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6678",
"title": "Cat",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Food sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Cats are obligate carnivores: their physiology has evolved to efficiently process meat, and they have difficulty digesting plant matter. In contrast to omnivores such as rats, which only require about 4% protein in their diet, about 20% of a cat's diet must be protein. A cat's gastrointestinal tract is adapted to meat eating, being much shorter than that of omnivores and having low levels of several of the digestive enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates. These traits severely limit the cat's ability to digest and use plant-derived nutrients, as well as certain fatty acids. Despite the cat's meat-oriented physiology, several vegetarian or vegan cat foods have been marketed that are supplemented with chemically synthesized taurine and other nutrients, in attempts to produce a complete diet. Some of these products still fail to provide all the nutrients cats require, and diets containing no animal products pose the risk of causing severe nutritional deficiencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3c3uk0
|
swingset physics
|
[
{
"answer": "In the absence of friction (or other energy sinks), a swingset, or indeed any simple pendulum, would simply continue to oscillate indefinitely between the two high points. At one extreme, when the pendulum is highest and its speed zero, the system has maximum gravitational potential energy, and zero kinetic energy. At the bottom / middle of the swing, the system has minimum gravitational potential energy and maximum kinetic energy - essentially trading height for velocity, and then it converts back as you come to rest at the other extreme. A swingset, of course, is not a frictionless simple pendulum in a vacuum. Energy is lost to mechanical friction, drag / friction with the surrounding air, and so forth, so to keep the swing swinging, the occupant must input energy into the system. This is done by moving the legs, which moves your centre of mass, increasing the available gravitational potential energy. On the back swing, you curl your legs behind you to raise the centre of mass, and on the front swing you extend them above you. At the bottom of the swing, you ideally want the centre of mass as low as possible to obtain the greatest difference between high and low, and hence greatest kinetic energy (velocity) at the bottom of the swing.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5019012",
"title": "Poi tricks",
"section": "Section::::Butterflies.:The Basic Butterfly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The poi are swung in a forwards direction in phase with each other (same time). The hands are then both moved in front of the swinger so that the poi traverse a circle in front of the spinner - the left poi spinning clockwise, the right poi counter-clockwise. Their angles are \"very\" slightly offset to prevent the poi from colliding as they cross at the top and bottom of their respective circles. This move can also be performed in reverse/backwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "269441",
"title": "Swing (Java)",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.:Foundations.:Configurable.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Swing's heavy reliance on runtime mechanisms and indirect composition patterns allows it to respond at run time to fundamental changes in its settings. For example, a Swing-based application is capable of hot swapping its user-interface during runtime. Furthermore, users can provide their own look and feel implementation, which allows for uniform changes in the look and feel of existing Swing applications without any programmatic change to the application code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27945916",
"title": "Mike Bennett and Andy Plummer",
"section": "Section::::The stack and tilt swing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Bennett and Plummer wrote, with Peter Morrice, the book \"The Stack and Tilt Swing\" (). The \"Stack and Tilt\" model prescribes keeping the body weight forward during the whole swing, straightening the back leg through back swing and performing a steep shoulder turn, all in order to keep the shoulder turn axis in place. The theory follows some ideas that are present in Homer Kelley's book \"The Golfing Machine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53881439",
"title": "Key determinants of gait",
"section": "Section::::Six determinants of gait.:Pelvic tilt/Obliquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Normal gait results in tilting of the swing phase side, in relation to the control by the stance side hip abductors. As a consequence, there is the neutralization of raising of COM during the transition from hip flexion to extension. Its effect on the reduction of metabolic energy and the increased energy conservation is via the reduction of vertical COM trajectory or peak form compass gait model. Pelvic obliquity's effects on reduction of vertical displacement of COM has been examined and been shown to only reduce vertical displacement of COM by at most, only 2–4 mm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3008336",
"title": "Perch (equilibristic)",
"section": "Section::::Types of perch pole.:Swing or swinging perch pole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The swing pole is an act where one performer holds up a steel pole about twenty feet long as their partner climbs to the top. After the flier fastens themselves to the top of the pole with a neck loop, he spins the pole around as fast as possible until the flier is swinging out almost parallel to the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51281183",
"title": "Swing route",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "A swing route or a flare route is an American football route. It is run by the running back, and is like a wheel route thrown before the turn up the sideline, i. e. release toward the sideline, and then bend or arc upfield ever so slightly, and look for a short pass. It can be combined with a screen pass. It is distinguished from a flat route by approaching the line of scrimmage more gradually, on a curved path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52783223",
"title": "Route (gridiron football)",
"section": "Section::::Routes.:Swing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "A swing route or a flare route is run by the running back, and is like a wheel route thrown before the turn up the sideline, i. e. release toward the sideline, and then bend or arc upfield ever so slightly, and look for a short pass. It can be combined with a screen pass. It is distinguished from a flat route by approaching the line of scrimmage more gradually, on a curved path.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3apep9
|
Which planet, if it disappeared, would affect Earth the most?
|
[
{
"answer": "If Jupiter were to magically disappear I expect we'd quickly be exterminated by an asteroid impact. \n\nThe solar system is, to first order, the sun. Pretty much everything that goes on can be pretty thoroughly described if you just know the distance to the sun, its mass, no matter where you are in the solar system. To second order, the solar system is the sun's gravity plus Jupiter's. For example, Jupiter is about three times more massive than the other seven planets *combined.* \n\nBecause of this, Jupiter plays an important gravitational role in shepherding asteroids. Check out this [picture](_URL_0_) - white is the asteroid belt, and the colored asteroids are in Jupiter's Lagrange points or a 3:2 resonance, [which means they do 3 complete orbits of the sun for every 2 that Jupiter makes.](_URL_1_)\n\nAll of those red dots which are called the Hildas should be on unstable orbits without Jupiter and will scatter through the solar system. There's about a thousand of them.\n\nThis is made worse by the fact that Jupiter does important work clearing the inner solar system of any sort of debris that makes it in. For example, [Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 collided with Jupiter in 1994](_URL_2_), producing scars comparable to the Great Red Spot. I believe the phrase used in the popular media was \"celestial vacuum cleaner.\" If it weren't for Jupiter taking all these hits, impacts would be far more common in the rest of the solar system, which could spell disaster for our little lifeboat in space. \n\nFortunately, Jupiter isn't going anywhere any time soon. I did the mass here once, and I remember that it would require a pile of nukes 4x the mass of the moon to destroy Jupiter. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Post-red giant stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years, then on a time scale of 10 (10 quintillion) years the remaining planets in the Solar System will be ejected from the system by violent relaxation. If this does not occur to the Earth, the ultimate fate of the planet will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (Short Scale: 100 quintillion, Long Scale: 100 trillion) years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20319000",
"title": "Deep End (short story)",
"section": "Section::::Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "In either a near-future or alternate present reality, the Earth lies nearly desolate after extensive overuse of its resources in order to colonise other planets. The oceans had undergone 'oxygen mining' to electrolytically provide oxygen for the atmospheres for the new planets, and in doing so had left only the hydrogen extract from the water, which escaped the Earth and stripped the Earth's hospitable atmosphere to about a mile high, and ensuring the extinction of most life. As a result, the remaining inhabitants that have not emigrated are forced to live on the drained ocean floors, and have become nocturnal so as to avoid the scorching heat and radiation of the Sun during the day. The last orbiting launch pads are falling out of the sky to the salt dunes and corals towers that were once the ocean bed, and after the last have fallen, the Earth is truly abandoned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226741",
"title": "Earth in science fiction",
"section": "Section::::Earth as presented in various works.:\"Firefly\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "It is unknown whether Earth has actually been destroyed, or if the planet still physically exists; in the feature film \"Serenity\", ancient starships are shown leaving a sickly brown Earth with gray oceans, but the fate of the planet is never fully revealed. A puppet show in the episode \"Heart of Gold\" implies that Earth has in fact been obliterated, but this was never actually confirmed on screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46400892",
"title": "Descent (2019 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "By the year 2136, the planet Earth has become unsustainable due to the depletion of natural resources, threatening the stability of human society and civilization. Space explorers have been sent across the galaxy to find a new home planet for humanity to evacuate to. After word got out that none of them have returned, people discovered that mankind's only hope for continued survival is to harvest asteroids, leading to starfighter skirmishes over possession of the most profitable and life-sustaining ones. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13718952",
"title": "Terminal Voyage",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In 2035, global warming rendered the Earth barely inhabitable and its human population is on the verge of extinction. The Earth Federation sends a space ship on a century-long trip to a distant planet Trion which could be suitable for colonization. The eight crew-members come from Russia, United States, China, United Kingdom, France, and Saudi Arabia. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1777495",
"title": "Global change",
"section": "Section::::Planetary management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Humans are altering the planet's biogeochemical cycles in a largely unregulated way with limited knowledge of the consequences. Without steps to effectively manage the Earth system – the planet's physical, chemical, biological and social components – it is likely there will be severe impacts on people and ecosystems. Perhaps the largest concern is that a component of the Earth system, for example, an ocean circulation, the Amazon rainforest, or Arctic sea ice, will reach a tipping point and flip from its current state to another state: flowing to not flowing, rainforest to savanna, or ice to no ice. A domino effect could ensue with other components of the Earth system changing state rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226741",
"title": "Earth in science fiction",
"section": "Section::::Earth as presented in various works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the video game \"Xenosaga\", the Earth has been abandoned by humanity for at least 4,000 years, because the Earth has disappeared altogether from physical space. Humans refer to the planet as \"Lost Jerusalem\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2h4ar2
|
how do we know that we 'mixed' with other human species?
|
[
{
"answer": "Scientists are able to analyze DNA and determine your ancestors. Certain areas/species have specific genes, and we have recently discovered Ozzy Osborn has traces of Neanderthal heritage: _URL_0_\n\nThat's how we \"know\". But evolution occurs at such a slow rate, so it's not like two subspecies of humans birthed the modern man. As evolution shows, species change over large periods of time. Millions of years.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11727583",
"title": "Macropod hybrid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Some hybrids between similar species have been achieved by housing males of one species and females of the other together to limit the choice of mate. To create a \"natural\" macropod hybrid, young animals of one species have been transferred to the pouch of another so as to imprint into them the other species. In-vitro fertilization has also been used and the fertilized egg implanted into a female of either species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327061",
"title": "Gene flow",
"section": "Section::::Gene flow between species.:Hybridization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "In some instances, when a species has a sister species and breeding capabilities are possible due to the removal of previous barriers or through introduction due to human intervention, species can hybridize and exchange genes and corresponding traits. This exchange is not always clear-cut, for sometimes the hybrids may look identical to the original species phenotypically but upon testing the mtDNA it is apparent that hybridization has occurred. Differential hybridization also occurs because some traits and DNA are more readily exchanged than others, and this is a result of selective pressure or the absence thereof that allows for easier transaction. In instances in which the introduced species begins to replace the native species, the native species becomes threatened and the biodiversity is reduced, thus making this phenomenon negative rather than a positive case of gene flow that augments genetic diversity. Introgression is the replacement of the native species genes with that of the invader species. It is important to note that hybrids are generally deemed less \"fit\" than their parental generation, and as a result is a closely monitored genetic issue as the ultimate goal in conservation genetics is to maintain the genetic integrity of a species and preserve biodiversity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5079690",
"title": "Gasteria",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "In addition, the species tend to flow into each other in gradual transitions, with many intermediate forms, rather than being cleanly divided into discrete and separate species. Lastly, hybrids occur easily and naturally, whenever the range of two species overlap in habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4174517",
"title": "Algaculture",
"section": "Section::::Growing, harvesting, and processing algae.:Monoculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "With mixed cultures, one species comes to dominate over time and if a non-dominant species is believed to have particular value, it is necessary to obtain pure cultures in order to cultivate this species. Individual species cultures are also much needed for research purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18838",
"title": "Mammal",
"section": "Section::::Humans and other mammals.:Hybrids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 1084,
"text": "Hybrids are offspring resulting from the breeding of two genetically distinct individuals, which usually will result in a high degree of heterozygosity, though hybrid and heterozygous are not synonymous. The deliberate or accidental hybridizing of two or more species of closely related animals through captive breeding is a human activity which has been in existence for millennia and has grown for economic purposes. Hybrids between different subspecies within a species (such as between the Bengal tiger and Siberian tiger) are known as intra-specific hybrids. Hybrids between different species within the same genus (such as between lions and tigers) are known as interspecific hybrids or crosses. Hybrids between different genera (such as between sheep and goats) are known as intergeneric hybrids. Natural hybrids will occur in hybrid zones, where two populations of species within the same genera or species living in the same or adjacent areas will interbreed with each other. Some hybrids have been recognized as species, such as the red wolf (though this is controversial).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328736",
"title": "Archaeogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Methods of DNA analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Another method to investigate relationship between two species is through DNA hybridization. Single-stranded DNA segments of both species are allowed to form complementary pair bonding with each other. More closely related species have a more similar genetic makeup, and thus a stronger hybridization signal. Scholz et al. conducted southern blot hybridization on Neanderthal aDNA (extracted from fossil remain W-NW and Krapina). The results showed weak ancient human-Neanderthal hybridization and strong ancient human-modern human hybridization. The human-chimpanzee and neanderthal-chimpanzee hybridization are of similarly weak strength. This suggests that humans and neanderthals are not as closely related as two individuals of the same species are, but they are more related to each other than to chimpanzees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27399582",
"title": "Chaotic mixing",
"section": "Section::::Characterization of chaotic advection.:Evolution of tracer concentration fields in chaotic advection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "In fluid mixing, one often wishes to homogenize a species, that can be characterized by its concentration field \"q\". Often, the species can be considered as a passive tracer that does not modify the flow. The species can be for example a dye to be mixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2isdqh
|
If one clock orbits Earth moving very fast, why does it measure less time when, relative to the orbiting clock, Earth-bound clocks are moving equally fast?
|
[
{
"answer": "See the [Wikipedia article for twin paradox](_URL_0_), specifically the resolution part.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27616141",
"title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.:Special and general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height relative to the Earth-centered, non-rotating approximately inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites are affected by their speed. Special relativity predicts that the frequency of the atomic clocks moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly than stationary ground clocks by a factor of formula_54, or result in a delay of about 7 μs/day, where the orbital velocity is v = 4 km/s, and c = the speed of light. This time dilation effect has been measured and verified using the GPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6083924",
"title": "Clock drift",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "In addition to this, general relativity gives us gravitational time dilation. Briefly, a clock in a stronger gravitational field (e.g. closer to a planet) will appear to tick more slowly. People holding these clocks (i.e. those inside and outside the stronger field) would all agree on which clocks appear to be going faster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514028",
"title": "Hafele–Keating experiment",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Kinematic time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "According to special relativity, the rate of a clock is greatest according to an observer who is at rest with respect to the clock. In a frame of reference in which the clock is not at rest, the clock runs more slowly, as expressed by the Lorentz factor. This effect, called time dilation, has been confirmed in many tests of special relativity, such as the Ives–Stilwell experiment and experimental testing of time dilation. Considering the Hafele–Keating experiment in a frame of reference at rest with respect to the center of the earth, a clock aboard the plane moving eastward, in the direction of the Earth's rotation, had a greater velocity (resulting in a relative time loss) than one that remained on the ground, while a clock aboard the plane moving westward, against the Earth's rotation, had a lower velocity than one on the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852089",
"title": "Gravitational time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Clocks that are far from massive bodies (or at higher gravitational potentials) run more quickly, and clocks close to massive bodies (or at lower gravitational potentials) run more slowly. For example, considered over the total time-span of Earth (4.6 billion years), a clock set at the peak of Mount Everest would be about 39 hours ahead of a clock set at sea level. This is because gravitational time dilation is manifested in accelerated frames of reference or, by virtue of the equivalence principle, in the gravitational field of massive objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591",
"title": "Time travel",
"section": "Section::::Forward time travel in physics.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "For two identical clocks moving relative to each other without accelerating, each clock measures the other to be ticking slower. This is possible due to the relativity of simultaneity. However, the symmetry is broken if one clock accelerates, allowing for less proper time to pass for one clock than the other. The twin paradox describes this: one twin remains on Earth, while the other undergoes acceleration to relativistic speed as they travel into space, turn around, and travel back to Earth; the traveling twin ages less than the twin who stayed on Earth, because of the time dilation experienced during their acceleration. General relativity treats the effects of acceleration and the effects of gravity as equivalent, and shows that time dilation also occurs in gravity wells, with a clock deeper in the well ticking more slowly; this effect is taken into account when calibrating the clocks on the satellites of the Global Positioning System, and it could lead to significant differences in rates of aging for observers at different distances from a large gravity well such as a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11522684",
"title": "Inhomogeneous cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Timescape cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "One more important step being left out of the standard model, Wiltshire claimed, was the fact that as proven by observation, gravity slows time. Thus, a clock will move faster in empty space, which possesses low gravitation, than inside a galaxy, which has much more gravity, and he argued that as large as a 38% difference between the time on clocks in the Milky Way and those in a galaxy floating in a void exists. Thus, unless we can correct for that—timescapes each with different times—our observations of the expansion of space will be, and are, incorrect. Wiltshire claims that the 1998 supernovae observations that led to the conclusion of an expanding universe and dark energy can instead be explained by Buchert's equations if certain strange aspects of general relativity are taken into account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34710289",
"title": "Equation clock",
"section": "Section::::Types of equation clock.:Clocks that directly display solar time.:Clocks with variable pendula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "These clocks include a device at the top of the pendulum that slightly changes its effective length, so the speed of the clock varies. This device is driven by a simulation mechanism which moves to simulate the rate of change of the equation of time, rather than its actual value. For example, during the months of December and January, when the equation of time is decreasing so a sundial runs slower than usual, the mechanism makes the pendulum effectively longer than usual, so the clock runs slower and keeps pace with sundial time. At other times of the year, the pendulum is shortened, so the clock runs faster, again keeping pace with sundial time. This type of mechanism shows only solar (sundial) time. Clocks using it cannot easily be made to show mean time unless a separate clock mechanism, with its own pendulum, is included. There are some equation clocks in which this is done, but it requires the clock case to be very sturdy, to avoid coupling between the pendula. Another disadvantage of variable pendulum clocks is that the equation of time cannot be easily displayed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
65s86q
|
During the Holocaust what was the difference between the death camps and the work camps? Also how was it decided who went where?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nu/commiespaceinvader answered a lot of my questions in this post, but I'm still unsure of how it was decided who went to what camp",
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"answer": "Good question! I hope that you read the link given in another answer and that you found some answers there. However, I will try to give you some idea of the situation. In addition, I write about the difference between death camps and work camps [here](_URL_0_).\n\nAs you can see from the link I provided, there was a significant difference between the death camps and the concentration/work camps. In short, concentration camps served a variety of purposes from slave labor to incarceration of criminals or other \"undesirables.\" They could house German criminals, German homosexuals, Poles, clergy who protested the Nazis, communists, etc. The purpose of the concentration camp also varied depending on the commandant or the location. In some camps, the death rate was higher than at others (excluding the end of war transports of Jewish prisoners that greatly inflated death rates at those camps to which they were transferred), while at others, the goal seemed to be economic to some degree. In other words, the camps were much like every aspect of the Nazi regime, varied according to the nature of the leader in charge of it. \n\nIn the concentration camps, people might be separated based on any number of reasons, but often Jews were kept separate from others. Kapos (prisoner functionaries) were often common criminals and abused the others, with Jews and homosexuals tending to be on the low end of the hierarchy. Some camps themselves became known for specific types of prisoners (Dachau, for example, was known for the number of clergy it held). \n\nThe most famous \"selections,\" however, are associated with Auschwitz and applied to Jews. In these, men and women were separated from one another. If the work camp portion of Auschwitz was full, the entire train might be gassed without any selection whatsoever; however, in instances where \"workers\" were needed, the weak, elderly, children, and often women with children were selected for gassing. Those who were selected for work were then taken into the work camp. \n\nRegarding your last question, there was a debate between 1939 and 1941 regarding what was to be done about the Jews. As the General gouvernement of Poland became a dumping ground of Jews (creating much consternation on the part of Hans Frank, the Governor-General, who opposed it being used in such a way), the various German rulers of Polish cities with Jewish ghettos each had different goals. In *The Origins of the Final Solution*, Christopher Browning states \"a the core of the dispute over ghetto policy was a split between \"attritionists\" and \"productionists.\" As the ghettos became longer term features rather than simply collection points, Jews were paid for work and an emphasis might be on economic productivity. Alternately, such as in Lodz, while Jews worked, the focus by the German officials was on getting rid of the ghetto through \"attrition.\"\n\nWhat changed this policy seems to have been the invasion of the Soviet Union and with it the drastic increase in the number of Jews under German control. Ghettos had never been a permanent solution to the Jewish Question and had been much opposed by almost every Nazi in Poland. Moving the Jews into the East became a fascination of most such leaders. In the Soviet Union itself, Jews became the victims of the *Einsatzgruppen* as they were tasked with eliminating threats to the rear of the German army. This radicalization of Jewish policy soon encompassed those Jews in occupied areas as well. The Polish ghettos were liquidated and the Jews of Europe were relocated to the East. \n\nAll this is to say that the policy of extermination MIGHT not have been the most economically beneficial, although the linked post from the previous comment will give you more information on that. Ultimately, however, economic benefit was not the only principle at play. Enrichment of the SS leaders was key and speed was an important aspect of that. Hence theft of Jewish property trumped long term economics and slave labor. Also, anti-Semitism and a desire to exterminate the Jews played an important role. Finally, the radicalization that came along with the invasion of the Soviet Union provided impetus as well.\n\nHope this helped.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "84508",
"title": "Josef Mengele",
"section": "Section::::Auschwitz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "In 1942, Auschwitz II (Birkenau), originally intended to house slave laborers, began to be used instead as a combined labor camp and extermination camp. Prisoners were transported there by rail from all over German-occupied Europe, arriving in daily convoys. By July 1942, SS doctors were conducting \"selections\" where incoming Jews were segregated, and those considered able to work were admitted into the camp while those deemed unfit for labor were immediately killed in the gas chambers. The arrivals that were selected to die, about three-quarters of the total, included almost all children, women with small children, pregnant women, all the elderly, and all of those who appeared (in a brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor) to be not completely fit and healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6585135",
"title": "History of slavery",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Modern Europe.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 231,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 231,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "During World War II Nazi Germany operated several categories of \"Arbeitslager\" (Labor Camps) for different categories of inmates. The largest number of them held Polish and Jewish civilians forcibly abducted in the occupied countries (see Łapanka) to provide labor in the German war industry, repair bombed railroads and bridges or work on farms. By 1944, 20% of all workers were foreigners, either civilians or prisoners of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34323314",
"title": "Pidvolochysk",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "In July 1941, Germans created a labor camp for the Jews. In 1942 part of the prisoners were transported to Zbaraż and Kamionka. In October 1942 the transport was sent to Bełżec extermination camp. The final annihilation of those who were left, took place during the liquidation of the camp on the 29th of June 1943.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36757902",
"title": "Fossoli camp",
"section": "Section::::History.:Concentration camp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The purpose of the camp was to act as a transit camp and it was to be filled to capacity with Italian Jews and, once full, these were to be deported predominately to Auschwitz for extermination. It was during this period that the first two trains left for Auschwitz on 19 and 22 February 1944, with the camp still under Italian control. The second convoy left with 650 other prisoners (which Primo Levi recalls in the first pages of the famous book \"If This is a Man\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "896460",
"title": "Zerbst",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "In the later part of the Second World War a Nazi labour camp was established on the edge of the military airfield, housing so-called \"First-degree Hybrids\" and \"Jüdisch Versippte\" (i.e., people with some Jewish blood, enough in Nazi terms to justify badly mistreating them but not killing them outright). 700 inmates from there were used for hard labour in road and airport construction as well as peat digging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "18502657",
"title": "Syrets concentration camp",
"section": "Section::::Establishment and location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The camp was built in June 1942 at the request of Hans Schumacher, a Nazi police official (see Auschwitz Trial), which he made to his superior Erich Ehrlinger. The camp was intended to house prisoners perceived as opponents of the Nazi regime, mainly Jews. Once a person was arrested, only skilled craftsmen would survive, to be used as forced labor. All others were shot or murdered by gas van.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13436",
"title": "Heinrich Himmler",
"section": "Section::::Rise in the SS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
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"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Initially the camps housed political opponents; over time, undesirable members of German society—criminals, vagrants, deviants—were placed in the camps as well. A Hitler decree issued in December 1937 allowed for the incarceration of anyone deemed by the regime to be an undesirable member of society. This included Jews, Gypsies, communists, and those persons of any other cultural, racial, political, or religious affiliation deemed by the Nazis to be \"Untermensch\" (sub-human). Thus, the camps became a mechanism for social and racial engineering. By the outbreak of World War II in autumn 1939, there were six camps housing some 27,000 inmates. Death tolls were high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ga74o
|
A friend of mine tells me every culture around the world has a myth of a great flood wiping out the whole world, and that the timelines match up indicated they are talking about the same flood. How true is this likely to be?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Mark Isaak has collection about a gazillion flood stories.](_URL_0_) That is a lot, but not every country has one. Nor is there all that much similarity across the stories. Boats are common, but you expect boats in a flood story. Some destroy the world and we go to a new one, some just destroy the local area. Nor is there any way to somehow line up any timeline.\n\nI suspect that your friend has a confused version of the [Black Sea deluge hypothesis](_URL_1_). Roughly speaking this says that an ice dam held the Med back from the Black Sea and then it flooded. People postultulated that this event led to the various Mesopotamian flood stories (including the Noahic flood). There are several problems with that hypothesis. First, better evidence says that the Black Sea did not flood catastrophically, but rather slow enough for people to move when it was a problem. Second there is no evidence for some mass migration from the area. And finally there is nothing special about the Mesopotamian flood stories that requires a special explanation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As you said, since floods, tsunamis, and sea level changes are common place events, myths and legends concerning them are also commonplace. Additionally fossils of marine life are widespread on mountains, which can easily inspire people to hypothesize that the mountains were once underwater to explain how fish bones got all the way up there. \n\nThe set of flood myths in the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia (Greek Deucalion, Israelite Noah, Sumerian Utnapishtim, etc.) have several common motifs. Perhaps they're all derived from a common ancestral legend, or perhaps they all arose as independent legends that became more similar due to cultural cross-pollination. \n\nOutside this area, flood myths and legends can be quite diverse. A common Australian motif involves children upsetting the Rainbow Serpent in its oasis, who floods the world punishment. It's basically a \"Water falls, everyone dies\" story since there's rarely any mention of survivors. They're morality tales to discourage kids from playing in unfamiliar waters. The Desert Finch Dreaming in South Australia also describes a flood, as the sea swept over the southern plains until the Desert Finch Ancestors dove into the water in the thousand to build up a high wall ([the cliffs](_URL_0_) that form the shore of the Great Australian Bight) to stop the water. This one may in fact be describing the post-Ice Age flooding of the southern continental shelf. \n\nIn a broad swath of eastern North America, a flooded world is the initial state, until Turtle offers to become the foundations of dry land prior to or during the arrival of humans. There's a few examples that alter this bit. In the Lenape version, Toad maliciously swallowed all the water. When he was injured in the fight to recover the water, it all poured out at once, flooding the world until Turtle becomes new land. In the Ojibwe version, the Gichi-manidoo floods the world to purify it, and humans have to be re-made by Nanabozho, again after Turtle becomes land. This is a rare example of the divine punishment motif in the area and may have been introduced through missionary contact.\n\nFor the Rapanui of Easter Island, the earth is *still* flooded. Their flood legend occurs sometime after the island was settled around 700 CE or perhaps a little earlier. Based on where it fits into the overall narrative of the islands history, it seems to correspond with to the time when changing weather patterns, the loss of the island's trees (needed to make voyaging canoes), and the abandonment of settlements on intervening islands cut the Rapanui off from the rest of the Polynesian world by the 1500s (interactions with the rest of Polynesia never seems to have been particularly common, but they didn't start really getting cut off until the 1200s). That the rest of the world had been drowned became the explanation for why the island was no longer visited by others, until the Tangata Hiva (Europeans, but literally \"People of Distant Lands\") finally showed up in the 1700s.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1924079",
"title": "Comparative mythology",
"section": "Section::::Various mythological parallels.:Flood myth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Cultures around the world tell stories about a great flood. In many cases, the flood leaves only one survivor or group of survivors. For example, both the Babylonian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" and the Hebrew Bible tell of a global flood that wiped out humanity and of a man who saved the Earth's species by taking them aboard a boat. Similar stories of a single flood survivor appear in Hindu mythology as well as Greek, Norse mythology and Aztec mythology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29008150",
"title": "List of flood myths",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Flood myths are common across a wide range of cultures, extending back into Bronze Age and Neolithic prehistory. These accounts depict a flood, sometimes global in scale, usually sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12205504",
"title": "Great Flood (disambiguation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Great Flood is a phrase used to describe the central event in any catastrophic flood. Some may be of the flood myth, whether historically accurate or mythological, while others are severe floods from around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19254563",
"title": "Flood (Baxter novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Flood is a 2008 work of hard science fiction by English author Stephen Baxter. It describes a near future world where deep submarine seismic activity leads to seabed fragmentation, and the opening of deep subterranean reservoirs of water. Human civilisation is almost destroyed by the rising inundation, which covers Mount Everest in 2052. Baxter issued a sequel to this work, entitled \"Ark\", in 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7482",
"title": "Christian mythology",
"section": "Section::::Mythical themes and types.:Flood myths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Many cultures have myths about a flood that cleanses the world in preparation for rebirth. Such stories appear on every inhabited continent on earth. An example is the biblical story of Noah. In \"The Oxford Companion to World Mythology\", David Leeming notes that, in the Bible story, as in other flood myths, the flood marks a new beginning and a second chance for creation and humanity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36425475",
"title": "Genesis flood narrative",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Comparative mythology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "The flood myth originated in Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian story has three distinct versions, the Sumerian Epic of Ziusudra, (the oldest, dating from about 1600 BCE), and as episodes in two Babylonian epics, those of Atrahasis and Gilgamesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4804623",
"title": "Mythical origins of language",
"section": "Section::::Americas.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "A similar flood is described by the Kaska people from North America, however, like with the story of Babel, the people were now \"widely scattered over the world\". The narrator of the story adds that this explains the many different centres of population, the many tribes and the many languages, \"Before the flood, there was but one centre; for all the people lived together in one country, and spoke one language.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f916g4
|
How can I learn history on my own and take steps to be a buff?
|
[
{
"answer": "That’s a pretty broad spectrum. Are there any events, eras, or regions that you find most interesting.\n\nThe sub has a series of book recommendations for all sorts of topics, broken down by subject matter. You should definitely take a look.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think something that should be mentioned here is that historians are not “history buffs” in the way that most laypeople would think. History is not simply memorization of events and dates. The study of history is the study of how to contextualize events, writings, languages, and many other things so that they say something about how people lived. This can also be used to explain why people live as they did in later periods or even now. Basically, history is another sub-area in the broader study of humans and their societies. Most people don’t understand this because in high school history class, memorization of dates without context is unfortunately how it is taught. In fact, you will find that if you really study history seriously that dates matter very little and that ideas and theories about how societies worked are far more important. Any serious historical work that anyone here will recommend you will have this as a framework too. You will notice that they all have a thesis or theses about the significance of the work, even if it is a little hidden in nice writing. You will come away with really learning about something deeper, not to sound cliche.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "History is arguably the science of the specific. At least, that's what I argue, so I suppose it must be arguable. Which is to say, while understanding the vast sweep of history is great, it's also hard to really dive into because so much of what makes history fascinating, informative and fun is the details. Often the best thing about general history is finding new rabbit holes of specific periods and topics to become passionate about and begin researching. Which is all to say, while this thread has some good recommendations on general histories, also ask yourself specifically what most interests you based on what you do know. Follow that passion! That's often what studying history is all about, whether you are a student or a hobbyist or an academic. I (and many people) find more focused interest is a lot easier to sustain and brings very tangible rewards. Which isn't to say you shouldn't study broader histories, but that if you find your passion and your curiosity pulling you toward a particular topic, follow it and see where it leads you.\n\nThis is also important for learning how to -do- history. Because studying history is in no small part about learning to think historically - how to criticize and contextualize sources, how to use those sources to infer causality, how to develop a historical argument. And that kind of thinking is often best shown in the smaller scale of more specific topic and period studies rather than in the broadest general histories - part of making a broad narrative is concealing all the work that you've done in constructing it, while it's expected that more focused histories will show their work.\n\nTL/DR study general histories, by all means, but don't be afraid to follow the rabbit holes of individual topics that interest you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am so glad that you guys exist, really!. Thank you,Thank you! As I am a fifteen years old boy I really really fascinated in thegilded age and the second industrial revolution that produce them titans of america and their fabulous suit, top hat, and walking cane.I am so really glad from the very buttom of my sub-concious mind and heart.May god keep you guys save, and I wish you guys have great success in parts that you develope impact of.Much obliged!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45440514",
"title": "Harvey Sweetland Lewis",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Historic runs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "As a teacher, Lewis believes one is better able to teach what one knows, stressing firsthand experiences particularly when it comes to history. He recreates history for his students by retracing the routes of (for example) famous nonviolent protests, often interviewing participants or relatives of original participants along the way. Then, Lewis shows video excerpts and photographs of his experience to his students, and his lectures are laced with personal encounters and meaningful stories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10055699",
"title": "West Milford High School",
"section": "Section::::Clubs and activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "BULLET::::- History Club is open to any students who have a passion for the subject of History. Students from all History courses are able to join. The club watches movies on historical figures and plays interactive games to enhance their knowledge on certain time periods. The club is advised by a History teacher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23764312",
"title": "Teachinghistory.org",
"section": "Section::::Resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "BULLET::::- Best Practices presents multimedia examples of classroom teaching, historical thinking, using primary sources, and best practices in teaching with textbooks. The goal of this section is to integrate existing research on history education with practical classroom experience to create, select, and annotate resources that emphasize best practices for teaching American history in elementary, middle, and high school classrooms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39432198",
"title": "Drama teaching techniques",
"section": "Section::::Role playing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "BULLET::::- Expert panel: Students themselves become an expert. In order to prepare for this role students must determine what an expert in the area might know. This works well in history or when focusing on broader issues/topics in literature. This strategy can unfold by having students meet as a group of experts or by having students meet in pairs in an interview situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9778122",
"title": "List of master's degrees in North America",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The Master of Arts in History provides an opportunity for further study of the world's great personalities, events, nations, trends, periods, conflicts, and markings of progress. Many students who graduate with this degree go on to become teachers, professors, historians, researchers, museum curators, and sometimes lawyers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23764312",
"title": "Teachinghistory.org",
"section": "Section::::Organizational goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "One goal is to bring together K-12 American history resources to help educators find and use them. Another goal is to create materials that detail strategies for teaching and learning history to help educators improve classroom teaching. A third goal is to disseminate lessons learned by more than 900 Teaching American History (TAH) grants designed to raise student achievement by improving teachers' knowledge and understanding of traditional U.S. history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "767082",
"title": "Historical thinking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "Sometimes called historical reasoning skills, historical thinking skills are frequently described in contrast to history content such as names, dates, and places. This dichotomous presentation is often misinterpreted as a claim for the superiority of one form of knowing over the other. In fact, the distinction is generally made to underscore the importance of developing thinking skills that can be applied when individuals encounter any history content. Most educators agree that together, history content—or facts about the past—and historical thinking skills enable students to interpret, analyze and use information about past events. In doing so, students will realize the complexity of history with all of the pieces and perspectives that cannot be captured through one narrative. Furthermore, as described by Dr. T. Mills Kelly, characteristics of historical thinking develop sourcing skills, the ability to construct and support an argument, and, \"the ability to present the past in clear ways, whether in writing or in other media, saying what can be said and not saying what cannot.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s9hx4
|
Why were (or even how) the battle tactics of Mesoamerican peoples so different from those of the old world at the time of contact?
|
[
{
"answer": "The idea that the \"Aztecs were looking to gain captives in combat\" is really quite overblown. While the taking of prisoners was important for advancement in social and military rank, the number of prisoners to gain high status was quite small -- as few as 4 captives depending on the circumstances. That the upper echelons of social/military advancement were eventually restricted only to the nobility was a further disincentive to risk life and limb to take a captive in the heat of battle. Furthermore, Postclassic military engagements were proceeded by volleys of slingstones, arrows, and atlatl darts, none of which are particularly conducive to seizing prisoners. \n\nThe focus on captive taking really conflates the actions of the elite shock troops of the noble military orders, particularly during the ritual practice of *xochiyaoyotl* (Flower War) combats, with normal combat actions. The xochiyaoyoatl were more focused on taking prisoners, but they were also arranged and limited engagements largely between the elites of two like minded groups (like the Aztecs and the Tlaxcalans) specifically for that purpose. The Aztec could, and did, engage in combats which destroyed enemy forces, stormed their cities, and resulted in massive casualties of the opposing force. \n\nRemember that the Aztecs had spent over a century fighting near continuous wars of expansion against opponents who did not always share their zeal for seizing prisoners, and yet were rarely defeated. Moreover, in combat against the Spanish, they were really fighting a small number of Europeans accompanied by much more numerous Tlaxcalans and other native forces, including former allies of the Mexica. These indigenous forces would have been using the exact same tactics as the Aztecs they were fighting against. The idea that some sort of difference between the mentality of the Spanish and the Aztecs was a decisive part of the former's eventual victory is, in this light, simply bunk. It's not even supported by the Spanish themselves, who speak quite highly of both their native allies and opponents.\n\nI wrote a bit more on Aztec Warfare [here](_URL_1_) and previously wrote about Mesoamerican sieges [here](_URL_0_). On the latter point, it should be noted that while the logistical constraints of siege warfare were felt more strongly in Mesoamerica, and thus more infrequently practiced, the Cortes' troops weren't exactly well-prepared in this either. Chronically running out of powder and having their cannons seized and destroyed, Diaz del Castillo recounts how they tried to build a trebuchet. It did not go well.\n\nThose past comments reference Hassig's *Aztec Warfare* which is the seminal work on the subject. His *Mexico and the Spanish Conquest* is an excellent companion to that work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4967448",
"title": "Maya society",
"section": "Section::::Warfare.:Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The jungle terrain of Mesoamerica made it difficult for large armies to reach their destination. The warriors who were familiar with the battle landscape could strategically retreat into familiar wilderness. Other war tactics included the siege of cities and the formation of alliances with lesser enemies to defeat more prominent ones. There is evidence that canoes were used to attack cities, located on lakes and rivers. In the late Classic period, destructive warfare methods, such as burning, became more prevalent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7299",
"title": "Colonialism",
"section": "Section::::Impact of colonialism and colonisation.:Military innovation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 508,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 508,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others. The European development of firearms using gunpowder cemented their military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239866",
"title": "Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Depopulation from European Conquest.:War and violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1421,
"text": "There is some disagreement among scholars about how widespread warfare was in pre-Columbian America, but there is general agreement that war became deadlier after the arrival of the Europeans and their firearms. The South or Central American infrastructure allowed for thousands of European conquistadors and tens of thousands of their Indian auxiliaries to attack the dominant indigenous civilization. Empires such as the Incas depended on a highly centralized administration for the distribution of resources. Disruption caused by the war and the colonization hampered the traditional economy, and possibly led to shortages of food and materials. The Arauco War, Chichimeca War, Red Cloud's War, Seminole Wars, War of 1812, Pontiac's Rebellion, Beaver Wars, French-Indian War, American Civil War, American Revolution, Modoc War, Oka Crisis, Battle of Cut Knife, all represented either pyrrhic victories by colonial forces, outright defeat, military stalemates, or further alliance-politics. Across the western hemisphere, war with various Native American civilizations constituted alliances based out of both necessity or economic prosperity and, resulted in mass-scale intertribal warfare. European colonization in the North American continent also contributed to a number of wars between Native Americans, who fought over which of them should have first access to new technology and weaponry—like in the Beaver Wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2514174",
"title": "Aztec Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Aztec warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The Mexica rose to prominence as fierce warriors and were able to establish themselves as a military power. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military power prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19424606",
"title": "Human trophy taking in Mesoamerica",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Most of the ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica such as the Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, Zapotec and Aztec cultures practiced some kind of taking of human trophies during warfare. Captives taken during war would often be taken to their captors' city-states where they would be ritually tortured and sacrificed. These practices are documented by a rich material of iconographic and archaeological evidence from across Mesoamerica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4938154",
"title": "Chichimeca War",
"section": "Section::::The Chichimecas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Chichimeca battle tactics were mostly ambushes and raids on the Spanish. Some of their raids were conducted by up to 200 men, groups of 40 to 50 warriors were more common, about the size of a modern infantry company or platoon with attachments, respectively. During the war, the Chichimecas learned to ride horses and use them in war. This was perhaps the first time that the Spanish in North America faced mounted Native warriors. The undeniable advantage for the Spanish was their use of horses and other animals of burden that they had introduced to the Americas. Horses were unknown to the Americas before the Spanish imported them in 1519.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218823",
"title": "Economy of Prehispanic Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Pre-classic Period.:The middle Pre-classic (1200 B.C. - 400 B.C.).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Long-distance trade between the ancient cultures of Mesoamerica was increasing. But above all, regional specialization was a key factor during this period. Trade was also important in order to create allegiances among their allies and vassals. However, long-distance trade was not very large since it didn’t exist any transportation for the exchange of the goods; for that reason, some cultures sent people (Tamemes) walking to those destinations. The Tamemes were in charge to carry all the products on their backs and there was a relay after every certain distance. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48vw38
|
why flight attendants close the windows during the night?
|
[
{
"answer": "So people can sleep. Night destination-time may not correspond to night at the longitude the plane is currently over. For example, you may be arriving in Europe early in the morning, but flying partially during daytime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the sun comes up it glares like lasers through the window, waking all the passengers. That means the plane is full of wakeful, jet lagged, grumpy passengers, many of whom will insist on waking the stews from their well earned naps to make coffee.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8657638",
"title": "Airline seat",
"section": "Section::::Auxiliary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "At window seats there are window shields for protection from sunlight. They have to be slid up during landings and takeoffs by ICAO regulations and/or law. This rule is in place to provide visibility into and out of the aircraft during emergencies. Some airlines also require passengers to keep the window shields down on long-haul flights for a certain period of time (with a corresponding decrease in cabin lighting), in order to allow passengers to sleep more easily. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner uses new electrochromic windows instead of traditional window covers. Many armrests provide devices for reclining the chair, control interfaces for in-flight entertainment systems and ashtrays — although smoking is now prohibited on board aircraft by most airlines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3889838",
"title": "Pre-flight safety demonstration",
"section": "Section::::Required elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "BULLET::::- and in most cases, if seated next to a window, the window blinds must be raised for take off and landing; the Boeing 787 does not have window blinds as the windows can be dimmed, but passengers are either requested to set all windows to clear, or this is done automatically on all windows by the cabin crew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18408301",
"title": "Night flying restrictions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Night flying restrictions are any regulations or legislation imposed by a governing body to limit the ground-perceived exposure to aircraft noise during the night hours, when the majority of residents are trying to sleep. Such regulations may include restrictions to available flight paths, or prohibitions against takeoffs, or prohibitions against takeoffs and landings, or prohibitions against ground operations (engine runups or taxiing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173394",
"title": "Flight attendant",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1318,
"text": "Once up in the air, flight attendants will usually serve drinks and/or food to passengers using an airline service trolley. When not performing customer service duties, flight attendants must periodically conduct cabin checks and listen for any unusual noises or situations. Checks must also be done on the lavatory to ensure the smoke detector hasn't been disabled or destroyed and to restock supplies as needed. Regular cockpit checks must be done to ensure the health and safety of the pilot(s). They must also respond to call lights dealing with special requests. During turbulence, flight attendants must ensure the cabin is secure. Prior to landing, all loose items, trays and rubbish must be collected and secured along with service and galley equipment. All hot liquids must be disposed of. A final cabin check must then be completed prior to landing. It is vital that flight attendants remain aware as the majority of emergencies occur during takeoff and landing. Upon landing, flight attendants must remain stationed at exits and monitor the airplane and cabin as passengers disembark the plane. They also assist any special needs passengers and small children off the airplane and escort children, while following the proper paperwork and ID process to escort them to the designated person picking them up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "720614",
"title": "Air Canada Flight 797",
"section": "Section::::Incident.:Descent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Smoke filled the passenger cabin and entered the cockpit as the plane descended. The PA system also failed, leaving the flight attendants unable to communicate efficiently with the passengers. Nevertheless, attendants were able to move all passengers forward of row 13, and to instruct passengers sitting in exit rows on how to open the doors, a practice that was not standard on commercial airline flights at the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28051",
"title": "Airport security repercussions due to the September 11 attacks",
"section": "Section::::Changes in airport security.:Improved security on aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Cockpit doors on many aircraft are now reinforced and bulletproof to prevent unauthorized access. Passengers are now prohibited from entering the cockpit during flight. Some aircraft are also equipped with CCTV cameras, so the pilots can monitor cabin activity. Pilots are now allowed to carry firearms, but they must be trained and licensed. In the U.S., more air marshals have been placed on flights to improve security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1796418",
"title": "Visibility",
"section": "Section::::Low visibility warnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In addition, an advisory is often issued by a government weather agency for low visibility, such as a dense fog advisory from the U.S. National Weather Service. These generally advise motorists to avoid travel until the fog dissipates or other conditions improve. Airport travel is also often delayed by low visibility, sometimes causing long waits due to approach visibility minimums and the difficulty of safely moving aircraft on the ground in low visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g2skw
|
Does metric expansion of the universe apply to the dimension of time? If not, why not?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you look at the equations:\n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_\n\nYou will see the scale factor does not apply to time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It appears that space/time could be expanding, but from what point of view would one view this happening?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When talking about the expansion of the universe, it's helpful to pick one of the dimensions and use that to describe how the other 3 dimensions change.\n\nFor our brains, it's easiest to pick time, and describe how the spacial coordinates change with time. Time obviously doesn't change in time, because t(t) = t.\n\nYou could pick instead, say, the x-dimension and write t, y, z as a function of x, just by rearranging the equation. And then come back and ask why the metric expansion of the universe applies to t,y,z but not x, since x(x) = x.\n\nHave a read of _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Suppose it did. Then the most general metric (assuming the cosmological principle) we could write would be\n\nds^2 = -b(t)^2 dt^2 + a(t)^2 dx^2 (dx^2 is the metric on some maximally symmetric 3-surface).\n\nNow consider the coordinate change du = b(t)dt. Now our metric is \n\nds^2 = -du^2 + a(t)^2 dx^2 . In other words, we have shown that a metric with expansion applied to the dimension of time is equivalent to one without it, up to a coordinate change. This definition of time, u, is the most useful one, because it is the time that comoving observers agree upon.\n\nLayman language: A universe with \"expanding time\" is the same as one without it, but the latter is more useful because its definition of time is the one we are used to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to try to do this without any equations. It'll make it harder, but let's see if I can pull it off.\n\nThink for a moment about what space and time are, just to get the distinction between them clear in your head: Space is that thing that separates events that are simultaneous. Time is that thing that separates events that are colocational (which is a word I made up years ago because I don't know a better one to say \"at the same place but different times\"). Of course, events can be separated by both space *and* time, but for sake of clarity, let's consider for the moment only events with *either* timelike separation *or* spacelike separation and not both.\n\nTake two events, *A* and *B.* Each event is described by a unique set of four numbers, coordinates in some arbitrarily chosen system of coordinates. We call those coordinates *t, x, y* and *z* if we're working in Cartesian coordinates, and that's just fine for this discussion, so let's call them that.\n\nSo for each event *A* and *B,* there's an ordered quadruplet of numbers that uniquely identifies that event. Using those eight numbers and something called the *metric equation* of the manifold in question, we can calculate the distance separating those two events.\n\nFor sake of argument, let's say that events *A* and *B* occur simultaneously. That is, both events have the same numerical value for their *t* coordinate. If we calculate the distance between the two events using the correct metric equation, we'll end up with a distance in space, something we can describe in terms of miles or light-years or whatever unit of length is convenient for us.\n\nBut we can also flip that assumption on its head. Instead of *A* and *B* being simultaneous, we can say they're colocated. In other words, *A* and *B* share the same numerical values for *x, y* and *z,* but have different values for *t.* We can use the same metric equation to calculate the distance between them, but this time we'll get a number that we have to describe in terms of seconds or centuries or some other unit of duration.\n\nNow, think about what *spacelike* metric expansion means. It means that the *spacelike* distance separating *simultaneous* events is a function of *time.* In other words, the distance from event *A* to event *B* when *A* and *B* are simultaneous depends on *when* we calculate it.\n\nNow, nothing's stopping us, mathematically, from flipping that relationship on its head. We could say that the *timelike* distance separating *colocated* events is a function of *space.* In other words we could say the distance from *A* to *B* when *A* and *B* are colocated depends on where, exactly, *A* and *B* are *on the manifold.*\n\nWhen we put it in those terms, we can see that this is impossible in our universe. One of the core principles that defines our universe is the *equivalence principle,* which states that the outcome of a purely local experiment is independent of where in spacetime that experience is carried out. If this timelike expansion idea were true, then experiments conducted at different places in the universe would have different outcomes; an unstable subatomic particle *here* might decay in fifteen minutes, while the exact same particle *there* might decay only after a millisecond, because the proper time separating the particle's emission from its decay would vary depending on where the particle is.\n\nSo we must reject the idea of timelike expansion *a priori.* It contradicts something we know to be true about the universe.\n\nOkay, well, what if we considered a different relationship? What if we said that timelike separation between colocated events is a function of *time* rather than location. But that's just saying that time is a function of time, which either reduces to triviality *(\"t=t\")* or is nonsensical *(\"t≠t\").* So we must reject that also, on even more basic logical grounds. (Of course, we could just postulate that the universe has two parallel timelike dimensions, *t* and *u,* and that *t* is a function of *u,* but any such theory constructed from a \"metatime\" postulate like that either reduces, again, to triviality, or is untestable, so that wouldn't actually get us anywhere. And imagining that *t* and *u* are perpendicular introduces all sorts of mathematical inconsistencies that I won't even bother getting into here, but the bottom line is everything falls to pieces if you try.)\n\nSo what we're left with is that the metric expansion we observe — in which spacelike separation is a function of time — is possible, while all other combinations of timelike separation being dependent on space, or timelike separation on time, or spacelike separation on space are either degenerate, contradictory or inherently logically invalid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical basis and first evidence.:Hubble's law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Technically, the metric expansion of space is a feature of many solutions to the Einstein field equations of general relativity, and distance is measured using the Lorentz interval. This explains observations which indicate that galaxies that are more distant from us are receding faster than galaxies that are closer to us (see Hubble's law).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Metric expansion is a key feature of Big Bang cosmology, is modeled mathematically with the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric and is a generic property of the universe we inhabit. However, the model is valid only on large scales (roughly the scale of galaxy clusters and above), because gravitational attraction binds matter together strongly enough that metric expansion cannot be observed at this time, on a smaller scale. As such, the only galaxies receding from one another as a result of metric expansion are those separated by cosmologically relevant scales larger than the length scales associated with the gravitational collapse that are possible in the age of the universe given the matter density and average expansion rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Features of the model.:Expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "This metric contains a scale factor, which describes how the size of the universe changes with time. This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made, called comoving coordinates. In this coordinate system, the grid expands along with the universe, and objects that are moving only because of the expansion of the universe, remain at fixed points on the grid. While their \"coordinate\" distance (comoving distance) remains constant, the \"physical\" distance between two such co-moving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "921168",
"title": "Scale factor (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Detail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16786863",
"title": "Ant on a rubber rope",
"section": "Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "However, the metric expansion of space is accelerating. An ant on a rubber rope whose expansion increases with time is not guaranteed to reach the endpoint. The light from sufficiently distant galaxies may still therefore never reach Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39136",
"title": "Accelerating expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Technical definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The definition of \"accelerating expansion\" is that the second time derivative of the cosmic scale factor, formula_2, is positive, which is equivalent to the deceleration parameter, formula_3, being negative. However, note this does not imply that the Hubble parameter is increasing with time. Since the Hubble parameter is defined as formula_4, it follows from the definitions that the derivative of the Hubble parameter is given by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Cosmic inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4iat99
|
why do most power plants convert heat into electricity by heating water into steam and then using it to spin a turbine? is there not a more efficient way to do it?
|
[
{
"answer": "None that we've found. There are ways to make the process more efficient, but nothing can reliably keep the turbines spinning at maximum capacity (their most efficient state) as consistently as steam.\n\nThough things like solar power may eventually overtake them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Steam turbines are actually quite efficient and they have the advantage in that the steam can be condensed back into water at the end of the process and reused. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As it turns out, a large portion of our energy production portfolio is based off of burning things. We burn coal, lignite, and natural gas to make heat. Nuclear power plants don't \"burn\" in the traditional sense, but the nuclear fuel does produce (a lot of) heat when it fissions.\n\nSo how do we convert this heat energy into electricity? Turns out the steam cycle is the most cost-effective way to do so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is possible to produce electricity using heat directly, but the technology is very inefficient. The only realy advantage this has right now is that it works with low temperatures and doesn't require any moving parts, and they are currently mostly used for nuclear batteries powering spacecraft. \n\nHeat engines using hot gas (e.g. gas engines, stirling engines) could be more efficient than steam turbines, if they were made from a material which can survive extremely high pressure and heat, since both imcrease the amount of energy you can get from heat. Unfortunately, most materials which are good enough in both regards are very expensive and/or difficult to work with.\n\nSteam turbines are currently more efficient because you can operate them at a fairly low temperature, which lets you reach very high pressure using conventional materials, and makes it possible to run them without cooling the turbines.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This page](_URL_0_) contains an excellent summary of the efficiency levels of different power plant types. A modern coal+steam plant turns 38% to 42% of the coal's heat energy into electricity. This is considered quite efficient, and better designs have not been created that work at large scale. (Coal never *intended* to be electricity, so it's actually quite an accomplishment.)\n\nYou'll notice on the same page that hydro is way more efficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Is there not a more efficient way to do it?\n\nNot really. \n\nWe have centuries of experience engineering steam turbines and are really, really good at it. And water is cheap and plentiful.\n\nIn terms of the pure physics of it, there is theoretical room for improvement. A typical steam turbine is about 33% efficient, where the theoretical (Carnot) limit is in the 60 percent range. However, taking advantage of this would require new engineering techniques and exotic materials that would be unlikely to make it worthwhile.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "153221",
"title": "Heat exchanger",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Phase-change heat exchangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Power plants that use steam-driven turbines commonly use heat exchangers to boil water into steam. Heat exchangers or similar units for producing steam from water are often called boilers or steam generators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29061881",
"title": "Monotube steam generator",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "For the sake of efficiency, it is desirable to minimise the steam content of the generator. Heat can then be transferred efficiently into liquid water, rather than into low-density steam. Monotube steam generators may either boil gradually along their length, usually pumped circulation systems, but where this boiling does not disrupt the circulation. Otherwise they can use the Benson supercritical system, where the pressure is sufficient to prevent boiling (within the heated volume) altogether. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29374",
"title": "Steam turbine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion process. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator—about 85% of all electricity generation in the United States in the year 2014 was by use of steam turbines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "Section::::Common tools.:Power production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "It has been proposed that steam turbines be used to convert the heat from the fusion chamber into electricity. The heat is transferred into a working fluid that turns into steam, driving electric generators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153221",
"title": "Heat exchanger",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Phase-change heat exchangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In the nuclear power plants called pressurized water reactors, special large heat exchangers pass heat from the primary (reactor plant) system to the secondary (steam plant) system, producing steam from water in the process. These are called steam generators. All fossil-fueled and nuclear power plants using steam-driven turbines have surface condensers to convert the exhaust steam from the turbines into condensate (water) for re-use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3814851",
"title": "Steam-electric power station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The steam-electric power station is a power station in which the electric generator is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser. The greatest variation in the design of steam-electric power plants is due to the different fuel sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212141",
"title": "Power station",
"section": "Section::::Thermal power stations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Besides use of reject heat for process or district heating, one way to improve overall efficiency of a power plant is to combine two different thermodynamic cycles in a combined cycle plant. Most commonly, exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to generate steam for a boiler and a steam turbine. The combination of a \"top\" cycle and a \"bottom\" cycle produces higher overall efficiency than either cycle can attain alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xfnjw
|
what is the significance of having headphones in the correct ears when listening to music?
|
[
{
"answer": "There isn't one from a music perspective, (some songs have differences in the left-right channel, but it doesn't really matter if it is reversed). The problem is with the shape of the headphones themselves. The right headphone is shaped for the right ear, so if you put it in the left ear then it will be backwards and won't be as good of a shape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Supra-aural.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Supra-aural headphones or on-ear headphones have pads that press against the ears, rather than around them. They were commonly bundled with personal stereos during the 1980s. This type of headphone generally tends to be smaller and lighter than circumaural headphones, resulting in less attenuation of outside noise. Supra-aural headphones can also lead to discomfort due to the pressure on the ear as compared to circumaural headphones that sit around the ear. Comfort may vary due to the earcup material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102676",
"title": "Binaural recording",
"section": "Section::::Known issues.:Timbral issues related to headphones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Ideal listening conditions will most likely be experienced with headphones designed and calibrated to give an as flat frequency response as possible in order to reduce colouration of the audio the user is listening to. In most circumstances this has not seemed enough of a problem for end-users to make an investment into headphones that will allow them to hear audio exactly how the creator of the content intended, and will instead continue to use bundled headphones, or in some cases make investments into headphones endorsed and branded by certain artists. As previously discussed, there are issues of timbral effects present while using BRIR and HRTF data to create spatially improved audio, techniques used by Chris Pike and BBC R&D. The results experienced timbral issues and therefore this method may not yet be a successful way of creating spatially enhanced audio for headphones, but these timbral issues are also experienced with headphone choice. \"[Are timbral issues brought about by the use of BRIR and HRFT data] any worse than the difference between some cheap headphones that you get with an mp3 player versus some nice Sennhesiers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046687",
"title": "Equal-loudness contour",
"section": "Section::::Side versus frontal presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "Equal-loudness curves derived using headphones are valid only for the special case of what is called \"side-presentation\", which is not how we normally hear. Real-life sounds arrive as planar wavefronts, if from a reasonably distant source. If the source of sound is directly in front of the listener, then both ears receive equal intensity, but at frequencies above about 1 kHz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the masking effect of the head, and also highly dependent on reflection off the pinna (outer ear). Off-centre sounds result in increased head masking at one ear, and subtle changes in the effect of the pinna, especially at the other ear. This combined effect of head-masking and pinna reflection is quantified in a set of curves in three-dimensional space referred to as head-related transfer functions (HRTFs). Frontal presentation is now regarded as preferable when deriving equal-loudness contours, and the latest ISO standard is specifically based on frontal and central presentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37774663",
"title": "Autonomous sensory meridian response",
"section": "Section::::Media.:Binaural recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Listening to a binaural recording through headphones simulates the binaural hearing by which people listen to live sounds. For the listener, this experience is characterized by two perceptions. Firstly, the listener perceives being in close proximity to the performers and location of the sound source. Secondly, the listener perceives what is often reported as a three-dimensional sound. This means the listener can perceive both the position and distance of the source of sound relative to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21051128",
"title": "Stage monitor system",
"section": "Section::::Related products.:In-ear monitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1338,
"text": "In the 2000s, some bands and singers, typically touring professionals, began using small \"in ear\"-style headphone monitors. In-ear monitors allow musicians to hear their voice and the other instruments with a clearer, more intelligible sound, because the molded in-ear headphone design blocks out on-stage noise. While some in-ear monitors are \"universal fit\" designs, some companies also sell custom-made in-ear monitors, which require a fitting by an audiologist. Custom-made in-ear monitors provide an exact fit for a performer's ear. In-ear monitors greatly reduce on-stage volume by eliminating the need for on-stage monitor wedges. This reduced on-stage volume makes it easier for the Front of House audio engineer to get a good sound for the audience. In-ear monitors also make audio feedback \"howls\" much less likely, since there are no monitor speakers. The lower on-stage volume may lead to less hearing damage for performers. One drawback of in-ear monitors is that the singers and musicians cannot hear on-stage comments spoken away from a microphone (e.g., the bandleader turning away from the vocal mic and looking at the band and calling for an impromptu repetition of the chorus) or sounds from the audience. This issue can be rectified by placing microphones in front of the stage so that the band can hear the audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046687",
"title": "Equal-loudness contour",
"section": "Section::::Headphones versus loudspeaker testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "Good headphones, well sealed to the ear, provide a flat low-frequency pressure response to the ear canal, with low distortion even at high intensities. At low frequencies the ear is purely pressure-sensitive, and the cavity formed between headphones and ear is too small to introduce modifying resonances. Headphone testing is therefore a good way to derive equal-loudness contours below about 500 Hz, though reservations have been expressed about the validity of headphone measurements when determining the actual threshold of hearing, based on observation that closing off the ear canal produces increased sensitivity to the sound of blood flow within the ear, which the brain appears to mask in normal listening conditions . At high frequencies, headphone measurement gets unreliable, and the various resonances of pinnae (outer ears) and ear canals are severely affected by proximity to the headphone cavity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296131",
"title": "Combination tone",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "For a time it was thought that the inner ear was solely responsible whenever a sum or difference tone was heard. However, experiments show evidence that even when using headphones providing a single pure tone to each ear separately, listeners may still hear a difference tone. Since the peculiar, non-linear physics of the ear doesn't come into play in this case, it is thought that this must be a separate, neural phenomenon. Compare binaural beats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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