id
stringlengths 5
6
| input
stringlengths 3
301
| output
list | meta
null |
|---|---|---|---|
cazmsj
|
What aspects of a speaker determine it's max volume?
|
[
{
"answer": "Volume is just an amplitude of the signal which is carried by a sound wave. You can imagine the amplitude as a \"size\" of the sound wave. The more the speaker moves, the more air it pushes, thus producing bigger sound waves that your ears interpret as louder sound.\n\nOr in other words, the capability of the speaker to produce louder noises is defined by how much air it can push which is proportional to its membrane size and strength of the electromagnet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The size and msterials its made of. Speakers have a membrane that translates electrical signals into analog and makes the air move which is what creates the sound you hear. So basicly the more air it moves the louder it can get.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two things can go wrong with a speaker.\n\nThe coil can push the cone too hard and it rips. This happens a lot with older paper speakers.\n\nYou can put too much electricity through the coil (a little transformer) and burn it out.\n\nThe volume produced is (sort of) the diameter of the cone times the travel in and out. That tells how much air it will move.\n\nAlso, some speakers are more efficient than others. If you use a lighter weight Mylar cone, it takes less electrical power to move the cone than a heavy paper one, and you can move more air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Frequency response is a big driver (no pun intended). \n\nHigh frequency can be emitted by small speaker, and even at debilitating volumes. \n\nLow frequency requires more “space” for a complete wave and therefore a larger “speaker” for a given unit of power or volume. \n\nI’m not an audio engineer but I have slept at a holiday inn express in my lifetime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From an engineering standpoint, there is a set of inter-related parameters known as the [Thiele/Small Parameters](_URL_0_) that determine the performance of a speaker at low frequencies in a given environment. Basically, it has to do with the size of the cone, how far the cone can travel, material properties of the cone and suspension, etc. That article will tell you more than you ever wanted to know about the subject.\n\nThe maximum output (I'm using this term since \"volume\" also refers to the amount of air the speaker can move) of the speaker is the point at which the voice coil reaches the end of its suspension travel or the cone starts to deform from its resting shape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone else is talking about the mechanical aspects. In terms of measure, the efficiency or sensitivity at a particular wattage determines the loudness. Also note that perceived loudness is not directly proportional to any of the above, it’s logarithmic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3751178",
"title": "Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers",
"section": "Section::::Load impedance and amplifiers.:Nominal impedance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Due to the reactive nature of a speaker's impedance over the audio band frequencies, giving a speaker a single value for 'impedance' rating is in principle impossible, as one may surmise from the impedance vs. frequency curve above. The nominal impedance of a loudspeaker is a convenient, single number reference that loosely describes the impedance value of the loudspeaker over a majority of the audio band. A speaker's nominal impedance is defined as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246802",
"title": "Audio power",
"section": "Section::::Power and loudness in the real world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Like perceived loudness, speaker sensitivity also varies with frequency and power. The sensitivity is measured at 1 watt to minimize nonlinear effects such as power compression and harmonic distortion, and averaged over the usable bandwidth. The bandwidth is often specified between the measured '+/-3 dB' cutoff frequencies where the relative loudness becomes attenuated from the peak loudness by at least 6 dB. Some speaker manufacturers use '+3 dB/-6 dB' instead, to take into account the real-world in-room response of a speaker at frequency extremes where the floor/wall/ceiling boundaries may increase the perceived loudness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303422",
"title": "Bass amplifier",
"section": "Section::::Amplifier technology.:Power in watts and volume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The relationship between perceived volume (loudness) and power output in watts of an amplifier is not a linear relationship. The human ear perceives a 50-watt amplifier as only twice as loud as a five-watt amplifier, despite a tenfold increase in power in watts. Doubling the power of an amplifier results in a \"just noticeable\" increase in volume, so a 100-watt amplifier is only slightly louder than a 50-watt amplifier. In addition is the human ear's tendency to behave as a natural audio compressor at high volumes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24559346",
"title": "Nominal impedance",
"section": "Section::::Audio systems.:Loudspeakers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "The impedance of a loudspeaker is not constant across all frequencies. In a typical loudspeaker the impedance will rise with increasing frequency from its DC value, as shown in the diagram, until it reaches a point of its mechanical resonance. Following resonance, the impedance falls to a minimum and then begins to rise again. Speakers are usually designed to operate at frequencies above their resonance, and for this reason it is the usual practice to define nominal impedance at this minimum and then round to the nearest standard value. The ratio of the peak resonant frequency to the nominal impedance can be as much as 4:1. It is, however, still perfectly possible for the low frequency impedance to actually be lower than the nominal impedance. A given audio amplifier may not be capable of driving this low frequency impedance even though it is capable of driving the nominal impedance, a problem that can be solved either with the use of crossover filters or underrating the amplifier supplied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303422",
"title": "Bass amplifier",
"section": "Section::::Amplifier technology.:Power in watts and volume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Some manufacturers also list \"peak power,\" \"maximum power\" (\"max power\"), or \"burst power\". Peak power is the power-handling ability of the speaker for very short bursts of high-wattage signal. The RMS figure is much more important than the \"peak power\" or \"max power\" figure. Some manufacturers state the \"program power\" capabilities of their speaker cabinet, which can be a vague and less defined term. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37943308",
"title": "Hearing level",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Hearing level is the sound pressure level produced by an audiometer at a specific frequency. It is measured in decibels with reference to audiometric zero. Hearing of speech is considered to be impaired when the hearing level is shifted 25 dB or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246802",
"title": "Audio power",
"section": "Section::::Measurements.:Continuous power and \"RMS power\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "In loudspeakers, thermal capacities of the voice coils and magnet structures largely determine continuous power handling ratings. However, at the lower end of a loudspeaker's usable frequency range, its power handling might necessarily be derated because of mechanical excursion limits. For example, a subwoofer rated at 100 watts may be able to handle 100 watts of power at 80 hertz, but at 25 hertz it might not be able to handle nearly as much power since such frequencies would, for some drivers in some enclosures, force the driver beyond its mechanical limits much before reaching 100 watts from the amplifier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k6izx
|
what makes elements perform ionic and covalent bonds?(x-post from askscience)
|
[
{
"answer": "Ionic bonds are a bit easier to visualize I think. You can sort think about it this way: Atoms are composed of a nucleus with protons and a bunch of electrons. Each proton carries a positive charge and each electron carries a negative charge. Like the poles on a magnet, the positively and negatively charged particles attract each other, and if an atom has the same number of protons and electrons, they balance out and the atom has no charge overall.\n\nIt turns out that atoms kind of store their electrons in a set of bags, where each bag holds a certain number of electrons. The first bag holds two, the next one holds eight, the next one holds 18, etc.\n\nThe atoms on the left hand side of the periodic table have juuusstt too many electrons to fit evenly in their bags. Take sodium, for instance, with 11 protons and electrons. The sodium atom puts its first two electrons in the first bag, the next eight into the second bag, but it only has one electron remaining for the last bag, which is designed to hold 18 electrons. Now sodium doesn't necessarily want to expel that last electron, but if someone else comes along that might want an extra electron, sodium wouldn't feel too bad about giving it away, because then it would only need 2 bags instead of carrying around a whole third bag with only a single electron in it.\n\nAlong comes chlorine with 17 protons and electrons. We can do the same kind of analysis and find that it has 2 electrons in its first bag, 8 in next, and 7 in its last bag. Even the though the last bag can hold a total of 18 electrons, it turns out that 8 is also a pretty even number that fits in the last bag, so if chlorine had one more electron, it would be happy. When sodium and chlorine meet, sodium gives its awkward electron to chlorine. After the exchange, sodium becomes positively charged because it lost its electron, and chlorine becomes negatively charged. The oppositely charged sodium and chlorine attract each other and form an ionic bond and become Sodium Chloride (NaCl), or common table salt.\n\nAlso, regarding your question about if you'd get water if you massaged oxygen and hydrogen together... Typically, if you have pure hydrogen or oxygen, they exist as hydrogen gas molecules composed of 2 hydrogen atoms, and oxygen gas molecules, also composed of 2 oxygen atoms. Say you mix the two gasses together in a room at room temperature. In this case, not much would happen. This is because the hydrogens are lazily happy on their own bonded to each other, and the oxygen as well. Sure, the hydrogen would _rather_ be bonded to the oxygen, but at such a low temperature, they're too lazy to do anything about it. If there should happen to be a spark though, the hydrogen and oxygen close to the spark might get just enough energy to change from hydrogen and oxygen gas into water vapor. When that happens, it turns out that energy is released by the atoms as they exchange in the form of heat and light. The released heat and light might cause other neighboring hydrogens and oxygens to bond, too, causing a very fast chain reaction throughout the room. The resulting heat and light from the gigantic chain reaction would cause a hindenburg explosion in your room, after which you'd have water vapor. Like this: _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ionic bonds are a bit easier to visualize I think. You can sort think about it this way: Atoms are composed of a nucleus with protons and a bunch of electrons. Each proton carries a positive charge and each electron carries a negative charge. Like the poles on a magnet, the positively and negatively charged particles attract each other, and if an atom has the same number of protons and electrons, they balance out and the atom has no charge overall.\n\nIt turns out that atoms kind of store their electrons in a set of bags, where each bag holds a certain number of electrons. The first bag holds two, the next one holds eight, the next one holds 18, etc.\n\nThe atoms on the left hand side of the periodic table have juuusstt too many electrons to fit evenly in their bags. Take sodium, for instance, with 11 protons and electrons. The sodium atom puts its first two electrons in the first bag, the next eight into the second bag, but it only has one electron remaining for the last bag, which is designed to hold 18 electrons. Now sodium doesn't necessarily want to expel that last electron, but if someone else comes along that might want an extra electron, sodium wouldn't feel too bad about giving it away, because then it would only need 2 bags instead of carrying around a whole third bag with only a single electron in it.\n\nAlong comes chlorine with 17 protons and electrons. We can do the same kind of analysis and find that it has 2 electrons in its first bag, 8 in next, and 7 in its last bag. Even the though the last bag can hold a total of 18 electrons, it turns out that 8 is also a pretty even number that fits in the last bag, so if chlorine had one more electron, it would be happy. When sodium and chlorine meet, sodium gives its awkward electron to chlorine. After the exchange, sodium becomes positively charged because it lost its electron, and chlorine becomes negatively charged. The oppositely charged sodium and chlorine attract each other and form an ionic bond and become Sodium Chloride (NaCl), or common table salt.\n\nAlso, regarding your question about if you'd get water if you massaged oxygen and hydrogen together... Typically, if you have pure hydrogen or oxygen, they exist as hydrogen gas molecules composed of 2 hydrogen atoms, and oxygen gas molecules, also composed of 2 oxygen atoms. Say you mix the two gasses together in a room at room temperature. In this case, not much would happen. This is because the hydrogens are lazily happy on their own bonded to each other, and the oxygen as well. Sure, the hydrogen would _rather_ be bonded to the oxygen, but at such a low temperature, they're too lazy to do anything about it. If there should happen to be a spark though, the hydrogen and oxygen close to the spark might get just enough energy to change from hydrogen and oxygen gas into water vapor. When that happens, it turns out that energy is released by the atoms as they exchange in the form of heat and light. The released heat and light might cause other neighboring hydrogens and oxygens to bond, too, causing a very fast chain reaction throughout the room. The resulting heat and light from the gigantic chain reaction would cause a hindenburg explosion in your room, after which you'd have water vapor. Like this: _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36094822",
"title": "Interchalcogen",
"section": "Section::::Bonding in the binary interchalcogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "Going down the above table, there is a transition from covalent bonding (with discrete molecules) to ionic bonding; going across the table, there is a transition from ionic bonding to metallic bonding. (Covalent bonding occurs when both elements have similar high electronegativities; ionic bonding occurs when the two elements have very different electronegativities, one low and the other high; metallic bonding occurs when both elements have similar low electronegativities.) For example, in the leftmost column of the table (with bonds to oxygen), O and O are purely covalent, SO and SO are polar molecules, SeO forms chained polymers (stretching in one dimension), TeO forms layered polymers (stretching in two dimensions), and PoO is ionic with the fluorite structure (spatial polymers, stretching in three dimensions); in the bottom row of the table (with bonds to polonium), PoO and PoS are ionic, PoSe and PoTe are semimetallic, and Po is metallic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827232",
"title": "Inert pair effect",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "An important consideration is that compounds in the lower oxidation state are ionic, whereas the compounds in the higher oxidation state tend to be covalent. Therefore, covalency effects must also be taken into account. In fact an alternative explanation of the inert pair effect by Drago in 1958 attributed the effect to low M-X bond enthalpies for the heavy p-block elements and the fact that it requires less energy to oxidize an element to a low oxidation state than to a higher oxidation state. This energy has to be supplied by ionic or covalent bonds, so if bonding to a particular element is weak, the high oxidation state may be inaccessible. Further work involving relativistic effects confirms this. In view of this it has been suggested that the term inert pair effect should be viewed as a description rather than as an explanation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210000",
"title": "Ionic compound",
"section": "Section::::Bonding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1411,
"text": "If the electronic structure of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed. Ionic compounds are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most electronegative/electropositive pairs such as those in caesium fluoride exhibit a small degree of covalency. Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character. The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using Fajans' rules, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge. More generally HSAB theory can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation. This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14951",
"title": "Ionic bonding",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Ionic bonding can result from a redox reaction when atoms of an element (usually metal), whose ionization energy is low, give some of their electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. In doing so, cations are formed. An atom of another element (usually nonmetal) with greater electron affinity accepts the electron(s) to attain a stable electron configuration, and after accepting electron(s) an atom becomes an anion. Typically, the stable electron configuration is one of the noble gases for elements in the s-block and the p-block, and particular stable electron configurations for d-block and f-block elements. The electrostatic attraction between the anions and cations leads to the formation of a solid with a crystallographic lattice in which the ions are stacked in an alternating fashion. In such a lattice, it is usually not possible to distinguish discrete molecular units, so that the compounds formed are not molecular in nature. However, the ions themselves can be complex and form molecular ions like the acetate anion or the ammonium cation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25393281",
"title": "Bonding in solids",
"section": "Section::::Solids of intermediate kinds.:Ionic to network covalent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Covalent and ionic bonding form a continuum, with ionic character increasing with increasing difference in the electronegativity of the participating atoms. Covalent bonding corresponds to sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms of essentially equal electronegativity (for example, C–C and C–H bonds in aliphatic hydrocarbons). As bonds become more polar, they become increasingly ionic in character. Metal oxides vary along the iono-covalent spectrum. The Si–O bonds in quartz, for example, are polar yet largely covalent, and are considered to be of mixed character.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14951",
"title": "Ionic bonding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "It is important to recognize that \"clean\" ionic bonding – in which one atom or molecule completely transfers an electron to another cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the term \"ionic bonding\" is given when the ionic character is greater than the covalent character – that is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be more polar (ionic) than in covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9707",
"title": "Electronegativity",
"section": "Section::::Trends in electronegativity.:Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Allred used the Pauling method to calculate separate electronegativities for different oxidation states of the handful of elements (including tin and lead) for which sufficient data was available. However, for most elements, there are not enough different covalent compounds for which bond dissociation energies are known to make this approach feasible. This is particularly true of the transition elements, where quoted electronegativity values are usually, of necessity, averages over several different oxidation states and where trends in electronegativity are harder to see as a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jwf1d
|
What did people do before coffee?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the Arabian Penninsula and parts of Africa, [khat](_URL_0_) was (and is) sometimes used. it's a leaf that you can chew, and is a stimulant. it's quite common in yemen. while it's not used widely, it's a very common stimulant in the areas where it's been grown historically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A similar question was asked about a month ago. You will find somewhat relevant answers in the comments.\n\n[Did the Ancient Romans have their own version of a \"cup of coffee\"? by which I mean a mild stimulant they would have used on a daily basis](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Incas had coca leaves which they chew and use to make coca tea, which has a stimulant effect similar to coffee. Still used in the Andes region today widely. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5612891",
"title": "History of coffee",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The history of coffee dates back to the 15th century, and possibly earlier with a number of reports and legends surrounding its first use. The native (undomesticated) origin of coffee is thought to have been Ethiopia.The earliest substantiated evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the early 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen, spreading soon to Mecca and Cairo. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, South India (Karnataka), Persia, Turkey, the Horn of Africa, and northern Africa. Coffee then spread to the Balkans, Italy, and to the rest of Europe, as well as Southeast Asia and then to America, despite bans imposed during the 15th century by religious leaders in Mecca and Cairo, and later by the Catholic Church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Discovery and spread of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51613538",
"title": "Coffee in world cultures",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.:Ethiopian Legend.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The heritage of coffee grown all around the world can be found in the forests of Ethiopia, where the theory of its origins also resides. According to local legend, a goat herder named Kaldi saw his goats eating coffee \"berries\". This caused them to gain extreme amounts of energy, preventing them from sleeping at night. He brought this information to local monks, who created a drink with the coffee beans. One monk who drank the concoction found that it allowed him to stay up all night and pray. As this information spread to other Ethiopian monks, it began to spread across the civilized world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25101599",
"title": "The Birth of Coffee",
"section": "Section::::Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The Birth of Coffee is a project created by The Image Expedition, a not-for-profit organization \"designed to photographically document and preserve ancient places and indigenous ways of life that, with the passage of time, might otherwise be lost forever... it is global visual artifact gathering.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604727",
"title": "Coffee",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historical transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1267,
"text": "The earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century in the accounts of Ahmed al-Ghaffar in Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is prepared now. Coffee was used by Sufi circles to stay awake for their religious rituals. Accounts differ on the origin of the coffee plant prior to its appearance in Yemen. From Ethiopia, coffee could have been introduced to Yemen via trade across the Red Sea. One account credits Muhammad Ibn Sa'd for bringing the beverage to Aden from the African coast. Other early accounts say Ali ben Omar of the Shadhili Sufi order was the first to introduce coffee to Arabia. According to al Shardi, Ali ben Omar may have encountered coffee during his stay with the Adal king Sadadin's companions in 1401. Famous 16th-century Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami notes in his writings of a beverage called qahwa developed from a tree in the Zeila region. Coffee was first exported out of Ethiopia to Yemen by Somali merchants from Berbera. In addition, Mocha, which was the centre of the coffee trade for much of the early modern era, obtained most of their coffee from Somali merchants based in Berbera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490022",
"title": "National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia",
"section": "Section::::The arrival of coffee in Colombia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "It seems that the Jesuits were the first to introduce seeds of coffee in the \"\"Nueva Granada\"\" (today Colombia) by the year 1723. The first experiments in growing coffee in Colombia are recorded in the 18th century. Although some coffee plantations were initiated during the first half of the 19th century, it was not until the second half of the Century that the coffee industry was consolidated as an economic generator of employment, wealth, and hard currencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7660879",
"title": "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world",
"section": "Section::::List of inventions.:Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "BULLET::::- Coffee: Stories exist of coffee originating in Ethiopia, but the earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. It was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e6z4cl
|
What equipment would ancient Romans use against armoured opponents? ~107BC-395AD
|
[
{
"answer": "Standard fighting equipment for a post-Marian legionnaire was the gladius, pilum, pugio, scutum, galea, and some sort of body armor, either the lorica squamata, lorica hamata, or, mainly imperial, lorica segmentata. This profile rarely if ever changed in any meaningful way, whether fighting naked Britons or Parthian horse-archers or perfumed Egyptians or other Romans legions. This changes in Late Antiquity, when we start to see specialized units, but in your period specialized forces would always be auxiliaries.\n\nYour focus on [weapon type] effective against [protection type] is mostly a modern construction. The vast majority of casualties in an ancient battle happened after a side broke and fled. Ancient battles were much more about maneuvering, positioning, and maintaining morale rather than inflicting damage to combatants along the line of battle. Casualties were incidental to those three, and killing blows often the consequence of an injury unrelated to body armor (like taking a *tragula* through an exposed thigh at twenty meters, or going down with a sprained ankle in the push).\n\nYou should also not discount the gladius. It was a vicious, versatile weapon, and the legionnaire treated it like a tool. Gladius, shovel, wooden stake. Its tapered point made it a sturdy puncturing weapon as much as a slasher, and with the force of a thrust, it was more than enough to push through the weakpoint of a lorica hamata or the joint of a lorica segmentata. The hilt design was intended to help transfer force to a thrust attack in this way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23468036",
"title": "History of weapons",
"section": "Section::::Pre-history and the ancient world.:The Romans.:Catapults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 2017,
"text": "Siege warfare gave the Roman army significant offensive advantages over their enemies. Though the catapult was developed in ancient Greece, the Romans were able to replace the traditional Greek catapult made of wood making the most stressed components out of iron or bronze. This allowed for a reduction in size and also the ability to increase the stress levels to provide more power. Since a detailed understanding of mathematics and mechanics was required to design the catapult, it stands as a prime example of cooperation between ancient science and technology. Additional knowledge in topics like metallurgy and machine design helped to improve the performance of catapults. One example is the addition of machine elements like springs and copper bearings. It was known that the size of the catapult's components should be proportional to the weight of its intended projectile. As a result, tables relating standard part sizes and common projectile weights were assembled, which drastically increased the efficiency and production rate of catapults. The Roman catapult could be moved and operated by a single soldier, which allowed a more efficient use of soldiers and resources. These machines were torsion-powered and most were used to launch large spherical or dart-like projectiles. However, more creative options were often used. These included poisonous snakes, jars of bees, and dead bodies that were infected with diseases like the plague. The catapult was versatile, and could effectively launch any projectile that fit in its launch bucket. The Romans also developed an automatic repeating catapult called the scorpion. This was smaller than other catapults but had more moving parts. The rope coils were often made of twisted bovine sinews, horsehair or women's hair. The kinetic power delivered by a catapult was dependent on the diameter of these coils, making the coil diameter the dimensional standard for power rating. This would be similar to how the caliber system is used in modern firearms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2024951",
"title": "Byzantine army",
"section": "Section::::History.:The army of Justinian I and his successors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The Romans adopted elaborate defensive armor from Persia, coats of mail, cuirasses, casques and greaves of steel for tagma of elite heavy cavalrymen called cataphracts, who were armed with bow and arrows as well as sword and lance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157814",
"title": "Battle of Cannae",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1516,
"text": "Rome's forces used typical Roman equipment including \"pila\" (heavy javelins) and \"hastae\" (thrusting spears) as weapons as well as traditional bronze helmets, bodyshields and body armor. On the other hand, the Carthaginian army used a variety of equipment. The Iberians fought with falcatas, while Celtiberians and Lusitanians would use straight gladii, as well as javelins and various types of spears. For defense, warriors from Hispania carried large oval shields and often wore a crested helmet made of animal sinews. Most Gallic foot warriors likely had no protection other than large shields, and the typical Gallic weapon was a long slashing sword. The Numidian cavalry were very lightly equipped, lacking saddles and bridles for their horses, and wearing no armor but carrying small shields, javelins and possibly a knife or a longer blade. In contrast, the heavier Iberian peninsular cavalry carried round shields, swords, javelins and thrusting spears. The similarly heavy Gallic cavalry added the four-horned saddle, with the wealthier ones being clad in mail, a Gallic invention. Skirmishers acting as light infantry carried either slings or javelins. The Balearic slingers, who were famous for their accuracy, carried short, medium and long slings used to cast stones or bullets. They may have carried a small shield or simple leather pelt on their arms, but this is uncertain. Hannibal himself, like many Roman officers on the opposing side, might have been wearing a bronze \"musculata\" and carrying a \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1110369",
"title": "Battle axe",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe.:Prehistory and the ancient Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The Barbarian tribes that the Romans encountered north of the Alps did include iron war axes in their armories, alongside swords and spears. The Cantabri from the Iberian peninsula also used battle axes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25994",
"title": "Roman legion",
"section": "Section::::Factors in the legion's success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "BULLET::::- Roman military equipment (cf. Roman military personal equipment), particularly armor, was more withstanding and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7063",
"title": "Catapult",
"section": "Section::::Greek and Roman catapults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The Romans started to use catapults as arms for their wars against Syracuse, Macedon, Sparta and Aetolia (3rd and 2nd centuries BC). The Roman machine known as an arcuballista was similar to a large crossbow. Later the Romans used ballista catapults on their warships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24209100",
"title": "Dacian warfare",
"section": "Section::::Dacian troop types and organization.:Infantry and cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the Roman conquest of Dacia (101 - 102, 105 - 106), legionaries had reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors (greaves and manica) as further protection against the falxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5tyqq0
|
why was black and white photography very high resolution at it's peak, but soon after when color photography was introduced, it was very bad quality?
|
[
{
"answer": "Black and White film has one emulsion, color film has three emulsions (RGB). \n\nAccording to [Wikipedia](_URL_0_):\n\n > Photographic emulsion is a fine suspension of insoluble light-sensitive crystals in a colloid sol, usually consisting of gelatin. The light-sensitive component is one or a mixture of silver halides: silver bromide, chloride and iodide. The gelatin is used as a permeable binder, allowing processing agents (e.g., developer, fixer, toners, etc.) in aqueous solution to enter the colloid without dislodging the crystals. Other polymer macromolecules are often blended,[citation needed] but gelatin has not been entirely replaced. The light-exposed crystals are reduced by the developer to black metallic silver particles that form the image. Colour films and papers have multiple layers of emulsion, made sensitive to different parts of the visible spectrum by different colour sensitizers, and incorporating different dye couplers which produce superimposed yellow, magenta and cyan dye images during development. Panchromatic black-and-white film also includes colour sensitizers, but as part of a single emulsion layer.\n\n > Most modern emulsions are \"washed\" to remove some of the reaction byproducts (potassium nitrate and excess salts). The \"washing\" or desalting step can be performed by ultrafiltration, dialysis, coagulation (using acylated gelatin), or a classic noodle washing method. Emulsion making also incorporates steps to increase sensitivity by using chemical sensitizing agents and sensitizing dyes.\n\nThe number of emulsions affects the quality and the volume of byproducts that had to be removed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2362242",
"title": "Hermann Wilhelm Vogel",
"section": "Section::::Dye sensitization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "This made photography much more useful to science, allowed a more satisfactory rendering of colored subjects into black-and-white, and brought actual color photography into the realm of the practical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8481634",
"title": "Digital versus film photography",
"section": "Section::::Image quality.:Noise and grain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "However, even if both techniques have inherent noise, it is widely appreciated that for color, digital photography has much less noise/grain than film at equivalent sensitivity, leading to an edge in image quality. For black-and-white photography, grain takes a more positive role in image quality, and such comparisons are less valid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21556842",
"title": "Photographic film",
"section": "Section::::History of film.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Despite greater availability of color film after WWII during the next several decades, it remained much more expensive than black-and-white and required much more light, factors which combined the greater cost of processing and printing delayed its widespread adoption. Decreasing cost, increasing sensitivity and standardised processing gradually overcame these impediments. By the 1970s, color film predominated in the consumer market, while the use of black-and-white film was increasingly confined to photojournalism and fine art photography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195718",
"title": "Cinematography",
"section": "Section::::History.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "After the advent of motion pictures, a tremendous amount of energy was invested in the production of photography in natural color. The invention of the talking picture further increased the demand for the use of color photography. However, in comparison to other technological advances of the time, the arrival of color photography was a relatively slow process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173272",
"title": "High-dynamic-range imaging",
"section": "Section::::History of HDR photography.:Mid 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30691222",
"title": "Technicolor",
"section": "Section::::History.:Three-strip Technicolor.:Limitations and difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The process of splitting the image reduced the amount of light reaching the film stock. Since the film speed of the stocks used were fairly slow, early Technicolor productions required a greater amount of lighting than a black-and-white production. It is reported that temperatures on the film set of \"The Wizard of Oz\" from the hot studio lights frequently exceeded 100 °F (38 °C), and some of the more heavily costumed characters required a large water intake. Some actors and actresses claimed to have suffered permanent eye damage from the high levels of illumination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23604",
"title": "Photography",
"section": "Section::::History.:Black-and-white.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Originally, all photography was monochrome, or \"black-and-white\". Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its \"classic\" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography. It is important to note that monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen print process first used more than years ago, produces brownish tones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3larxd
|
How can a layman tell how reliable a source is?
|
[
{
"answer": "A good start is to look at the sources used. A respectable work will have pages and pages of works cited at the end. That's not a guarantee, but it is a helpful place to start looking. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's difficult for the layman to determine good vs. bad sources sometimes. A few indicators, though not guarantees, of good sources will be:\n\n1) They are published with a reputable press. Be wary of anything published with a press that sounds like it's run out of the author's garage, because it probably is. University presses aren't going to publish terrible books on the whole. \n\n2) They are not an \"independent scholar.\" Some times, though not always, this means that this person is under qualified or has wacky theories that have kept them out of the academy.\n\n3) If you have access to academic journals, read a few book reviews on the book. If other scholars in the field are engaging with it, that's a good sign. If they all hate it, that's probably not a good sign. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I tell my students to start with a Google of the author. Is s/he affiliated with a university? With a think tank? NGO? Each of these will have differing goals in publishing, and you need to weigh them when considering a source. \n\nThen read her/his CV, paying attention to what has been published and in which journals. Is the author publishing stuff in the *Journal of American History?* If so, probably reliable. Is the author publishing stuff in the *Journal of Crazy Conspiracy Theories?* If so, maybe not as reliable.\n\nIs the book published by an academic press (University of Somewhere You've Heard Of Press, etc.?) If so, it has most likely gone thru a pretty rigorous peer-review process. That doesn't guarantee a good book, but it does mean that at least a few people think it's probably OK. \n\nThumb thru the citations. By itself, footnoting doesn't mean anything. Heck, I can cite Phil Foner all day, but that doesn't mean it's a good thing. Are the footnotes citing someone reputable? Are the notes to works that are as describes above (academic presses, solid journals, etc.?) Do the notes include historiographic discussion? (nb: historians, if allowed by a publisher, would probably write a 5000 word article with a 25000 word set of footnotes politely bashing or congratulating their colleagues.) \n\nThis list is far from exhaustive, but should give you a fair footing.\n\nCheers and keep reading. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jumping in with a related question, what's the best way to tell how reliable a primary source is? I hear all the time about how this or that historian of antiquity was exaggerating or had an axe to grind, and obviously historians have done a great job correlating or debunking a lot of it, but how does a layperson tell?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sadly there's no hard-and-fast rule, or database for reliable sources. Every source carries with it some degree of bias or inaccuracy, and it's part of the historians job to work out the degree to which this exists. \n\nYour question seems to be referring to works of history as opposed to primary sources (i.e. first-hand data, records, images etc.). The only way to tell if the information they are providing is accurate is by checking these original sources. It's likely that if you are reading from widely-available or academically published texts that the sources they are using are reliable (or at least accepted as useful by the historical community) and if they are good historians they will discuss the problems that arose from the sources they've used. For a period such as Rome it is very hard to find source material that doesn't have significant problems in it's provenance, so most reputable historians should be taking these into account with their analysis.\n\nI think what you're getting at is whether their analysis and the conclusions they are drawing are up-to-date, and again this is a bit of a nuanced question. For instance, Bryan Ward-Perkins' argues in *The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization* that the traditional view of the fall of Rome, (that it did mark a serious material and societal decline) argued by Gibbon et al still holds true, but not for the reasons Gibbon put forward. Therefore Ward-Perkins is arguing that while he is rightfully 'debunked', his points still stand. Post-modern and Marxist historians would most likely disagree. What is accepted by some as a good interpretation of events will inevitably be rejected by others. For this it's useful to read (or listen) to works discussing the **historiography** of a period, which will hopefully give you an impression of what is still worth reading, but at the end of the day you have to choose who to believe. No-one has a monopoly on historical knowledge, although you will find that the more obscure the subject area the smaller the pool of 'strong' works of history exist. As for Rome there are many reputable historians and works of history which are worth reading, and I really recommend Ward-Perkins if you're interested in that period. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[We did a Monday Methods thread](_URL_0_) on critical reading that you might find helpful! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another thing that hasn't been said by now: Critical reading. Is the author making claims he possibly can't know? (Like Napoleon at a secret meeting said:\"...\"). Does it feel like the author makes statements with dubious claims? Both of those often happen in biographies.\n\nDoes it read like a novel? This isn't inherently wrong, but often it is indicative of less than rigorous argumentation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would add that once you have read a few established historians you should be perfectly capable of coming to your own opinions on how trustworthy a source is. Any historian can find bones to pick with any other historian. That's how we keep the field alive.\n\nSo here's a quick list to help any budding Roman historian get a good grounding:\n\nRoman society:\n\nSuper readable: Mary Beard's book on Pompeii\n\nScholarly: Claud Nicolet's *World of the Citizen in Ancient Rome* (I would use it as a reference. Might be hard to find outside a university)\n\nPrimary Sources: Pompeii, Catullus, Cicero, etc.\n\n\nRoman Republic\n\nSuper readable: What the heck, go for Robert Harris's *Imperium*. It's historical fiction about Cicero but does a good job. I've never met a historian who hated it. Also HBO's *Rome*. Skip the second season if you aren't totally enthralled.\n\nScholarly: Erich Gruens *Last Generation of the Roman Republic*. Once you make it through that, you're practically ready for your comprehensive exams.\n\nPrimary Sources: Polybius (esp. Book 6), Livy, Appian, Caesar\n\n\nRoman Empire\n\nSuper Readable: *I, Claudius*, though it is a little too conspiracy driven. There are a ton of biographies for the emperors. Yale did a series, so look for Yale University Press.\n\nScholarly: Yale UP books are scholarly but also mostly narrative. \n\nPrimary: Tacitus, Suetonius, The Augustan Histories/Lives of the Later Caesars, Ammianus Marcellinus\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some academic search engines will show how many articles cite an article you pull up there. Obviously if it's new work you need to discount it a bit, but if you pull up a decade old paper that's been cited 5 times and isn't on a super narrow topic, that should set off warning bells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It gets easier the more good history you read.\n\nIf you were to go to graduate school, you'd spend the first two (or more) years reading a lot of books and articles and discussing how their arguments were put together, how they used their evidence, whether their methods were credible and convincing, what they did wrong (etc). At first, it's hellishly difficult because - as you know - it's very hard to evaluate the quality of an argument when you're still learning the basic story (which the author often assumes you already know). If you have to stop and look up every single source to see if it's being cited properly, it's veeery slow going. But after you've read a few good books on the same subject by different authors, you start to see how they fit together because - especially when you study something like the Roman empire - they're talking about the same primary sources, referencing the same important books by other (modern) historians, and actually having a conversation with each other. Once you've read enough to understand how that conversation fits together, you'll quickly see when a book does something different; bad of fringe history is usually very easy to recognize once you're steeped in enough good history.\n\nSo to start, I'd recommend reading through a list of known, trustworthy books about the Roman empire - we have a [book list here](_URL_0_) with some great recommendations, and we'd be very happy to point you toward other good books on specific topics that might interest you if you ask us.\n\nAs you read these vetted books, look at how they back up their arguments with evidence. What sources do they use to support their arguments? If one source keeps coming up again and again, consider looking it up and reading it (many of the sources Roman historians use have been translated into English, and are available free online). What are the ways they use these sources, and what are the ways they *don't* (lots of pop historians read original documents from Rome as though they were ripped from a modern newspaper, but real historians are much more careful to read sources in their own context - and good historians will often explain why they choose to read a particular source in one way and not another)? After a while, you'll start to get a feel for how real academic historians write and use our evidence, and it will begin to be very obvious when something fails to pass muster.\n\nWe also have a few professional shortcuts for tracking down good books. We rely very heavily on reviews by other academics, and - for ancient history - you can find a lot of these for free online. The [Bryn Mawr Classical Review](_URL_1_) is a fantastic place to see in-depth reviews by qualified experts of most of the latest books on the Roman empire, and you can subscribe to their email list to stay on top of the best recent publications. As a general rule, if a book you want to read hasn't been reviewed by BMCR, and wasn't published by a university press (or another press that you see all the good historians you've read citing all the time), it might be suspect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "767082",
"title": "Historical thinking",
"section": "Section::::Historical Thinking Teaching Models.:Benchmarks for Historical Thinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Using Primary Sources as Evidence is the ability to locate, choose, understand and provide context for the past using primary sources. This approach to reading a source will be dependent on the kind of source being used and the kind of information the user is trying to find (e.g. reading to a book for factual information)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13979372",
"title": "Intelligence collection management",
"section": "Section::::Collection department ratings.:Evaluating sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "When a source is untested, \"then evaluation of the information must be done solely on its own merits, independent of its origin\". A primary source passes direct knowledge of an event to the analyst. A secondary source provides information twice removed from the original event: one observer informs another, who then relays the account to the analyst. The more numerous the steps between the information and the source, the greater the opportunity for error or distortion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "930136",
"title": "Source (journalism)",
"section": "Section::::Attribution.:Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "BULLET::::- Unreliability. It is difficult for a reader to evaluate the reliability and neutrality of a source they cannot identify, and the reliability of the news as a whole is reduced when it relies upon information from anonymous sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22569585",
"title": "Notability in the English Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Criteria.:Sourcing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Notability is demonstrated using \"reliable sources\" according to the corresponding Wikipedia guideline. Reliable sources generally include mainstream news media and major academic journals, and exclude self-published sources, particularly when self-published on the internet. The foundation of this theory is that credible sources \"exercise some form of editorial control.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18177752",
"title": "Source criticism (biblical studies)",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In general, the closer a source is to the event which it purports to describe, the more one can trust it to give an accurate description of what really happened. In the Bible where a variety of earlier sources have been quoted, the historian seeks to identify and date those sources used by biblical writers as the first step in evaluating their historical reliability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23499848",
"title": "Secondary source",
"section": "Section::::Science, technology, and medicine.:Library and information science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "In library and information sciences, secondary sources are generally regarded as those sources that summarize or add commentary to primary sources in the context of the particular information or idea under study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177891",
"title": "Primary source",
"section": "Section::::Significance of source classification.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In scholarly writing, an important objective of classifying sources is to determine their independence and reliability. In contexts such as historical writing, it is almost always advisable to use primary sources and that \"if none are available, it is only with great caution that [the author] may proceed to make use of secondary sources.\" Sreedharan believes that primary sources have the most direct connection to the past and that they \"speak for themselves\" in ways that cannot be captured through the filter of secondary sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9r2lsb
|
If genetic testing shows Ashkenazi Jewish people have much more relation to the semitic people, where did the Khazar jews end up after the empire collapsed?
|
[
{
"answer": "This thread has a pretty good compilation of threads on the religion of the khazars\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n_URL_1_\n\nBy /u/gingerkid1234",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34227830",
"title": "Societal and cultural aspects of Tay–Sachs disease",
"section": "Section::::Impact on Jewish communities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Much awareness of \"Ashkenazi Jews\" as an ethnic group stems from genetic studies of disease. Some regard these studies as exhibiting ascertainment bias which created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. They cite BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations becoming identified as \"Jewish mutations,\" despite there being mutations at these loci that are found in all populations. Sheila Rothman and Sherry Brandt-Rauf write: \"Our findings cast doubt on the accuracy and desirability of linking ethnic groups to genetic disease. Such linkages exaggerate genetic differences among ethnic groups and lead to unequal access to testing and therapy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150184",
"title": "Ashkenazi Jews",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:By ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can be traced to the Jews who settled in Central Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists have argued that genetic variations have been identified that show high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but not in the general European population, be they for patrilineal markers (Y-chromosome haplotypes) and for matrilineal markers (mitotypes). Since the middle of the 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and with people of other nations and faiths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41039874",
"title": "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry",
"section": "Section::::Genetics and the Khazar theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "While the consensus in genetic research is that the world's Jewish populations (including the Ashkenazim) share substantial genetic ancestry derived from a common Ancient Middle Eastern founder population, and that Ashkenazi Jews have no genetic ancestry attributable to Khazars, at least one study authored in this period diverges from the majority view in favor of the Khazar theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26118437",
"title": "Genetic studies on Jews",
"section": "Section::::Recent studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "A study conducted in 2013 found no evidence of a Khazar origin for Ashkenazi Jews and suggested that \"Ashkenazi Jews share the greatest genetic ancestry with other Jewish populations, and among non-Jewish populations, with groups from Europe and the Middle East. No particular similarity of Ashkenazi Jews with populations from the Caucasus is evident, particularly with the populations that most closely represent the Khazar region. In this view, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate would corroborate earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18950939",
"title": "Arthur Koestler",
"section": "Section::::Influence and legacy.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In \"The Thirteenth Tribe\" (1976) Koestler advanced a theory that Ashkenazi Jews are descended, not from the Israelites of antiquity, but from the Khazars, a Turkic people in the Caucasus that converted to Judaism in the 8th century and was later forced westwards. Koestler argued that a proof that Ashkenazi Jews have no biological connection to biblical Jews would remove the racial basis of European anti-Semitism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150184",
"title": "Ashkenazi Jews",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.:The Khazar hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 1280,
"text": "A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from 9 countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. \"Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region\", the authors concluded. The authors found no affinity in Ashkenazim with north Caucasus populations, as well as no greater affinity in Ashkenazim to south Caucasus or Anatolian populations than that found in non-Ashkenazi Jews and non-Jewish Middle Easterners (such as Kurds, Iranians, Druze and Lebanese). The greatest affinity and shared ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews were found to be (after those with other Jewish groups from southern Europe, Syria, and North Africa) with both southern Europeans and Levantines such as Druze, Cypriot, Lebanese and Samaritan groups. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26118437",
"title": "Genetic studies on Jews",
"section": "Section::::Maternal line: Mitochondrial DNA.:Mt-DNA of Ashkenazi Jews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Considering Ashkenazi Jews, Atzmon (citing Behar above) states that beyond four founder mitochondrial haplogroups of possible Middle Eastern origins which comprise approximately 40% of Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA, the remainder of the mtDNA falls into other haplogroups, many of European origin. He noted that beyond Ashkenazi Jews, \"Evidence for founder females of Middle Eastern origin has been observed in other Jewish populations based on non-overlapping mitochondrial haplotypes with coalescence times 2000 years\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dxbzwq
|
Books on early fascism's relationship to liberalism and socialism?
|
[
{
"answer": "Emilio Gentile (whose works have the additional quality of being, some times, available in an English translation) has spent a good portion of his career analyzing the early stages of the ambiguous definition of a \"fascist ideology\" within the environment of what he has defined \"national radicalism\". \n\nHis early works that focus especially on this process - *Le origini dell'ideologia fascista (1918-25)* [1975, 1996] and *Il mito dello stato nuovo dall'antigiolittismo al fascismo* [1982, 1999] - provide a good insight into the context of the transition from the ideas of the Italian liberal state to those advocating for a new, albeit often ill defined, political system. Since both are somewhat technical in their perspective, I would suggest pairing them with a general overview of Italian politics during Giolitti's age and the Great War (for instance Bosworth's), unless one is already familiar with the period.\n\nStill with Gentile, and for additional context, his early work on *La Voce* - *Mussolini e La Voce* [1976], especially for the influence of Prezzolini's newspaper on Mussolini's (tenuous) attempts at developing his own revisionist approach to Marxism - *La Grande Italia* [1997] for the affirmation of a new sentiment of *Italianismo* during the early XX Century - *\"La nostra sfida alle stelle\", Futuristi in politica* [2009] for the origins and relative impact of Italian Futurism as a political formation - *Mussolini contro Lenin* [2017] for a review of Mussolini's \"anti-Bolshevism\" during 1917-22, mostly taken from the pages of his *Popolo d'Italia* and for an attempt at a critical examination of how Mussolini's \"revolutionarism\", or instinct for a national renovation, could adjust to the impact of the Bolshevik revolution.\n\n\nFor a more detailed coverage of Mussolini's relations with the internal currents of early fascism, and for the illustration of the traditional distinction between \"party\" and \"movement\", one should check De Felice's *Mussolini*, especially vol. 1-2-3. As well as De Felice's additional works on the relations between Mussolini, De Ambris and D'Annunzio centered around the \"Fiume endeavor\" (for context on the latter, one should check Alatri, P. *Nitti,D'Annunzio e la questione Adriatica*)\n\n\nIn more recent years, specific works have attempted to cover Mussolini's experience as a more or less prominent figure of Italian socialism and his eventual transition to revolutionary interventionism and then to \"national\" interventionism. \n\nDi Scala, E. ; Gentile, E. - *Mussolini 1883-1915, Triumph and transformation of a revolutionary socialist* [2016]\n\n\nFor a comprehensive examination of the ongoing social and political landscape across the Great War, I would nonetheless recommend Vivarelli, R. - *Storia delle origini del Fascismo* and his *Il fallimento del liberalismo* - the latter especially more focused on the elements of weakness of the Italian liberal system. In English, but much shorter and with a different (and far more \"British\") perspective on Italian liberalism, Seton-Watson C. - *Italy, from liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925* [1967].",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14868790",
"title": "Liberal Fascism",
"section": "Section::::Summary of contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "In the book, Goldberg argues that both modern liberalism and fascism descended from progressivism, and that before World War II, \"fascism was widely viewed as a progressive social movement with many liberal and left-wing adherents in Europe and the United States\". Goldberg writes that there was more to fascism than bigotry and genocide, and argues that those characteristics were not so much a feature of Italian fascism, but rather of German Nazism, which was allegedly forced upon the Italian fascists \"after the Nazis had invaded northern Italy and created a puppet government in Salò.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3086381",
"title": "Fascism and ideology",
"section": "Section::::Fascism's relationship with other political and economic ideologies.:Liberalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 1387,
"text": "One issue where Fascism is in accord with liberalism is in its support of private property rights and the existence of a market economy. Although Fascism sought to \"destroy the existing political order\", it had tentatively adopted the economic elements of liberalism, but \"completely denied its philosophical principles and the intellectual and moral heritage of modernity\". Due to the economic hardships that resulted from \"War Communism\", which almost toppled the leadership of Soviet Russia in 1921, fascists in Germany and Italy followed the examples of Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP), which had endorsed \"state capitalism\" and permitted the public to trade, buy and sell for \"private profit\". Although the Bolsheviks were averse to the principles of open markets and profit, they were nonetheless forced by dire circumstances to allow \"privatization and private initiative\" that resulted in a Soviet \"mixed economy\". For fascist leaders, following the two economic pillars of Fascism — \"productionism\" and \"syndicalism\" — was more important than adhering to ideological commitments that could risk economic collapse and mass unemployment that had plagued Lenin's nationalization policies. Moreover, Fascism espoused antimaterialism, which meant that it rejected the \"rationalistic, individualistic and utilitarian heritage\" that defined the liberal-centric Age of Enlightenment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31994535",
"title": "Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism",
"section": "Section::::In political discourse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Marxist theories of fascism have seen fascism as a form of reaction to socialism and a feature of capitalism. Several modern historians have tried to pay more attention to the economic, political and ideological differences between these two regimes than to their similarities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11054",
"title": "Fascism",
"section": "Section::::Tenets.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1885,
"text": "While fascism denounced the mainstream internationalist and Marxist socialisms, it claimed to economically represent a type of nationalist productivist socialism that while condemning parasitical capitalism, it was willing to accommodate productivist capitalism within it. This was derived from Henri de Saint Simon, whose ideas inspired the creation of utopian socialism and influenced other ideologies, that stressed solidarity rather than class war and whose conception of productive people in the economy included both productive workers and productive bosses to challenge the influence of the aristocracy and unproductive financial speculators. Saint Simon's vision combined the traditionalist right-wing criticisms of the French Revolution combined with a left-wing belief in the need for association or collaboration of productive people in society. Whereas Marxism condemned capitalism as a system of exploitative property relations, fascism saw the nature of the control of credit and money in the contemporary capitalist system as abusive. Unlike Marxism, fascism did not see class conflict between the Marxist-defined proletariat and the bourgeoisie as a given or as an engine of historical materialism. Instead, it viewed workers and productive capitalists in common as productive people who were in conflict with parasitic elements in society including: corrupt political parties, corrupt financial capital and feeble people. Fascist leaders such as Mussolini and Hitler spoke of the need to create a new managerial elite led by engineers and captains of industry—but free from the parasitic leadership of industries. Hitler stated that the Nazi Party supported \"bodenständigen Kapitalismus\" (\"productive capitalism\") that was based upon profit earned from one's own labour, but condemned unproductive capitalism or loan capitalism, which derived profit from speculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7006970",
"title": "Carlo Rosselli",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Exile in Paris: Giustizia e Libertà.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The book was at once a passionate critique of Marxism, a creative synthesis of the democratic socialist revisionism (Bernstein, Turati and Treves) and of classical Italian Liberalism (Benedetto Croce, Francisco Saverio Merlino and Gaetano Salvemini). But it contained also a shattering attack on the Stalinism of the Third International, which had, with the derisive formula of \"socialfascism\", lumped together social democracy, bourgeois liberalism and fascism. It was not surprising, therefore, when one of the most important Italian Communists, Togliatti, defined \"liberal Socialism\" \"libellous anti-socialism\" and Rosselli \"a reactionary ideologue who has nothing to do with the working class\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2271781",
"title": "The End of Ideology",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1323,
"text": "There is a 1930s literature derived from debates about the continued relevance of the Marxist scheme of class-generated ideologies, even in the less reductionist version set forth in most of Karl Mannheim's \"Ideology and Utopia,\" although his essay on \"Utopia\" does envision a loss of both utopian and ideological vision. Fascism rather than communism originally posed the question, insofar as the simplification of Fascism as \"ideology\" of the capitalist class lost credibility. One current of thought took up the theme of \"mass society\" and contended that the modes of control and resistance both had little to do with the ideology concept (Emil Lederer, \"The State of Mass Society\"). Although much of this was conjoined with conservative arguments about the \"revolt of the masses,\" there was also a current that looked to pragmatic problem solving where Fascism (and increasingly Communism) could be resisted or contained. Mannheim's \"planning\" writings ambiguously fostered this trend. Daniel Bell belonged to the next generation, when ideas about the institutionalisation of intelligence in ordinary democratic political processes became more sophisticated, as in the work of \"pluralist\" political theorists like David Truman, Robert Dahl and Daniel Bell. Technocratic notions at home on the Right played little part.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "359534",
"title": "R. Palme Dutt",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Political career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In his book \"Fascism and Social Revolution\" a scathing criticism and analysis of fascism is presented with a study of the rise of fascism in Germany, Italy and other countries, he called fascism a violent authoritarian, ultra nationalist, and irrational theory. In his own words: \"Fascism is antithetical to everything of substance within the liberal tradition.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sn12o
|
Can a solar system or star get pulled into a different galaxy?
|
[
{
"answer": "In around four billion years our galaxy will collide with the Andromeda galaxy (Since galaxies are largely empty space with the odd solid bit - it won't be quite as violent as it might seem - probably).\n\nAssuming that the two galaxies subsequently go on their merry ways (imagine a comet having a close pass with the sun) then it is likely that the two galaxies will exchange some mass (solar systems) during the encounter.\n\nThere are two parts of the interaction that are likely to be interesting:\n\n1. The action of the centre of masses of the galaxies on solar systems.\n2. The specific interaction when two solar system pass near each other.\n\nBoth of these types of interaction can/will disturb orbits and could lead to a solar system (or part thereof) to be pulled into a new orbit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10682387",
"title": "NGC 3593",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "This galaxy is known to contain two counter-rotating populations of stars. That is, one set of stars is rotating in the opposite direction with respect to the other. One means for this to occur is by acquiring gas from an external source, which then undergoes star formation. An alternative is by a merger with a second galaxy. Neither scenario has been ruled out. The age of the lower mass, counter-rotating population is younger by about than the primary star population of the galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273679",
"title": "Astronomical spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Motion in the universe.:Binary stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Just as planets can be gravitationally bound to stars, pairs of stars can orbit each other. Some binary stars are visual binaries, meaning they can be observed orbiting each other through a telescope. Some binary stars, however, are too close together to be resolved. These two stars, when viewed through a spectrometer, will show a composite spectrum: the spectrum of each star will be added together. This composite spectrum becomes easier to detect when the stars are of similar luminosity and of different spectral class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41597819",
"title": "SpaceEngine",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Although objects that form part of a planetary system move, and stars rotate about their axes and orbit each other in multiple star systems, stellar proper motion is not simulated, and galaxies are at fixed locations and do not rotate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240963",
"title": "Star system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "A star system or stellar system is a small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction. A large number of stars bound by gravitation is generally called a \"star cluster\" or \"galaxy\", although, broadly speaking, they are also star systems. Star systems are not to be confused with planetary systems, which include planets and similar bodies [such as comets.]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23994165",
"title": "Retrograde and prograde motion",
"section": "Section::::Formation of celestial systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "When a galaxy or a planetary system forms, its material takes the shape of a disk. Most of the material orbits and rotates in one direction. This uniformity of motion is due to the collapse of a gas cloud. The nature of the collapse is explained by the principle called conservation of angular momentum. In 2010 the discovery of several hot Jupiters with backward orbits called into question the theories about the formation of planetary systems. This can be explained by noting that stars and their planets do not form in isolation but in star clusters that contain molecular clouds. When a protoplanetary disk collides with or steals material from a cloud this can result in retrograde motion of a disk and the resulting planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3193012",
"title": "Interacting galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Satellite interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "A giant galaxy interacting with its satellites is common. A satellite's gravity could attract one of the primary's spiral arms, or the secondary satellite's path could coincide with the position of the primary satellite's and so would dive into the primary galaxy (the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy into the Milky Way being an example of the latter). That can possibly trigger a small amount of star formation. Such orphaned clusters of stars were sometimes referred to as \"blue blobs\" before they were recognized as stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23994165",
"title": "Retrograde and prograde motion",
"section": "Section::::Exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Stars and planetary systems tend to be born in star clusters rather than forming in isolation. Protoplanetary disks can collide with or steal material from molecular clouds within the cluster and this can lead to disks and their resulting planets having inclined or retrograde orbits around their stars. Retrograde motion may also result from gravitational interactions with other celestial bodies in the same system (See Kozai mechanism) or a near-collision with another planet, or it may be that the star itself flipped over early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1oamak
|
Is the Higgs field an actual physical field of energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "First off the Higgs field is as real a field as any other field and was predicted in the 60's. As to whether particles or fields are fundamental or mathematical tools, that is really a philosophical question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd say pretty much the same thing as /u/whathappenedtosmbc and /u/MCMXCII, that I can't imagine what the difference is between a physical field and a mathematical construct, or even how that difference matters. The Higgs field is just as real as any other quantum field like the up quark field or the electromagnetic (potential) field. It's not really _made_ of energy, but energy can be stored in it.\n\n > The all pervasive field that links conciousness to non-locality\n\nNow _that_ field is not real. I would be highly suspicious of any book (or person) that talks about that with a straight face while claiming to be an expert in physics.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Properties of the Higgs field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a scalar tachyonic field \"scalar\" meaning it does not transform under Lorentz transformations, and \"tachyonic\" meaning the field (but not the particle) has imaginary mass, and in certain configurations must undergo symmetry breaking. It consists of four components: two neutral ones and two charged component fields. Both of the charged components and one of the neutral fields are Goldstone bosons, which act as the longitudinal third-polarisation components of the massive W, W, and Z bosons. The quantum of the remaining neutral component corresponds to (and is theoretically realised as) the massive Higgs boson, this component can also interact with fermions via Yukawa coupling to give them mass, as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "644550",
"title": "Higgs mechanism",
"section": "Section::::Standard model.:Structure of the Higgs field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In the standard model, the Higgs field is an SU(2) doublet (i.e. the standard representation with two complex components called isospin), which is a scalar under Lorentz transformations. Its electric charge is zero; its weak isospin is ; its weak hypercharge (the charge for the U(1) gauge group) is 1 . Under U(1) rotations, it is multiplied by a phase, which thus mixes the real and imaginary parts of the complex spinor into each other, combining to the standard two-component complex representation of the group U(2).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Higgs mechanism.:Higgs field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Unlike other known fields such as the electromagnetic field, the Higgs field is scalar and has a non-zero constant value in vacuum. The existence of the Higgs field became the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics, and for several decades was considered \"the central problem in particle physics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:The Standard Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with spin zero, no electric charge and no colour charge. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. The Higgs field is a scalar field, with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU(2) symmetry. The Higgs field has a \"Mexican hat-shaped\" potential. In its ground state, this causes the field to have a nonzero value everywhere (including otherwise empty space), and as a result, below a very high energy it breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction. (Technically the non-zero expectation value converts the Lagrangian's Yukawa coupling terms into mass terms.) When this happens, three components of the Higgs field are \"absorbed\" by the SU(2) and U(1) gauge bosons (the \"Higgs mechanism\") to become the longitudinal components of the now-massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs particle, or may couple separately to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa couplings), causing these to acquire mass as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Significance.:Cosmology.:Vacuum energy and the cosmological constant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "More speculatively, the Higgs field has also been proposed as the energy of the vacuum, which at the extreme energies of the first moments of the Big Bang caused the universe to be a kind of featureless symmetry of undifferentiated, extremely high energy. In this kind of speculation, the single unified field of a Grand Unified Theory is identified as (or modelled upon) the Higgs field, and it is through successive symmetry breakings of the Higgs field, or some similar field, at phase transitions that the presently known forces and fields of the universe arise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Significance.:Cosmology.:Vacuum energy and the cosmological constant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The relationship (if any) between the Higgs field and the presently observed vacuum energy density of the universe has also come under scientific study. As observed, the present vacuum energy density is extremely close to zero, but the energy density expected from the Higgs field, supersymmetry, and other current theories are typically many orders of magnitude larger. It is unclear how these should be reconciled. This cosmological constant problem remains a further major unanswered problem in physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Theoretical need for the Higgs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1669,
"text": "The Standard Model hypothesises a field which is responsible for this effect, called the Higgs field (symbol: formula_1), which has the unusual property of a non-zero amplitude in its ground state; i.e., a non-zero vacuum expectation value. It can have this effect because of its unusual \"Mexican hat\" shaped potential whose lowest \"point\" is not at its \"centre\". In simple terms, unlike all other known fields, the Higgs field requires \"less\" energy to have a non-zero value than a zero value, so it ends up having a non-zero value \"everywhere\". Below a certain extremely high energy level the existence of this non-zero vacuum expectation spontaneously breaks electroweak gauge symmetry which in turn gives rise to the Higgs mechanism and triggers the acquisition of mass by those particles interacting with the field. This effect occurs because scalar field components of the Higgs field are \"absorbed\" by the massive bosons as degrees of freedom, and couple to the fermions via Yukawa coupling, thereby producing the expected mass terms. When symmetry breaks under these conditions, the Goldstone bosons that arise \"interact\" with the Higgs field (and with other particles capable of interacting with the Higgs field) instead of becoming new massless particles. The intractable problems of both underlying theories \"neutralise\" each other, and the residual outcome is that elementary particles acquire a consistent mass based on how strongly they interact with the Higgs field. It is the simplest known process capable of giving mass to the gauge bosons while remaining compatible with gauge theories. Its quantum would be a scalar boson, known as the Higgs boson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rhwdb
|
Why is the direction of the torque vector significant?
|
[
{
"answer": "the in or out direction comes from the right hand rule, which is where you put your right hand on \"r\" and then curl your fingers towards the direction of the force. so lets say that \"r\" is going to the right and the force is upwards, then the torque would be out of the page. so basically the in our out direction doesnt mean anything all by itself, you have to use the right hand rule to break it down.\ni dont really have a good explanation for your second question, but i can say this. radians are kind of weird because they dont really have a unit (the calculation for a radian ends up with a length/length so the units cancel out). 1 radian is the angle that is made from an arc length of 1 radius. thats why there are 2pi radians in a circle, because the circumference of a circle is 2pi",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you understand the right-hand rule, I don't entirely know what 'significance' you don't understand. Outward pointing of the torque vector means the rotation is accelerated one way. Inward pointing means it is accelerated the other way. There's not much more to understand. Can you elaborate on what you feel you are missing? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The direction of the torque vector is only significant once an arbitrary convention (i.e. the right hand rule) has been chosen. Really I think it make more sense to think of toques and angular momenta as defined by a plane plus a direction of circulation than it does a vector. However, there's a nice property in three dimensions that each plane has exactly one direction perpendicular to it, and we can define a direction/magnitude of circulation by specifying a given vector along the direction of that normal.\n\nFrom this point of view the direction (in or out) is just a stand in for the direction of circulation of the plane. In some ways the plane picture is better, however most of the math you would have developed is better at using vectors and since this one to one correspondence between the two exists we can jump back and forth between the two.\n\nthat was a bit rushed by I hope its clear.\n\nAs for the second question radians are dimensionless so the units of meters/radian are the same as the units of meters. Radians are the ratio between the arclength (distance around the circumference) and the radius. ratios of two things with the same units are dimensionless. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24714",
"title": "Precession",
"section": "Section::::Torque-induced.:Classical (Newtonian).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Due to the way the torque vectors are defined, it is a vector that is perpendicular to the plane of the forces that create it. Thus it may be seen that the angular momentum vector will change perpendicular to those forces. Depending on how the forces are created, they will often rotate with the angular momentum vector, and then circular precession is created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30400",
"title": "Torque",
"section": "Section::::Definition and relation to angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "It follows from the properties of the cross product that the \"torque vector\" is perpendicular to both the \"position\" and \"force\" vectors. Conversely, the \"torque vector\" defines the plane in which the \"position\" and \"force\" vectors lie. The resulting \"torque vector\" direction is determined by the right-hand rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "540979",
"title": "Magnetic moment",
"section": "Section::::Atoms, molecules, and elementary particles.:Magnetic moment of an atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Due to the angular momentum, the dynamics of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field differs from that of an electric dipole in an electric field. The field does exert a torque on the magnetic dipole tending to align it with the field. However, torque is proportional to rate of change of angular momentum, so precession occurs: the direction of spin changes. This behavior is described by the Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3096395",
"title": "Rotation around a fixed axis",
"section": "Section::::Vector expression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The torque vector points along the axis around which the torque tends to cause rotation. To maintain rotation around a fixed axis, the total torque vector has to be along the axis, so that it only changes the magnitude and not the direction of the angular velocity vector. In the case of a hinge, only the component of the torque vector along the axis has an effect on the rotation, other forces and torques are compensated by the structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563",
"title": "Magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic field and permanent magnets.:Magnetic torque on permanent magnets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "where × represents the vector cross product. Note that this equation includes all of the qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if is in the same direction as the magnetic field. (The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the same direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the direction of magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3597377",
"title": "Magnetosphere particle motion",
"section": "Section::::Motion of charged particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The velocity parallel to the field v is not affected by the field, because no magnetic force exists in that direction. That velocity just stays constant (as long as the field does), and adding the two motions together gives a spiral around a central guiding field line. If the field curves or changes, the motion is modified, but the general character of spiraling around a central field line persists: hence the name \"guiding center motion.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28323660",
"title": "Force between magnets",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic poles vs. atomic currents.:Magnetic dipole moment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Both the torque and force exerted on a magnet by an external magnetic field are proportional to that magnet's magnetic moment. The magnetic moment is a vector: it has both a magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north pole of a magnet (inside the magnet). For example, the direction of the magnetic moment of a bar magnet, such as the one in a compass is the direction that the north poles points toward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49yoj3
|
law of conservation of mass
|
[
{
"answer": "It's like when you're playing with your legos, buddy. You can take your house apart, make it into a car, move the bricks closer together or further apart. But you can't break the bricks, they're indestructible. Now pretend everything in the world is made of legos which are so tiny that you can't see them, those are called atoms. Atoms work in almost the same way as legos, if you burn, cut or pull something apart then you only break that thing, but not the legos. The legos stay. Do you get it? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All Laws of Physics are simply apparent habits of the Universe that we have observed by looking at an ever-so tiny fragment of the whole. We have then projected those observations outward to the whole cosmos and enshrined them in words we call a \"law\".\n\nThese laws are useful rules of thumb for any human living in our universe. Yet they may be neither ultimate nor eternally applicable. Previous laws such as the geocentric universe and newton's motions have since been overturned on appeal (so to speak).\n\nThus we can make no absolutist statements even if we do enshrine them in the language of law. The Universe is too subtle and vast for us to have yet reached any conclusive understandings of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "Section::::Formulation and examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The law of conservation of mass can only be formulated in classical mechanics when the energy scales associated to an isolated system are much smaller than formula_1, where formula_2 is the mass of a typical object in the system, measured in the frame of reference where the object is at rest, and formula_3 is the speed of light. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The conservation of mass only holds approximately and is considered part of a series of assumptions coming from classical mechanics. The law has to be modified to comply with the laws of quantum mechanics and special relativity under the principle of mass-energy equivalence, which states that energy and mass form one conserved quantity. For very energetic systems the conservation of mass-only is shown not to hold, as is the case in nuclear reactions and particle-antiparticle annihilation in particle physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "Section::::Formulation and examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The law can be formulated mathematically in the fields of fluid mechanics and continuum mechanics, where the conservation of mass is usually expressed using the continuity equation, given in differential form asformula_4where formula_5 is the density (mass per unit volume), formula_6 is the time, formula_7 is the divergence, and formula_8 is the flow velocity field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50783328",
"title": "Glossary of mechanical engineering",
"section": "Section::::C.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "BULLET::::- Conservation of mass – The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The concept of mass conservation is widely used in many fields such as chemistry, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. Historically, mass conservation was demonstrated in chemical reactions independently by Mikhail Lomonosov and later rediscovered by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. The formulation of this law was of crucial importance in the progress from alchemy to the modern natural science of chemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "If the conservation of mass law is interpreted as conservation of \"rest\" mass, it does not hold true in special relativity. The \"rest\" energy (equivalently, rest mass) of a particle can be converted, not \"to energy\" (it already \"is\" energy (mass)), but rather to \"other\" forms of energy (mass) that require motion, such as kinetic energy, thermal energy, or radiant energy. Similarly, kinetic or radiant energy can be converted to other kinds of particles that have rest energy (rest mass). In the transformation process, neither the total amount of mass nor the total amount of energy changes, since both properties are connected via a simple constant. This view requires that if either energy or (total) mass disappears from a system, it is always found that both have simply moved to another place, where they are both measurable as an increase of both energy and mass that corresponds to the loss in the first system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xklp2
|
just seen captain phillips, why are cargo ships sailing around the horn of africa so poorly defended?
|
[
{
"answer": "International maritime law forbids arming merchant ships.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Captain Phillips is actually being [sued](_URL_0_) by his crew for “willful, wanton and conscious disregard for their safety.” he is not the man the film makes him out to be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4460850",
"title": "Cape Horn",
"section": "Section::::Modern navigation.:Shipping hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Several factors combine to make the passage around Cape Horn one of the most hazardous shipping routes in the world: the fierce sailing conditions prevalent in the Southern Ocean generally; the geography of the passage south of the Horn; and the extreme southern latitude of the Horn, at 56° south. (For comparison, Cape Agulhas at the southern tip of Africa is at 35° south; Stewart Island/Rakiura at the south end of New Zealand is 47° south.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3677211",
"title": "De Zeven Provinciën-class frigate",
"section": "Section::::Counterpiracy operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Ships of the \"De Zeven Provinciën\" class have been involved in counter-piracy operations off the Horn of Africa. The untraditional target set (i.e., small slow-moving or even static surface targets) can apparently be challenging for doppler radars designed to take on \"high end\" threats. However, according to Jane's International Defence Review:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4460850",
"title": "Cape Horn",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historic trade route.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "From the 18th to the early 20th centuries, Cape Horn was a part of the clipper routes which carried much of the world's trade. Sailing ships sailed round the Horn carrying wool, grain, and gold from Australia back to Europe; much trade was carried around the Horn between Europe and the Far East; and trade and passenger ships travelled between the coasts of the United States via the Horn. The Horn exacted a heavy toll from shipping, however, owing to the extremely hazardous combination of conditions there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2566511",
"title": "Capesize",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Capesize ships are the largest dry cargo ships. They are too large to transit the Suez Canal (Suezmax limits) or Panama Canal (Neopanamax limits), and so have to pass either the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn to traverse between oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3716263",
"title": "Active phased array radar",
"section": "Section::::Counter-piracy operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Ships of the RNLN's \"De Zeven Provinciën\" class have been involved in counter-piracy operations off the Horn of Africa. The untraditional target set (i.e., small slow-moving or even static surface targets) can apparently be challenging for doppler radars designed to take on \"high end\" threats. However, according to Jane's International Defence Review:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23554748",
"title": "Allemand's expedition of 1805",
"section": "Section::::The \"Calcutta\" convoy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "The threat posed by the fleets in Brest and Cadiz was stretching the Royal Navy, and convoy escorts were weaker than usual as so many vessels had been diverted to the blockade fleets needed to watch French and Spanish movements. As a result, there were a number of independently sailing merchant ships in the Bay of Biscay and Allemand encountered and captured three on his journey north into the area later known as the Western Approaches. From the prisoners taken out of these ships, the French admiral learned that a large convoy was due from the West Indies, protected only by a single ship of the line, . This rich prize would be a major success for Allemand and his squadron cruised the Western Approaches in anticipation of its arrival during September 1805.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322055",
"title": "USS Constellation (1797)",
"section": "Section::::Design and construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary Pirates, along the so-called \"Barbary Coast\" of North Africa, Morocco, Tunis (in future Tunisia), Tripoli (in future Libya), and most notably from Algiers (in future Algeria), in the Mediterranean Sea during the 1790s. Congress responded with the Naval Act of 1794. The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates to be built in six different East Coast ports; however, it included a clause stating that construction of the ships would cease if the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers. By the time of the conclusion in 1815, of the later War of 1812 with Great Britain, the United States had fought a series of three brief, but savage naval and amphibious wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67yg1m
|
why can't robots move exactly like humans yet? what is holding engineers back?
|
[
{
"answer": "My uneducated (somewhat) guess would be rapid fine tuning of balance and equilibrium of a bipedal body.\n\nIf you really try and \"feel\" your muscles as you move, or even stay in place, you can quickly see that a LOT of stabilizing autonomous activity is going on. This is all going on very quickly in your body and automatically, programming that in a robot is likely extremely complex.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The trouble is software. We have the technology to build the physical machine itself. We could build an artificial skeleton with artificial tendons and muscles and the necessary sensors, but developing the software to control it all simultaneously in a way that duplicates human movement is a daunting task. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another problem is how movement produced,there is a limit to the speed of movement for each \"muscle\" of the robot,because it's based on an electric motor,and gears,which limits agility and character of movement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to all the control problems thre is motivation. You need to have an AI that will relate to its environment and decide to do something. Otherwise it's like. Yay! it can walk perfectly...but doesn't want to. Nope still standing there.\n\nOnce moving there are hundreds of tasks that need conquered. Waling through a crowd? catching a ball? Crossing the street? all radically different things your biology had learned to deal with.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57769929",
"title": "Articulated soft robotics",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Robots able to co-exist and co-operate with people and reach or even surpass their performance require a technology of actuators, responsible for moving and controlling the robot, which can reach the functional performance of the biological muscle and its neuro-mechanical control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305100",
"title": "Telerobotics",
"section": "Section::::Teleoperation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The tendency to build robots has been to minimize the degrees of freedom because that reduces the control problems. Recent improvements in computers has shifted the emphasis to more degrees of freedom, allowing robotic devices that seem more intelligent and more human in their motions. This also allows more direct teleoperation as the user can control the robot with their own motions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25781",
"title": "Robot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Robots have replaced humans in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions. The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48180",
"title": "Humanoid robot",
"section": "Section::::Planning and control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move, gather information (using sensors) on the \"real world\" and interact with it. They don’t stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments. To allow humanoids to move in complex environments, planning and control must focus on self-collision detection, path planning and obstacle avoidance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20903754",
"title": "Robotics",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Human-robot interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "The state of the art in sensory intelligence for robots will have to progress through several orders of magnitude if we want the robots working in our homes to go beyond vacuum-cleaning the floors. If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable of communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It will probably be a long time before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C-3PO, or Data of Star Trek, Next Generation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49455126",
"title": "Mobile industrial robots",
"section": "Section::::Applications of mobile industrial robots.:Scientific experimentation and exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "In the scientific world, there is a large number of applications for mobile robots. Their ability to perform experiments and exploration without putting human lives in danger makes them an important asset. Unlike humans, robots do not require life support systems to function. In space travel, robots are performing science on planets and asteroids because sending humans is far more taxing on resources and money. The same is true in the oceanography domain. In fact, several of the same robotic systems are designed to perform their science under both conditions - space and underwater. In nuclear power plants, robots can service electronics and mechanical systems which prevents human exposure to large amounts of radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4347444",
"title": "Japanese robotics",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The characteristics of robots are however progressive, their abilities being enlarged as the technology has progressed. The same CB² acts more and more as human and it was capable of teaching itself how to walk with the aid of human help. The robot learned how to move around the room by using its 51 \"muscles,\" which are driven by air pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xg262
|
why can't the cellular infrastructure that is in place to provide 3g and lte just be used to create a giant wifi network?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those networks use different standards to provide their signals. It's not like it's all using the same frequency for all of the various forms of wireless. [Source.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "WiFi is not the same thing as a cellular network. This seems to be a common misconception, when I tell people that I have wireless broadband, because I can't get a landline, many people respond \"oh, so you got wifi\". \n\nWiFi use 2.4 GHz radio waves, cellular networks use many different frequencies, from ~700 MHz up to ~3.6 GHz. Also, cellular networks use completely different protocols, e.t.c. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess I was thinking along the lines of Wireless mesh networks that can be implemented with various wireless technology including 802.11, 802.15, 802.16, cellular technologies or combinations of more than one type.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are vastly different technologies. Plus, can you imagine all of the interference? My 2.4 ghz is already 50% the speed if my 5 ghz network because of interference. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27350573",
"title": "Mobile broadband modem",
"section": "Section::::History.:3G.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "3G networks have taken this approach to a higher level, using different underlying technology but the same principles. They routinely provide speeds over 300kbit/s. Due to the now increased internet speed, internet connection sharing via WLAN has become a workable reality. Devices which allow internet connection sharing or other types of routing on cellular networks are called also cellular routers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33172",
"title": "Wireless network",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Capacity.:Network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Cellular wireless networks generally have good capacity, due to their use of directional aerials, and their ability to reuse radio channels in non-adjacent cells. Additionally, cells can be made very small using low power transmitters this is used in cities to give network capacity that scales linearly with population density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33593212",
"title": "Small cell",
"section": "Section::::Future mobile networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Small cells are an integral part of future LTE networks. In 3G networks, small cells are viewed as an offload technique. In 4G networks, the principle of heterogeneous network (HetNet) is introduced where the mobile network is constructed with layers of small and large cells. In LTE, all cells will be self-organizing, drawing upon the principles laid down in current Home NodeB (HNB), the 3GPP term for residential femtocells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41015991",
"title": "Telecommunications lease",
"section": "Section::::Industry growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The telecommunication industry is growing as the need for 4G and 5G networks flourishes. As a result of this growth there is a constant demand for cellular networks to increase their coverage. Therefore, more cellular towers are constructed and more leases are drawn up between the cellular provider and landowners, which can include municipalities and private landowners, such as homeowners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3492955",
"title": "Fiber to the x",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "A similar network called a hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network is used by cable television operators but is usually not synonymous with \"fiber In the loop\", although similar advanced services are provided by the HFC networks. Fixed wireless and mobile wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX and 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) are an alternative for providing Internet access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12902100",
"title": "United States 2008 wireless spectrum auction",
"section": "Section::::Interoperability issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "When deploying its LTE network, C Spire Wireless decided not to use A block because of the lack of band-12 support in mobile devices, issues with roaming, and the increased cost of base stations due to lack of supply. US Cellular deployed a band class 12 LTE network, however not all of US Cellular's devices were able to access it. In particular, the iPhone 5S and iPhone 5C could not. Other wireless telecommunication providers launched LTE band class 12 networks, but have not been able to offer smartphones that access them, instead resorting to fixed or mobile wireless broadband modems. As of April 2015, only three telecom providers were offering smartphones that use band 12: US Cellular, T-Mobile USA, and Nex-Tech Wireless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657187",
"title": "Mobile computing",
"section": "Section::::Mobile data communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1206,
"text": "Wireless data connections used in mobile computing take three general forms so. Cellular data service uses technologies GSM, CDMA or GPRS, 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000. and more recently 4G networks such as LTE, LTE-Advanced. These networks are usually available within range of commercial cell towers. Wi-Fi connections offer higher performance, may be either on a private business network or accessed through public hotspots, and have a typical range of 100 feet indoors and up to 1000 feet outdoors. Satellite Internet access covers areas where cellular and Wi-Fi are not available and may be set up anywhere the user has a line of sight to the satellite's location, which for satellites in geostationary orbit means having an unobstructed view of the southern sky. Some enterprise deployments combine networks from multiple cellular networks or use a mix of cellular, Wi-Fi and satellite. When using a mix of networks, a mobile virtual private network (mobile VPN) not only handles the security concerns, but also performs the multiple network logins automatically and keeps the application connections alive to prevent crashes or data loss during network transitions or coverage loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1q79y3
|
why are "bologna" and "lasagna" pronounced so utterly differently?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Italian the \"gn\" combination sounds the same for both words.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We've Americanized the pronunciation of *bologna* a lot more than *lasagna*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "414614",
"title": "Spätzle",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "\"Knöpfle\" means \"small buttons\" and describes the compact, round form of the pasta. In everyday language usage, the two names refer to the same product made from the same dough and are interchangeable. There is no clear distinction between the way the two names are used and usage varies from one region to another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95411",
"title": "Gnocchi",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "The word \"gnocchi\" may be derived from the Italian word \"nocchio\", meaning a knot in wood, or from \"nocca\" (meaning knuckle). It has been a traditional type of Italian pasta of (probable) Middle Eastern origin since Roman times. It was introduced by the Roman legions during the expansion of the empire into the countries of the European continent. In Roman times, gnocchi were made from a semolina porridge-like dough mixed with eggs, and are still found in similar forms today, particularly the oven-baked \"gnocchi alla romana\" and Sardinia's \"malloreddus\" which do not contain eggs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2102697",
"title": "My Bologna",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "\"My Bologna\" is a parody of the Knack's hit song \"My Sharona\", recorded and performed by musical parody artist \"Weird Al\" Yankovic. Yankovic originally wrote the song while he attended California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo, California; the original version of the parody was recorded in a bathroom across the hall from the radio station at which Yankovic worked. The title refers to Bologna sausage, specifically the Oscar Mayer brand popular in the United States. Yankovic sent \"My Bologna\" to Dr. Demento, who aired the song on his nationwide radio program, \"The Dr. Demento Show\". The song was a hit on the program, and eventually gained the number one spot on Dr. Demento's \"Funny Five\" countdown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21031223",
"title": "Bologna sausage",
"section": "Section::::Ring bologna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Ring bologna is much smaller in diameter than standard bologna. It is better suited for slicing and serving on crackers as a snack or \"hors d'oeuvre\". It is generally sold as an entire link rather than sliced. The link is arranged as a semicircle or \"ring\" when prepared for sale (hence the name). Pickled bologna is usually made from ring bologna soaked in vinegar and typical pickling spices. It is usually served in chunks as a cold snack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21031223",
"title": "Bologna sausage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Bologna sausage, also called baloney () and known in Australia, Britain, Ireland, Zimbabwe and South Africa as polony, is a sausage derived from mortadella, a similar-looking, finely ground pork sausage containing cubes of pork fat, originally from the Italian city of Bologna (). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1882682",
"title": "Mambo Italiano (song)",
"section": "Section::::Writing and original Rosemary Clooney version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "BULLET::::- A number of Italian words are deliberately misspelled (\"\"Giovanno\"\" instead of \"\"Giovanni\"\", and \"\"hello, che se dice\"\" which is Italian slang for \"hello, what's up?\". Other words are in Italo-English slang: (goombah, from \"cumpà,\" literally godson/godfather but more broadly fellow countryman, and 'jadrool' or \"'cidrule\"\", a stupid person, closely related to cetriolo, Italian for \"cucumber\", but in Sicilian dialect meaning jackass. The word \"tiavanna\" is invented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50650158",
"title": "Spuccadella",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The Italian American word \"spuccadella\" does not exist in the written Italian of Italy, but it may be derived from the common Italian word \"spaccatella,\" a kind of \"panino\" or bread roll, with rounded ends, that could be used for sandwich making.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xqqld
|
I'm an extremely deep-sleeper, and have massive troubles waking up on time. Is there a scientific alarm solution?
|
[
{
"answer": "I read about using sunlight/simulated natural light to help people wake up: _URL_0_\n\nI use a similar thing but I go low-tech when trying to wake up my 5-year-old (not an easy task) and just turn on the light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you hit the snooze button a lot? If so, one of [these](_URL_0_) may be the answer.\n\nHave you ever taken the Horne-Ostberg test or a \"Lark or Owl\" quiz? I usually score as a night owl or late riser and I sleep heavily and have trouble getting up even with an alarm. I have to be pretty strict about my sleeping patterns to make it to work on time. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bed shaker: _URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being consistent in the times you go to bed and the times you wake up, may be a natural solution. Always go to bed at 10pm and wake up at 6am. and your body will adjust and get used to waking up at 6. I usually wake up a minute or two before my alarm goes off. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105247",
"title": "Alarm clock",
"section": "Section::::Next-generation alarms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Scientific studies on sleep having shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Alarm clocks involving \"sleep stage monitoring\" appeared on the market in 2005. The alarm clocks use sensing technologies such as EEG electrodes and accelerometers to wake people from sleep.Dawn simulators are another technology meant to mediate these effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497973",
"title": "Fire alarm notification appliance",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "More recent research suggests that strobe lights are not effective at waking sleeping adults with hearing loss and suggest that a different alarm tone is much more effective. Individuals in the hearing loss community are seeking changes to improved awakening methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2504745",
"title": "Stria terminalis",
"section": "Section::::Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The activity of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis correlates with anxiety in response to threat monitoring. It is thought to act as a relay site within the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and regulate its activity in response to acute stress. However, the stress response is time related and the BNST does not activate for contextual fear. This means that a sudden scary situation that is under ten minutes long, does not activate the BNST. It is also thought to promote behavioral inhibition in response to unfamiliar individuals, by input from the orbitofrontal cortex. Bilateral disruption of this pathway has been shown to attenuate reinstatement of drug seeking behaviour in rodents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50798",
"title": "Insomnia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Some patients may need to do an overnight sleep study to determine if insomnia is present. Such a study will commonly involve assessment tools including a polysomnogram and the multiple sleep latency test. Specialists in sleep medicine are qualified to diagnose disorders within the, according to the ICSD, 81 major sleep disorder diagnostic categories. Patients with some disorders, including delayed sleep phase disorder, are often mis-diagnosed with primary insomnia; when a person has trouble getting to sleep and awakening at desired times, but has a normal sleep pattern once asleep, a circadian rhythm disorder is a likely cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648543",
"title": "Logotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Logotherapeutic views and treatment.:Treatment of neurosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "A person, then, who fears (i.e. experiences anticipatory anxiety over) not getting a good night's sleep may try too hard (that is, hyper-intend) to fall asleep, and this would hinder their ability to do so. A logotherapist would recommend, then, that the person go to bed and intentionally try not to fall asleep. This would relieve the anticipatory anxiety which kept the person awake in the first place, thus allowing them to fall asleep in an acceptable amount of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Awakening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Today, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the circadian cycle. Scientific studies on sleep have shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4014799",
"title": "Bedwetting alarm",
"section": "Section::::Treatment process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The individual places the sensor (usually located in briefs or underwear) and turns the alarm device on (there are various types of alarms) before going to sleep. The enuresis alarm is triggered when a sensor in the sheets or night clothes becomes wet with urine, setting off an auditory signal with the intention of causing the individual to wake, cease voiding, and arise to void. Parents are advised to wake their child when the alarm is activated—otherwise, children are prone to turn it off and go back to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gxrgh
|
how can banks detect if someone else is using your credit/debit card when the amount is small and the location of purchase is near?
|
[
{
"answer": "What was the store? What was the time? Had you made any other purchases recently?\n\nFraud detection systems work by finding patterns in your spending and flagging things that don't fit the pattern. If it's in a weird city when you're normally at work & not buying things at all, that's going to flag things. If you're a guy & suddenly you're buying lingerie, it might raise a flag. If a purchase 10 minutes away is made 5 minutes after a purchase you make, it might trigger an alert. If you always shop at Safeway & they see you shopping at Publix, it might raise a flag. If you filled up your gas tank yesterday & you're buying gas today, it might raise a flag. If you always use debit+PIN & they ran the charge as credit, it might raise a flag. If they entered your PIN wrong twice, it might raise a flag. There's probably hundreds of other things they look at - exactly what they look for is kept a secret.\n\nSometimes, no one thing is enough to trigger a warning - it takes a combination of things, possibly spread over multiple transactions, to really be sure that something might be fraud.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36040628",
"title": "Post-transaction marketing",
"section": "Section::::Mechanics of the practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "The Senate report identified \"data pass\", or the automatic transfer from the merchant after the transaction of the customer's credit card information. Information provided by the Federal Trade Commission and the National Association of Attorneys General, and information collected from telephone billing has found that requiring the entry of credit card information will decrease the likelihood that a customer will enter a transaction by a factor of 3 or 4. Therefore, companies will use the automatic transference of this information which will induce consumers to involuntarily provide their credit card information to merchants which they were otherwise unwilling to transact with.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3269859",
"title": "Chargeback fraud",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Call center transactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "When consumers walk into a store and buy something, they typically swipe their credit cards, confirm the purchase amount, enter a secret code (or sign their name) and leave with the merchandise. This is a \"card is present\" purchase and fraudulent chargebacks in these situations are almost non-existent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5522986",
"title": "Authorization hold",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "When a merchant swipes a customer's credit card, the credit card terminal connects to the merchant's acquirer, or credit card processor, which verifies that the customer's account is valid and that sufficient funds are available to cover the transaction's cost. At this step, the funds are \"held\" and deducted from the customer's credit limit (or available bank balance, in the case of a debit card), but are not yet transferred to the merchant. At the time of the merchant's choosing, the merchant instructs the credit card machine to submit the finalized transactions to the acquirer in a \"batch transfer,\" which begins the settlement process, where the funds are transferred from the customers' accounts to the merchant's accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29990850",
"title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
"section": "Section::::The PC Age (1980–2000).:Domestic and consumer technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 241,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 241,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The payment of consumer purchases at the retail checkout counter through the use of an electronic debit card was introduced across Canada in 1994. Known as Interac, the system allows the consumer to swipe his personal card and with the use of a personal identification number have the amount of the purchase electronically deducted from his or her bank account. The service has since become very popular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234921",
"title": "Mobile payment",
"section": "Section::::Credit card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "In addition, if the payment vendor can automatically and securely identify customers then card details can be recalled for future purchases turning credit card payments into simple single click-to-buy giving higher conversion rates for additional purchases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51540960",
"title": "Card Transaction Data",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1416,
"text": "When a transaction is made, the card holder is offered a paper or electronic transaction record containing information about the purchase. This includes: transaction amount, transaction number, transaction date and time, transaction type (deposits, withdrawal, purchase or refund), type of account being debited or credited, card number, identity of the card acceptor (organization/store address) as well as the identity of the terminal (company name from which the machine operates). The use of debit cards in 2014 increased by 18% from the 2011 total volume of Canadian Payment Methods. As for credit cards, it increased by 26% from the 2011 total volume of Canadian Payment Methods. These two types of payment methods combined make up for more transactions than cash. Card transaction data has increased through the expansion of payment channels available to customers. Additionally, incentive and reward programs have increased the use of electronic cards for their benefits. The use of contactless and e-commerce payment has also allowed for a growth in card transaction data to increase due to the simplicity of the transaction. The use of Interact Debit transactions have increased rapidly in the last 6 years according to \"Interact Debit\" statistics. However, Canada has a lower rate debit use transactions by inhabitant in comparison to the United States, Sweden, Netherlands, Australia, and Great Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9374894",
"title": "Controlled payment number",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Virtual credit card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Ease of use – Both the process of setting up a virtual debit card and using it online for shopping are very easy. Setting up your card only takes about 15 minutes, which involves filling up a form with your transaction details (account information, card number), phone number for OTP verification and a bunch of other things. Once the form is submitted to the surface, you receive a confirmation from your bank verifying the link. Your virtual card is then forwarded to you by the service in the form of a card number, and you can easily use it on any online platform like you would use a normal debit/credit card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bw8ws
|
Why is Napoleon often portrayed with his right hand tucked into his vest?
|
[
{
"answer": "The pose is quite common in period paintings: \n\nDirectly bearing on the \"hand-in\" posture, and underpinning Nivelon's description of it as \"manly boldness tempered with modesty,\" is Bulwer's \"Sixth Canon for Rhetoricians,\" which claims that \"the hand restrained and kept in is an argument of modesty, and frugal pronunciation, a still and quiet action suitable to a mild and remiss declamation.\"\n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't say for certain why Napoleon used that pose, but I do study fashion history so I'm going to stick with that part of your question. \n\nThe vest is just unbuttoned. There is no special pocket there. Or at least, probably not. It wouldn't be unheard of for a tailor to add a special pocket by request, but it would certainly be atypical. The vest is meant to sit close to the body, so a large pocket isn't particularly useful inside of it. That's why coats have all the pockets - they're meant to fit more loosely. \n\nI checked to see if there were any sources citing a specific military or social reason for using one hand or the other in addition to tailoring tradition, so I'm pretty sure that the use of the right hand is related to how clothes were made at the time. Menswear closures traditionally function with the left side on top: the right side has the buttons, the left has the buttonholes, so when closed the left side sits on top of the right. Take a second to try out lapping left over right on whatever top you're wearing. The opening is oriented so the right hand slides in easily, while the left would have to turn the corner. Womenswear has historically been made to close in the opposite direction, if you're curious, though the distinction has been disappearing since jeans became popular.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There have been a few ideas on why Napoleon was posed as he was, and theories include that he had a stomach ulcer, he was winding his watch, he had an itchy skin disease, that in his era it was impolite to put your hands in your pockets, he had breast cancer, he had a deformed hand, he kept a perfumed sachet in his vest that he'd sniff surreptitiously, and that painters don't like to paint hands. Most of these, especially the more gruesome/demeaning of them, were no doubt some form of anti-Napoleonic propaganda of some kind inserted to make the man seem slightly repulsive. A simpler and more elegant theory is contained in an article entitled, \"Re-Dressing Classical Statuary: The Eighteenth-Century 'Hand-in-Waistcoat' Portrait.\" by Arline Miller. Art Bulletin (College Art Association of America), Vol. 77, No.2, March 1995, p.45-64. Miller points out that the 'hand-in' portrait type appeared with \"relentless frequency\" during the eighteenth century and became almost a cliched pose in portrait painting. The pose was used so often by portraitists that one was even accused of not knowing how to paint hands. \"In real life,\" Miller observes, \"the 'hand-held-in' was a common stance for men of breeding.\" Miller goes on to give many examples of this posture in painted portraits dating from the early and middle 1700s, well before Napoleon's birth. In 1738 Francois Nivelon published A Book Of Genteel Behavior describing the \"hand-in-waistcoat\" posture as signifying \"manly boldness tempered with modesty.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18277192",
"title": "Hand-in-waistcoat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "The hand-in-waistcoat (also referred to as hand-inside-vest, hand-in-jacket, hand-held-in, or hidden hand) is a gesture commonly found in portraiture during the 18th and 19th centuries. The pose appeared by the 1750s to indicate leadership in a calm and firm manner. The pose is most often associated with Napoleon I of France due to its use in several portraits made by his artist, Jacques-Louis David, amongst them the 1812 painting \"Napoleon in His Study\". The pose, thought of as being stately, was copied by other portrait painters across Europe and America. Most paintings and photographs show the right hand inserted into the waistcoat/jacket but some sitters appear with the left hand inserted. The pose was also often seen in mid-nineteenth century photography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12622776",
"title": "Bonaparte Crossing the Alps",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Napoleon is seen wearing clothing appropriate for his location: over his uniform he wears a long topcoat which is wrapped firmly around him, in which he keeps his gloveless right hand warm. He retains a piece of his dignity in the gold-trimmed black bicorne he wears on his head. The mule Napoleon rides is undernourished, tired from its ordeal in struggling through the Alps. On the left of the mule is his guide, Pierre Nicholas Dorsaz, who must constantly push himself and the mule forward, and who leans heavily on the shaft of wood he clutches in his left hand to allow himself to continue moving forward. His clothes are weather-beaten, his face ruddy from the cold. He is not allowed the luxury of riding an animal, for he must be able to navigate independently, on the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21443254",
"title": "Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The painting shows Napoleon as emperor, in the costume he wore for his coronation, seated on a circular-backed throne with armrests adorned with ivory balls. In his right hand he holds the sceptre of Charlemagne and in his left the hand of justice. On his head is a golden laurel wreath, similar to one worn by Caesar. He also wears an ermine hood under the great collar of the Légion d'honneur, a gold-embroidered satin tunic and an ermine-lined purple velvet cloak decorated with gold bees. The coronation sword is in its scabbard and held up by a silk scarf. The subject wears white shoes embroidered in gold and resting on a cushion. The carpet under the throne displays an imperial eagle. The signature INGRES P is in the bottom left, and ANNO 1806 in the bottom right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57521192",
"title": "The Plumb-pudding in danger",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Napoleon, to the right, the \"little corporal\", is much smaller in height and stockier in build, with a prominent hooked nose. He wears the blue coat of the Imperial French Army, and his large fore-and-aft bicorn hat has an extravagant feather plume reminiscent of a French cock. His large knife resembles a military sword, and his two-pronged fork is embedded over a region marked \"Hanover\", home of the ruling British monarchs of the House of Hanover. He is cutting away a slice of land to the east of the British Isles marked \"Europe\", but his piece of land is much smaller than Pitt's portion of sea. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21394506",
"title": "The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries",
"section": "Section::::Iconography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Vertical in format, it shows Napoleon standing, three-quarters life size, wearing the uniform of a colonel of the Imperial Guard Foot Grenadiers (blue with white facings and red cuffs). He also wears his Légion d'honneur and Order of the Iron Crown decorations, along with gold epaulettes, white French-style culottes and white stockings. His face is turned towards the viewer and his right hand is in his jacket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30276841",
"title": "Battle of Prenzlau",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Retreat east of the Elbe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Leaving Marshal Michel Ney's VI Corps to begin the Siege of Magdeburg, Napoleon ordered his right wing to head for Berlin. The French emperor found time to pay a reverent visit to the tomb of Frederick the Great at Potsdam. In spite of his respect for the Prussian king, Napoleon stole Frederick's sword and other trophies. The French right wing consisted of Davout's corps, Lannes' corps, Marshal Pierre Augereau's VII Corps, and Murat's 1st Cuirassier Division under General of Division Etienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty, 2nd Cuirassier Division led by General of Division Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul, and 3rd Dragoon Division under General of Division Marc Antoine de Beaumont. General of Division Emmanuel Grouchy's 2nd Dragoon Division trailed behind. Bernadotte, Soult, and Sahuc's 4th Dragoon Division formed the left wing. Louis Klein's 1st Dragoon Division was split between assisting Ney and patrolling the line of communications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52629",
"title": "Kingdom of Holland",
"section": "Section::::Coat of arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "A few months later, on 20 May 1807, King Louis—now called \"Lodewijk\"—altered these arms, adding a helmet, leaving out his brother's star and replacing the \"Grand Aigle\" with his own Dutch Order of the Union and the old Dutch devise \"Unity makes strength\" around the shield. Exemplary for the innovation in Napoleon's heraldry are the two hands coming out of clouds from behind the shield holding swords, designating King Louis as \"Connétable de France\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dkn6ah
|
albinism seems like a very disadvantageous mutation. how has it continued in the animal kingdom?
|
[
{
"answer": "A mutation can appear more than once in time. Albino animals pretty much never have albino parents, it just appears randomly and likely subsides again as the chances of reproduction are lowered. The parents have instead carried an albino gene, without being albino themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909",
"title": "Albinism in humans",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Oculocutaneous albinism is generally the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes) passed from both parents of an individual such as OCA1 and OCA2. A mutation in the human TRP-1 gene may result in the deregulation of melanocyte tyrosinase enzymes, a change that is hypothesized to promote brown versus black melanin synthesis, resulting in a third oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) genotype, ″OCA3″. Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body. Some of these are associated with increased risk of skin cancer .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909",
"title": "Albinism in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. It is the opposite of melanism. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these, albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular, in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid. The term is from the Latin \"albus\", \"white\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45105839",
"title": "Albinism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1314,
"text": "Albinism is the \"congenital absence of any pigmentation or coloration in a person, animal or plant, resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and pink eyes in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish and other small invertebrates as well.\" Varied use and interpretation of the terms mean that written reports of albinistic animals can be difficult to verify. Albinism can reduce the survivability of an animal; for example, it has been suggested that albino alligators have an average survival span of only 24 hours due to the lack of protection from UV and their lack of camouflage to avoid predators. Albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes because the lack of pigment in the iris allows the blood vessels of the retina to be visible. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in the wild, e.g. Mexican cave tetra. Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some, e.g. that \"albinism\" can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease, or injury. However, this is contrary to definitions where the condition is inherited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2404069",
"title": "Leucism",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "A further difference between albinism and leucism is in eye colour. Due to the lack of melanin production in both the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) and iris, those affected by albinism typically have red eyes due to the underlying blood vessels showing through. In contrast, most leucistic animals have normally coloured eyes. This is because the melanocytes of the RPE are not derived from the neural crest, instead an outpouching of the neural tube generates the optic cup which, in turn, forms the retina. As these cells are from an independent developmental origin, they are typically unaffected by the genetic cause of leucism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2909",
"title": "Albinism in humans",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes. An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6005446",
"title": "White (horse)",
"section": "Section::::Albinism.:Types of albinism in humans and other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The best-known type of albinism is OCA1A, which impairs tyrosinase production. In other mammals, the diagnosis of albinism is based on the impairment of tyrosinase production through defects in the \"Color\" (\"C\") gene. Mice and other mammals without tyrosinase have unpigmented pink skin, unpigmented white hair, unpigmented reddish eyes, and some form of vision impairment. No mutations of the tyrosinase or \"C\" gene are known in horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944625",
"title": "Plumage",
"section": "Section::::Abnormal plumages.:Albinism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Several kinds of albinism in chickens has been described: A complete albinism controlled by an autosomal recessive gene and two different kinds of partial albinism. One of the partial albinisms is sex-linked and the other is autosomal recessive. A fourth kind of albinism severely reduce pigmentation in the eyes, but only dilutes the pigment in the plumage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27766e
|
what happens when my computer is connecting to/loading a website/?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's many steps, but here is a simple explanation:\n\nYou send an \"HTTP request\" to the server. HTTP is the protocol commonly used to send/receive data on the internet. Let's just say it's like the format of when you write your address and destination address on an envelope. \n\nThis request will look something like this (They don't always look like this, but most contain these common \"headers\"):\n\n\n\tGET /r/explainlikeimfive/ HTTP/1.1\n\tHost\twww._URL_1_\n\tUser-Agent\tMozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; WOW64; rv:29.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/29.0\n\tAccept\ttext/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,/;q=0.8\n\tAccept-Language\ten-us,es;q=0.5\n\tAccept-Encoding\tgzip, deflate\n\tReferer\t_URL_0_\n\n\nThat's saying that I want to access \"/r/explainlikeimfive\" from the host \"www._URL_1_\". This is how the server know what page I want.\n\nThe \"user-agent\" tells the server I'm using \"windows NT 6.1\" which just means Windows 7. The \"Gecko\" and \"Firefox\" basically just mean I'm using Firefox. (Fun fact, see that \"Mozilla\" at the very start of the user agent string? All browsers include this, even IE, Chrome, Safari, etc. It's a neat bit of trivia that I won't go into, but you can look it up)\n\nThe \"Accept-Language\" header tells the server my browser preference. Right now it's set to US English, followed by Spanish. If I made Spanish first, and I visited Google, I'd get Google in spanish. That happens purely because Google's server sees my language preference, and changes the response. Most sites would probably ignore it.\n\nThe \"Referer\" tells the server what page I was on when I clicked that link. In this case, it was the Reddit homepage.\n\nSo, all these headers and their values get sent to the server whenever you try to access anything on the internet. They tell the server exactly what you're trying to access, and the server responds with it (assuming everything is OK). If everything is good, it'll respond with response code 200. If the file wasn't there, it would give a 404. If the server encountered an error trying to get it, it'll respond with 500. \n\nKeep in mind that this is what happens on the very top level. Networking workis via different protocols and layers, all stacked on each other. Before anything I explained even happens, for example, the TCP/IP protocol is used to get the IP address of _URL_1_, establish connection, etc. \n\n\nTL;DR: You send some headers that tells the server what content you want, and the server responds with it.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8674550",
"title": "Temporary Internet Files",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Each time a user visits a website using Microsoft Internet Explorer, files downloaded with each web page (including HTML and Javascript code) are saved to the Temporary Internet Files folder, creating a web cache of the web page on the local computer's hard disk drive, or other form of digital data storage. The next time the user visits the cached website, only changed content needs to be downloaded from the Internet; the unchanged data is available in the cache.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234029",
"title": "Negative cache",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Consider a web browser which attempts to load a page while the network is unavailable. The browser will receive an error code indicating the problem, and may display this error message to the user in place of the requested page. However, it is incorrect for the browser to place the error message in the page cache, as this would lead it to display the error again when the user tries to load the same page - even after the network is back up. The error message must not be cached under the page's URL; until the browser is able to successfully load the page, whenever the user tries to load the page, the browser must make a new attempt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7355118",
"title": "Brontok",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The computer also restarts when trying to open the Windows Command Prompt and prevents the user from downloading files. It also pop ups the default Web browser and loads a web page (HTML) which is located in the \"My Pictures\" (or on Windows Vista, \"Pictures\") folder. It creates .exe files in folders usually named as the folder itself (..\\documents\\documents.exe) this also includes all mapped network drives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33173",
"title": "Web browser",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Web pages usually contain hyperlinks to other pages and resources. Each link contains a URL, and when it is clicked, the browser navigates to the new resource. Thus the process of bringing content to the user begins again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1697881",
"title": "Dynamic web page",
"section": "Section::::Server-side scripting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Dynamic web pages are often cached when there are few or no changes expected and the page is anticipated to receive considerable amount of web traffic that would create slow load times for the server if it had to generate the pages on the fly for each request.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22757897",
"title": "Tcpkill",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The computer that is attempting to go to that site will be blocked from that site only, but can surf any other site. It is a good idea to either redirect the output into nothingness ( 2/dev/null 1/dev/null) or into a file for later analysis ( file.tcpkill ). By default, it will redirect output to the console.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11031479",
"title": "Internet Explorer 8",
"section": "Section::::New features.:Automatic tab-crash recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "If a website or add-on causes a tab to crash in Internet Explorer 8, only that tab is affected. The browser itself remains stable and other tabs remain unaffected, thereby minimizing any disruption to the browsing experience. If a tab unexpectedly closes or crashes it is automatically reloaded with the same content as before the crash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7sp6hj
|
Why is the modern nation of Ghana located far southeast of the medieval kingdom of Ghana?
|
[
{
"answer": "This question comes up from time to time. My answer in [this thread](_URL_0_) gives the specific context for how the Gold Coast colony came to be named Ghana. Also, [this post from last month](_URL_1_) provides additional context about the oral traditions that Danquah was drawing on to justify the connections.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12067",
"title": "Ghana",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval kingdoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Ghana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and Central territories. This included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8932813",
"title": "Legends of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Ashanti Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Thus, although the Ghana Empire was geographically different from present-day Ghana, some of its people, specifically the Akan, moved to what is today Ghana, hence the historicity of the name. In fact, the North African Almoravid dynasty gold coin was renowned throughout the medieval world as being made of the purest of golds, since West African gold was 92 percent pure at the time it was mined, higher than old Egyptian gold ore, which started at 85 percent, a figure which was later refined to 95 percent. Evidence of early Ashanti connections to the Islamic world is the Ashanti word for money – \"sikka\" – the same as the Arabic word for minting money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14099",
"title": "History of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Medieval and Early Modern (6th to 18th centuries).:West Africa.:Sahelian empires & states.:Ghana.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The Ghana Empire may have been an established kingdom as early as the 8th century AD, founded among the Soninke by Dinge Cisse. Ghana was first mentioned by Arab geographer Al-Farazi in the late 8th century. Ghana was inhabited by urban dwellers and rural farmers. The urban dwellers were the administrators of the empire, who were Muslims, and the \"Ghana\" (king), who practiced traditional religion. Two towns existed, one where the Muslim administrators and Berber-Arabs lived, which was connected by a stone-paved road to the king's residence. The rural dwellers lived in villages, which joined together into broader polities that pledged loyalty to the \"Ghana.\" The \"Ghana\" was viewed as divine, and his physical well-being reflected on the whole society. Ghana converted to Islam around 1050, after conquering Aoudaghost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12067",
"title": "Ghana",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Ghana is a multiethnic country. The largest ethnic group is the Ashanti people. Ghana's territorial area within West Africa was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans until the 10th century BC. By the 10th century AD. The Guans were the first settlers in Ghana long before the other tribes came. Akans had established Bonoman (Brong Ahafo region) and were joined by the current settlers and inhabitants by the 16th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35867237",
"title": "Ghanaian people",
"section": "Section::::Origin, ethnogenesis and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The Ghanaians established a number of powerful kingdoms from the 10th century AD to the 17th century and the Ghanaians became the dominant military power in the west of Africa. In 1902, the powerful Ghanaian kingdoms had all become a colony of Britain and their powerful kingdoms was renamed Gold Coast following a series of military battles between the Ghanaians and the British. The Ghanaians gained their independence from Britain in 1957, and renamed their sovereign state \"Ghana (Warrior King)\" due to the fact that pre-historic Republic of Ghana was ruled by warriors. The Republic of Ghana was the first African country to gain independence from European colonization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21077671",
"title": "Ghana Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "The Ghana Empire ( 700 until 1240), properly known as Wagadou (\"Ghana\" or \"Ga'na\" being the title of its ruler), was a West African empire located in the area of present-day southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. Complex societies based on trans-Saharan trade with salt and gold had existed in the region since ancient times, but the introduction of the camel to the western Sahara in the 3rd century CE, opened the way to great changes in the area that became the Ghana Empire. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century the camel had changed the ancient, more irregular trade routes into a trade network running from Morocco to the Niger river. The Ghana Empire grew rich from this increased trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt, allowing for larger urban centres to develop. The traffic furthermore encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the different trade routes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16278724",
"title": "Outline of Ghana",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "Ghana – sovereign country in West Africa in Africa. The word \"Ghana\" means \"Warrior King\", and was the source of the name \"Guinea\" (via French \"Guinoye\") used to refer to the West African coast (as in Gulf of Guinea). Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms, including the inland Empire of Ashanti and various Fante states along the coast and inland. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established a crown colony, Gold Coast, in 1874. Upon achieving independence from the United Kingdom in 1957, the name Ghana was chosen for the new nation to reflect the ancient Empire of Ghana that once extended throughout much of western Africa. In the Akan language it is spelled \"Gaana\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yjpg9
|
Why do old portraits all look so similar? I feel like I have no idea how these people really looked.
|
[
{
"answer": "You have to remember that portraiture is a very formal event. It takes hours for an artist to paint a portrait and they were quite expensive. People would dress up in their finest clothing to pose for the portrait and put on their most serious expressions (smiling was not considered professional). For this reason, when looking at old portraits though our modern cultural eyes, we see them as serious and almost Orwellian, though this may not be the case. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think this is universally true; if you look at the portraits by Hans Holbein the Younger for example it starts to become very obvious that these people all look different. Some people have rather large noses, some people have rather wide or round or skinny cheekbones, some people have the most absurd tiny eyes, and so on and so forth. This is most obvious when you look at his male portraits; it's a little less visible in his female portraits but it's present. Bear in mind also that all these people are wearing very similar clothing and formal robes; because we are used to using very visible differences in clothing habits, hairstyles and dress to tell people apart(think about how recognizable some of your friends are simply by their haircut or the way they dress) and strongly expect old portraits to be idealized(not that they weren't; but a greater or lesser degree of idealization is always a intentional choice on the part of the artist) we might also be less sensitive to subtle distinctions in their appearance. Indeed, once we look more closely at the portraits of his wives in sequence, salient differences emerge in the length of their faces, their noses, how deep-set their eyes are, the prominence of their chin and so on and so forth. A useful point of comparison is the rather nasty racist joke that 'all Asians look alike\"; in the same way we tend to mentally categorize all people in 16th century paintings as looking alike. This extends to the clothing; the fact is that a typical modern viewer is going to be less sensitive to the vagaries of 16th century fashion and less sensitive(in a world where virtually everyone wears cheap and affordable comfortable cotton or synthetic fabrics on a regular basis) to the different textures and qualities of linen, silk, taffeta, velvet, or brocade is probably going to not recognize subtle differences in dress that would be glaringly visible to a 16th century viewer-look at for example how the portrait of Jane Seymour you probably saw shows a much wider collar than the portrait of Anne of Cleves, or how much more loosely and widely cut and fabric-intensive the clothes of Anne of Cleves look.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So I'm not an art historian — I should say that up front. But you're not the only one to notice that this is the case. The artist David Hockney has wondered this himself, as both a practitioner and a viewer of art. Hockney has noted that there is an apparently huge jump in portrait quality — that for hundreds of years it is as you described, not very distinct, not very detailed, not very photo-realistic. And then out of nowhere comes a school of very very realistic painting (e.g. Jan van Eyck, Caravaggio, Velázquez) that looks totally different — [damned near photographic](_URL_0_). \n\nHockney, with the assistance of a physicist named Charles Falco, has put forward a theory that this change came about through the use of optical technologies, including lenses and mirrors, that allowed these masters to aid their painting by projecting the image of their subject onto the canvas. In other words, they \"traced\" some of it. He has found a lot of interesting evidence in favor of it, including distortions in paintings that are exactly the kinds of distortions you'd get if you were using lenses or mirrors, and by looking at the original sketches he says you can see evidence that they were tracing as opposed to free-handing (the strokes have a very different character to them). He also, as an artist himself, took pains to try and replicate these technologies. He would be the first to emphasize that this is not \"easy\" work — but it can help you anchor a much more realistic portrait than without it. \n\nI found Hockney's argument somewhat compelling from a history of technology standpoint — the idea that they _wouldn't_ have used these kinds of tools seems idealistic to me, and the fact that they would keep these sorts of things secret also is in line with other early modern optical practices (e.g. Galileo). \n\nThe book on this is David Hockney's _Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters_. It's a beautiful, fascinating, unusual book. It's a coffee table book size but it's making a real scholarly argument — it just needs the visual space to do it. \n\n(There's a movie that just came out, _Tim's Vermeer_, which is along very similar lines. I haven't seen it yet and can't speak to it.)\n\nMy understanding is that most art historians are not interested in these arguments, but how much of that is because there is genuine dispute about the Hockney thesis, or because it disrupts their standard modes of analysis a bit too much, I don't know. I found it pretty interesting, though, and I suspect that in a few more \"generations\" of art historians there will be more acknowledgment about these kinds of possibilities. I think Hockney feels that the present discipline of art history is too invested in the idea of these guys being \"pure\" painters and is just unwilling to even talk about this sort of thing. Again, I'm an historian of science and technology, not art, so I can't speak to the latter with any authority. But I do find the argument interesting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29269464",
"title": "Ma Jir Bo",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Portraits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Portraits are natural reflection of real people. The ability to achieve a true likeness was greatly valued until the mid-nineteenth century. However, once photographs became common, artists could use their skills to show something about the subject that no camera could match. In addition to showing the person, a great portrait suggests a history, personality, mood and feeling. Leonardo da Vinci's \"Mona Lisa\", 1507 captures the essence of the portrait in that it is compelling, and the view feels a connection to the person who is portrayed, yet it is also mysterious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210093",
"title": "Portrait",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historical portraiture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of an idealized symbol of what that person looked like. (Compare the portraits of Roman Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I at their entries.) In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized. True portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2113557",
"title": "Model (art)",
"section": "Section::::Posing.:Clothed modeling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Portraits generally have a client or \"sitter\" rather than a model as the subject; and are now often done from photographs at least in part, although artists prefer to have at least some hours of live sitting particularly at the beginning to better capture the personality, and at the end for final touches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3085396",
"title": "Portrait painting",
"section": "Section::::Chinese portrait painting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Chinese portrait painting was slow to desire or achieve an actual likeness. Many \"portraits\" were of famous figures from the past, and showed an idea of what that person should look like. Buddhist clergy, especially in sculpture, were something of an exception to this. Portraits of the emperor were long never seen in public, partly for fear that mistreatment of them might dishonour the emperor or even cause bad luck. The most senior ministers were allowed once a year to pay homage to the images in the imperial gallery of ancestor portraits, as a special honour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15880127",
"title": "Conjectural portrait",
"section": "Section::::Iconic portraits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Certain conjectural portraits have become iconic of their subjects, and are widely recognizable as such, with few being aware that they are not authentic portraits. For example, portraits of Christopher Columbus and Joan of Arc are widely recognized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23591331",
"title": "Henry Raeburn Dobson",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "His portraits are always faithful representations of the sitters. It is astonishing that after so many years, many of the portraits still resemble the sitters. But, sometimes he embellishes the sitter by adding some mannerist hands. Fascinated by hands (which is the most difficult part of a portrait), he always included some hands into a portrait (when possible). But, generally they do not represent the hands of the sitter. They are – especially with woman portraits – a mannerist way to add more grace and elegance to the sitter. Baroness Van Houtte's and Baroness Velge's hands are indeed stockier than the hands Raeburn painted, while the position of the hand of Countess de Liedekerke is anatomically quite impossible, as are the hands of Countess d'Oultremont. One notices the elongated fingers in the portraits of Baroness Van Houtte, Countess d'Oultremont and Countess de Liedekerke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7587495",
"title": "Self-portrait",
"section": "Section::::Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Portraits and self-portraits have a longer continuous history in Asian art than in Europe. Many in the scholar gentleman tradition are quite small, depicting the artist in a large landscape, illustrating a poem in calligraphy on his experience of the scene. Another tradition, associated with Zen Buddhism, produced lively semi-caricatured self-portraits, whilst others remain closer to the conventions of the formal portrait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dlnr4b
|
Chinese(?) coins
|
[
{
"answer": "Based on your drawing the first one is from the period of the Daoguang 道光 Emperor, the 8th Qing emperor who ruled from 1820 to 1850. The second is from the reign of the Shunzhi 順治 Emperor, who was the third Qing emperor, ruling from 1644 to 1661. The side with Chinese characters just says the name of the empepror and that it's money (通寶).\n\nThe other side is written in Manchu and says \"Ministry of Revenue\" on both coins. That's the minting authority, which in this case was in the province of Chihli, which no longer exists today as a modern administrative division. Basically Beijing, though.\n\nChances are these are not authentic. A lot of these are made as tourist trinkets and you can get them for literal pennies. If they look to be very similar in condition and material, then it's almost certain that they are knock-offs, since if they were authentic you'd expect the 200 years differnce of when they would have been minted (if authentic) to leave different patterns of ware. Even if they are authentic, the Daoguang one isn't going to make you rich. Neither is the Shunzhi though it might arguably be worth more. You'd obviously need them authenticated by a collector to really know, though.\n\nAlso your red is pretty darn accurate. Well done!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34002847",
"title": "Zhou dynasty coinage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Chinese coinage during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods includes some of the earliest coins produced in the world. However, they were mostly not the typical round shape of modern coins. They included cowrie shells, ant nose money, spade-shaped money and knife-shaped money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43579831",
"title": "Silver Dragon (coin)",
"section": "Section::::History.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Chinese coins of this type are known Kwangtung dollars from the old romanisation of the name of the mint that they were first produced in China, more popularly they are known in Chinese as 龍銀, literally \"Dragon Silver\" or \"Dragon Money\", 銀 capable of being read as both silver or money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16376403",
"title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "In the modern era, these coins are considered to be Chinese “good luck coins”; they are hung on strings and round the necks of children, or over the beds of sick people. They hold a place in various superstitions, as well as Traditional Chinese medicine, and Feng shui. Currencies based on the Chinese cash coins include the Japanese mon, Korean mun, Ryukyuan mon, and Vietnamese văn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8882496",
"title": "Japanese currency",
"section": "Section::::History.:Chinese coinage (12th–17th centuries).:Imitations of Chinese coinage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "As the Chinese coins were not in sufficient number as trade and economy expanded, local Japanese imitations of Chinese coins were made from the 14th century, especially imitations of Ming coins, with inscribed names identical to those of contemporary Chinese coins. These coins had a very low value compared to Chinese coins, and several of them had to be exchanged for just one Chinese coin. This situation continued until the beginning of the Edo period, when a new system was put in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9755473",
"title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Ancient Chinese coins are markedly different from their European counterparts. Chinese coins were manufactured by being cast in molds, whereas European coins were typically cut and hammered or, in later times, milled. Chinese coins were usually made from mixtures of metals such copper, tin and lead, from bronze, brass or iron: precious metals like gold and silver were uncommonly used. The ratios and purity of the coin metals varied considerably. Most Chinese coins were produced with a square hole in the middle. This was used to allow collections of coins to be threaded on a square rod so that the rough edges could be filed smooth, and then threaded on strings for ease of handling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1355808",
"title": "Trade dollar",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The high regard in which these coins came to be held, led to the minting of the silver Chinese yuan, a coin designed to resemble the Spanish one. These Chinese \"dragon dollars\" not only circulated in China, but together with original coins of Spanish-Mexican origin became the preferred currency of trade between China and its neighbours. Defeated in the First Opium War China was forced to open its ports to foreign trade, and in the late half of the 19th Century Western nations trading with China found it cheaper and more expedient to mint their own coins, from their own supplies of silver, than to continue to use coins from Mexican sources. These so-called trade dollars would approximate in specification, weight 7 mace and 2 candareens (approx. 27.2 grams) and fineness .900 (90%), the Spanish-Mexican coins so long trusted and valued in China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3996176",
"title": "Chinese cash (currency unit)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In the 19th century, foreign coins began to circulate widely in China, particularly silver coins such as the Mexican peso. In 1889, Chinese currency began to be denominated in the yuan and its subdivisions. The cash or wén was retained in this system as yuan. Traditional style, cast 1 wén coins continued to be produced until the end of the Chinese Empire in 1911. The last coins denominated in cash were struck in the early years of the Republic of China in 1924.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
enmjub
|
How are artifical sweeteners digested by the body?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on the sweetener. They are very different molecules. \n\nAspartame, brand name Equal, is basically a tiny protein molecule with an alcohol molecule stuck on the end. It gets broken apart into its component parts and they are digested separately. This generates about 4 calories per gram-- the same as sugar.\n\nThe reason aspartame is a \"low calorie\" sweetener is that it's 200 times sweeter than sugar, so you use much less of it. Instead of two teaspoons of sugar, you use one blue sweetener packet, which contains 0.04 grams of aspartame and some filler. \n\nSucralose, brand name Splenda, works differently. It's low calorie because the body does not recognize it as a nutrient, so it doesn't get digested at all. It passes through the digestive tract unchanged, and almost entirely unabsorbed. The tiny amount of sucralose that does get absorbed into the bloodstream gets excreted right back out again, still unchanged, in the urine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Forms and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Low-calorie sugars and artificial sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of glucose molecules and is made by the partial hydrolysis of starch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282070",
"title": "Taste",
"section": "Section::::Basic tastes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Sweet taste signals the presence of carbohydrates in solution. Since carbohydrates have a very high calorie count (saccharides have many bonds, therefore much energy), they are desirable to the human body, which evolved to seek out the highest calorie intake foods. They are used as direct energy (sugars) and storage of energy (glycogen). However, there are many non-carbohydrate molecules that trigger a sweet response, leading to the development of many artificial sweeteners, including saccharin, sucralose, and aspartame. It is still unclear how these substances activate the sweet receptors and what adaptational significance this has had.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650562",
"title": "Cauim",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A characteristic feature of the beverage is that the starting material is cooked, chewed, and fermented, so that enzymes present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars. (This principle was originally used also for Japanese sake.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58880",
"title": "Sugar substitute",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Saccharin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "Apart from sugar of lead (used as a sweetener in ancient through medieval times before the toxicity of lead was known), saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin from phthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and, currently, saccharin is created by this process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to 500 times as sweet as sugar (sucrose) and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods, and dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other sweeteners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5193078",
"title": "List of food additives",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sweeteners : Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay and diarrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11815",
"title": "Food additive",
"section": "Section::::Numbering.:Categories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sweeteners : Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4329830",
"title": "Isomaltulose",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Taste profile. Isomaltulose is used as a food ingredient and alternative to other sugars and maltodextrins in foods and beverages. In these it provides a natural sucrose-like sweetness profile with a sweetening power about half that of sucrose, and no aftertaste. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
scbm6
|
I have some hypothetical questions about magnetic spheres.
|
[
{
"answer": "Based on what I can understand of your question you are horribly misunderstanding magnetism.\n\nReason: Your spheres are impossible.\n\nWithout a path to complete what I generally hear termed the \"magnetic circuit\" you are effectively looking at some sort of magnetic monopole type structure which is (as far as science understands so far) is impossible.\n\nBy \"thicker\" and \"thinner\" it sounds like you are thinking of a spherical shell but the same idea of inability to complete the circuit applies even when they are within each other. Does that make sense? (as in, flux lines from the very center cannot loop back out as they want to)\n\n\nAlso, magnets cannot be magnetized spherically like you indicate. It can be approximated with smaller magnets put together but can't just be magnetized that way to begin with. (_URL_0_)\n\n\n\nIs there a particular reason you are asking? That will direct how I can address perhaps creating a type of situation like you're thinking of.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let me rephrase the situation as best as I can understand what you wrote. \n\n* There are 2 hollow spherical shells of radius R1 and R2, R1 > R2. \n* The shells have thicknesses d1 and d2. \n* For simplicity we will say the radii are the inner radii of the shells, and the outer radii are R1+d1 and R2+d2.\n* The spheres have been magnetized such that the direction of the magnetic field is along the radial direction. In other words it is like you peeled an orange, magnetized the peel when it was flat, and then reshaped it back to its original shape.\n* The spheres are opposite in magnetization and concentrically located.\n* You then place another sphere of magnetized material inside the 2nd sphere. \n\nUnfortunately, yes, your understanding of magnetism is off. A sphere that is radially magnetized is equivalent to a magnetic monopole. These do not exist in nature that we have yet seen. They are theoretically allowed, we just have no evidence that they exist.\n\nIf you placed the 2nd sphere inside of the 1st, two points need to be made. First, the direction of the magnetization does not matter. The outer sphere will be either pushing OR pulling the inner sphere equally in all direction, there are completely equivalent mathematically. Second, the equilibrium is unstable. It would be like trying to balance a marble on the top of a bowling ball. You can do it, but any slight disturbance will send it off to one side.\n\nThis brings me to the actual question. What happens to the thin sheet of magnetized material. This concept you are referring to is call \"superposition\". Basically it means that if you have two fields (in this case magnetic fields), to find the net effect you can just add the values of the fields together to get and effective field. For the case you have concocted, the thin sheet will feel both magnetic fields. It depends on which one is larger and how far away they are (the radii). It could be arranged such that there is no net magnetic field in the center as well.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4578194",
"title": "Magnetix",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The spheres are to in diameter (larger than Geomag), approximately in weight, and are prone to surface corrosion, unlike most other magnetic construction toys. The bars with magnets at each end are long, or , or and flexible, or short rigid curves. Panel shapes include two types of interlocking triangles, interlockable squares, and circle or disks. The triangles and squares identify the North-South polarity of one of their embedded magnets. The disks identify all four magnets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37461554",
"title": "John Ugelstad",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Relatively shortly after his breakthrough Ugelstad gave a lecture in the United States. After the lecture some scientists asked if it was possible to magnetize the spheres, so they could be used to separate cells. The inquiry sparked new nights with research problems in John Ugelstad bedrooms and resulted in the development of magnetic monodisperse particles at SINTEF. The solution was designated as ingenious in its simplicity. Basically he made particles paramagnetic, i.e. they are only magnetic in a magnetic field. When this field is removed, the particles are non-magnetic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19975340",
"title": "Rotating spheres",
"section": "Section::::Formulation of the argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "This sphere example was used by Newton himself to discuss the detection of rotation relative to absolute space. Checking the fictitious force needed to account for the tension in the string is one way for an observer to decide whether or not they are rotating – if the fictitious force is zero, they are not rotating. (Of course, in an extreme case like the gravitron amusement ride, you do not need much convincing that you are rotating, but standing on the Earth's surface, the matter is more subtle.) Below, the mathematical details behind this observation are presented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19975340",
"title": "Rotating spheres",
"section": "Section::::Formulation of the argument.:Inertial frame.:General case.:Is the fictitious force \"ad hoc\"?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Consequently, the fictitious force found above for this problem of rotating spheres is consistent with the general result and is not an \"ad hoc\" solution just \"cooked up\" to bring about agreement for this single example. Moreover, it is the Coriolis force that makes it possible for the fictitious force to change sign depending upon which of ω, ω is the greater, inasmuch as the centrifugal force contribution always is outward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8586",
"title": "Dyson sphere",
"section": "Section::::Variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "In fictional accounts, the Dyson-sphere concept is often interpreted as an artificial hollow sphere of matter around a star. This perception is based on a literal interpretation of Dyson's original short paper introducing the concept. In response to letters prompted by some papers, Dyson replied, \"A solid shell or ring surrounding a star is mechanically impossible. The form of 'biosphere' which I envisaged consists of a loose collection or swarm of objects traveling on independent orbits around the star.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42896",
"title": "Viscometer",
"section": "Section::::Rotational viscometers.:Electromagnetically spinning-sphere viscometer (EMS viscometer).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The rotating magnetic field induces eddy currents in the sphere. The resulting Lorentz interaction between the magnetic field and these eddy currents generate torque that rotates the sphere. The rotational speed of the sphere depends on the rotational velocity of the magnetic field, the magnitude of the magnetic field and the viscosity of the sample around the sphere. The motion of the sphere is monitored by a video camera ⑤ located below the cell. The torque applied to the sphere is proportional to the difference in the angular velocity of the magnetic field and the one of the sphere . There is thus a linear relationship between and the viscosity of the liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474781",
"title": "Particle in a ring",
"section": "Section::::Energy eigenvalues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The case of a particle in a one-dimensional ring is an instructive example when studying the quantization of angular momentum for, say, an electron orbiting the nucleus. The azimuthal wave functions in that case are identical to the energy eigenfunctions of the particle on a ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
153cgf
|
Why don't we create a small scale nuclear reactor to power cars individualy?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cost is far too high for it to be reliable and consistent, and the waste produced would be difficult to manage, depending on the type of fuel used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22151",
"title": "Nuclear reactor",
"section": "Section::::How a nuclear reactor works.:Reactivity control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Reactors used in nuclear marine propulsion (especially nuclear submarines) often cannot be run at continuous power around the clock in the same way that land-based power reactors are normally run, and in addition often need to have a very long core life without refueling. For this reason many designs use highly enriched uranium but incorporate burnable neutron poison in the fuel rods. This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn-cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37514",
"title": "Depleted uranium",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "It is possible to design civilian power-generating reactors using unenriched fuel, but only about 10% of those ever built (such as the CANDU reactor) utilize that technology. Thus most civilian reactors as well as all naval reactors and nuclear weapons production require fuel containing concentrated U-235 and generate depleted uranium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2427324",
"title": "Nuclear power phase-out",
"section": "Section::::Pros and cons of nuclear power.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Although there is no way to guarantee that a reactor will always be designed, built and operated safely, the nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed safer reactor designs, though many of these designs have yet to be tested at industrial or commercial scales. Mistakes do occur and the designers of reactors at Fukushima in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake. According to UBS AG, the Fukushima I nuclear accidents have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety. Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207347",
"title": "Nuclear power plant",
"section": "Section::::Safety and accidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Modern nuclear reactor designs have had numerous safety improvements since the first-generation nuclear reactors. A nuclear power plant cannot explode like a nuclear weapon because the fuel for uranium reactors is not enriched enough, and nuclear weapons require precision explosives to force fuel into a small enough volume to go supercritical. Most reactors require continuous temperature control to prevent a core meltdown, which has occurred on a few occasions through accident or natural disaster, releasing radiation and making the surrounding area uninhabitable. Plants must be defended against theft of nuclear material and attack by enemy military planes or missiles, or planes hijacked by terrorists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36799534",
"title": "BES-5",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Spacecraft nuclear reactors are typically fast reactors for reasons of space and weight. Moderator materials add bulk and mass which is not desirable in a spacecraft. Fast reactors require more highly enriched fuel than the typical 5% enrichment of moderated reactors, the BES-5 uses 95% enrichment Uranium. Note that some of the U-238 (which is fertile and not fissile) will be converted to Pu-239 during operation, and this is taken into consideration during the design and while estimating the power output and design life expectancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43474327",
"title": "Dollar (reactivity)",
"section": "Section::::Meaning and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "While power reactors are carefully designed and operated to avoid prompt criticality under all circumstances, many small research or \"zero power\" reactors are designed to be intentionally placed into prompt criticality (reactivity $2) with complete safety by rapidly withdrawing their control rods. Their fuel elements are designed so that as they heat up, reactivity is automatically and quickly reduced through effects such as doppler broadening and thermal expansion. Such reactors can be \"pulsed\" to very high power levels (e.g., several GW) for a few milliseconds, after which reactivity automatically drops to $1 and a relatively low and constant power level (e.g. several hundred kW) is maintained until shut down manually by reinserting the control rods. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "279350",
"title": "Electric vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Electricity sources.:Onboard generators and hybrid EVs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "For especially large EVs, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel-electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. \"See Nuclear Power\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5i6hfk
|
in terms of microeconomics, how does piracy of digital goods affect supply, demand, sale, price, etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "Within a narrow context, piracy has two effects. It depresses or increases potential demand for a product at the rate at which the file spreads through a population. There's less than 1 to 1 correlation between the number of people with an illicit copy who drop out of the demand population. The number of people who will potentially purchase a file through sanctioned means can sometimes be greater with a moderate amount of piracy than with none at all, due to marketing and to pirates who pay their respects. In other cases, piracy allows a digital good to be sampled at no cost to the consumer, and the product fails due to lack of appeal or quality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an economist, I work in IT, but this info may be interesting to you nonetheless.\n\nI see lots of money go into what we call \"revenue protection\" via licensing and the Product Activation Keys (PAKs) that you may be familiar with. The classic way to implement license protection is to build your software so that the software image alone won't do anything unless there's a license file issued from the manufacturer to bless your device to run the software. The information in the license file itself (eg. the device's Serial No. or MAC address, license generation date, owner) is encrypted using a private key into what looks like a nonsense string, eg. \"A34FKZX98...\", and decrypted by the software using a corresponding public key.\n\nThe technology and cryptography know-how behind it is a big burden for software companies, so they'll frequently buy a solution from a 3rd-party company like Flexera to generate their licenses.\n\nNet net, the work to prevent unauthorized use of software products is expensive, which drives up the product costs which effectively pushes your supply curve back, increasing price and decreasing quantity demanded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.:Developing world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "According to the same study, even though digital piracy inflicts additional costs on the production side of media, it also offers the main access to media goods in developing countries. The strong tradeoffs that favor using digital piracy in developing economies dictate the current neglected law enforcements toward digital piracy. In China, the issue of digital infringement is not merely legal, but social – originating from the high demand for cheap and affordable goods as well as the governmental connections of the businesses which produce such goods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30098451",
"title": "Music piracy",
"section": "Section::::Economic ramifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Piracy's real effect on music sales is difficult to accurately assess. In neoclassical economics prices are determined by the combination of the forces of supply and demand, but the participators in the digital market do not always follow the usual motives and behaviors of the supply and demand system. First, the cost of digital distribution has decreased significantly from the costs of distribution by former methods. Furthermore, the majority of the filesharing community will distribute copies of music for a zero price in monetary terms, and there are some consumers who are willing to pay a certain price for legitimate copies even when they could just as easily obtain pirated copies, such as with pay what you want vendors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32721332",
"title": "Media Piracy in Emerging Economies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Media Piracy in Emerging Economies is a report released by the Social Science Research Council in 2011. It contends that “high prices for media goods, low incomes, and cheap digital technologies are the main ingredients of global media piracy. If piracy is ubiquitous in most parts of the world, it is because these conditions are ubiquitous.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.:Developing world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In Media Piracy in Emerging Economies, the first independent international comparative study of media piracy with center on Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa, Mexico, Turkey and Bolivia, \"high prices for media goods, low incomes, and cheap digital technologies\" are the chief factors that lead to the global spread of media piracy, especially in emerging markets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16701876",
"title": "Digital supply chain",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Digital Rights Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "An important aspect of the digital supply chain is the process of encrypting the content so that it cannot be played back without the proper license which is often acquired via purchase of content or subscription. This reduces the possibility of media being pirated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14567369",
"title": "Born-digital",
"section": "Section::::Key Issues.:Licensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "Consumers have also had to deal with intellectual property as it concerns their ownership of and ability to control the born-digital material that they buy. Piracy proves to be a bigger problem with digital objects, including those that are born-digital, because such materials can be copied and spread in perfect condition with speed and distance on a scale inconceivable for traditional print and physical materials. Again, the first-sale doctrine, which, from a consumer standpoint, allows purchasers of materials to sell or give away items (such as books and CDs), is not yet applied effectively to digital objects. Three reasons for this have been identified by Victor Calaba: \"...first, license agreements imposed by software manufacturers typically prohibit exercise of the first sale doctrine; second, traditional copyright law may not support application of the first sale doctrine to digital works; finally, the functionally prevents users from making copies of digitized works and prohibits the necessary bypassing of access control mechanisms to facilitate a transfer.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34407231",
"title": "Online piracy",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Online piracy has led to improvements into file sharing technology that has bettered information distribution as a whole. Additionally, pirating communities tend to model market trends well, as members of those communities tend to be early adopters. Piracy can also lead to businesses developing new models that better account for the current market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5shonw
|
why do emojis show up differently on ios vs android devices?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well consider it like a different font type. It still conveys the same information, but it is a separate style. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When your phone sends text back and forth, it's encoded as numbers. These are standard, so 33 is !, 65 is A, and 128512 is 😀. All your phone gets are these numbers, and to show them, your phone has a list of little pictures for all these characters that it puts on the screen. The pictures should all be similar, but there's no reason why each company has to use exactly the same pictures. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "513844",
"title": "Emoji",
"section": "Section::::Emoji communications problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The second problem relates to technology and branding. When an author of a message picks an emoji from a list, it is normally encoded in a non-graphical manner during the transmission, and if the author and the reader do not use the same software or operating system for their devices, the reader's device may visualize the same emoji in a different way. Small changes to a character's look may completely alter its perceived meaning with the receiver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513844",
"title": "Emoji",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Journalists have noted that the ambiguity of emoji has allowed them to take on culture-specific meanings not present in the original glyphs. For example, has been described as being used in English-language communities to signify \"non-caring fabulousness\" and \"anything from shutting haters down to a sense of accomplishment\". Unicode manuals sometimes provide notes on auxiliary meanings of an object to guide designers on how emoji may be used, for example noting that some users may expect to stand for \"a reserved or ticketed seat, as for an airplane, train, or theater\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513844",
"title": "Emoji",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Apple.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Apple first introduced emoji to their desktop operating system with the release of OS X 10.7 Lion, in 2011. Users can view emoji characters sent through email and messaging applications, which are commonly shared by mobile users, as well as any other application. Users can create emoji symbols using the \"Characters\" special input panel from almost any native application by selecting the \"Edit\" menu and pulling down to \"Special Characters\", or by the key combination . The desktop OS uses the Apple Color Emoji font that was introduced earlier in iOS. This provides users with full color pictographs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513844",
"title": "Emoji",
"section": "Section::::Emoji communications problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Research has shown that emoji are often misunderstood. In some cases, this misunderstanding is related to how the actual emoji design is interpreted by the viewer; in other cases, the emoji that was sent is not shown in the same way on the receiving side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50696877",
"title": "IOS 10",
"section": "Section::::App features.:Messages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "New emojis have been added, as well as additional features related to emoji. Emojis appear 3x bigger if messages are sent with up to three emojis and no text, the keyboard can now predict emojis to use, and an emoji replacement feature attempts to match words in messages and replace them with emojis of the same meaning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55114493",
"title": "Emoji domain",
"section": "Section::::Problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Another problem is that emojis can look different depending on the operating system, applications, and fonts used. Not all browsers support emoji domains. On Google Chrome and Firefox, emoji display as Punycode in the address bar. In Safari, on the other hand, emoji are visible in the address bar. Emoji domains are also visible in Google and Bing search results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64105",
"title": "Typeface",
"section": "Section::::Non-character typefaces.:Emoji.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Emoji are pictograms that can be used and displayed inline with text. They are similar to previous symbol typefaces, but with a much larger range of characters, such as symbols for common objects, animals, food types, weather and emotions. Originally developed in Japan, they are now commonly installed on many computer and smartphone operating systems. Following standardisation and inclusion in the Unicode standard, allowing them to be used internationally, the number of Emoji characters has rapidly increased to meet the demands of an expanded range of cultures using them; unlike many previous symbol typefaces, they are interchangeable with the ability to display the pictures of the same meaning in a range of fonts on different operating systems. The popularity of emoji has meant that characters have sometimes gained culture-specific meanings not inherent to the design. Both colour and monochrome emoji typefaces exist, as well as at least one animated design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4k3gb4
|
Did the Romans have some concept of 'standardized spelling'?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this depends entirely on what era you're looking at.\n\nSo far as I am aware, there wasn't an institution in Rome that said \"Ok, everyone, amicus is a second declension noun, not a fourth declension one!\" I'm not sure how linguists would approach this issue, so I can't speak to how everyone agreed that it should be \"amicus, amici.\" There doesn't seem to be the same variation of dialects that you get with ancient Greek writings. \n\nHowever, the educational curriculum was extremely conservative insofar as people studied the same Latin texts regardless of where they were in the empire. By the late antique period, people studied Vergil and Cicero (and a few others), and being able to write like them was considered the gold standard of Latin writing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32576",
"title": "Vulgate",
"section": "Section::::Texts.:Modern critical editions.:Weber-Gryson (Stuttgart) edition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "In its spelling, it retains medieval Latin orthography, sometimes using \"oe\" rather than \"ae\", and having more proper nouns beginning with \"H\" (e.g., \"Helimelech\" instead of \"Elimelech\"). Unlike the edition of Rome, it standardizes the spelling of proper names rather than attempting to reproduce the idiosyncrasies of each passage. It also follows the medieval manuscripts in using line breaks, rather than the modern system of punctuation marks, to indicate the structure of each verse, following the practice of the Oxford and Rome editions, though it initially presents an unfamiliar appearance to readers accustomed to the Clementine text.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6683766",
"title": "Latin script",
"section": "Section::::As used by various languages.:Capitalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "The languages that use the Latin script today generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalized; whereas Modern English of the 18th century had frequently all nouns capitalized, in the same way that Modern German is written today, e.g. \"Alle Schwestern der alten Stadt hatten die Vögel gesehen\" (\"All of the sisters of the old city had seen the birds\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1085938",
"title": "Romance copula",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "BULLET::::- Although it is normal to use lower case when writing Latin in modern times, this article, dealing as it does with etymology, presents Latin in the capital letters used by the Romans, and modern innovations such as , , ligatures, macrons, and breves have been avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17999",
"title": "Latin spelling and pronunciation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Latin spelling, or Latin orthography, is the spelling of Latin words written in the scripts of all historical phases of Latin from Old Latin to the present. All scripts use the same alphabet, but conventional spellings may vary from phase to phase. The Roman alphabet, or Latin alphabet, was adapted from the Old Italic script to represent the phonemes of the Latin language. The Old Italic script had in turn been borrowed from the Greek alphabet, itself adapted from the Phoenician alphabet. The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet around 540 BC, as it appears on the black-figure pottery of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7286347",
"title": "History of the Latin script",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "The lower case (minuscule) letters developed in the Middle Ages from New Roman Cursive writing, first as the uncial script, and later as minuscule script. The old Roman letters were retained for formal inscriptions and for emphasis in written documents. The languages that use the Latin alphabet generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and for proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalised; whereas Modern English of the 18th century had frequently all nouns capitalised, in the same way that Modern German is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14763066",
"title": "Latinisation of names",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "During the age of the Roman Empire, translation of names into Latin (in the West) or Greek (in the East) was common. Additionally, Latinised versions of Greek substantives, particularly proper nouns, could easily be declined by Latin speakers with minimal modification of the original word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1421004",
"title": "English-language spelling reform",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for reform.:Undoing the changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1305,
"text": "Some proposed simplified spellings already exist as standard or variant spellings in old literature. As noted earlier, in the 16th century, some scholars of Greek and Latin literature tried to make English words look more like their Graeco-Latin counterparts, at times even erroneously. They did this by adding silent letters, so \"det\" became \"debt\", \"dout\" became \"doubt\", \"sithe\" became \"scythe\", \"iland\" became \"island\", \"ake\" became \"ache\", and so on. Some spelling reformers propose undoing these changes. Other examples of older spellings that are more phonetic include \"frend\" for \"friend\" (as on Shakespeare's grave), \"agenst\" for \"against\", \"yeeld\" for \"yield\", \"bild\" for \"build\", \"cort\" for \"court\", \"sted\" for \"stead\", \"delite\" for \"delight\", \"entise\" for \"entice\", \"gost\" for \"ghost\", \"harth\" for \"hearth\", \"rime\" for \"rhyme\", \"sum\" for \"some\", \"tung\" for \"tongue\", and many others. It was also once common to use \"-t\" for the ending \"-ed\" where it is pronounced as such (for example \"dropt\" for \"dropped\"). Some of the English language's most celebrated writers and poets have used these spellings and others proposed by today's spelling reformers. Edmund Spenser, for example, used spellings such as \"rize, wize\" and \"advize\" in his famous poem \"The Faerie Queene\", published in the 1590s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rl3rq
|
if someone were to dip a live electrical wire into the ocean, wouldn't everyone swimming in the ocean at that time be electrocuted?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. Electricity moves from one place to another place, along the path of least resistance. It doesn't spread out and electrocute everything that happens to be in the same body of water.\n\nIn the case of an electrical wire in the ocean, it'd likely prove dangerous to things within a few feet of it (maybe even a few dozen feet), but that's about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to use [this thread](_URL_0_) from /r/AskScience to answer this:\n\nElectricity doesn't just go on forever - with water, some electrical charge is lost as it disperses over the surface of the water (as I understand it)\n\nSo if you dipped a live electrical wire in the ocean, there would be an area where the electricity would disperse and anyone in that area would get electrocuted.\n\nTo electrocute the entire ocean you would need a *massive* amount of electricity. If you could somehow create that electrical source where its dispersal range was pretty much the entire ocean surface, than technically you could electrocute every ocean swimmer in the world. But only those on the surface - divers would not be effected, nor anything else not very close to the surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "There is no visible warning to electrified water. Swimmers will be able to feel the electricity if the current is substantial. If the swimmers notice any unusual tingling feeling or symptoms of electrical shock, it is highly likely that stray currents exist and everyone needs to get out. Swimmers should always swim away from the suspected current source. In most cases this means swimming away from docks and boats and toward another safer portion of the shoreline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909939",
"title": "Hot tub",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "It is also recommended to install residual-current devices for protection against electrocution. The greater danger associated with electrical shock in the water is that the person may be rendered immobile and unable to rescue themselves or to call for help and then drown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Once the victim is safely on shore, first aid may be needed. Treatment depends on the specifics of each case, but is likely some combination of the treatments for electrocution and drowning individually. Even if the victim seems well, examination by healthcare professional is recommended as latent effects from the electricity may be undetected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Rescue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The primary method of rescue is to get the swimmer away from the current source by any means possible, EXCEPT by sending out rescue swimmers. This means Row and Throw, but do not Go. If stray currents are suspected, a rescue by another swimmer should never be attempted. For cases where swimmers can feel mild tingling, getting flotation devices out to them can aid them to swim away from the current source under their own power. In cases where the current source is obvious, it may be possible for bystanders on foot to disconnect it. Dockside power hookups often have integrated or nearby breakers by which the source can be de-energized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Besides boats and dockside power hookups, several other potential causes exist. Lightning strikes over or near water have caused electric shock drownings. Faulty hydroelectric generators or damaged underwater power lines can cause leakage currents, potentially creating a hazard. In general, anything electrically active that comes in contact with water has the potential to create leakage currents and contribute to this type of safety hazard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15624663",
"title": "International Cable Protection Committee",
"section": "Section::::Submarine Telecommunication Cables and the Marine Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Over 80% of trans-oceanic telecommunication cables are located in water depths 2000m. There, the risks posed by fishing and shipping – the main causes of cable damage – are small. Accordingly, a typical cable is a 17-22mm diameter tube, the size of a domestic garden hose. It is composed of optical glass fibres, a copper power conductor and steel wires to add strength, all of which are encased in chemically inert, marine-grade polyethylene. Antifouling agents are not used. Furthermore, the amount of power in a cable is small being around 0.6 to 1 ampere, which is less than a laptop computer. Deep-ocean cables are laid on the seabed surface with minimal disturbance to the benthic environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8528932",
"title": "Submerged floating tunnel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The tube would be placed underwater, deep enough to avoid water traffic and weather, but not so deep that high water pressure needs to be dealt with—usually 20–50 m (60–150 ft) is sufficient. Cables either anchored to the Earth or to pontoons at the surface would prevent it from floating to the surface or submerging, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
272cs2
|
why did we domesticate chickens for the use of eggs and not other birds?
|
[
{
"answer": "We do. Duck eggs are very common in Chinese cuisine, for instance. The real stuff, though. Not the N American version. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most likely because they tend to be slow, their eggs full of protein and they can't fly. Chickens are probably a lot easier to domesticate over a pigeon, for example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My guess is that chicken eggs are just the right size. Also, chickens are smaller than Turkeys and Guinea Hens so they take up less space. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chickes are cheap to maintain and produce the most amount of eggs/meat per dollar. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chickens are fairly convenient. They're stupid, but not too much trouble, and the eggs are a good size.\n\nWe also do quails (tiny eggs), which is a lot of work for the results; ducks, which need some maintenance, have smelly poo, and have kind've muddy-flavored eggs; geese, which are aggressive; ostriches, which definitely need some room...\n\nAnyway, chickens are relatively convenient, and we've bred some varieties specifically for egg-laying, so they're productive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23197",
"title": "Poultry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago. This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild, but later involved keeping the birds permanently in captivity. Domesticated chickens may have been used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs, but soon it was realised how useful it was having a captive-bred source of food. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196010",
"title": "Egg as food",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "Bird eggs have been valuable foodstuffs since prehistory, in both hunting societies and more recent cultures where birds were domesticated. The chicken probably was domesticated for its eggs (from jungle fowl native to tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia and Indian subcontinent) before 7500 BCE. Chickens were brought to Sumer and Egypt by 1500 BCE, and arrived in Greece around 800 BCE, where the quail had been the primary source of eggs. In Thebes, Egypt, the tomb of Haremhab, dating to approximately 1420 BCE, shows a depiction of a man carrying bowls of ostrich eggs and other large eggs, presumably those of the pelican, as offerings. In ancient Rome, eggs were preserved using a number of methods and meals often started with an egg course. The Romans crushed the shells in their plates to prevent evil spirits from hiding there. In the Middle Ages, eggs were forbidden during Lent because of their richness. The word mayonnaise possibly was derived from \"moyeu\", the medieval French word for the yolk, meaning center or hub.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23197",
"title": "Poultry",
"section": "Section::::Poultry farming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Worldwide, more chickens are kept than any other type of poultry, with over 50 billion birds being raised each year as a source of meat and eggs. Traditionally, such birds would have been kept extensively in small flocks, foraging during the day and housed at night. This is still the case in developing countries, where the women often make important contributions to family livelihoods through keeping poultry. However, rising world populations and urbanization have led to the bulk of production being in larger, more intensive specialist units. These are often situated close to where the feed is grown or near to where the meat is needed, and result in cheap, safe food being made available for urban communities. Profitability of production depends very much on the price of feed, which has been rising. High feed costs could limit further development of poultry production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37402",
"title": "Chicken",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The chicken (\"Gallus gallus domesticus\") is a type of domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the red junglefowl (\"Gallus gallus\"). It is one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of more than 19 billion as of 2011. There are more chickens in the world than any other bird or domesticated fowl. Humans keep chickens primarily as a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and, less commonly, as pets. Originally raised for cockfighting or for special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic period (4th–2nd centuries BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31167189",
"title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Foods.:Poultry and eggs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Until the domestication of the chicken, eggs were available in limited quantities and were considered a delicacy, as in ancient Egypt. The most common birds – turtledoves and pigeons – were reared for their meat and not for their very small eggs. Biblical references to eggs are only in reference to gathering them from the wild (for example, and ). Eggs seem to have increased in use for food only with the introduction of chickens as food, and were commonly used as food by Roman times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37402",
"title": "Chicken",
"section": "Section::::General biology and habitat.:Behavior.:Social behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a \"pecking order\", with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to an existing flock can lead to fighting and injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23197",
"title": "Poultry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quails, and turkeys).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10raxw
|
Does the "subconscious" really exist?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may be interested in this BBC Horizon program [\"Out of Control\"](_URL_0_) which explores the subject of the subconcious mind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. In fact your 'conscious' is a relatively small percentage of your brain activity. And also in fact experiments have shown the time delay between when your brain decides something and when 'you' become aware of that decision. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As DeathSquid5000 said, it's really just a catch-all term for cognitive processing that you're unaware of, for example, a lot of decision-making processes (most of which seem to occur outside of awareness, although you'll likely be inclined to think otherwise). In terms of the singular, nebulous, primal, almost mystical construct that Freud discussed... evidence is currently not working in his favour.\n\nAn interesting unconscious process can actually be seen in the phenomenon of [blindsight](_URL_0_), which is seen in people who lack conscious visual perception due to the destruction of their primary visual cortex (a.k.a. striate cortex, V1, or Brodmann Area 17), or at least part of it. They still retain above-chance ability to react to objects presented in the blinded areas of their visual field, which suggests some unconscious processing in other brain areas (~10% of retinal neurons don't project to V1), or in the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus (which is the step before V1). Some people have suggested that their may be \"islands\" of intact striate tissue remaining, though, but it's hard to be sure due to the fact that researchers need to use human patients with pre-existing cortical damage, which will pretty much never be uniform from one patient to the next. (Of course, surgical cortical lesions could be done in monkeys, chimpanzees, etc., but I'm not sure of what's happening as far as research into non-human blindsight is concerned.)\n\nAlso, the idea of \"accessing\" the subconscious may be taken to imply that it's a singular entity or cognitive store, which it really isn't. Still, hypnosis and lucid dreaming appear to allow us to tap into some of our unconscious processes, since they can aid in memory recall and, in the case of lucid dreaming, even allow us to analyse our emotional states and aspects of our memories and lives that we normally don't seem to be able to consider. Also, hypnosis patients sometimes report that there is an almost separate subconscious aspect to themselves that is able to perceive things that are happening when their \"conscious mind\" is hypnotised, although, like with any hypnosis research, you do get a lot of skeptics out there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1124997",
"title": "Subconscious",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly use of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The word \"subconscious\" represents an anglicized version of the French \"subconscient\" as coined by the psychologist Pierre Janet (1859–1947), who argued that underneath the layers of critical-thought functions of the conscious mind lay a powerful awareness that he called the subconscious mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1124997",
"title": "Subconscious",
"section": "Section::::Psychoanalysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Charles Rycroft explains that the subconscious is a term \"never used in psychoanalytic writings\". Peter Gay says that the use of the term subconscious where unconscious is meant is \"a common and telling mistake\"; indeed, \"when [the term] is employed to say something 'Freudian', it is proof that the writer has not read his Freud\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42037",
"title": "Unconscious mind",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "It has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a personal habit, being unaware, and intuition. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, and hypnosis. While sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1124997",
"title": "Subconscious",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly use of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In the social sciences, the term subconscious, was resurrected in an article by Stajkovic, Locke, and Blair (2006) who referred to subconscious motivation as occurring \"without intention, awareness, and conscious guidance.\" A review of early research on the subconscious can be found in Latham, Stajkovic, and Locke (2010).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "544903",
"title": "Israel Salanter",
"section": "Section::::Teachings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The concept of the subconscious appears in the writings of Rabbi Salanter well before the concept was popularized by Sigmund Freud. Already in 1880, the concept of conscious and subconscious processes and the role they play in the psychological, emotional and moral functioning of man are fully developed and elucidated. These concepts are referred to in his works as the \"outer\" \"[chitzoniut]\" and \"inner\" \"[penimiut]\" processes, they are also referred to as the \"clear\" \"[klarer]\" and \"dark\" \"[dunkler]\" processes. They form a fundamental building block of many of Rabbi Salanter's letters, essays and teachings. He would write that it is critical for a person to recognize what his subconscious motivations \"[negiot]\" are and to work on understanding them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1124997",
"title": "Subconscious",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly use of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Scholars have used other adjectives with similar meanings, such as unconscious, preconscious, and nonconscious, to describe mental processing without conscious awareness. The distinctions among these terms are subtle, but the term subconscious refers to both mental processing that occurs below awareness, such as the pushing up of unconscious content into consciousness, and to associations and content that reside below conscious awareness, but are capable of becoming conscious again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2029298",
"title": "Benjamin Libet",
"section": "Section::::Implications of Libet's experiments.:Reactions by dualist philosophers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In short, the [neuronal] causes and correlates of conscious experience should not be confused with their \"ontology\" [...] the \"only\" evidence about what conscious experiences are like comes from first-person sources, which consistently suggest consciousness to be something other than or additional to neuronal activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23xftf
|
Does tourettes exist in all languages and if so does it manifest itself differently in different cultures?
|
[
{
"answer": "Verbal tourettes is just a very small part of the disorder at about 12% of the individuals who have it and of those only a small percent expel curse words. Most manifestations occur in physical repetitive motions such as tapping or twitching and can be as grand as siting down repeatedly. So yes it happens in all cultures in many different ways ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way tourettes is interpreted in different cultures relates can strongly affect the experience of the person who is afflicted. Anthropologist Rob Lemelson has actually made a short film about this, which follows someone with Tourette's in Indonesia to explore the experience of this person and how the culture affects conceptualization of the disease. It's worth a look if you are interested in this question: \n\n[The Bird Dancer](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23648503",
"title": "Culture of Tripura",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Tripura has several diverse ethno-linguistic groups, which has given rise to a composite culture. The dominant cultures are Bengali, Manipuri, Tripuris, Jamatia, Reang, Naitong, Koloi, Murasing, Chakma, Halam, Garo, Hajong, Kuki, Mizo, Mogh, Munda, Oraon, Santhal, and Uchoi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334411",
"title": "Monitor lizard",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In South Asia, they are known as \"hangkok\" in Meitei, \"udumbu\" in Tamil and Malayalam, \"gohi\" (गोहि) in Maithili, \"ghorpad\" घोरपड in Marathi, \"uda\" in Kannada, in Sinhalese as \"kabaragoya\", in Telugu as \"udumu\", in Punjabi and Magahi (and other Bihari languages) as गोह (goh), in Assamese as \"gui xaap\", and in Odia as ଗୋଧି (godhi), and in Bengali as গোসাপ (goshaap) or গুইসাপ (guishaap) and गोह (goh) in Hindi. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1386741",
"title": "Clinomorphism",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Tourette's syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The typical clinomorphism of Tourette's is both an oversimplification and a conflation of various aspects and conditions pertaining to some persons with Tourette syndrome. Some people with Tourette syndrome do have involuntary offensive speech which is termed coprolalia and is sometimes clinomorphised into the term \"compulsive swearing\" or \"compulsive profanity\", terms which have clinomorphic currency outside the use of the term \"Tourette's\". However, coprolalia is actually a relatively rare symptom of Tourette's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5070458",
"title": "Societal and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Tourette syndrome is an inherited neurological disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by the presence of motor and phonic tics. Tourette's is a misunderstood and stigmatizing condition, often mentioned in the popular media. Tourette syndrome was once considered a rare and bizarre syndrome. It is no longer considered rare, but is often undetected because of the wide range of severity, with most cases classified as mild. Tourette's is defined as part of a spectrum of tic disorders, which includes provisional and chronic tics. With increased knowledge of the full range of severity of Tourette syndrome—including milder cases—it has shifted from a condition only recognized in its most severe and impairing forms, to one recognized as a condition which is often mild, and which may be associated with some advantages and some disadvantages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435800",
"title": "Tournament (medieval)",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Old French \"tournment\" was in use in the 12th century, from a verb \"tornoier\", ultimately Latin \"tornare\" \"to turn\". The same word also gave rise to \"tornei\" (modern English \"tourney\", modern French \"tournoi\"). The French terms were adopted in English (via Anglo-Norman) by 1300.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7394758",
"title": "Voyage to Faremido",
"section": "Section::::Language and title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The term \"Faremido\" has a clear explanation: the inhabitants of Faremido use a language consisting purely of musical sounds (thus, their language is harmonic in the most literal sense). Every word is transcribed in the novel using syllables of solfege: sequences of the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Si. For example: \"solasi\", \"Midore\", \"Faremido\" etc. (Such a language had indeed been devised earlier: See Solresol.) In fact, all terms should be intoned instead of pronounced. Thus, in this world a musical language is used. The protagonist remarks that their speech is both wise (in the meaning) and beautiful (as music), thus thought and feeling are blurred to be the same for these beings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3696266",
"title": "Touré",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Touré is the French transcription of a West African surname (English transcriptions are \"Turay\" and \"Touray\"). The name is probably derived from \"tùùré\", the word for 'elephant' in Soninké, the language of the Ghana Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ls0k8
|
How close to the Moon would you have to be before you would fall to the Moon instead of to the Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the sake of simplicity lets assume that we're talking about two generic masses, M_1 and M_2, separated by some length R, with a small test mass, m, inbetween them, and no other masses around. What you're asking for is the point at gravitational forces on m are in equilibrium. \n\nIn general we have F = GMm/r^2, so what we want is\n\nGM_1m/r_1^2 = GM_2m/r_2^2 = > \n\nM_1/r_1^2 = M_2/r_2^2\n\nAnd since R = r_1 + r_2 (If that doesn't make sense draw a figure.)\n\nWe get, in the case of the Earth-Moon system, M_m/r_m^2 = M_e/(R - r_m)^2\n\nThis can be solved for r_m, the distance from the test mass to the *centre* of the moon. So if you're closer to the moon than that distance, you'll 'fall' towards the moon. \n\nEdit:\nr_m = (R*sqrt(M_1 * M_2) - M_1)/(M_2 - M_1) = [4.31*10^7](_URL_0_)\n\nThat's about a tenth of the distance between the earth and the moon, which seems like a reasonable value given that the earth weighs about 100 times as much as the moon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Zero velocity\" is a little ambiguous in this context, since the earth and the moon are each moving with a different velocity. Let's take that to mean zero velocity with respect to the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system. In that case, we can define r_moon and r_earth to be your height from the center of each body, with the constraint that r_moon+r_earth=400,000 km, the approximate earth-moon distance. This tells you that r_moon/r_earth =sqrt(m_moon/m_earth) =0.11. So something like 90% of the way to the moon is where you would start to fall towards the moon and not the earth. \n\nOne problem with this position is that the moon would be zipping sideways from you, and as it gets farther away you would start to fall back towards the earth again. A more useful number is the [L1 Lagrange point](_URL_0_). Here we assume \"zero velocity\" means that you stay between the earth and the moon. This means you have to add in some centrifugal forces to balance things out, but it turns out that at that point you would hover between the earth and the moon without falling towards either one. Less intuitively, there are four other points that have this property: one behind the moon, one behind the earth, one \"ahead\" of the moon's orbit, and one \"behind\" the moon's orbit. They are useful places for [satellites](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41567502",
"title": "List of asteroid close approaches to Earth in 2014",
"section": "Section::::Additional examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- (~3 meters in diameter) may have passed as close as 0.97 lunar distances (371,000 km) from Earth (0.68 lunar distances (261,000 km) from the Moon on either April 14 or 15th, 2014, but the nominal orbit calculates an approach of 1.29 lunar distances (495,000 km) from Earth (1.23 lunar distances (473,000 km) from the Moon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23685094",
"title": "List of unusual units of measurement",
"section": "Section::::Length.:Earth-to-Moon distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The distance between the Earth's and the Moon's surfaces is, on average, approximately . This distance is sometimes used in the same manner as the circumference of the Earth; that is, one might say that a large number of objects laid end-to-end \"would reach all the way to the Moon and back two-and-a-half times\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34911",
"title": "1930",
"section": "Section::::Events.:January.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::- January 15 – The Moon moves into its nearest point to Earth, called perigee, at the same time as its fullest phase of the Lunar Cycle. This is the closest moon distance at 356,397 km in recent history, and the next one will be on January 1, 2257 at 356,371 km.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33975089",
"title": "January 1912",
"section": "Section::::January 4, 1912 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Moon was at its closest point to Earth in the 20th Century, at 221,451 miles distance (356,375 km). On March 2, 1984, the Moon would be furthest away during the century, at 252,731 miles. The closest approach in the 21st Century will be 221,535 miles, on November 14, 2016, and the most distant took place on March 14, 2002 (252,728 miles).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "129540",
"title": "List of Apollo astronauts",
"section": "Section::::Apollo astronauts who flew to the Moon without landing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Because of Apollo 13's free-return trajectory, Lovell, Jack Swigert and Fred Haise flew higher above the Moon's 180° meridian (opposite Earth) than anyone else has flown (254 km/158 mi). Coincidentally, due to the Moon's distance from Earth at the time, they simultaneously set the present record for humans' greatest distance from Earth, reaching an altitude of 400,171 km (248,655 mi) above sea level at 0:21 UTC on 15 April 1970.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576426",
"title": "1930 in science",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy and space exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- January 15 – The Moon moves into perigee at the same time as the lunar phase reaches its fullest. This is the closest moon distance (at 356,397 km) in recent memory and it will not come closer until 2257.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41887325",
"title": "2013 JX28",
"section": "Section::::Close approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "As a near-Earth object, often comes within ] of Earth. On 29 April 2014, it traveled to 0.0843 AU from Earth, about 33 times further than the Moon. Below is a list of close approaches until 2100 where travels closer than 0.1 AU to Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ji039
|
What would it mean if we proved that P = NP, or P != NP ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, proving N = NP would say that *all* of the problems that can be verified in polynomial time could be solved in polynomial time. For example, sudoku. It's very easy to verify that a sudoku solution is correct: just loop through all of the \"groups\". But it's not that easy to solve it. \n\nWhat does this mean for cryptography? Well, key-based crypto is based on the fact that it would take a *REALLY* long time to solve some math problem. However it's quick to verify (look at how fast your computer unlocks when you type in your password, or when you log into Gmail.)\n\n Now, imagine if a hacker was able to mathematically find a private key really quickly, given, for example, the encrypted message (say, an HTTP packet), and the server's public key. Anyone with a basic computer would be able to listen in on every encrypted packet. That's something to consider.\n\nedit: However, that doesn't mean that one day we won't discover some other form of 'crypto' that isn't mathematics-based. It still might be possible to keep stuff secure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recommend you watch [this video](_URL_0_) which is quite clear and simple, without simplifying the key concepts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Proving P=NP would have vast consequences beyond cryptography assuming that the algorithm for reducing an NP problem to a P problem is efficient. For instance, it would put mathematicians out of a job. Checking that a mathematical proof is correct is a problem that is in P. If P=NP, then if a proof is of reasonable length a computer can find the proof as easily as it could be checked. Thus, assuming we are only interested in proofs of propositions that are reasonably short, mathematics would become completely mechanical.\n\nPhilosophically, P=NP would defy many of our intuitions - it effectively implies that brilliance can be made mechanical. \nTo illustrate by analogy: if P=NP a computer that can appreciate one of Bach's masterpieces (verify that it is a Great Work) can write a masterpiece of equivalent quality (create a Great Work). \n\nFor more on this topic see Scott Aaronson's [essay](_URL_0_) on philosophy and computational complexity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A side remark: polynomial time is usually taken to be a short amount of time, and in the limit of large inputs it is much much *much* smaller than exponential time. However, even if someone proved that P=NP, it could still be the case that the complexity of a problem scales as n^(100000000) or something ridiculous like that. Talking about crypto for example, it means that there could be crypto protocols that although are broken in polynomial time, they take forever and a day to break for all practical purposes. So the possibility that they are secure wouldn't be completely ruled out.\n\n\nP and NP, and the 'polynomial hierarchy' in general, are really coarse grained gauges of the complexity of a problem. P=NP would mean that we would have to go to 'finer grains' to distinguish the difficulty of problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the top two answers overstate the practical impacts.\n\nWe know that proving a number is prime is possible in polynomial time. However, the AKP algorithim (which runs in polynomial time) is enormously slower in practice than ellipitcal curve primality proving (which runs in 'slower than polynomial and non-deterministic' time).\n\nSo from a practical level, the effects may not be as far reaching as expected. Knowing that 4096 bit cryptography can be cracked in polynomial time does not matter if the act of cracking it would require 67 quadrillion years with all of Earth's computer power.\n\nThe theoretical impacts could, however, be profound.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi! I found a similar question asked on Quora phrased as _\"What would happen if I proved P=NP?\"_, so the top answer there might help you:\n\n > A mere proof of P=NP wouldn't do much by itself. The interesting thing would be a fast algorithm for solving NP-hard problems. What would happen then depends on how fast the algorithm is. Let's assume a low-degree polynomial with manageable coefficients.A linear- or quadratic-time algorithm for SAT would break pretty much all crypto except the one-time pad. Internet communication would be insecure unless parties shared OTP data. It would probably be worthwhile for banks to hand out OTP tokens, but overall the security situation would be pretty terrible. Some protocols could try to eek by on a quadratic security margin, but these would only be useful for short-term security.On the other hand, a fast algorithm for SAT would revolutionize the rest of the world. Suddenly, many problems in AI would become easy. Computer-aided design would become much more powerful, as computers could quickly find the optimal design for pretty much anything.Overall, an effective P=NP would be good for the world, not bad.\n\n^(I'm just a bot trying to share the love. Sorry if questions are loose matches right now; I'm working on it!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7543",
"title": "Computational complexity theory",
"section": "Section::::Important open problems.:P versus NP problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions. These include various types of integer programming problems in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The P versus NP problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics Institute. There is a US$1,000,000 prize for resolving the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6138",
"title": "Conjecture",
"section": "Section::::Important examples.:P versus NP problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "The P versus NP problem is a major unsolved problem in computer science. Informally, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer can also be quickly solved by a computer; it is widely conjectured that the answer is no. It was essentially first mentioned in a 1956 letter written by Kurt Gödel to John von Neumann. Gödel asked whether a certain NP-complete problem could be solved in quadratic or linear time. The precise statement of the P=NP problem was introduced in 1971 by Stephen Cook in his seminal paper \"The complexity of theorem proving procedures\" and is considered by many to be the most important open problem in the field. It is one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems selected by the Clay Mathematics Institute to carry a US$1,000,000 prize for the first correct solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of solution.:P ≠ NP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "A proof that showed that P ≠ NP would lack the practical computational benefits of a proof that P = NP, but would nevertheless represent a very significant advance in computational complexity theory and provide guidance for future research. It would allow one to show in a formal way that many common problems cannot be solved efficiently, so that the attention of researchers can be focused on partial solutions or solutions to other problems. Due to widespread belief in P ≠ NP, much of this focusing of research has already taken place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The P versus NP problem is a major unsolved problem in computer science. It asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified (technically, verified in polynomial time) can also be solved quickly (again, in polynomial time).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "Section::::Results about difficulty of proof.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Although the P = NP problem itself remains open despite a million-dollar prize and a huge amount of dedicated research, efforts to solve the problem have led to several new techniques. In particular, some of the most fruitful research related to the P = NP problem has been in showing that existing proof techniques are not powerful enough to answer the question, thus suggesting that novel technical approaches are required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "659322",
"title": "PP (complexity)",
"section": "Section::::PP compared to other complexity classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "PP also contains NP. To prove this, we show that the NP-complete satisfiability problem belongs to PP. Consider a probabilistic algorithm that, given a formula \"F\"(\"x\", \"x\", ..., \"x\") chooses an assignment \"x\", \"x\", ..., \"x\" uniformly at random. Then, the algorithm checks if the assignment makes the formula \"F\" true. If yes, it outputs YES. Otherwise, it outputs YES with probability 1/2 and NO with probability 1/2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "658550",
"title": "P (complexity)",
"section": "Section::::Relationships to other classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "A generalization of P is NP, which is the class of decision problems decidable by a non-deterministic Turing machine that runs in polynomial time. Equivalently, it is the class of decision problems where each \"yes\" instance has a polynomial size certificate, and certificates can be checked by a polynomial time deterministic Turing machine. The class of problems for which this is true for the \"no\" instances is called co-NP. P is trivially a subset of NP and of co-NP; most experts believe it is a proper subset, although this (the formula_6 hypothesis) remains unproven. Another open problem is whether NP = co-NP (a negative answer would imply formula_6).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
flhzx
|
Why are mid-air manifestations of electricity jagged? (i.e. sparks, lightning bolts etc.)
|
[
{
"answer": "This was a really interesting question that I didn't know the answer to so I looked it up. [This Scientific American article](_URL_0_) does a pretty good job of explaining it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Path of least resistance?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75049",
"title": "Electrostatic discharge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "ESD can create spectacular electric sparks (lightning, with the accompanying sound of thunder, is a large-scale ESD event), but also less dramatic forms which may be neither seen nor heard, yet still be large enough to cause damage to sensitive electronic devices. Electric sparks require a field strength above approximately 40 kV/cm in air, as notably occurs in lightning strikes. Other forms of ESD include corona discharge from sharp electrodes and brush discharge from blunt electrodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39519079",
"title": "Electromagnetic pulse",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Electrostatic discharge (ESD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "ESD events are characterised by high voltages of many kV but small currents and sometimes cause visible sparks. ESD is treated as a small, localised phenomenon, although technically a lightning flash is a very large ESD event. ESD can also be man-made, as in the shock received from a Van de Graaff generator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61344",
"title": "Lightning",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Thunder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic theory dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoing from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19022547",
"title": "Surge arrester",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Lightning which strikes the earth results in ground currents which can pass over buried conductors and induce a transient that propagates outward towards the ends of the conductor. The same kind of induction happens in overhead and above ground conductors which experience the passing energy of an atmospheric EMP caused by the lightning flash. Surge arresters only protect against induced transients characteristic of a lightning discharge's rapid rise-time and will not protect against electrification caused by a direct strike to the conductor. Transients similar to lightning-induced, such as from a high voltage system's fault switching, may also be safely diverted to ground; however, continuous overcurrents are not protected against by these devices. The energy in a handled transient is substantially less than that of a lightning discharge; however it is still of sufficient quantity to cause equipment damage and often requires protection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42319748",
"title": "Glossary of tornado terms",
"section": "Section::::P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 233,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 233,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Power flash\" - A sudden bright light caused when an overhead power line is severed or especially when a transformer explodes. These can be caused by intense winds (or debris) from tornadoes or downbursts, but the most prominent example occurred in New York City during Hurricane Sandy when its storm surge flooded a Con Ed power plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18658997",
"title": "Why We Can't Wait",
"section": "Section::::Outline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Just as lightning makes no sound until it strikes, the Negro Revolution generated quietly. But when it struck, the revealing flash of its power and the impact of its sincerity and fervor displayed a force of a frightening intensity. Three hundred years of humiliation, abuse, and deprivation cannot be expected to find voice in a whisper. [...]br\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3616717",
"title": "Sago Mine disaster",
"section": "Section::::Findings to date on possible causes.:Lightning strike and seismic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Weatherbug, a Germantown, Maryland-headquartered weather tracking system reported on January 6, 2006, that, “the evidence suggests that the lightning strike could have caused the explosion due to the correlation between the timing and location of the lightning strike and seismic activity.” The company's equipment detected 100 lightning strikes in the region within 40 minutes of the explosion. A single, powerful lightning strike registered at or near the mouth of the Sago mine at 6:26:36 a.m. This strike carried a particularly high positive current of . (A typical strike is and relatively rare positive strikes tend to be especially destructive.) Dr. Martin Chapman, PhD, a Virginia Tech research assistant professor, found that two independent sensors recorded a minor seismic event, possibly from the explosion, 2 seconds later at 6:26:38 a.m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
495sni
|
"Photons" of different EM spectrum?
|
[
{
"answer": "All electromagnetic waves are made of photons -- visible light, radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light, infrared light, you name it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "477175",
"title": "Radiant energy",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "EM radiation can have various frequencies. The bands of frequency present in a given EM signal may be sharply defined, as is seen in atomic spectra, or may be broad, as in blackbody radiation. In the photon picture, the energy carried by each photon is proportional to its frequency. In the wave picture, the energy of a monochromatic wave is proportional to its intensity. This implies that if two EM waves have the same intensity, but different frequencies, the one with the higher frequency \"contains\" fewer photons, since each photon is more energetic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184904",
"title": "Photonics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Photonics is the physical science of light (photon) generation, detection, and manipulation through emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and sensing. Though covering all light's technical applications over the whole spectrum, most photonic applications are in the range of visible and near-infrared light. The term photonics developed as an outgrowth of the first practical semiconductor light emitters invented in the early 1960s and optical fibers developed in the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1495629",
"title": "International Commission for Optics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Optics and photonics are defined as the fields of science and engineering encompassing the physical phenomena and technologies associated with the generation, transmission, manipulation, detection, and utilisation of light. It extends on both sides of the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum as far as the same concepts apply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184904",
"title": "Photonics",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to other fields.:Modern optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Photonics is related to quantum optics, optomechanics, electro-optics, optoelectronics and quantum electronics. However, each area has slightly different connotations by scientific and government communities and in the marketplace. Quantum optics often connotes fundamental research, whereas photonics is used to connote applied research and development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31986161",
"title": "Single-photon source",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In quantum theory, photons describe quantized electromagnetic radiation. Specifically, a photon is an elementary excitation of a normal mode of the electromagnetic field. Thus a single-photon state is the quantum state of a radiation mode that contains a single excitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25017774",
"title": "Photoelectrochemical process",
"section": "Section::::Stark–Einstein law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The photon is a quantum of radiation, or one unit of radiation. Therefore, this is a single unit of EM radiation that is equal to Planck's constant (h) times the frequency of light. This quantity is symbolized by γ, hν, or ħω.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26692522",
"title": "History of metamaterials",
"section": "Section::::Photonic structures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The word 'photonics' appeared in the late 1960s to describe a research field whose goal was to use light to perform functions that traditionally fell within the typical domain of electronics, such as telecommunications, information processing, among other processes. The term \"photonics\" more specifically connotes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z1jth
|
why is being deaf or blind much more common than say having no taste, touch, or smell?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because you only have two eyes and two ears whereas you have billions of touch taste and scent receptors, it would be impossible for them to all fail so the only way you can lose these senses is if the area of the brain that processes them is damaged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of it is confirmation bias. Blind people are really obvious, deaf people are fairly obvious. You wouldn't know someone couldn't smell or taste just by looking at them.\n\nLocalized loss of touch is not uncommon. But you have so many touch receptors in so many places, there are few conditions that will systemically shut down all of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ears and eyes are a lot more complex and inter-connected. Ears and eyes have a lot that can go wrong and you can be declared legally blind or deaf if your senses are reduced enough. Each of your nerves are pretty independent and connected to your motor system, so unless you have a rare genetic condition lack of feeling is likely to be partial, unless you are paralyzed. For smell/taste, you again have a number of separate sensors.\n\nAlso, having limited or damaged smell/taste is a lot less debilitating than being blind or deaf so you tend not to hear about it. You don't need much accommodation if you lack smell or taste. No braille books or sign language, etc.\n\nThere is a rare condition where one lacks touch. They have trouble figuring out when they're injured and can easily get cuts infected. It is pretty terrible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "fwiw, a lot of people have a poor sense of smell, especially as they grow older. But unlike blindness or deafness, it's not obvious and it doesn't really affect how someone lives their life. Blindness and deafness are things that affect safety, if nothing else; a bad sense of smell is pretty much just an inconvenience.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The real answer, according to me:\n\n{ELI5 Edit: Ears and Eyes have to change the light and sound into different sorts of stuff before they can understand them. The other stuff doesn't. It's hard to do and easy to mess up. \nAlso, they are the most important ways we communicate with each other, so small problems are actually big problems. }\n\nThe mechanism by which the stimulus is transferred into a signal by the nervous system is markedly more complex in the Eyes and Ears. \n\nTaste and smell are chemical senses. There are receptors which detect specific molecular motifs and tell the brain \"bitter!\" or whathaveyou. \n\nThe Eye and the Ear involve complex, low margin for error, physical transformations of the stimulus into a form that is detectable and able to be interpreted by the brain. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "948900",
"title": "Sensorium",
"section": "Section::::Ratios of sensation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "This interplay of various ways of conceiving the world could be compared to the experience of synesthesia, where stimulus of one sense causes a perception by another, seemingly unrelated sense, as in musicians who can taste the intervals between notes they hear (Beeli \"et al\"., 2005), or artists who can smell colors. Many individuals who have one or more senses restricted or lost develop a sensorium with a ratio of sense which favors those they possess more fully. Frequently the blind or deaf speak of a compensating effect, whereby their sense of touch or smell becomes more acute, changing the way they perceive and reason about the world; especially telling examples are found in the cases of \"wild children\", whose early childhoods were spent in abusive, neglected, or non-human environments, both intensifying and minimizing perceptual abilities (Classen 1991).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563664",
"title": "Hearing (person)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "This being the case, a single person could be described as hearing by one person and Deaf by another because the first person was thinking simply about the subject's sensitivity to sound whereas the other person was thinking, partially about the persons ability to rely on residual hearing, but also about their personal views, their identity, or perhaps their ignorance of cultural norms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22718893",
"title": "EAST syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.:Sensorineural deafness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "When a person shows signs of sensorineural deafness there is usually muffling of speech, difficulty understanding words, especially against background noise or in a crowd of people. A person might also frequently ask others to speak more slowly, clearly and loudly. They might also withdraw from conversations or avoid some social settings because everything sounds muffled, even when there are loud noises. Sensorineural Deafness indicates that the patient has difficulty hearing not due to environmental factors, but through genetic mutation in the KCNJ10 gene. This gene affects the potassium channel count and their productivity in several parts of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15559385",
"title": "Tactile discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Blindness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 2305,
"text": "When a person has become blind, in order to “see” the world, their other senses become heightened. An important sense for the blind is their sense of touch, which becomes more frequently used to help them perceive the world. People that are blind have displayed that their visual cortices become more responsive to auditory and tactile stimulation. Braille allows the blind to be able to use their sense of touch to feel the roughness, and distance of various patterns to be used as a form of language. Within the brain, the activation of the occipital cortex is functionally relevant for tactile braille reading, as well as the somatosensory cortex. These various parts of the brain function in their own way, in which they each contribute to the effectiveness of how braille is read by the blind. People that are blind also rely heavily on Tactile Gnosis, Spatial discrimination, Graphesthesia, and Two-point discrimination. Essentially, the occipital cortex allows one to effectively make judgements on the distance of braille patterns, which is related to spatial discrimination. Meanwhile, the somatosensory cortex allows one to effectively make judgements on the roughness of braille patterns, which is related to two-point discrimination. The various visual areas in the brain are very essential for a blind person to read braille, just as much as it is for a person that has sight. Essentially, whether one is blind or not, the perception of objects that involves tactile discrimination is not impaired if one cannot see. When comparing people that are blind to people that have sight, the amount of activity within the their somatosensory and visual areas of the brain do differ. The activity in the somatosensory and visual areas are not as high in tactile gnosis for people that are not blind, and are more-so active for more visual related stimuli that does not involve touch. Nonetheless, there is a difference in these various areas within the brain when comparing the blind to the sighted, which is that shape discrimination causes a difference in brain activity, as well as tactile gnosis. The visual cortices of blind individuals are active during various vision related tasks including tactile discrimination, and the function of the cortices resemble the activity of adults with sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13308639",
"title": "Cortical deafness",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Another important aspect of cortical deafness that is often overlooked is that patients \"feel\" deaf. They are aware of their inability to hear environmental sounds, non-speech and speech sounds. Patients with auditory agnosia can be unaware of their deficit, and insist that they are not deaf. Verbal deafness and auditory agnosia are disorders of a selective, perceptive and associative nature whereas cortical deafness relies on the anatomic and functional disconnection of the auditory cortex from acoustic impulses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33340026",
"title": "Deaf hearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "When patients are completely deaf in both ears they begin to rely more strongly on their other senses. Because hearing relies on external sound waves, a deaf patient will feel the vibrations, rather than relying on what would normally be perceived as sound. As a patient relies on \"feeling\" sounds rather than hearing them, they subconsciously hear with their sense of touch, therefore reacting to auditory stimuli without actually hearing sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9442699",
"title": "Deaf culture in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:\"Hearing-impaired\" and \"hard of hearing\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Hearing people may use the term \"hearing-impaired\", perhaps thinking it is more polite than \"deaf\", but Deaf people tend to reject it, for a variety of reasons. It is more likely to be used for people with a mild or moderate hearing loss or for people who have acquired deafness in adulthood rather than by those who have grown up Deaf. By contrast, those who identify with the Deaf culture movement typically reject the label hearing-\"impaired\" and other labels that imply that deafness is a pathological condition, viewing it instead as a focus of pride. Further, the term focuses entirely on the physical condition of deafness, while ignoring the linguistic and cultural distinction between those who sign and identify with Deaf culture, and those who do not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2js1tm
|
how can the un give sanctions for nuclear weapons to some countries and not to others?
|
[
{
"answer": "The nuclear nonproliferation treaty recognized the then-nuclear states as legit, and called on them to disarm to some degree (which they haven't) and tried to prevent nuclear capability from further spreading. It's called, creatively, The Treaty for the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) of 1970. \n\nEdit: India is not a signatory to the treaty, North Korea un-signed it, I believe. It permits Russia to have their weapons. Russia, France, the U.K., the U.S., and China are all permanent security council members with vetoes - that means that any of them can unconditionally strike down any legislation from the U.N. that they don't like. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A treaty (the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty) was made in 1968 that says, basically, \"the only states that can have nuclear weapons are those that already publicly have them\" (USA, USSR/Russia, UK, France, China), \"and anyone else who signs this treaty agrees that they won't get them, and the IAEA has the authority to investigate these things.\" \n\nSo what's the benefit for those who sign but don't have them? The treaty says, as well, that anyone who signs the treaty is entitled to peaceful nuclear technology (e.g. nuclear reactors).\n\nNot all states have signed the treaty. In the beginning, even France and China declined to sign it! But eventually it has become the \"norm,\" whereby lots of countries have said that it is better to try and \"fix\" the number of nuclear states and the treaty is a means of trying to do that. \n\nCountries can pull out of the treaty if they want to. North Korea pulled out of it before making a nuke. Iran is a signatory and insists its activities are peaceful and allowed under the treaty. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39411680",
"title": "International sanctions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "According to the Charter of the United Nations, only the UN Security Council has a mandate by the international community to apply sanctions (Article 41) that must be complied with by all UN member states (Article 2,2). They serve as the international community's most powerful peaceful means to prevent threats to international peace and security or to settle them. Sanctions do not include the use of military force. However, if sanctions do not lead to the diplomatic settlement of a conflict, the use of force can be authorized by the Security Council separately under Article 42.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34928360",
"title": "Views on the nuclear program of Iran",
"section": "Section::::North American and European viewpoint.:2012.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "On 24 September, Britain, France, and Germany appealed to the European Union to enforce new sanctions on Iran due to its nuclear program, with a diplomat explaining that \"we think there is still time for a political solution, a diplomatic solution, and this is what we are working for. But we cannot accept nuclear weapons in the hands of Iran.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25699056",
"title": "Sanctions against Iran",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "In 2006, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1696 which demanded that Iran halt its uranium enrichment program, and in December 2006 passed Resolution 1737 to impose sanctions after Iran refused to comply. Initially, U.S. sanctions targeted investments in oil, gas, and petrochemicals, exports of refined petroleum products, and business dealings with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). It encompassed banking and insurance transactions (including with the Central Bank of Iran), shipping, web-hosting services for commercial endeavors, and domain name registration services. Subsequent UN Resolutions have expanded sanctions against Iran.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21650833",
"title": "Canada–Iran relations",
"section": "Section::::\"Controlled engagement\" and United Nations Resolution 1737.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "On December 26, 2006, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1737, demanding that Iran suspend its uranium enrichment program or face economic sanctions. On February 22, the Governor-in-Council made new regulations under the United Nations Act: Regulations Implementing the United Nations Resolution on Iran. Together with existing relevant provisions of the Canada Shipping Act, the Export and Import Permits Act, and the Nuclear Safety and Control Act, these provisions allowed Canada to bring economic sanctions against Iran as requested in resolution 1737. The sanctions include a ban on any trade that could contribute to Iran's activities in enrichment, reprocessing heavy water, or the development of nuclear weapons delivery systems. The regulations also deal with freezing assets and notification of travel by Iranian officials in Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11727972",
"title": "Iran–United States relations after 1979",
"section": "Section::::Economic sanctions against Iran.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The United States have not been followed yet by other countries. But the UN sanctions are the first international sanctions levied on Iran. The United States is pushing for more economic sanctions against Iran. Under a proposal by Germany, which holds the EU presidency during the first semester of 2007, the European Union is also considering imposing sanctions that go beyond the UN sanctions but has not made any decision yet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36971672",
"title": "Australia–Iran relations",
"section": "Section::::Sanctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "From October 2008, Australia imposed sanctions in relation to Iran's proliferation sensitive nuclear and missile programs and efforts to contravene United Nations Security Council sanction. These sanctions relate to gold, precious metals, and arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51022732",
"title": "Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Parliamentarians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "In response to an appeal made by ICAN, over eight hundred parliamentarians around the world pledged their support for a ban treaty, calling upon \"all national governments to negotiate a treaty banning nuclear weapons and leading to their complete eradication\" and describing it as \"necessary, feasible and increasingly urgent\". The countries they represent included members of both the world's existing nuclear-weapon-free zones as well as NATO states. Of the five nuclear-armed permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, the United Kingdom was the only one to have elected representatives lend their support to the initiative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fasgu
|
What language/script is this? Where can I have it translated?
|
[
{
"answer": "To supplement what has already been said by u/farquier and others, the script is [Hebrew Cursive](_URL_1_), which was used to write Yiddish before modern Hebrew became popular. It's still used today, both to write Yiddish and Hebrew, and is basically what all handwritten Hebrew is today. You can even see it on modern signs and advertising, much like English cursive is sometimes used as a design choice. [Here is Hebrew cursive being used in the Coca-Cola logo](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is almost certainly Yiddish(essentially late medieval German in Hebrew script). I do not myself read Yiddish but /r/Judaism and /r/Yiddish would be able to help here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/farquier is correct. What we have here is cursive Hebrew script which is why it looks so different from the writing on top. You may want ro journey over to /r/linguistics or /r/yiddish and see what they can do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't have the time now for a full translation. The first letter is addressed to a Uncle Josef, and both the writer and the addressee are related to Nathan (grandson and great-grandson). /u/farquier is correct in that the text is mostly Yiddish, but it also contains some Hebrew words and phrases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks for all the responses! I'll give those other subs a shot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1896034",
"title": "Hitopadesha",
"section": "Section::::Translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The text has also been widely translated under different titles into Asian languages such as Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Malay, Persian, Sinhala, as well as into Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Spanish and Russian. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5183700",
"title": "I Love You, You're Perfect, Now Change",
"section": "Section::::Production history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "It has been translated into at least 17 languages, including Hebrew, Spanish, Dutch, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Japanese, Korean, Italian, Portuguese, German, Catalan, Finnish, Mandarin, Cantonese, Norwegian, Polish, French and Turkish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11336666",
"title": "Evaluation of machine translation",
"section": "Section::::Round-trip translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In the first example, where the text is translated into Italian then back into English—the English text is significantly garbled, but the Italian is a serviceable translation. In the second example, the text translated back into English is perfect, but the Portuguese translation is meaningless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355524",
"title": "Lingua Franca Nova",
"section": "Section::::History and community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Translated texts include Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's \"The Little Prince,\" Charles Dickens' \"Christmas Carol,\" Mark Twain's \"Letters from the Earth,\" Shakespeare's \"King Lear,\" and Edgar Allan Poe's \"Fall of the House of Usher\". There are also many poems, both translated and original.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32195317",
"title": "Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Each page of the Hebrew/Aramaic text is in the classic Vilna style, with various classical commentaries (such as Rashi) surrounding the text of the Mishnah and Gemara. Each Hebrew page is opposite a page of English translation—one Hebrew folio takes approximately six to eight pages of English to translate. The literal meaning of the text is shown in bold, while supplementary words and phrases that ease the quick transition of topics are shown in regular font.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31848834",
"title": "Bible translations into Mongolian",
"section": "Section::::Translations in Mongolia.:(Bible Society of Mongolia).:The Bible of 2015.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "This is a tight meaning based translation based on the Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek Biblical texts. It is the work of a Mongolian/expatriot team working with those texts. In 2001 \"Wycliffe Bible Translators\" and \"United Bible Societies\" drew up a formal agreement with \"Bible Society of Mongolia\" to carry out a full Bible Translation Consultant check of the whole. After it had been translated into Mongolian, the Bible was machine translated into an interlinear literal in English so enabling consultants of \"Wycliffe Bible Translators\" and \"United Bible Societies\" to thoroughly check it against the Biblical texts and approved it for publication. It is widely available. This Bible does not mingle Bible belief with Mongolian religions, so does not use terms based on Buddhism or shamanism for God or key terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51579549",
"title": "Biblical Songs",
"section": "Section::::The songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The texts are from the 16th century Czech-language Bible of Kralice, and are available online with some translations into other languages. The English and German titles in the following list are taken from the original vocal score, not from any English Bible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hrbcr
|
What oscillates in light?
|
[
{
"answer": "Light doesn't have a medium that it travels through. For a long time people thought that it did (and they called it the luminiferous aether), but experiments show that it doesn't exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The thing that oscillates is the electromagnetic field of the photon itself. It is a self-sustaining electromagnetic field. A changing magnetic field induces an electric field, and vice versa.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An electric field going one way and a magnetic field going perpendicular.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20126062",
"title": "Optical phase space",
"section": "Section::::Background information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "When discussing the quantum theory of light, it is very common to use an electromagnetic oscillator as a model. An electromagnetic oscillator describes an oscillation of the electric field. Since the magnetic field is proportional to the rate of change of the electric field, this too oscillates. Such oscillations describe light. Systems composed of such oscillators can be described by an optical phase space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9920",
"title": "Electronic oscillator",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 2016,
"text": "The first practical oscillators were based on electric arcs, which were used for lighting in the 19th century. The current through an arc light is unstable due to its negative resistance, and often breaks into spontaneous oscillations, causing the arc to make hissing, humming or howling sounds which had been noticed by Humphry Davy in 1821, Benjamin Silliman in 1822, Auguste Arthur de la Rive in 1846, and David Edward Hughes in 1878. Ernst Lecher in 1888 showed that the current through an electric arc could be oscillatory. An oscillator was built by Elihu Thomson in 1892 by placing an LC tuned circuit in parallel with an electric arc and included a magnetic blowout. Independently, in the same year, George Francis FitzGerald realized that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative, the circuit would produce oscillations, and, unsuccessfully, tried to build a negative resistance oscillator with a dynamo, what would now be called a parametric oscillator. The arc oscillator was rediscovered and popularized by William Duddell in 1900. Duddell, a student at London Technical College, was investigating the hissing arc effect. He attached an LC circuit (tuned circuit) to the electrodes of an arc lamp, and the negative resistance of the arc excited oscillation in the tuned circuit. Some of the energy was radiated as sound waves by the arc, producing a musical tone. Duddell demonstrated his oscillator before the London Institute of Electrical Engineers by sequentially connecting different tuned circuits across the arc to play the national anthem \"God Save the Queen\". Duddell's \"singing arc\" did not generate frequencies above the audio range. In 1902 Danish physicists Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson were able to increase the frequency produced into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere with a magnetic field, inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter, the first continuous wave radio transmitter, which was used through the 1920s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Since light is an oscillation it is not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some crystals, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields — these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521267",
"title": "Reflection (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Reflection of light.:Laws of reflection.:Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "In classical electrodynamics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave, which is described by Maxwell's equations. Light waves incident on a material induce small oscillations of polarisation in the individual atoms (or oscillation of electrons, in metals), causing each particle to radiate a small secondary wave in all directions, like a dipole antenna. All these waves add up to give specular reflection and refraction, according to the Huygens–Fresnel principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1787013",
"title": "Photoacoustic spectroscopy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed electromagnetic energy (particularly of light) on matter by means of acoustic detection. The discovery of the photoacoustic effect dates to 1880 when Alexander Graham Bell showed that thin discs emitted sound when exposed to a beam of sunlight that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The absorbed energy from the light causes local heating, generating a thermal expansion which creates a pressure wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar spectrum (i.e., the infrared and the ultraviolet) can also produce sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312008",
"title": "Fourier optics",
"section": "Section::::Propagation of light in homogeneous, source-free media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Light can be described as a waveform propagating through free space (vacuum) or a material medium (such as air or glass). Mathematically, the (real valued) amplitude of one wave component is represented by a scalar wave function \"u\" that depends on both space and time:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292420",
"title": "Emission spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Emission spectroscopy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a spectroscope gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
doq3ze
|
Medieval French translation help (again!)
|
[
{
"answer": "Looks like an ancient french version of the actual « cuillère » (\"spoon\").\n\nSource : french and historian",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31596997",
"title": "The Medieval Translator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The Medieval Translator (French \"Traduire au Moyen Age\") is an annual volume of studies dedicated to translation in the Middle Ages and the study of translation of medieval texts. First published in 1991, it has been published since 1996 by Brepols. The volume comprises a collection of papers read at the Cardiff Conference on the Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages. The first four volumes were edited solely by Roger Ellis, who is currently a general editor, with C. Batt and R. Tixier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47014061",
"title": "Theo Hermans",
"section": "Section::::Research and influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Together with other scholars such Jose Lambert and Gideon Toury, Hermans built upon the work of Itamar Even-Zohar, particularly his functional approach to translation studies, which broke down the barrier between translation and transfer research. He is also known for the use of metaphor in translation for his work on late medieval and Renaissance period. Hermans maintained that literal translations have dominated the medieval regime and this view has been supported by other historians such as Peter Burke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15679376",
"title": "Mind your Ps and Qs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Another proposal concerns the use of Norman French in medieval England; as the English dialect of the 11th century had no qs, one must watch their usage in court or discourse with the French Norman conquerors. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14558428",
"title": "Bible Historiale",
"section": "Section::::French bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- « La Réécriture argumentative impliquée par la traduction du livre de la Genèse : l'example des énoncés car q dans \"The Medieval translator, the Theory and practice of translation in the Middle Ages\", R. Ellis [ed.], Paris, Brepols, 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1653918",
"title": "Arabist",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Translations were made into medieval Latin or Church Latin, then Europe's \"lingua franca\", or into medieval Spanish, which was the vernacular language of that time and place. Early translations included works by Avicenna, Al-Ghazali, Avicebron, etc.; books on astronomy, astrology, and medicine; and the works of some of the Ancient Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle, who unlike Plato had previously been relatively unknown and largely ignored in European Christendom. The philosophical translations were accompanied by the Islamic commentaries, e.g., on Al-Ghazali, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroës), to the point of there being an identifiable Averroist school of philosophy in Christian Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23269621",
"title": "Bible translations in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Notable medieval vernacular Bibles by language, region and type.:Western Continental Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The first French translation dates from the thirteenth century, as does the first Catalan Bible, and the Spanish \"Biblia Alfonsina\". The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wycliffe's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod of 1407-08, and was associated with the movement of the Lollards, often accused of heresy. The Malermi Bible was an Italian translation printed in 1471. In 1478, there was a Catalan translation in the dialect of Valencia. The Welsh Bible and the Alba Bible, a Jewish translation into Castilian, date from the 15th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3677513",
"title": "Francesc Eiximenis",
"section": "Section::::Works.:In Latin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "There were also a lot of translations during the 15th and 16th centuries. The \"Llibre de les Dones\" was translated into Spanish. One of the Spanish translations was used for the education of the four daughters of the Catholic Monarchs. The \"Llibre dels Àngels\" had great international success and was translated into several languages: Spanish, Latin, French and even Flemish (it was possibly the only book from the medieval Catalan literature that was translated into that language). And the \"Vida de Jesucrist\" was translated into Spanish and French.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6o8fgk
|
Who were the Desert Fathers? What was their impact on early Christianity? What happened to them and the desert monastic movement?
|
[
{
"answer": "The desert fathers emerge toward the end of the fourth century as Christianity transitioned from a fringe cult to an accepted community in the pantheon of faiths. While earlier Christian communities had faced persecution and martyrdom, in this new period asceticism became the hallmark of true commitment to the faith. Thus some Christians sought to lead a life marked by exceptional ascetic rigor while pursuing constant prayer and fighting the temptation to return to the world. These figures spent their time alone in caves, atop pillars, or in the ruins of old roman structures now reclaimed by the wilderness and often gained a reputation for sanctity and holiness in their local community, becoming—ironically—something of an attraction and public figure. St. Anthony, whom historians consider to be the first of these \"Desert fathers,\" retreated to the desert sometime in the late third century after giving away a large inheritance he had recieved from his parents. As a hermit living in an old military outpost, his commitment to prayer and the memorization of the bible attracted a number of followers that he organized into a informal monastic community that continued until his death in probably 356.\n\nSome later emulators took Anthony's message of retreating from the world a little too seriously. My favorite example is [Saint Symeon the Stylite](_URL_0_), who, frustrated at the incessant visitors who came to him for prayers, placed himself atop a pillar to escape their pleas.\n\nThe communities that formed around these Desert Fathers became the earliest monasteries, ordering themselves around a communal set of principles. These \"Rules\" by which they lived their life formed the backbone of the monastic movement as it spread across the Late Antique world, although the earliest focused on physical work and communal prayer, not the intellectual work and reading that later monasticism would become known for.\n\nThis is merely a cursory sketch of the very large question you have outlined. I might suggest some further reading if you feel interested. [Peter Brown's The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity (1971)](_URL_1_) remains the fundamental text for understanding the growth and social importance of these figures. For a more general overview, I would still recommend Peter Brown. His World of Late Antiquity is now in its Third Edition, and has an excellent chapter on the desert fathers and the growth of monasticism.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6035",
"title": "Celibacy",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.:Desert Fathers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The Desert Fathers were Christian hermits, and ascetics who had a major influence on the development of Christianity and celibacy. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers. Sometime around AD 270, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, giving the proceeds to the poor, and following Christ.(Matt. 19.21) He followed the advice and made the further step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7834622",
"title": "Christian mysticism in ancient Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "In the mid- to late 3rd century, the deserts of northern Africa became home to a deeply devout group known as the Desert Fathers or Desert People. These individuals were highly influenced by the intellectual components of Coptic Christianity. They led quiet lives and communicated the Gospel with those whom they traded with. Their movement became the template of Western eremitism and monasticism. The architect of the template was Saint Anthony, the foundational Desert Father.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "585657",
"title": "Onuphrius",
"section": "Section::::Life and legends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Onophrius was one of the Desert Fathers who made a great impression on Eastern spirituality in the third and fourth centuries, around the time that Christianity was emerging as the dominant faith of the Roman Empire. At this time many Christians were inspired to go out into the desert and live in prayer in the harsh environment of extreme heat and cold, with little to eat and drink, surrounded by all sorts of dangerous animals and robbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1618754",
"title": "Desert Fathers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The Desert Fathers (along with Desert Mothers) were early Christian hermits, ascetics, and monks who lived mainly in the Scetes desert of Egypt beginning around the third century AD. The \"Apophthegmata Patrum\" is a collection of the wisdom of some of the early desert monks and nuns, in print as \"Sayings of the Desert Fathers\". The most well known was Anthony the Great, who moved to the desert in AD 270–271 and became known as both the father and founder of desert monasticism. By the time Anthony died in AD 356, thousands of monks and nuns had been drawn to living in the desert following Anthony's example—his biographer, Athanasius of Alexandria, wrote that \"the desert had become a city.\" The Desert Fathers had a major influence on the development of Christianity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13372665",
"title": "Coptic history",
"section": "Section::::Cradle of Monasticism and its missionary work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. This was the beginning of the monastic movement, which was organized by Anthony the Great, Saint Paul, the world's first anchorite, Saint Macarius the Great and Saint Pachomius the Cenobite in the 4th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15928972",
"title": "Coptic monasticism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. This was the beginning of the monastic movement, which was organized by Anthony the Great, Saint Paul, the world's first anchorite, Saint Macarius the Great and Saint Pachomius the Cenobite in the 4th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7601",
"title": "Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contributions to Christianity.:Cradle of monasticism and its missionary work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. This was the beginning of the monastic movement, which was organized by Anthony the Great, Saint Paul of Thebes, the world's first anchorite, Saint Macarius the Great and Saint Pachomius the Cenobite in the 4th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cxylb
|
how did my plane yesterday depart late but it was able to reach the destination before it's original scheduled arrival time?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Did the pilot just put his foot down?\n\nYes, plus you may have encountered better than average conditions. The average flight time is calculated using the average conditions. By the definition of \"average\" half the time, conditions are better, meaning that they may not have experienced cloud coverage or storms as they had thought they might, or may have gotten a tail wind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We generally do not fly \"as fast as we can go\". We fly at a speed that is calculated by our airline to be a nice balance of speed and fuel economy. However, if a flight is behind schedule and could potentially impact the departure times of flights further down the line, then we can be authorized to kick it up a notch, so to speak, and try to make up some time in the air. We can also pester air traffic control for a few extra \"shortcuts\" along the way if we really feel that we need to catch up a bit with our schedule.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And sometimes things go *very right*. I've had two flights in my life where the plane arrived earlier than planned and had to wait for the gate to clear the preceding plane. Both were on-time departures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pilot found a shortcut.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Couple of things could have been to the pilots favour. The jet stream, Air traffic control may have allowed the aircraft to take a different route. Weather conditions may have affected other flights allowing the pilot to keep his original landing slot. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Airlines also plan for these delays. The want to increase their on-time performance so that will add an extra 15-20 minutes to the arrival time. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the other answers, scheduled arrival times are padded a little, so an airline can claim a 95%+ record of arriving on-time, and so passengers plans around arriving a little later than they actually will, and miss less connections.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24191768",
"title": "Lucky Lady II",
"section": "Section::::1949: First circumnavigation of the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "After flying , the aircraft passed the control tower back at Carswell on March 2 at 10:22 am, marking the end of the circumnavigation, and landed there at 10:31 a.m. after having been in the air for 94 hours and one minute, landing two minutes before the estimated time of arrival calculated at take-off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36139239",
"title": "August 1933",
"section": "Section::::August 7, 1933 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "BULLET::::- French flyers Paul Codos and Maurice Rossi set a new record for the furthest non-stop trip in an airplane, landing in Rayak, in Lebanon (at that time, part of Syria), having gone 5,700 miles in the 59 hours since they had taken off from New York City on at 2:00 am three days earlier. Bound for Iran, the men would have traveled even further, but a gasoline leak caused them to end the flight early.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738736",
"title": "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571",
"section": "Section::::Passenger survival.:Expedition explores area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "They continued east the next morning. However, on the second night of the expedition, which was their first night sleeping outside, they nearly froze to death. After some debate the next morning, they decided that it would be wiser to return to the tail, remove the aircraft's batteries, and bring them back to the fuselage so they might power up the radio and make an SOS call to Santiago for help.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23098712",
"title": "Cancellation (insurance)",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation cover for travel insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "BULLET::::- You abandoning your trip following a delay of more than 12 hours in the departure of your outward flight, sea-crossing or international coach or train journey, forming part of the booked trip’s itinerary, as a result of strike or industrial action (of which you were unaware at the time you booked the trip), adverse weather conditions, or the mechanical breakdown of, or accident of, the aircraft, sea vessel, coach or train.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45244710",
"title": "February 1923",
"section": "Section::::February 6, 1923 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the opening of an air conference in London, Director of Civil Aviation Sefton Brancker predicted that within five years, an airplane would be able to travel from London to New York in just twelve hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41015321",
"title": "Henri Salmet",
"section": "Section::::London to Paris flight 1912.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "On 7 March 1912, in a Blériot XI, he attempted to break the record for the shortest time for a non-stop flight from London (Hendon Aerodrome) to Paris (Issy-les-Moulineaux) previously set by Pierre Prier on 13 April 1911. Salmet's time was three hours sixteen minutes, and that was duly reported in the press. However, Salmet later confessed that he had landed in France en route to Paris to locate his bearings, so the existing record was not broken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16588969",
"title": "Fokker F.IV",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The following year, they made a long-duration flight over a closed circuit over Dayton, Ohio, remaining aloft for 36 hours, 14 minutes 8 seconds between 16 and 17 April. This established a new world duration record, but also a new distance record, weight record, and eight various airspeed records. On 2 May, they set out from New York to attempt the transcontinental flight again, this time traveling in the opposite direction. 26 hours 50 minutes later, they landed in San Diego, having covered 4,034 km (2,521 mi). Their aircraft is preserved in the National Air and Space Museum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22687x
|
How did Taiwan handle the massive influx of Chinese refugees following the Chinese Civil War? How did the Kuomintang "set up shop", so to speak?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the memoir of Taiwanese author [Chiung Yao](_URL_0_), she said because her father was an intellectual and easily found another professor job, her family received a Japanese style house the size of twenty [\"tatami\"](_URL_1_) from the university. Her family was still extremely poor despite being better off than most refugees. \n\nAnother Taiwanese author named Liu Hsia wrote in her memoir that a family of fellow refugees could barely survive on the father's army pension with five kids. The author's father wanted to help them out so he resorted to forging a letter of recommendation and found a nurse position for the mother. \n\nThe less fortunate ones with fewer resources and connection would live in what they call \"Military dependents' Village\" consists of very poorly built houses similar to slums. They were originally intended to be temporary housing built with organic materials, but eventually the buildings were replaced with more permanent structures. In recent years those communities were demolished and replaced by low cost high rise apartment buildings. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "265521",
"title": "Taiwanese Americans",
"section": "Section::::Immigration history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1273,
"text": "Prior to the 1950s emigration from Taiwan (ROC) (then called Formosa) was negligible. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China, and 2 million refugees, predominantly from the Republic of China (ROC) Nationalist government, military, and business community, fled to Taiwan. Since the 1950s, because of the Cold War, the United States continued to recognize the Kuomintang-led ROC as the sole legitimate government of all of China from 1949 until 1979. As a result, immigration from Taiwan was counted under within the same quota for both mainland China and Taiwan. However, because the People's Republic of China (PRC) banned emigration to the United States until 1977, this quota for immigrants from China was almost exclusively filled by immigrants from Taiwan. After the national origins system was relaxed and repealed by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and 1965, many Taiwanese people came to the United States, forming the first wave of Taiwanese immigration. Their entry into the United States was facilitated by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which created a system in which persons with professional skills and family ties in the United States were given preferential status, regardless of the nation of origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16234875",
"title": "Economy of East Asia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Taiwan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Due to the Chinese civil war that led Chiang Kai-Shek to retreat to Taiwan from Mainland China to escape Mao Zedong and the Communists, 2 million Chinese refugees and soldiers flooded the island inducing widespread poverty and chaos. Fortunately, pre-war development of Taiwan's agricultural sector allowed the Taiwanese economy to sustain itself despite the upsurge in the number of refugees. With Taiwan's prewar industrialization being well set, most of Taiwan's modern industries began to burgeon with a wide range of light and heavy industries that would propel the resource-poor island for further modernization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58791",
"title": "Taiwanese Hokkien",
"section": "Section::::History and formation.:Modern times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "After the handover of Taiwan to the Republic of China in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The Chinese Civil War resulted in another political separation when the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) government retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted Mandarin and banned the public use of Taiwanese as part of a deliberate political repression, especially in schools and broadcast media. In 1964 use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden, and transgression in schools punished with beatings, fines and humiliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5527885",
"title": "Religion in Taiwan",
"section": "Section::::Religions.:Minor religions.:Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "During the Chinese Civil War, some 20,000 Muslims, mostly soldiers and civil servants, fled mainland China with the Kuomintang to Taiwan. Since the 1980s, thousands of Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand, who are descendants of nationalist soldiers who fled Yunnan as a result of the communist takeover, have migrated to Taiwan in search of a better life. In more recent years, there has been a rise in Indonesian workers to Taiwan. According to the census of 2005, there were 58,000 Muslims in Taiwan in that year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40746715",
"title": "Hsinchu Museum of Military Dependents Village",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "After the civil war between the Kuomintang (also known as the Chinese Nationalist Party) and the Communist Party in 1949, the Nationalist Government retreated to Taiwan. The military, civilian, and government personnel of all provinces were forced to move to settle in Taiwan. According to statistics, from 1945 to 1950, nearly 2 million soldiers and civilians from all parts of mainland China moved to Taiwan. In order to solve the housing problem caused by the population explosion, the Nationalist Government began to build houses or arrange dormitories, and the new residents were grouped in a certain range with the military service, occupation, and characteristics, which is now known as the “Military Dependents Village”. In Hsinchu, there are 47 villages, and the proportion is quite high. It has become a important historical and cultural asset that is indispensable to both local culture and Taiwanese history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18984",
"title": "Mongols",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-Qing era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong. In December 1949, Chiang evacuated his government to Taiwan. Hundred thousands Inner Mongols were massacred during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s and China forbade Mongol traditions, celebrations and the teaching of Mongolic languages during the revolution.In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 people were persecuted. Approximately 1,000,000 Inner Mongols were killed during the 20th century. In 1960 Chinese newspaper wrote that \"Han Chinese ethnic identity must be Chinese minorities ethnic identity\". China-Mongolia relations were tense from the 1960s to the 1980s as a result of Sino-Soviet split, and there were several border conflicts during the period. Cross-border movement of Mongols was therefore hindered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481037",
"title": "People's Volunteer Army",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Republic of China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "After the war was over, 14,000 of the PVA POWs hostile to the PRC were provided the option to defect to Taiwan (the majority of whom were former Nationalist soldiers who fought against the Communists in the Chinese Civil War). In contrast, only 7,110 Chinese POWs opted to return to the PRC. The defectors began arriving in Taiwan on January 23, 1954 and were referred to as \"Anti-Communist Martyrs\" (反共義士). In Taiwan January 23 became World Freedom Day (自由日) in their honor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sacag
|
Why did the Tlaxcalans allow Cortes to remain in Tenochtitlan/Mexico?
|
[
{
"answer": "If I may add a tangent to this question - what rewards did the Tlaxcalans receive from the Spanish after the Aztecs were defeated? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's two big misconceptions that are commonly held about post-Conquest Mexico: that Hispanicization progressed rapidly and the native population faced discrimination equally. I covered in a [previous post](_URL_2_) how life in Mesoamerica basically continued on with business as usual for almost a generation after the fall of Tenochtitlan. This was doubly true for the Tlaxcalans since they were not only granted great leniency in \"New Spain\" in maintaining independent governance, but also the end of what was basically an Aztec embargo on trade. \n\nThe point made again and again is that, when the Spanish arrived, the Tlaxcalans had neither salt nor cotton, those two items standing in for a whole range of trade for not only luxury, but staple goods that the Aztec encirclement had cut off. Hassig, in *Aztec Warfare* makes the point that the *xochiyaoyotl* (flower wars) which had typified conflicts between the Aztecs and Tlaxcalans had, in the years leading up to the Spanish arrival, been becoming more intense, more bloody, more vicious, and more territorial. The whole idea of the Tlaxcalans manipulating the Spanish into the Cholula Massacre was that it had recently flipped from being sympathetic to the Tlaxcalans to shifting allegiances to the Aztecs. Since Cholula sat on the doorstep of Tlaxcala, this was a major blow to their state security.\n\nThus, after the Tlaxcalans and Spanish spent a few rounds beating the crap out of each other, they eyed each other up and entered into a mutually beneficial alliance. To suggest that the Tlaxcalans manipulated the Spanish to their own gain is, well, to understand the political landscape of Postclassic central Mexico. To suggest that the Tlaxcalan goal was the conquest of the Aztec states is to misunderstand the restricted role they were in. Fighting the Aztecs was a much a matter of survival for the Tlaxcalans as it was for the Spanish, more so even, since the actual existence of the Tlaxcalan nation was on the line.\n\nThere are numerous instances in the Spanish texts and even in the *Historia de Tlaxcala*, written in the 16th Century by a Tlaxcalan-Spanish chronicler, Diego Camargo, supporting the idea that this was a mutual alliance that was highly valued on both sides. For instance, after the deal was struck, Cortés said that they should destroy their \"idols,\" to which the Tlaxcalans basically said, \"no thanks.\" \n\nGomara's biography of Cortés actually deals directly with this in a chapter titled \"The Tlaxcalans Defend Their Idols\" wherein the response of the Spanish to the Tlaxcalans rejecting Christianity is thus:\n\n > Cortés answered them, promising that he would send someone to teach and indoctrinate them, when they would see the improvement and the very great profit and pleasure they would have by following his friendly advice; but that at the moment he could not do so because of his haste to get to Mexico.\n\nYeah, his \"haste to get to Mexico.\" \n\nCortés, who spent weeks on the Gulf Coast casting down idols and messing with local politics before trekking inland through unknown and hostile lands, is suddenly in a huge rush to get to Tenochtitlan. Just in cast the sarcasm isn't coming through, the modern interpretation of this is that Cortés looked around, saw he had zero chance of forcing conversions without alienating the only friends he had, and opted to table the whole Jesus-thing for a later date.\n\nOther notable events include the famous joint \"Tlaxcala! Castile!\" cheer and the fact that a powerful noble, the son of one of the Tlaxcalan rulers (like the Aztecs, Tlaxcala was not a singular state but a confederation of *altepetli* tied together by custom and marriage), was put to death for his agitation against the Spanish following their expulsion from the Valley of Mexico after La Noche Triste. Here is Bernal Díaz del Castillo's account of a speech given by Maxixca condemning the noble in question, Xicotencatl the Younger:\n\n > I ask you, do you yourselves think, or have you ever heard others say that such riches or so much prosperity was ever known for the last hundred years in the land of Tlascalla as since the time these teules *[the Spanish]* have appeared among us? Were we ever so much respected by all our neighbours? It is only since their arrival we possess abundance of gold and cotton stuffs; it is since that time only we eat salt again, of which we had been deprived for such a length of time. Wherever our troops have shown themselves with these teules, they have been treated with the utmost respect; and if many of our countrymen have lately perished in Mexico, they certainly fared no worse than the teules themselves. All of you must likewise bear in mind the ancient tradition handed down to us by our forefathers, that, at some period or other, a people would come from where the sun rises, to whom the dominion of these countries was destined. How dare Xicotencatl, taking all this into consideration, contemplate this horrible treachery, from which nothing can flow but war and our destruction? Is this not a crime which ought not to be pardoned? Is it not exactly in accordance with the evil designs with which this man's head always runs full? Now that misfortune has led these teules to us for protection, and that we may assist them with our troops to renew the war with Mexico, are we to act treacherously to these our friends? ([Lockhart trans.](_URL_1_))\n\nYou can see the lines about having access to salt and other goods again, but also the idea that \"we are in this together,\" which really does permeate a lot of how the Tlaxcalans and Spanish come off during this period. At the end of the war with the Mexica (in which the Tlaxcalans are noted as engaging in a bit of looting), this paid off in being relatively unbothered by the new Spanish regime. It was a return to normalcy. As Lockhart notes in *Nahuas After the Conquest*, the fact that Tlaxcala was saved from the ravages of war meant that it was also the best organized state in the region, and thus provided a great deal of officials, like traveling judge-governors, throughout central Mexico. Groups of Tlaxcalans also moved north with Spanish/Aztec forces in the pacification of the Gran Chichimeca to establish towns in what are now San Luis Potosí, Coahuila, and Zacatecas. They essentially had an independent state which, while denied tributary domination over the nations in the Valley of Mexico, nonetheless benefited from no longer being under siege and branching outward.\n\nSo why didn't the Tlaxcalans end up establishing dominance over the Valley of Mexico. The easy answer is that the Spanish moved very quickly to recognize Mexica nobility and re-establish them in their roles. Descendants of Motecuhzoma II continued to rule Tenochtitlan for decades after the \"conquest,\" and there is in fact a [Spanish ducal title held by his direct descendants](_URL_3_). This lazy ethnocentric answer fails to take into account that, with the surrender of Cuauhtemoc, the Spanish/Tlaxcalans no longer had any cause to press the war further. Despite beating the Mexica back, the idea that Spanish/Tlaxcalan/Etc. forces would completely remove the Mexica from power would have meant a kind of total war that was really outside the discourse. Within the framework of Mesoamerica, the Spanish had made the Mexica a tributary state and the Tlaxcalans had removed the Mexica as a threat. It was win/win.\n\nLet's take a moment, however, and consider another, more speculative reason why the Tlaxcalans did not press for more substantial spoils of war. Well, one reason is that the lands that served as the buffer between Tlaxcala and the Aztecs, Huexotzinco and Cholula, both allied with the Tlaxcalan-Spanish (albeit after the aforementioned massacre at the the latter altepetl). Then there's the fact that the eastern side of the Valley of Mexico and the 2nd most important state in the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Acolhua, flipped to the Spanish early on. Thus, the Tlaxcalans could not exactly demand that land. Other groups in the region, like the Xochimilca, also turned against the Mexica, if not exactly jumping on the Tlaxcalan-Spanish bandwagon. Thus those groups were also not considered to be in conflict with the Tlaxcalan-Spanish forces, which again put them off-limits for punitive measures according to the custom of war in both cultures.\n\nA more speculative view is that, following the 1520 smallpox epidemic, the Tlaxcalan leadership was devastated and unable to effectively press their claims. Accounts generally credit Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixca as the most important leaders. Xicotencatl most likely died either at the tail end of the conquest or shortly afterwards, while Maxixca is said to have died in the smallpox outbreak leaving some sons which are generally unnamed in the sources as successors, or at least what the Spanish recognized as successors. There's a [passage in Torquemada](_URL_0_) (start at the top of pg. 63) which gives clues to the kind of chaos of succession that followed the death of Maxixca. So one interpretation would be that there was no effective leader to press Tlaxcalans claims post-Conquest, and that by the time there was, the epidemics of 1540s and 1570s would devastate the native population, setting the stage for Spanish control.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "413555",
"title": "Tlaxcala",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spanish era.:Conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "Cortés stayed in the city of Tlaxcala for 20 days and forged an alliance with the Tlaxcalans to bring down Tenochtitlan. Cortes added 6,000 Tlaxcala warriors to his ranks and arrived to Tenochtitlan in November 1519. They were received by Emperor Moctezuma II, who understood the potential danger of a Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance. Despite initial friendliness, intrigue and siege of the capital followed, with the Aztec backlash sending Cortes’ very wounded army limping back to Tlaxcalan territory. The Tlaxcalan king gave the Spanish refuge but promised further assistance in the conquest of Tenochtitlan only under certain conditions including perpetual exemption from tribute of any sort, part of the spoils of war, and control of two provinces that bordered Tlaxcala. Cortés agreed. Cortes and the Tlaxcalans returned to Tenochtitlan in December 1520. After many battles, including street-by-street fighting in Tenochtitlan itself, the Aztec Empire fell in August 1521.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5865939",
"title": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire",
"section": "Section::::Spanish expeditions.:Cortés's expedition.:Massacre of Cholula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "In one of his responses to Cortés, Moctezuma blamed the commanders of the local Aztec garrison for the resistance in Cholula, and recognizing that his long-standing attempts to dissuade Cortés from coming to Tenochtitlan with gifts of gold and silver had failed, Moctezuma finally invited the conquistadors to visit his capital city, according to Spanish sources, after feeling as though nothing else could be done.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5865939",
"title": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire",
"section": "Section::::Spanish expeditions.:Cortés's expedition.:The Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 175,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 175,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "Cortés had formed an alliance with Tlaxcala. This alliance had many victories, including the overtaking of the Aztec Capital Tenochtitlan. Their capital was used as a cosmic center, where they fed sacrifices to the gods through both human bodies and bloodletting. The capital was also used for central and imperialistic governmental control. Preparations for war began in their capital. The Spanish and their allies, including the Tlaxcala, had to flee the central city, as the people of Tenochtitlan had risen against them. The Spanish's situation could only deteriorate. Because the Aztecs had removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that linked the city to the surrounding lands, Cortés' men constructed a portable bridge to cross the water of the lake. On the rainy night of 10 July 1520, the Spaniards and their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to Tlacopan. They placed the portable bridge in the first gap, but at that moment their movement was detected and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and by means of canoes on the lake. The Spanish were thus caught on a narrow road with water or buildings on both sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14013",
"title": "Hernán Cortés",
"section": "Section::::Destroying the ships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Cortés created strife between his men and the Aztecs by taking over the city. However, worried his men would revolt, Montezuma decided to convince them to delay the attack. Cortés now had time to build more ships, but he had to stay on guard against the Aztecs because he was unable to leave Mexico. Furthermore, Velázquez was sending forces to arrest Cortés, which meant the lives of him and his men were at jeopardy. Still without ships, Cortés could not escape. This resulted in him fighting the battle at Cempoala. In addition to restraining himself in Mexico, Cortés also suffered financially. He had to repay Velázquez for the ships he destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1890743",
"title": "Fall of Tenochtitlan",
"section": "Section::::Both sides attempt to recover.:Shifting alliances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Cortés managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Cortés for their continued support, which he was to provide after they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in Tenochtitlan, and finally, to be exempted from any future tribute. Cortés was willing to promise anything in the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their demands. The Spanish did complain about having to pay for their food and water with their gold and other jewels with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish authorities would later disown this treaty with the Tlaxcalans after the fall of Tenochtitlan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "413555",
"title": "Tlaxcala",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spanish era.:Conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "When Hernán Cortés and the Spanish landed on the Veracruz coast, they were greeted by the Totonacas, who were a subject people of the Aztecs and saw the Spanish as a way to free themselves of rule from Tenochtitlan. They allied with the Spanish, and when Cortés decided to go inland to Tenochtitlan, the Totonacas guided them to other subject peoples who would be willing to ally with them, including and especially the Tlaxcalans. However, after entering Tlaxcalan territory, the Spanish were met by a hostile Tlaxcalan force of 30,000. The Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish and their Indian allies in a number of battles, with the Spanish inflicting heavy casualties on the Tlaxcalans despite their superior numbers. The Spaniards’ prowess in battle impressed the Tlaxcalan King Xīcohtēncatl Āxāyacatzin, who then not only allowed the Spanish to pass through his territory, but also invited them into the capital city of Tlaxcala.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2835731",
"title": "La Noche Triste",
"section": "Section::::Prologue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Cortés' expedition arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Mexica capital, on November 8, 1519, taking up residence in a specially designated compound in the city. Soon thereafter, suspecting treachery on the part of their hosts, the Spaniards took Moctezuma II, the king or Hueyi Tlatoani of the Mexica, hostage. Though Moctezuma followed Cortés' instructions in continually assuring his subjects that he had been ordered by the gods to move in with the Spaniards and that he had done so willingly, the Aztecs suspected otherwise. During the following 98 days, Cortés and his native allies, the Tlaxcaltecas, were increasingly unwelcome guests in the capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22uwym
|
moving matter from a neutron star
|
[
{
"answer": "If you were to bring a chunk of neutron star matter to the Earth, it would expand. Before I can explain this I have to explain what's actually going on in a neutron star. \nWhen a star 'dies' it collapses in on itself and blows off its outer layers of gas. The core that's left is called a stellar remnant. This remnant can become 1 of 3 things, depending on it's mass. If its mass is below 1.44 solar masses (the Chandrasekhar limit) it becomes a white dwarf. If it's above that limit and below 3-4 solar masses(Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit,) it becomes a neutron star. If it's above that limit it becomes a black hole. In normal matter, you have electron degeneracy pressure. Under normal conditions, the electrons of a material prevent you from compressing it too much. However, in a neutron star, the energy and pressure is so great that the electrons and protons of the material actually combine to form neutrons. What causes neutron stars from collapsing into a black hole is now neutron degeneracy pressure. \nSo, if you were to take away some of that material and bring it to Earth, you would no longer have the immense energy compressing it. You'd end up with a large ball of neutrons.\nNow free neutrons are quite radioactive so if you were to do this then they'd start decaying and releasing a whole bunch of harmful ionizing radiation. So don't do it :P",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48782005",
"title": "Astrophysical fluid dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Concepts of Fluid Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "When they are formed, neutron stars rotate in space. As they compress and shrink, this spinning speeds up because of the conservation of angular momentum—the same principle that causes a spinning skater to speed up when she pulls in her arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48782005",
"title": "Astrophysical fluid dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Concepts of Fluid Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "These stars gradually slow down over the eons, but those bodies that are still spinning rapidly may emit radiation that from Earth appears to blink on and off as the star spins, like the beam of light from a turning lighthouse. This \"pulsing\" appearance gives some neutron stars the name pulsars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "810077",
"title": "X-ray pulsar",
"section": "Section::::Gas supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In other systems, the neutron star orbits so closely to its companion that its strong gravitational force can pull material from the companion's atmosphere into an orbit around itself, a mass transfer process known as Roche lobe overflow. The captured material forms a gaseous accretion disc and spirals inwards to ultimately fall onto the neutron star as in the binary system Cen X-3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21869",
"title": "Neutron star",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "As the star's core collapses, its rotation rate increases as a result of conservation of angular momentum, hence newly formed neutron stars rotate at up to several hundred times per second. Some neutron stars emit beams of electromagnetic radiation that make them detectable as pulsars. Indeed, the discovery of pulsars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish in 1967 was the first observational suggestion that neutron stars exist. The radiation from pulsars is thought to be primarily emitted from regions near their magnetic poles. If the magnetic poles do not coincide with the rotational axis of the neutron star, the emission beam will sweep the sky, and when seen from a distance, if the observer is somewhere in the path of the beam, it will appear as pulses of radiation coming from a fixed point in space (the so-called \"lighthouse effect\"). The fastest-spinning neutron star known is PSR J1748-2446ad, rotating at a rate of 716 times a second or 43,000 revolutions per minute, giving a linear speed at the surface on the order of (i.e. nearly a quarter the speed of light).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Spinning neutron stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "As noted above, a mass distribution will emit gravitational radiation only when there is spherically asymmetric motion among the masses. A spinning neutron star will generally emit no gravitational radiation because neutron stars are highly dense objects with a strong gravitational field that keeps them almost perfectly spherical. In some cases, however, there might be slight deformities on the surface called \"mountains\", which are bumps extending no more than 10 centimeters (4 inches) above the surface, that make the spinning spherically asymmetric. This gives the star a quadrupole moment that changes with time, and it will emit gravitational waves until the deformities are smoothed out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11887250",
"title": "Stellar magnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Magnetosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "As stars emit matter with a stellar wind from the photosphere, the magnetosphere creates a torque on the ejected matter. This results in a transfer of angular momentum from the star to the surrounding space, causing a slowing of the stellar rotation rate. Rapidly rotating stars have a higher mass loss rate, resulting in a faster loss of momentum. As the rotation rate slows, so too does the angular deceleration. By this means, a star will gradually approach, but never quite reach, the state of zero rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43106038",
"title": "IGR J11014−6103",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The neutron star is the source of a relativistic helical jet, which is observed in X-rays but has no detected radio signature. In the composite processed image (right) the neutron star pulsar is the point-like object with a pulsar wind nebula tail trailing behind it for about 3 light-years. The jet, aligned with the pulsar rotation axis, is perpendicular to the pulsar's trajectory and extends out over 37 light-years (about nine times the distance from our sun to the nearest visible star). The estimated velocity of the jet is about 80% of the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ddjj4o
|
we see ordinary city pigeons in most major cities, but never in between (e.g., chicago and denver but not in north dakota). how do they get there?
|
[
{
"answer": "1. Pigeons and doves are the same thing. People tend to call them pigeons in cities and doves in the country. They are common in cities and in rural areas. North Dakota has seven types of pigeons/doves.\n\n2. City pigeons are often domesticated pigeons that were released back into the wild (in this case, cities). So humans brought them there.\n\n3. Feral pigeons in cities were domesticated from rock doves that were used to living on cliffs. So hanging out on buildings wasn't that hard of an adjustment.\n\n4. Most birds have to feed their young worms, nuts, seeds, etc. They need access to that type of food. Pigeons can eat pretty much anything, and they can create a special paste that they feed their young. That means they can better survive on the food in cities than other birds, which makes it seem like there are more of them. There is a lot food in cities, and there are fewer birds that can live off of it besides pigeons.\n\n6. There are fewer predators. There are animals like peregrine falcons that eat pigeons in Chicago, but for the most part, there are are more pigeons than animals that eat pigeons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4359327",
"title": "Putrajaya Wetlands Park",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Several species of local marshland birds and water birds including the little egret, the little green heron and cinnamon bittern, and migratory birds form Northern Hemisphere have been spotted there. Binoculars will come in handy for bird watching. The visitors can also enjoy a leisurely walk, jog or cycle along its bicycle track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6719",
"title": "Columbia, Missouri",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Animal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes, red foxes, and numerous whitetail deer. Eastern gray squirrel, and other rodents are abundant, as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail. Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River. The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis. Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27687",
"title": "St. Louis",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes and white-tailed deer. Eastern gray squirrel, cottontail rabbit, and other rodents are abundant, as well as the nocturnal Virginia opossum. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Gulls are common along the Mississippi River; these species typically follow barge traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23924",
"title": "Passenger pigeon",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "The passenger pigeon was found across most of North America east of the Rocky Mountains, from the Great Plains to the Atlantic coast in the east, to the south of Canada in the north, and the north of Mississippi in the southern United States, coinciding with its primary habitat, the eastern deciduous forests. Within this range, it constantly migrated in search of food and shelter. It is unclear if the birds favored particular trees and terrain, but they were possibly not restricted to one type, as long as their numbers could be supported. It originally bred from the southern parts of eastern and central Canada south to eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Georgia in the United States, but the primary breeding range was in southern Ontario and the Great Lakes states south through states north of the Appalachian Mountains. Though the western forests were ecologically similar to those in the east, these were occupied by band-tailed pigeons, which may have kept out the passenger pigeons through competitive exclusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5373002",
"title": "Geography of St. Louis",
"section": "Section::::Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes and occasionally a stray whitetail deer. eastern gray squirrel, cottontail rabbit, and other rodents are abundant, as well as the nocturnal and rarely seen opossum. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Gulls are common along the Mississippi River; these species typically follow barge traffic. Winter populations of bald eagles are found by the Mississippi River around the Chain of Rocks Bridge. The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis. Tower Grove Park is a well-known birdwatching area in the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6903783",
"title": "Carole Highlands, Maryland",
"section": "Section::::Plants and animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Some bird species that have been spotted in local backyards are cardinals, titmice, robins, ospreys, crows, woodpeckers, flickers, mockingbirds, wood thrushes, gray catbirds, cowbirds, chickadees, blue jays, mourning doves, towhees, summer tanagers, goldfinches, house and purple finches and the ubiquitous species starling and sparrow. Kingfishers, herons and hawks are seen near Sligo Creek.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3418750",
"title": "Northeastern Wisconsin Zoo",
"section": "Section::::Exhibits.:North American aviary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The North American Aviary houses birds that are found locally or in other areas of the United States. Three of the largest birds in the aviary are the American white pelican, bald eagle, and the turkey vulture. Ten species of duck live in the aviary, including the pintail, the common shoveler, the green-winged teal, the English call duck, the ring-necked duck, the canvasback, the redhead, Barrow's goldeneye, the hooded merganser, and the wood duck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
54zjxf
|
it is said that there are more possible games of chess than there are atoms in the observable universe. how is something like this calculated?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't think there is an easy way to calculate the exact number of games. One can estimate though and get a ballpark figure. Claude Shannon, father of information theory, was the first one to publish his ballpark estimate. It is based on the assumption that, on average the number of moves available to white, and then black (together) is about a thousand possibilities. Since a chess game lasts about 40 moves or so, the answer is about 1000 to the power 40. That is a one followed by 120 zeros. \n\nThe relevant question is not really how many chess games there are, since most of those games are not \"good\" games. One might wonder how many chess games there are that have good moves in them. This question can be posed more rigorously. Let's define a \"good\" move as one that does not change the best possible outcome for the side that makes the move. Then one can pose the question, how many chess games are there with only good moves in them. Now, the number is much smaller. But I have no idea how many.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48556",
"title": "List of chess variants",
"section": "Section::::Chess-derived games.:Unorthodox rules using nontraditional pieces.:Unorthodox pieces using unorthodox boards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chess on an Infinite plane: One type of infinite chess. Seventy-six pieces are played on an unbounded chessboard. The game uses orthodox chess pieces, plus guards, hawks, and chancellors. The absence of borders makes pieces effectively less powerful (as the king and other pieces cannot be trapped in corners), so the added material helps compensate for this. Despite the infinite playing area, mathematical investigations have shown that in a general endgame, one player can force a win in a finite number of moves. There is also a sub-variant which uses the huygens, possibly making the game mathematically undecidable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53659697",
"title": "Infinite chess",
"section": "Section::::In context of game theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chess on an infinite plane: 76 pieces are played on an unbounded chessboard. The game uses orthodox chess pieces, plus guards, hawks, and chancellors. The absence of borders makes pieces effectively less powerful (as the king and other pieces cannot be trapped in corners), so the added material helps compensate for this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4561248",
"title": "Shannon number",
"section": "Section::::Shannon's calculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Allis also estimated the game-tree complexity to be at least 10, \"based on an average branching factor of 35 and an average game length of 80\". As a comparison, the number of atoms in the observable universe, to which it is often compared, is roughly estimated to be 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68367",
"title": "Computer chess",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Since around 1997 chess engines have been able to defeat even the strongest human players. Nevertheless, it is considered unlikely that computers will ever solve chess due to its computational complexity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70421",
"title": "Elo rating system",
"section": "Section::::Practical issues.:Ratings of computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Since 2005–06, human–computer chess matches have demonstrated that chess computers are capable of defeating even the strongest human players (Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov). However, ratings of computers are difficult to quantify. There have been too few games under tournament conditions to give computers or software engines an accurate rating. Also, for chess engines, the rating is dependent on the machine that the program runs on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53659697",
"title": "Infinite chess",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Infinite chess is any variation of the game of chess played on an unbounded chessboard. Versions of infinite chess have been introduced independently by multiple players, chess theorists, and mathematicians, both as a playable game and as a model for theoretical study. It has been found that even though the board is unbounded, there are ways in which a player can win the game in a finite number of moves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321438",
"title": "Perfect information",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Chess is an example of a game with perfect information as each player can see all the pieces on the board at all times. Other examples of games with perfect information include tic-tac-toe, checkers, infinite chess, and Go.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gtxy8
|
since a country can print its own currency indefinitely, why can't the us for example just arbitrarily pay off all its debt that way?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. The more money in circulation, the less it's really worth, period.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Printing more money makes the money worth less, i.e. inflation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's imagine \"Purchasing Power\" as a cake. Lets imagine \"Dollars\" as tickets. The tickets serve as coupons to get a cake. \n > 1 Cake = 1 Ticket. \n\nIf I simply print more tickets, but don't produce more cakes, the value of the tickets decreases. For example, if I print 10 tickets, than, \n > 1 Cake = 10 Tickets. \n\n\nPrinting more tickets didn't increase the amount of cakes I had, it simply devalued the individual tickets. \n\nIn relation to money, if you simply \"print more money,\" you aren't actually adding to the purchasing power you have. Your just devaluing the individual dollar. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21534875",
"title": "Fixed exchange-rate system",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Fiat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Another, less used means of maintaining a fixed exchange rate is by simply making it illegal to trade currency at any other rate. This is difficult to enforce and often leads to a black market in foreign currency. Nonetheless, some countries are highly successful at using this method due to government monopolies over all money conversion. This was the method employed by the Chinese government to maintain a currency peg or tightly banded float against the US dollar. China buys an average of one billion US dollars a day to maintain the currency peg. Throughout the 1990s, China was highly successful at maintaining a currency peg using a government monopoly over all currency conversion between the yuan and other currencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180846",
"title": "Federal Reserve Note",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.:Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The differing sizes of other nations' banknotes are a security feature that eliminates one form of counterfeiting to which U.S. currency is prone: Counterfeiters can simply bleach the ink off a low-denomination note, such as a $1 or $5 bill, and reprint it as a higher-value note, such as a $100 bill. To counter this, the U.S. government has included in all $5 and higher denominated notes since the 1990 series a vertical laminate strip imprinted with denomination information, which under ultraviolet light fluoresces a different color for each denomination ($5 note: blue; $10 note: orange; $20 note: green; $50 note: yellow; $100 note: red).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "684037",
"title": "Austerity",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:No credit risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "For a country that has its own currency, its government can create credits by itself, and its central bank can keep the interest rate close to or equal to the nominal risk-free rate. Former FRB chairman Alan Greenspan says that the probability that the US defaults on its debt repayment is zero, because the US government can print money. The FRB of St. Louis says that the US government's debt is denominated in US Dollars, therefore the government will never go bankrupt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4425541",
"title": "Petrodollar warfare",
"section": "Section::::The hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The United States dollar remains \"de facto\" world currency. Accordingly, almost all oil sales throughout the world are denominated in United States dollars (USD). Because most countries rely on oil imports, they are forced to maintain large stockpiles of dollars in order to continue imports. This creates a consistent demand for USDs and ostensibly supports the USD's value, regardless of economic conditions in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497752",
"title": "History of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Articles of Confederation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Without taxes the government could not pay its debt. Seven of the thirteen states printed large quantities of its own paper money, backed by gold, land, or nothing, so there was no fair exchange rate among them. State courts required state creditors to accept payments at face value with a fraction of real purchase power. The same legislation that these states used to wipe out the Revolutionary debt to patriots was used to pay off promised veteran pensions. The measures were popular because they helped both small farmers and plantation owners pay off their debts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17686310",
"title": "Sovereign default",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "They may also be vulnerable to a sovereign debt crisis due to currency mismatch: if few bonds in their own currency are accepted abroad, and so the country issues mainly foreign-denominated bonds, decrease in the value of their own currency can make it prohibitively expensive to pay back their foreign-denominated bonds (see original sin).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1290773",
"title": "History of central banking in the United States",
"section": "Section::::1863–1913: National Banks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BULLET::::- To create a uniform national currency. To achieve this, all national banks were required to accept each other's currencies at par value. This eliminated the risk of loss in case of bank default. The notes were printed by the Comptroller of the Currency to ensure uniform quality and prevent counterfeiting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30mue4
|
How did Egypt become so thoroughly Arabised?
|
[
{
"answer": "Egypt was under the control of the Arabs directly for six consecutive centuries, and then under the control of people who likely used Arabic for government functions due to the varied origins of the Mamluks themselves. So, in short, for almost a thousand years it was under the control of administrators who spoke Arabic, right in the middle of a large empire where Arabic was the main lingua franca. That is a huge time frame for the language to filter down to the general populace.\n\nAs to the second claim, the 'Arabization' of North Africa was mostly a cultural exchange rather than a replacement of peoples. Recent studies suggest that the average Egyptian can likely trace their heritage back thousands of years, and of course, clearly Berbers are a wholely distinct people from the Arabs. The Fertile crescent and Syria is a bit more, but there would have been Arabs and other Semitic peoples there before the Muslim invasions. The truth is that outside of a few isolated points in time, large scale population transfers just weren't that common. While the elites might be replaced, and the language of government and administration might change to reflect that, the change in the general population is generally going to reflect the cultural pressure from above rather than wholesale replacement of populations. This is not to say that some population transfers didn't take place in the Caliphate, but that they are almost certainly a minor component of the over-all Arabization of the Middle-East and North Africa.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35431050",
"title": "Islamic extremism in the 20th-century Egypt",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:The Society of Muslim Brothers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "During the 20th century, Egypt experienced several waves of revolutions to regain control of their nation from colonial rulers as to create a modern nation-state. Much of Egypt was Muslim at the time although there were significant numbers of Jews and Christians as well, but many of the political revolutions that Egypt experienced were centered on religions and how they related to politics. “The result was an ideological conflict over the direction of the Egyptian nation, over who had the legitimate authority to determine the direction,” and “by the 1930s a pattern of radical politics had taken hold across the Middle East.” In 1928, Hasan al-Banna founded the Society of Muslim Brothers, or Muslim Brotherhood, a prototype of the contemporary Islamic extremist movements. At this time, the revolutions were causing outbreaks of violence rooted in the political upheaval, but the Brothers denied to view their position as anything but religious. Like the Kharijites before them, the Brothers firmly believed that the law could only follow the guidelines that God had set for them. The Brotherhood rose to popularity through the 30s and 40s, and still had a significant membership in the 1950s, when Gamal Abdel Nasser began to rise to power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31912046",
"title": "Egyptians",
"section": "Section::::History.:Islamic period from Late antiquity to Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "In the years to follow the Arab occupation of Egypt, a social hierarchy was created whereby Egyptians who converted to Islam acquired the status of mawali or \"clients\" to the ruling Arab elite, while those who remained Christian, the Copts, became dhimmis. In time the power of the Arabs waned throughout the Islamic Empire so that in the 10th century, the Turkish Ikhshids were able to take control of Egypt and made it an independent political unit from the rest of the empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25522710",
"title": "Coptic identity",
"section": "Section::::Rise of Arab nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Arab nationalism began to gain grounds in Egypt in the 1940s following efforts by Syrian, Palestinian and Lebanese intellectuals. Nevertheless, by the end of the 1940s and even after the establishment of the Arab League, historian H. S. Deighton was still writing that \"Egyptians are not Arabs, and both they and the Arabs are aware of this fact\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1021149",
"title": "Demographic history of Palestine (region)",
"section": "Section::::Late Arab and Muslim immigration to Palestine.:Ottoman Period 1800-1918.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1805,
"text": "Significant Egyptian migration to Palestine happened at the end of the 18th century due to a severe famine in Egypt, and several waves of Egyptian immigrants came even earlier due to escape natural disasters such as droughts and plagues, government oppression, taxes, and military conscription. Although many Palestinian Arabs also moved to Egypt, Egyptian immigration to Palestine was more dominant. In the 19th century, large numbers of Egyptians fled to Palestine to escape the military conscription and forced labor projects in the Nile Delta under Muhammad Ali. Following the First Egyptian-Ottoman War, which saw the Egyptian conquest of Palestine, more Egyptians were brought to Palestine as forced laborers. Following the Second Egyptian-Ottoman War, which saw Egyptian rule in Palestine terminated, massive numbers of soldiers deserted during the Egyptian army's retreat from Palestine to permanently settle there. Egyptians settled mainly in Jaffa, the Coastal plain, Samaria and in Wadi Ara. In the southern plain there were 19 villages with Egyptian populations, while in Jaffa there were some 500 Egyptian families with a population of over 2,000 people. The largest rural concentration of Egyptian immigrants was in the Sharon region. According to David Grossman, statistics show the number of Egyptian immigrants to Palestine between 1829 and 1841 exceeded 15,000, and he estimated that it was at least 23,000 and possibly up to 30,000. In 1860, there was significant immigration to Safed by Moorish (i.e. Arab-Berber) tribes from Algeria and a small number of Kurds, while some 6,000 Arabs from the Beni Sakhr tribe immigrated to Palestine from what is now Jordan to settle in Tiberias. In addition, considerable numbers of Turks stationed in Palestine to garrison the land settled there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "363121",
"title": "Pharaonism",
"section": "Section::::Nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "It has been argued that until the 1940s, Egypt was more in favour of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23267",
"title": "Palestinians",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1700,
"text": "The region was not originally Arab – its Arabization was a consequence of the inclusion of Palestine within the rapidly expanding Arab Empire conquered by Arabian tribes and their local allies in the first millennium, most significantly during the Islamic conquest of Syria in the 7th century. Palestine, then a Hellenized region controlled by the Byzantine empire, with a large Christian population, came under the political and cultural influence of Arabic-speaking Muslim dynasties, including the Kurdish Ayyubids. From the conquest down to the 11th century, half of the world's Christians lived under the new Muslim order and there was no attempt for that period to convert them. Over time, nonetheless, much of the existing population of Palestine was Arabized and gradually converted to Islam. Arab populations had existed in Palestine prior to the conquest, and some of these local Arab tribes and Bedouin fought as allies of Byzantium in resisting the invasion, which the archaeological evidence indicates was a 'peaceful conquest', and the newcomers were allowed to settle in the old urban areas. Theories of population decline compensated by the importation of foreign populations are not confirmed by the archaeological record Like other \"Arabized\" Arab nations the Arab identity of Palestinians, largely based on linguistic and cultural affiliation, is independent of the existence of any actual Arabian origins. The Palestinian population has grown dramatically. For several centuries during the Ottoman period the population in Palestine declined and fluctuated between 150,000 and 250,000 inhabitants, and it was only in the 19th century that a rapid population growth began to occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24595541",
"title": "Islamization of Egypt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The Islamization of Egypt occurred as a result of the Muslim conquest by the Arabs during Roman Egypt, which led by the prominent Muslim ruler Amr ibn al-Aas, the military governor of Palestine. The masses of locals in Egypt underwent a large scale gradual conversion from Coptic Christianity to Islam. This process of Islamization was accompanied by a simultaneous wave of Arabization. These factors resulted in Muslim faith becoming the dominant faith in Egypt between 10th and 14th century, and the Egyptian acculturating into Islamic identity and then replacing their native Coptic and Greek languages with Arabic as their sole vernacular which became the language of the nation by law, a law that helped in almost vanishing the original tongue till today. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
70nven
|
Has the U.S. Military ever conducted assassinations of foreign leaders in the past?
|
[
{
"answer": "Going off that, of the assassinations done by either CIA or military was it widely known who did it or did people think it was different countries? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12213023",
"title": "Rebel Armed Forces",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "FAR is most significantly known for having killed the U.S. ambassador to Guatemala, John Gordon Mein, in 1968. Also killed that year were two U.S. military advisers, Colonel John Webber and Ernest Munro, although they might have been killed at the command of PGT leader Leonardo Castillo Johnson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2963",
"title": "Assassination",
"section": "Section::::Use in history.:Modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy—died at the hands of assassins. There have been at least 20 known attempts on U.S. presidents' lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated on September 10, 1935. Robert F. Kennedy, a Senator and a presidential candidate, was also assassinated on June 6, 1968 in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8337509",
"title": "List of Columbia College people",
"section": "Section::::Political and diplomatic figures.:United States political and diplomatic figures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 1058,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1058,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Laurence Steinhardt (1913), former United States Ambassador to Sweden, Peru, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Czechoslovakia and Canada; the first United States Ambassador to be killed in office.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13331293",
"title": "Pat Robertson controversies",
"section": "Section::::Comments on assassinating Hugo Chávez.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Assassinations of heads of state have been against U.S. policy since an executive order against them was issued in 1976; in response, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld said that \"our department doesn't do that kind of thing.\" Bernardo Álvarez, Venezuela's ambassador to the U.S., demanded a stronger condemnation from the White House and that the United States \"respect our country and its president.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56633038",
"title": "Robert Whitney Imbrie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Robert Whitney Imbrie (April 23, 1883 – July 18, 1924) was the first U.S. foreign service officer to be murdered for political reasons. Today some Iranians recall Imbrie as a villain, justifiably killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4777130",
"title": "20 Hours in America",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- Gerald J. Bekkerman, \"Assassinations During War and Peace: Can the President Order the Assassination of a Hostile Foreign Leader Under U.S. Law in Lieu of Executive Order 12,333 and the War Crimes Act of 1996?\" KentLaw.edu\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764643",
"title": "United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Diplomatic relations.:The U.S. and the overthrow of Madero, 1912–1913.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "U.S. Ambassador to Mexico H.L. Wilson helped to plot the February 1913 coup d'état, during the Ten Tragic Days (\"la decena trágica)\", which overthrew Francisco I. Madero. However, the Ambassador might have done this without the explicit approval of lame duck President Taft, but Ambassador Wilson had secured the support of the foreign diplomatic corps in Mexico, especially the British, German, and French envoys, for the coup and lobbied for U.S. recognition of the new head of state, General Victoriano Huerta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3l32wn
|
terryology.
|
[
{
"answer": "He's just mixing up multiplication and addition. He thinks 1 X 1 is the equivalent of holding up one index finger for each hand and seeing 2 fingers. He also said everyone thinks √4 is 2, so √2 must be 1, but it's not *because we're told it's 2,* which proves that he knows nothing about simple arithmetics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "492271",
"title": "Clinical psychology",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other mental health professions.:Occupational therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Occupational therapy—often abbreviated OT—is the \"use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically, cognitively, or emotionally disabled people.\" Most commonly, occupational therapists work with people with disabilities to enable them to maximize their skills and abilities. Occupational therapy practitioners are skilled professionals whose education includes the study of human growth and development with specific emphasis on the physical, emotional, psychological, sociocultural, cognitive and environmental components of illness and injury. They commonly work alongside clinical psychologists in settings such as inpatient and outpatient mental health, pain management clinics, eating disorder clinics, and child development services. OT's use support groups, individual counseling sessions, and activity-based approaches to address psychiatric symptoms and maximize functioning in life activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334037",
"title": "Occupational therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Occupational therapy (OT) is the use of assessment and intervention to develop, recover, or maintain the meaningful activities, or \"occupations\", of individuals, groups, or communities. It is an allied health profession performed by occupational therapists and occupational therapy assistants (OTA). OTs often work with people with mental health problems, disabilities, injuries, or impairments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9778122",
"title": "List of master's degrees in North America",
"section": "Section::::Applied Anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The Master of Applied Anthropology (MAA) is a two-year program focused on training non-academic anthropologists. The University of Maryland, College Park developed this program to encourage entrepreneurial approaches to careers outside academia, where most new anthropologists are likely to seek and find employment. For this reason, it is considered a professional degree rather than a liberal arts degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50444975",
"title": "The Organization of Amputees UDAS Republike Srpske",
"section": "Section::::Inclusion.:Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "UDAS organizes various cultural and creative projects and activities for persons with and without disabilities, such as: drawing school and painting for children, workshop in creative writing, graphic workshops, art colonies, individual and collective exhibitions of art works, where priority is given to persons with disabilities. All activity have a clear psycho therapeutic aspect. Main cultural activity is doing art and handcraft. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48726",
"title": "Occupational therapist",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "An occupational therapist (OT) is a healthcare professional who works with clients across the lifespan to help them achieve a fulfilled and satisfied state in life through the use of meaningful occupation. Occupational therapists help people do the day-to-day tasks that \"occupy\" their time and engage in their meaningful roles and routines. OTs use occupation as a foundational means to promote health and wellness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11174164",
"title": "List of California Diaries characters",
"section": "Section::::From The Baby-Sitters Club Ultimate Guide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Terry is an intellectual boy for whom Claudia falls in love with, has black hair and dark eyes. He lives between the beach and Dawn's house with his parents, both of whom are lawyers, and his two brothers, one older and one younger. He loves school and his hobby is reading; he once won a districtwide science fair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41780237",
"title": "MANIC (cognitive architecture)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "MANIC, formerly known as PMML.1, is a cognitive architecture developed by the predictive modeling and machine learning laboratory at University Of Arkansas. It differs from other cognitive architectures in that it tries to \"minimize novelty\". That is, it attempts to organize well-established techniques in computer science, rather than propose any new methods for achieving cognition. While most other cognitive architectures are inspired by some neurological observation, and are subsequently developed in a top-down manner to behave in some manner like a brain, MANIC is inspired only by common practices in computer science, and was developed in a bottom-up manner for the purpose of unifying various methods in machine learning and artificial intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1h9pxq
|
what is the difference between a bison and a buffalo?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically \n1. The bison are native to North America and Europe.\n2. The buffalo is native to Africa and Asia. African buffaloes are wild animals while Asian buffaloes are mostly domesticated.\n3. Bison have thick shaggy coats, though they shed these during summer, while the buffalo has short and smooth coats. Bison have shorter horns compared to the buffaloes as they prefer butting heads to locking horns. Both are nomadic grazers and they travel in herds.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can find pictures on the internet easily so let me explain why the words got mixed up. We keep them separate because they aren't that closely related. \n\n * ~~In Europe, Asia, and Africa there are only Buffalo. There used to be Bison in Europe but they went extinct thousands of years ago.~~ I read a little more about it and there are Bison in Europe but there weren't very many. They only lived in a small part of Europe because they were hunted a lot, just like the American Bison. \n\n * In The Americas there are only Bison. \n\nWhen Europeans came to America they saw Bison. They look kind of similar to the buffalo they were knew of so they called them buffalo. They weren't actually Buffalo so we gave them the name Bison, the same name we give to the extinct Bison from Europe. \n\nIt's not terrible to call bison buffalo, but it isn't correct. Don't worry about it too much but they are definitely different. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Funny story. I was at Yellowstone National Park and asked the park ranger this very same question in front a huge group of people. She didn't know and was really embarassed. I felt so bad. What's funny is that I knew the answer already and I wanted to inform the people but my plan backfired and I made the park ranger look like a incompetent loser. I wish I could say I was sorry. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34206608",
"title": "List of mammals of Wyoming",
"section": "Section::::Large and medium sized mammals.:American bison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The American bison (\"Bison bison\") is a North American species of bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo. These bison once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds; their range roughly formed a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canada's far northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Nuevo León, and east along the western boundary of the Appalachian Mountains. Today these bison are much fewer in number, and travel only in small herds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31443370",
"title": "Henry Mountains bison herd",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "Officially, the \"American Buffalo\" is classified by the United States Government as a type of cattle, and the government allows private herds to be managed as such. This is a reflection of the characteristics that bison share with cattle. Though the American bison (\"Bison bison\") is not only a separate species, but actually in a separate genus from domestic cattle (\"Bos primigenius\"), they clearly have a lot of genetic compatibility and American bison can interbreed freely with cattle. Moreover, when they do interbreed, the crossbreeds tend to look very much like purebred Bison, so appearance is completely unreliable as a means of determining what is a purebred bison and what is a crossbred cow. Many ranchers have deliberately cross bred their cattle with bison, and it would also be expected that there could be some natural hybridization in areas where cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle and bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they have often been in the same range together in the past, and opportunity for cross breeding may sometimes have been common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49725",
"title": "American bison",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "A bison has a shaggy, long, dark-brown winter coat, and a lighter-weight, lighter-brown summer coat. As is typical in ungulates, the male bison is slightly larger than the female and, in some cases, can be considerably heavier. Plains bison are often in the smaller range of sizes, and wood bison in the larger range. Head-rump lengths range from long and the tail adding or\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29721201",
"title": "List of mammals of Montana",
"section": "Section::::Large and medium sized mammals.:American bison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The American bison (\"Bison bison\") is a North American species of bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo. These bison once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds; their range roughly formed a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canada's far northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Nuevo León, and east along the western boundary of the Appalachian Mountains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31431431",
"title": "Yellowstone Park bison herd",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "Officially, the \"American Buffalo\" is classified by the United States Government as a type of cattle, and the government allows private herds to be managed as such. This is a reflection of the characteristics that bison share with cattle. Though the American bison (\"Bison bison\") is not only a separate species, but actually in a separate genus from domestic cattle (\"Bos primigenius\"), it clearly has a lot of genetic compatibility with the latter, and American bison can interbreed freely with cattle. Moreover, when they do interbreed, the crossbreeds tend to look very much like purebred bison, so appearance is completely unreliable as a means of determining what is a purebred bison and what is crossbred with cattle. Many ranchers have deliberately crossbred their cattle with bison, and it would also be expected that there could be some natural hybridization in areas where cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle and bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they have often been in the same range together in the past, and opportunity for cross breeding may sometimes have been common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49725",
"title": "American bison",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "The American bison or simply bison (\"Bison bison\"), also commonly known as the American buffalo or simply buffalo, is a North American species of bison that once roamed North America in vast herds. Their historical range, by 9000 BCE, is described as the great bison belt, a tract of rich grassland that ran from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico, east to the Atlantic Seaboard (nearly to the Atlantic tidewater in some areas) as far north as New York and south to Georgia and per some sources down to Florida, with sightings in North Carolina near Buffalo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750. They became nearly extinct by a combination of commercial hunting and slaughter in the 19th century and introduction of bovine diseases from domestic cattle. With a population in excess of 60 million in the late 18th century, the species was down to 541 animals by 1889. Recovery efforts expanded in the mid-20th century, with a resurgence to roughly 31,000 animals today, largely restricted to a few national parks and reserves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26202436",
"title": "Mammals of Glacier National Park (U.S.)",
"section": "Section::::Large mammals.:American bison (historical).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The American bison (Bison bison) is a North American species of bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo. These bison once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds; their range roughly formed a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canada's far northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Nuevo León, and east along the western boundary of the Appalachian Mountains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a0f116
|
how to best describe/explain ionization energy and electron affinity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ionization energy is the amount of energy that must go into an atom to remove an electron. As you remove more electrons, the amount of energy required becomes larger and larger because of the effective nuclear charge. This pulls the electrons closer and closer to the nucleus, which results in higher energy to pull it off. Once all the valence electrons are removed, the ionization energy increases substantially.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nElectron affinity is basically the opposite. It's the energy that's released when an electron is added to an atom.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn the context of NaCl, not much energy is required to remove an electron from a sodium atom, and a lot of energy is released when an electron is added to a chlorine atom (in fact, it has the highest electron affinity in the periodic table). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8578085",
"title": "Electron affinity (data page)",
"section": "Section::::Elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Electron affinity can be defined in two equivalent ways. First, as the energy that is released by adding an electron to an isolated gaseous atom. The second (reverse) definition is that electron affinity is the energy required to remove an electron from a singly charged gaseous negative ion. Either convention can be used. Whereas ionization energies are always concerned with the formation of positive ions, electron affinities are the negative ion equivalent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197964",
"title": "Electron affinity",
"section": "Section::::Measurement and use of electron affinity.:Sign convention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Equivalently, electron affinity can also be defined as the amount of energy \"required\" to detach an electron from the atom while it holds a single-excess-electron thus making the atom a negative ion, i.e. the energy change for the process\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9707",
"title": "Electronegativity",
"section": "Section::::Methods of calculation.:Mulliken electronegativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Robert S. Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy (E) and the electron affinity (E) should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed absolute electronegativity, with the units of kilojoules per mole or electronvolts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197964",
"title": "Electron affinity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity (\"E\") of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy \"released\" or \"spent\" when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59613",
"title": "Ionization energy",
"section": "Section::::Vertical and adiabatic ionization energy in molecules.:Adiabatic ionization energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The adiabatic ionization energy of a molecule is the \"minimum\" amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral molecule, i.e. the difference between the energy of the vibrational ground state of the neutral species (v\" = 0 level) and that of the positive ion (v' = 0). The specific equilibrium geometry of each species does not affect this value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197964",
"title": "Electron affinity",
"section": "Section::::\"Electron affinity\" as defined in solid state physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "In the field of solid state physics, the electron affinity is defined differently than in chemistry and atomic physics. For a semiconductor-vacuum interface (that is, the surface of a semiconductor), electron affinity, typically denoted by \"E\" or \"χ\", is defined as the energy obtained by moving an electron from the vacuum just outside the semiconductor to the bottom of the conduction band just inside the semiconductor:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23053",
"title": "Periodic table",
"section": "Section::::Periodic trends and patterns.:Electron affinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55gczv
|
What happened to the Rockefellers fortune?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a complicated question because when people see that the brothers had such a large sum they automatically assume the same thing you did. That wealth typically creates more wealth. The trouble is no one takes into account the time value of money. Which states that money today is more valuable than money tomorrow or a year from now. He was once valued at 336 billion but that was for at that time in history. The value of money decreases over time, plus the brothers were worth that much. Since their deaths it has been split between 200 family members. The fact that they are still able to be wealthy at this day and age is more what we're use to. In that families that are wealthy usually remain wealthy. The Rockefellers actually made some smart investments. They owned Chase Manhattan bank and were large investors in Apple, so their wealth has accrued but the world will never see the same as in the Gilded age. When there was The Rockefellers, JP. Morgan, Carnegie and So on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Estate and death taxes removed some of the wealth. Splitting it between 200 people who each have their own households and expenses did away with more of the money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "659333",
"title": "David Rockefeller",
"section": "Section::::Wealth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "At the time of his death, \"Forbes\" estimated Rockefeller's net worth was $3.3 billion. Initially, most of his wealth had come to him via the family trusts that his father had set up, which were administered by Room 5600 and the Chase Bank. In turn, most of these trusts were held as shares in the successor companies of Standard Oil, as well as diverse real estate investment partnerships, such as the expansive Embarcadero Center in San Francisco, which he later sold for considerable profit, retaining only an indirect stake. In addition, he was or had been a partner in various properties such as Caneel Bay, a resort development in the Virgin Islands; a cattle ranch in Argentina; and a sheep ranch in Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "564564",
"title": "Rockefeller family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "The Rockefeller family () is an American industrial, political, and banking family that owns one of the world's largest fortunes. The fortune was made in the American petroleum industry during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by John D. Rockefeller and his brother William Rockefeller, primarily through Standard Oil. The family has had a long association with, and control of, Chase Manhattan Bank. the Rockefellers were considered one of the most powerful families, if not the most powerful family, in the history of the United States. The Rockefeller family originated in Rhineland in Germany and family members moved to the New World in the early 18th century, while through Eliza Davison, John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller Jr. and their descendants are also of Scotch-Irish ancestry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55858225",
"title": "Construction of Rockefeller Center",
"section": "Section::::New plans.:RCA media complex proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "Since Rockefeller had invested large sums of money in the stock market, his wealth declined sharply as a result of the 1929 stock market crash. In September 1930, Rockefeller and Todd started looking for funding to construct the buildings; and by November they secured a tentative funding agreement with the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. In March 1931, this agreement was made official, with Metropolitan Life agreeing to lend $65 million (equivalent to $ million in ) to the Rockefeller Center Development Corporation. Metropolitan Life's president Frederick H. Ecker granted the money on two conditions: that no other entity would grant a loan to the complex, and that Rockefeller co-sign the loan so that he would be responsible for paying it off if the development corporation defaulted. Rockefeller covered ongoing expenses through the sale of oil company stock. Other estimates placed Radio City's cost at $120 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) based on plan H-16, released in August 1930, or $116.3 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) based on plan F-18, released in November 1930.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186300",
"title": "John D. Rockefeller",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "The Rockefeller wealth, distributed as it was through a system of foundations and trusts, continued to fund family philanthropic, commercial, and, eventually, political aspirations throughout the 20th century. John Jr.'s youngest son David Rockefeller was a leading New York banker, serving for over 20 years as CEO of Chase Manhattan (now part of JPMorgan Chase). Second son, Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, was Republican governor of New York and the 41st Vice President of the United States. Fourth son Winthrop Aldrich Rockefeller served as Republican Governor of Arkansas. Grandchildren Abigail Aldrich \"Abby\" Rockefeller and John Davison Rockefeller III became philanthropists. Grandson Laurance Spelman Rockefeller became a conservationist. Great-grandson John Davison \"Jay\" Rockefeller IV served from 1985 until 2015 as a Democratic Senator from West Virginia after serving as governor of West Virginia, and another Winthrop served as Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas for a decade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28931",
"title": "Standard Oil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Rockefeller ran the company as its chairman, until his retirement in 1897. He remained the major shareholder, and in 1911, with the dissolution of the Standard Oil trust into 34 smaller companies, Rockefeller became the richest man in the world, as the initial income of these individual enterprises proved to be much bigger than that of a single larger company. Its successors such as ExxonMobil or Chevron are still among the companies with the largest revenues in the world. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold. After 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, who built the Virginian Railway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186300",
"title": "John D. Rockefeller",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Wealth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "His wealth continued to grow significantly (in line with U.S. economic growth) as the demand for gasoline soared, eventually reaching about $900 million on the eve of the First World War, including significant interests in banking, shipping, mining, railroads, and other industries. His personal wealth was 900 million in 1913 worth 21 billion dollars adjusted for inflation in 2016. According to his \"New York Times\" obituary, \"it was estimated after Mr. Rockefeller retired from business that he had accumulated close to $1,500,000,000 out of the earnings of the Standard Oil trust and out of his other investments. This was probably the greatest amount of wealth that any private citizen had ever been able to accumulate by his own efforts.\" By the time of his death in 1937, Rockefeller's remaining fortune, largely tied up in permanent family trusts, was estimated at $1.4 billion, while the total national GDP was $92 billion. According to some methods of wealth calculation, Rockefeller's net worth over the last decades of his life would easily place him as the wealthiest known person in recent history. As a percentage of the United States' GDP, no other American fortune—including those of Bill Gates or Sam Walton—would even come close.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186300",
"title": "John D. Rockefeller",
"section": "Section::::Standard Oil.:Monopoly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Rockefeller, who had rarely sold shares, held over 25% of Standard's stock at the time of the breakup. He and all of the other stockholders received proportionate shares in each of the 34 companies. In the aftermath, Rockefeller's control over the oil industry was somewhat reduced but over the next 10 years, the breakup also proved immensely profitable for him. The companies' combined net worth rose fivefold and Rockefeller's personal wealth jumped to $900 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9okjl4
|
what would happen if a massive planet came very close to earth, as in, would our gravity change?
|
[
{
"answer": "The planets would disrupt each others orbit, draw each other closer together and then shoot apart again, over and over and over like this for years as gravity ripped chunks off of each with every pass, each time getting closer together. \n\nThose chunks would hit both planets turning them into lifeless balls of molten rock before finally slamming together completely, most of which would eventually cool down forming a solid mass, a new planet. The remainder of the materials would orbit around the new planet for a while, most of it raining down in the form of giant meteors, until they too eventually merge together and form a moon.\n\nThat's actually how Earth and the Moon were formed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gravity is very distance dependent, and decreases by the square of distance. The Sun is obviously influencing the Earth, but doesn't do anything to us personally, because we're so close to Earth. \n\nSo if some rouge planet zipped by us at the distance of, say, the moon, we wouldn't notice it at the individual level - we'd still be way closer to earth. \n\nHowever, the Earth is really big. So it notices gravity differently. It would likely cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and super crazy tides that would result in basically worldwide Tsunami like effects (tides that are double or triple their typical height). \n\nAnd that would be just if a planet zipped by once. If it got too close and stayed close, it would destroy everything. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I started to say \"No\", but then I realised the answer could be Yes.\n\nAt first I thought that the earth would be ripped apart long before the rogue planet could get close enough to have any measurable effect on our weight, but it turns out that's not the case!\n\nImagine a giant planet the mass of Jupiter, but denser. If it were as close to the earth as the moon is, the gravitational attraction between [the planet and a 100kg person](_URL_1_) would be about 78N, roughly equivalent to an 8% difference. So when the rogue was directly overhead, our 100kg person would weigh only 92kg, and when it was directly beneath them, they would weigh 108kg.\n\nWe'd definitely notice that.\n\nThe distance to the moon is about 400,000 kilometres, [well beyond the Roche limit for fluids](_URL_0_) (the atmosphere and oceans). The solid earth wouldn't start to pull apart until this Jupiter-like rogue was roughly 150.000 kilometres away. (About 80,000 km from the top of its atmosphere, 150,000km to its centre.) So in principle, we could live long enough to notice the gravitational attraction.\n\nBut in reality, if such a planet entered the solar system, we'd probably be wiped out by incoming comets and asteroids long before it got to us.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44815546",
"title": "Grand tack hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Scope of the grand tack hypothesis.:Absent super-Earths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1330,
"text": "The absence of close orbiting super-Earths in the Solar System may also be the result of Jupiter's inward migration. As Jupiter migrates inward, planetesimals are captured in its mean-motion resonances, causing their orbits to shrink and their eccentricities to grow. A collisional cascade follows as their relative velocities became large enough to produce catastrophic impacts. The resulting debris then spirals inward toward the Sun due to drag from the gas disk. If there were super-Earths in the early Solar System, they would have caught much of this debris in resonances and could have been driven into the Sun ahead of it. The current terrestrial planets would then form from planetesimals left behind when Jupiter reversed course. However, the migration of close orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar wind, which would have been much stronger during the early Solar System, leaving little to form planets inside Mercury's orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30647",
"title": "Tidal acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Other cases of tidal acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Most natural satellites of the planets undergo tidal acceleration to some degree (usually small), except for the two classes of tidally decelerated bodies. In most cases, however, the effect is small enough that even after billions of years most satellites will not actually be lost. The effect is probably most pronounced for Mars's second moon Deimos, which may become an Earth-crossing asteroid after it leaks out of Mars's grip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2592906",
"title": "Planetary habitability",
"section": "Section::::Suitable star systems.:A stable habitable zone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Second, no large-mass body such as a gas giant should be present in or relatively close to the HZ, thus disrupting the formation of Earth-size bodies. The matter in the asteroid belt, for example, appears to have been unable to accrete into a planet due to orbital resonances with Jupiter; if the giant had appeared in the region that is now between the orbits of Venus and Mars, Earth would almost certainly not have developed in its present form. However a gas giant inside the HZ might have habitable moons under the right conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58935753",
"title": "The Wandering Earth",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "As Earth passes by Jupiter to make use of gravity assist, a \"gravitational spike\" causes devastating earthquakes that disable many thrusters across the globe and pull the Earth dangerously close. The four escape amidst the chaos and attempt to make their way out in Han Zi'ang's truck, but the truck is requisitioned for a rescue mission by the military rescue team CN171-11; they are to transport a lighter core, an engine component, to restart the planetary thruster engine in Hangzhou, supervised by soldiers led by Wang Lei. In the remnants of Shanghai, they lose their vehicle, and while transporting the component up the ruins of the Shanghai Tower Han Zi'ang is killed. With news that the Hangzhou thruster was fully compromised and the city was completely destroyed, the group is downcast. However they later find a new vehicle where the on-board engineer, Li Yiyi, convinces them to transport a lighter core to repair a larger planetary thruster engine in Sulawesi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:The right location in the right kind of galaxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Gravitational perturbation of planets and planetesimals by nearby stars becomes less likely as the density of stars decreases. Hence the further a planet lies from the Galactic Center or a spiral arm, the less likely it is to be struck by a large bolide which could extinguish all complex life on a planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9422452",
"title": "Galactic tide",
"section": "Section::::Effects on bodies within a galaxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The Sun's gravity is sufficiently weak at such a distance that these small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge some planetesimals from such distant orbits, sending them towards the Sun and planets by significantly reducing their perihelia. Such a body, being composed of a rock and ice mixture, would become a comet when subjected to the increased solar radiation present in the inner Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1219210",
"title": "38th parallel structures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Interest in the possibility of serial impacts on Earth was piqued by observations of comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impacting on Jupiter in 1994. It is estimated, however, that the likelihood of such an event on Earth is vanishingly small because the Earth's weaker gravitational field is much less able than Jupiter's to pull a speeding object close enough to be torn apart by tidal forces. However, evidence of serial impacts on the Moon can be seen in several chains of craters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5babn8
|
which one is more environmental friendly - eating with a disposable plate and cutlery to save water; or eating with normal plate and wash them with water and soap?
|
[
{
"answer": "Trick question. Eating with compostable dinnerware and silver ware is best.\n\nPlastic plates and utensils are worst. Hand washing is better. Using a dishwasher when full is better. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Washing your dishes is more environmentally friendly. The water is not destroyed in the washing process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree this is a trick question, just because of how complicated the question is. This is basically called an LCA (life cycle assessment) where you look at the environmental impact of a products entire life.\nIt goes from resource extraction to production to shipping to use to end of life, the whole life. So, just because you're using compostable cutlery doesn't mean shit If it took a lot of materials to make that and then ship it to you.. And if you keep disposing them and needing new ones that makes the environmental impact higher.\nWhereas lets say you get a nice ceramic plate and use it for 20 years, over and over hand washing. I personally would argue that the amount of water spent washing 1 plate over a lifetime is so negligable it would maybe not even make it on an LCA. But idk,\nBasically, we would need to look at some really extensive piece of research telling us about a products whole life (not just the time we use it!) and go from there.\nTl;dr environmentalism is confusing, producing less waste is generally the more environmentally friendly thing tho (even if its compostable)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most environmentally friendly option is to only eat things that require neither dishes nor cutlery ie Pizza, Bananas, Ice Cream cones, Hot Dogs, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suppose you can go around and around on this one, as some resources get used either way, but you don't \"use\" water. You temporarily borrow the water. The small amounts of detergent and detritus you wind up with in the water will partly get taken out by a water treatment plant and in some cases are not really hazardous to nature to begin with. \n\nBuilding disposable cutlery - especially if you do it out of plastic - is a whole different ball of wax. Or plastic, as the case may be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Several people have mentioned compostable items. We've discussed the extraction, manufacturing, and shipping impacts, but end of life is important too.\n\nThe standard for compostable cups, plates, utensils state that they must biodegrade in certain conditions and within a certain timeframe. I don't have the exact language in front of me, but it's something like, in 90 days break down to certain size pieces. However, those standards are typical of industrial** compost facilities. They certainly don't compost in a landfill, nor will such items break down in your home compost pile. In fact, for municipalities that offer curbside composting, there's nothing requiring them to set the conditions such that these items will break down. To meet the standards, typically you need 90 days, conditions over a certain temp, and the material needs to be ground up early on. Your home pile won't reach the necessary temps and a commercial facility can't afford to let product sit for 90 days when most food and yard debris breaks down sufficiently in 30-60 days. (selling finished compost is revenue opportunity).\n\nTL:DR Compostable dishes rarely are actually composted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A shit ton of water is used to make paper.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Definitely washing your plates is better for the environment. Even more so if you wait until you have a dishwasher full of plates/ other items. (New) Dish washers are exceptionally efficient and conserve a ton of water over washing in the sink. \n\nWater that's used for washing can be recycled and reconditioned to be safe for release or reuse. Disposable goes into landfills. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "216150",
"title": "Food quality",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Besides ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to ensure that the food processing environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible food for the consumer. A recent example of poor sanitation recently has been the 2006 North American E. coli outbreak involving spinach, an outbreak that is still under investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651576",
"title": "Dishwashing",
"section": "Section::::Sanitization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Where dishes are to be shared among many, such as in restaurants, sanitization is necessary and desirable in order to prevent spread of microorganisms. Most restaurants have three-compartment sinks (depending on country or state regulations) and use the three-sink system (washing, rinsing and sanitizing of dirty dishes) with the first compartment containing a combination of warm water and soap or detergent. Water within the first compartment often needs to be between (according to applicable health codes). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38726827",
"title": "HLFS Ursprung",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "In the kitchen, for example, the food has to be organic, and there is a big animal-welfare priority. The school has to do without chemicals, so cleaners, for instance, are replaced with environmentally-friendly products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1624954",
"title": "Raw feeding",
"section": "Section::::Food safety.:Zoonotic risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "As a result of the potential animal and human health risks, some agencies assert that the risks inherent in raw feeding outweigh the purported benefits. Despite such concerns, there is no known incidence of humans being infected with salmonella by cats and dogs fed a raw diet. There have been isolated cases of humans contracting salmonella from household pets, but it is undetermined whether raw food was connected to the salmonella infection. The FDA recommends cleaning and disinfecting all surfaces that come in contact with raw meat, as well as thoroughly washing hands your hands, to reduce the risk of coming in contact with harmful bacteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5355",
"title": "Cooking",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Food safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the \"Danger zone\" temperature range from , food therefore should not be stored in this temperature range. Washing of hands and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination, are good practices in food preparation. Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones. Washing and disinfecting cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Culinary (food) hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Culinary hygiene pertains to the practices related to food management and cooking to prevent food contamination, prevent food poisoning and minimize the transmission of disease to other foods, humans or animals. Culinary hygiene practices specify safe ways to handle, store, prepare, serve and eat food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35764282",
"title": "Fruit and vegetable wash",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the United States Department of Agriculture recommend washing fruits and vegetables in anything other than cold water. To date there is little evidence that vegetable washes are effective at reducing the presence of harmful microorganisms, though their application in removing simple dirt and wax is not contested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
73hcgu
|
why do animals in a particular ecological niche often look so similar even if they are completely unrelated?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a concept called \"convergent evolution.\" Basically, if the pressures on one creature were such that flight was advantageous to survival in a particular environment, those same pressures could easily select for similar variations should they happen to randomly arise in another species. \n\nThis is particularly true for those filing the same niche, as the pressures will be particularly similar. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Convergent evolution happens because optimal solutions exist.\n\nIe. if you want to move through the water efficiently it's effective to have a hydrodynamic shape, a propulsion method and a steering method.\n\nThere are many different ways of achieving this. That's why there are some pretty exotic solutions, like the way a squid will take in water and then squirt it out to propel itself forward or a flat eel with a body shaped like one big paddle.\n\nBut one of the simplest and most effective solutions is having a torpedo shaped body, with a big paddle for propulsion at the rear end and a number of fins to use as control surfaces.\n\nWhich is why the archetypical shark, whale, seal and ichthyosaur all more or less look the same. For entirely different species, evolution keeps resulting in a fairly optimal solution.\n\nAlong the same lines, specific needs create specific shapes. So while a torpedo with paddles might be an ideal shape for animals that swim in open waters, specific needs will just as easily see them evolve away from that basic shape. For instance flatfish. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "82804",
"title": "Convergent evolution",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In morphology, analogous traits arise when different species live in similar ways and/or a similar environment, and so face the same environmental factors. When occupying similar ecological niches (that is, a distinctive way of life) similar problems can lead to similar solutions. The British anatomist Richard Owen was the first to identify the fundamental difference between analogies and homologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67244",
"title": "Ecological niche",
"section": "Section::::Parameters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The different dimensions, or \"plot axes\", of a niche represent different biotic and abiotic variables. These factors may include descriptions of the organism's life history, habitat, trophic position (place in the food chain), and geographic range. According to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. The parameters of a realized niche are described by the realized niche width of that species. Some plants and animals, called specialists, need specific habitats and surroundings to survive, such as the spotted owl, which lives specifically in old growth forests. Other plants and animals, called generalists, are not as particular and can survive in a range of conditions, for example the dandelion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15668264",
"title": "Geoplanidae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Because of their strict ecological requirements, some species have been proposed as indicators of the conservation state of their habitats. They are generally animals with low vagility (dispersal ability) and with very specific habitat requirements, so they can be also used to accurately determine the distribution of ecozones. Today the fauna of these animals is being studied to select conservation priorities in the Atlantic rainforest in Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18071",
"title": "Llama",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67244",
"title": "Ecological niche",
"section": "Section::::Grinnellian niche.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different succulents found in American and African deserts, cactus and euphorbia, respectively. As another example, the anole lizards of the Greater Antilles are a rare example of convergent evolution, adaptive radiation, and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar microhabitats independently of each other and resulted in the same ecomorphs across all four islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2142816",
"title": "Borrelia burgdorferi",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Multiple-niche polymorphism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Ecological niches are all of the variables in an environment, such as the resources, competitors, and responses, that contribute to the organism's fitness. Multiple-niche polymorphism states that diversity is maintained within a population due to the varying amount of possible niches and environments. Therefore, the more various niches the more likelihood of polymophrism and diversity. For \"B. burgdorferi\", varying vertebrae niches, such deer and mice, can affect the overall balancing selection for variants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168041",
"title": "Anatomical terms of location",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Standard anatomical position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, positional descriptive terms need to refer to the animal as in its standard anatomical position. All descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fgkgaf
|
non-native speaker here, why is "biannually" considered to be twice a year, but "biweekly" only once every two weeks instead of two times per week?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Biweekly\" can refer to either twice a week or two times a week. The same for \"bimonthly\" (i.e. once a month or two times a month).\n\nThe issue stems from the prefix *\"bi-\"*, which is inherently ambiguous in that it can mean either **occuring twice** or **occuring every two**.\n\nEnglish offers us an alternative with 'annual', as things can either be *\"biannual\"* (twice a year) or *\"biennial\"* (every two years). However, using the word \"biannual\" to mean every two years is also technically correct, and is more often used over \"biennial\".\n\n*\"Bi-\"* is one of English's many ambiguities and requires experience with understanding context to decipher its true meaning in a given situation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5933152",
"title": "Biweekly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Biweekly means either occurring every two weeks, or occurring twice every week. This causes ambiguity when the term is used. As a result, in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, the term fortnightly is more commonly used for an event that occurs every two weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25563893",
"title": "At Home day",
"section": "Section::::British colonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The custom of \"At Home\" days was also observed in the British colonies, such as in Wellington, New Zealand. Here the tradition served to uphold barriers between the different social classes among the colonists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2083322",
"title": "Frybread",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "For many Native Americans, \"frybread links generation with generation and also connects the present to the painful narrative of Native American history\". It is often served both at home and at gatherings. The way it is served varies from region to region and different tribes have different recipes. It can be found in its many ways at state fairs and pow-wows, but what is served to the paying public may be different from what is served in private homes and in the context of tribal family relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6889",
"title": "Census",
"section": "Section::::Residence definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "People with second homes because they are working in another part of the country or have a holiday cottage are difficult to fix at a particular address; this sometimes causes double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations, or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live, as there is no systematic alternative: any list you could use to find people is likely to be derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendations on enumerating such complex households.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24750936",
"title": "Mirabilis nyctaginea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Four-o'-clock is native to the central section of North America, and it occurs elsewhere as an introduced species, including parts of Europe. Its exact native range is obscure, and it is often weedy throughout its range, spreading into disturbed habitat easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548184",
"title": "Long Walk of the Navajo",
"section": "Section::::Return and end of Long Walk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "On June 18, 1868, the once-scattered bands of people who call themselves \"Diné\", set off together on the return journey, the \"Long Walk\" home. This is one of the few instances where the U.S. government permitted a tribe to return to their traditional boundaries. The Navajo were granted 3.5 million acres (14,000 km²) of land inside their four sacred mountains. The Navajo also became a more cohesive tribe after the Long Walk and were able to successfully increase the size of their reservation since then, to over 16 million acres (70,000 km²).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23929145",
"title": "Two-spirit",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Origin and evolution of the term \"two-spirit\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Even at the series of conferences where the term was gradually adopted (1990 being the third of five), concern was expressed by a number of the Native attendees that traditional Natives back in the reservation communities would never agree to this newly-coined concept, or adopt the neologism being used to describe it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ntosg
|
why are people/businesses moving to the south and not detroit?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lot fewer unions in the south is a big part. Also rules and regulations setup over decades that are unfriendly to new business in Detroit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another thing that hasn't been said is weather: people don't like winter and the ice and snow it brings to your commute and ability to get out of the house. The South can get oppressively hot, but being in proximity to water and air conditioning have helped a lot, and make it very liveable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8687",
"title": "Detroit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Postwar era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "All of these changes in the area's transportation system favored low-density, auto-oriented development rather than high-density urban development, and industry also moved to the suburbs. The metro Detroit area developed as one of the most sprawling job markets in the United States by the 21st century, and combined with poor public transport, resulted in many jobs beyond the reach of urban low-income workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8687",
"title": "Detroit",
"section": "Section::::Culture and contemporary life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In the central portions of Detroit, the population of young professionals, artists, and other transplants is growing and retail is expanding. This dynamic is luring additional new residents, and former residents returning from other cities, to the city's Downtown along with the revitalized Midtown and New Center areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56394191",
"title": "Detroit Black Community Food Security Network",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pretext for founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Outside and foreign investors, white flight, and the collapse of the automobile industry have made it difficult for local Detroit residents to own land, a reflection of the trend since 1910 of African American land ownership. The 1980s of Detroit maintained a trend of supermarket closures, with Farmer Jack, the last chain grocery store in Detroit in 2007. Years before the United States financial crisis of 2008, Detroit entered a recession. After the country-wide recession struck, Detroit's depression worsened, which resulted in increases in unemployment, crime, and poverty levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23801592",
"title": "Demographic history of Detroit",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In the early 20th century from 1910 to 1930, Detroit was among the many cities in the North that attracted immigrants from southern, central, and eastern Europe as well as African American migrants during the Great Migration. The promise of good jobs in addition to readily available property brought many people to the Motor City, as they sought a place where they could settle down and live the American Dream. More than one-fifth of the population of the city was consistently composed of immigrants during the first half of the 20th century. From at least 1880 to the 1980s, the greatest number of immigrants and their descendants living in Wayne County, Michigan (where Detroit is located) were from central and eastern Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59330958",
"title": "Keep Growing Detroit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Urban Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Detroit’s urban agriculture initiatives are well established compared to others in the United States. Because of the need for reliable and healthy food sources, Detroit shows potential for the expansion of urban agriculture from a neighborhood level to a city level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310995",
"title": "Shrinking cities",
"section": "Section::::Case study: Detroit, Michigan.:History of Detroit's changing demographics.:The Motor City.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1726,
"text": "Road engineers and industry workers flocked to Detroit with the passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 (Phipps Act). The creation of interstate highways and well-maintained roads made it easier to build homes away from the urban city center, increasing urban sprawl and suburbanization that would later characterize the region. Just as the highways allowed for suburban sprawl, they also allowed for segregation between suburbanites (typically white) and working class city-dwellers (immigrants and African Americans) as workers could not afford to move away from the city center. As population boomed, close living quarters instigated racially charged conflicts, through \"everyday expressions of white supremacy, and segregation\". As thousands of workers moved into the city, many lived near the factories to be close to work and fellow union members, creating concentrated neighborhoods of working class citizens. These neighborhoods were often class- and race-based, perpetuating social stigmas surrounding race and ethnic group. Much of this racial and class-based segregation continues today. Debates over the trade union of the automobile industry also sparked conflict, turning the working class against many wealthy industry owners and cementing the class system that would come to characterize the population. Ford's next conception of the automated assembly line changed city demographics, allowing unskilled labor to dominate the automobile industry and pushing skilled craftsmen out, usually further into the suburbs. The city developed at a rapid pace, with General Motors building offices adjacent to poor working class ghettoes, and developing the Detroit River to serve the needs of the auto industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18859",
"title": "Michigan",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th and 21st centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "With the growth, the auto industry created jobs in Detroit that attracted immigrants from Europe and migrants from across the United States, including both blacks and whites from the rural South. By 1920, Detroit was the fourth-largest city in the US. Residential housing was in short supply, and it took years for the market to catch up with the population boom. By the 1930s, so many immigrants had arrived that more than 30 languages were spoken in the public schools, and ethnic communities celebrated in annual heritage festivals. Over the years immigrants and migrants contributed greatly to Detroit's diverse urban culture, including popular music trends. The influential Motown Sound of the 1960s was led by a variety of individual singers and groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8ivlfa
|
Would a helium filled balloon float on Mars?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can solve this with the ideal gas law, pV = nRT. Pressure x Volume = #molecules x ideal-gas-contant x temperature. \n\n\nMars' atmosphere is made of carbon dioxide, which has a molar mass of 44g/mol. Air, which is basically an 80-20 mix of nitrogen and oxygen, has a molar mass of 29 g/mol. Helium is 4g/mol. Helium is actually 50% more boyant on Mars than it is on earth. It's looking good, but we haven't factored in the balloon yet. \n\n\n\nBalloons equalize pressure between the atmosphere and the gas inside, plus a little tension from the balloon itself. From some random YouTube video, it seem a balloon fully inflated is at 110 kPa. About 10 kPa over earth's atmosphere. On earth this extra pressure due to the balloon's tension is minimal. On Mars, not so much. Mars' atmosphere is at 0.6 kPa, so a fully inflated balloon would be at 10.6 kPa. \n\n\n\nThe volume of a mol, from the ideal gas law is, V = RT/P. For earth (100kPa, 25C), a mol is about 24L. Which is about a large party balloon, we'll go with that. So the air it is displacing is 29g. The helium is 4g. And the balloon is about 15g. So about 10g of displaced air mass. 10g at 9.81 m/s/s of gravity is 98 mN of lift. About 0.02 pounds for those of you using barbarian units. \n\n\nThe same 24L of martian air is 0.6 kPa(24L) = nR (-55C). So 0.00795 mol. Which at 44g/mol, is 0.35g. Which is way less than the 15g balloon, so even without the helium weight it simply can't be done. The helium at 10.6 kPa is going to be 0.1404 mol. Which will have a mass of 0.56 g. Even the helium itself will weigh more than the displaced martian atmosphere. The displaced 0.35g is replaced by 15.6 g, which at 3.7 m/s/s of gravity is 58mN of force. \n\n\n98 mN rise on earth, 58 mN sink on Mars, varying obviously with some assumptions and averages I made. Nonetheless, a helium filled party balloon on Mars will definitely not float, but will sink with around the same force one rises at on earth. \n\n\nAs for a balloon on Mars made to be a balloon on Mars, it definitely could be done. After all, helium is actually 50% more boyant on Mars. You'd have to go with a much lighter material, as Martian air doesn't weigh much. Or go with a much bigger latex balloon, as you increase the volume the balloon weight starts becoming a much smaller relative to the volume, by a squared factor. Neither of these will matter though if your helium under pressure still weighs more than your martian atmosphere. You'd have to have much less tension in the balloon to keep the helium at a pressure much closer to the atmospheric pressure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The right design of balloon would.\n\nDepend on location, the air pressure at ground level on Mars is equivalent to Earth between around 100,000 and 190,000 feet. High altitude balloons can reach 120,000 feet on Earth, so they could fly on Mars.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe lower gravity of Mars is not an issue because it cancels out - less buoyancy force is generated but the balloon skin and any payload also weigh less. Mars' CO2 atmosphere is denser than Earth's nitrogen-oxygen one at a given pressure which will increase the lift of the balloon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18995926",
"title": "Lifting gas",
"section": "Section::::Balloons on other celestial bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "BULLET::::- Mars has a very thin atmosphere – the pressure is only 1/160th of earth atmospheric pressure – so a huge balloon would be needed even for a tiny lifting effect. Overcoming the weight of such a balloon would be difficult, but several proposals to explore Mars with balloons have been made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24704485",
"title": "Balloon boy hoax",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Helium balloon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Fully inflated, a balloon of this size would contain just over of helium. Helium's lift capacity at sea level and 0 °C is 1.113 kg/m (0.07 lbs/ft) and decreases at higher altitudes and at higher temperatures. The volume of helium in the balloon has been estimated as being able to lift a total load, including the balloon material and the structure beneath it, of at sea level and at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54227978",
"title": "Kuang-Chi",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Near-Space Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "A helium-filled balloon carries a 'Traveler' capsule into the stratosphere at an altitude of 24,000 meters (80,000 feet). Once operational, passengers in the capsule will be able to see the blackness of space and the curvature of the planet. The Traveler is equipped with solar panes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48814",
"title": "Aerobot",
"section": "Section::::Basics of balloons.:The Mars aerobot effort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Total mass of the balloon assembly was 65 kilograms (143 pounds), with a 15 kilogram (33 pound) gondola and a 13.5 kilogram (30 pound) instrumented guiderope. The balloon was expected to operate for ten days. Unfortunately, although considerable development work was performed on the balloon and its subsystems, Russian financial difficulties pushed the Mars probe out from 1992, then to 1994, and then to 1996. The Mars balloon was dropped from the project due to cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48814",
"title": "Aerobot",
"section": "Section::::Basics of balloons.:The Mars aerobot effort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Eventually, the group decided on a cylindrical sealed helium balloon made of aluminized PET film, and with a volume of 5,500 cubic meters (196,000 cubic feet). The balloon would rise when heated during the day and sink as it cooled at night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "Section::::Buoyancy and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "A common helium-filled toy balloon is something familiar to many. When such a balloon is fully filled with helium, it has buoyancy—a force that opposes gravity. When a toy balloon becomes partially deflated, it often becomes neutrally buoyant and can float about the house a meter or two off the floor. In such a state, there are moments when the balloon is neither rising nor falling and—in the sense that a scale placed under it has no force applied to it—is, in a sense perfectly weightless (actually as noted below, weight has merely been redistributed along the Earth's surface so it cannot be measured). Though the rubber comprising the balloon has a mass of only a few grams, which might be almost unnoticeable, the rubber still retains all its mass when inflated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29126119",
"title": "Balloon",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Decoration or entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "When rubber or plastic balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they typically retain their buoyancy for only a day or so, sometimes longer. The enclosed helium atoms escape through small pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer, sometimes for up to a week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jruq8
|
Japan and the UK were allies in WW1. What happened to this alliance post WW1 and pre WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "Japan's entry into the First World War was a highly measured response. Japan acted against German interests in the Pacific, most notably invading the German concession at Tsingtao. Japan did not put its economy on a wartime footing and only after repeated entreaties by the British did she send some military force into the European theater in 1917, a small destroyer force engaged in ASW operations in the Mediterranean. Japan justified entry into the war on the grounds of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, an accord that had its origins in the two countries' concerns with defense issues in the Pacific at the turn of the century. \n\nThe Anglo-Japanese Alliance had really begun to fracture significantly by the outbreak of the First World War over differing strategic priorities. The initial orientation of the alliance when it was signed in 1902 was as mutual security pact against Russian intervention within the East Asia. The British conceptualized the pact as a means to guarantee imperial defense within India. For their part, the Japanese saw this alliance as a means to gain access to British naval technology and as a means to ensure a friendly Britain in the event of war with Russia. Japan's victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War and the latter's subsequent strategic retreat from East Asia because of the Revolution of 1905 changed this strategic calculus. But the ardor for alliance had cooled somewhat even before the Russo-Japanese War. Prior to 1902, London's understanding of the balance of power was that by helping prop up Japan, they would have prevented Russia from capitalizing upon Japan's perceived weakness and expanding into Korea and Manchuria. This strengthened Russia could then pose an even bigger threat to India. In the run-up to the war, Balfour declared of the alliance that:\n\n > If we interpret the Japanese Alliance as one requiring us to help Japan whenever she gets to loggerheads with Russia, it is absurdly one-sided. Japan certainly would not help us to prevent Amsterdam from falling into the hands of the French, or Holland falling into the hands of the Germans. Nor would she involve herself in any quarrel we might have over the northwest frontier of India. \n\nRussia's defeat altered this strategic equation. The negotiations over the alliance's renewal in 1911 illustrated these new strains. Although the Anglo-Japanese diplomatic negotiations were successful and led to a renewal of the alliance for ten years, there was a clear tension between the two nations. Japan had sought British guarantees for support in case Japan went to war with the United States, and London steadfastly refused. Instead, Article IV of the renewed treaty stated:\n\n > Should either High Contracting Party conclude a treaty of general \narbitration with a third Power, it is agreed that nothing in this Agreement shall entail upon such Contracting Party an obligation to go to war with the Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in force. \n\nAlthough Article IV does not explicitly mention the US, London had already begun the long process of signing just such an arbitration treaty with the United States that would culminate in the Peace Commissions Treaty of 1914. Renewing the treaty helped forestall any other alliance Japan might make with another power and kept a modicum of security for imperial defense. \n\nFor their part, the opinion of the alliance within Japanese elite circles had dimmed considerably by 1911. Katō Takaaki, the Anglophile foreign minister in 1914, was a strong proponent of the alliance and saw fulfilling it as a means to enhance Japanese power and the strength of the foreign ministry. Yet Katō's opinion of the alliance was increasingly a minority one. One of Japan's senior statesmen, Field Marshal Yamagata Aritomo saw Article IV as proof that Japan would have to stand alone in the coming conflict over Asia and the state would have to double its defense burden. The Japanese Navy had already designated the US as Japan's main hypothetical enemy in its budgetary plans by 1907 and had begun a program of naval expansion, the eight-eight fleet. \n\nWithin this context, Japan's entry into the war and Britain's reluctance over Japan's belligerence makes more sense. The alliance gave Japan a pretext to enter the war, but on Japan's own terms. Factionalism within the Japanese government and ruling elite meant that Japan's leadership was divided upon what Japan's goals should take. Yamagata Aritomo saw the war as a means to create a rapprochement with Russia and help orient Japan towards an Asian-based land power, undercutting the increasingly expensive naval arms build-up. Katō saw the war as a means to cement Japan's status as an imperial power and take its place with its fellow empire, Britain. Other pan-Asianists within the government saw the power-vacuum created by the war as an opportunity to institute an Asian Monroe Doctrine with Japan as its main enforcer. \n\nGiven the Japanese use of the treaty, Britain did not really exert too much effort in renewing it in the aftermath of the First World War. Although Britain initially proposed a tripartite Anglo-Japanese-American pact to keep the Pacific status quo, the US was reluctant to enter into this arrangement. The Washington Conference of 1921 proved the last gasp of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty as British negotiators used the threat of its renewal if the Washington Conference fell apart or was otherwise unfavorable to Britain. The resulting Four-Power Treaty assuring the status quo in the Pacific proved the end of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, but both the strategic vision of both Japan and Britain had parted ways well before 1921.\n\n*Sources*\n\nDickinson, Frederick R. *War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914-1919*. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Asia Center, 1999. \n\n_. *World War I and the Triumph of a New Japan, 1919-1930*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.\n\nO'Brien, Phillips Payson. *The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902-1922*. London: Routledge, 2004. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2140913",
"title": "Germany–Japan relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cooling of relations and World War I (1885–1920).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German–Japanese relations had truly deteriorated. On 7 August 1914, only three days after Britain declared war on the German Empire, the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters. Japan, eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South-East Asia, especially on China's coast, sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914, which was left unanswered. Japan then formally declared war on the German Empire on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain, France and the Russian Empire to seize the German-held Caroline, Marshall, and Mariana Islands in the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58033876",
"title": "Japanese entry into World War I",
"section": "Section::::Operations against Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German–Japanese relations had truly deteriorated. On 7 August 1914, only three days after Britain declared war on the German Empire, the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters. Japan, eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South-East Asia, especially on China's coast, sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914, which was left unanswered. Japan then formally declared war on the German Empire on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain, France and the Russian Empire to seize the German-held Caroline, Marshall, and Mariana Islands in the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9461425",
"title": "Empire of Japan–Russian Empire relations",
"section": "Section::::World War I (1914–1917).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The alliance with Britain prompted Japan to enter World War I on the British (and thus Russian) side. Since Japan and Russia had become allies by convenience, Japan sold back to Russia a number of former Russian ships, which Japan had captured during the Russo-Japanese War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69972",
"title": "First Sino-Japanese War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "In 1902, Japan formed an alliance with Britain, the terms of which stated that if Japan went to war in the Far East and that a third power entered the fight against Japan, then Britain would come to the aid of the Japanese. This was a check to prevent Germany or France from intervening militarily in any future war with Russia. Japan sought to prevent a repetition of the Triple Intervention that deprived it of Port Arthur. The British reasons for joining the alliance were to check the spread of Russian expansion into the Pacific area, to strengthen Britain's focus on other areas, and to gain a powerful naval ally in the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282291",
"title": "Aftermath of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Political upheavals.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Because of the treaty that Japan had signed with Great Britain in 1902, Japan was one of the Allies during the war. With British assistance, Japanese forces attacked Germany's territories in Shandong province in China, including the East Asian coaling base of the Imperial German navy. The German forces were defeated and surrendered to Japan in November 1914. The Japanese navy also succeeded in seizing several of Germany's island possessions in the Western Pacific: the Marianas, Carolines, and Marshall Islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12484129",
"title": "Kantai Kessen",
"section": "Section::::Development of Japanese Naval theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "With the onset of the Great War Britain called upon Japan to honor their commitment in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Japan did so, joining the Allies. They attacked and took the German colony Tsingtao in China, and later performed convoy duties in the Mediterranean. At the end of the war Japan gained the German possessions in China, and through the South Pacific Mandate gained Pacific islands in Palau, the Marianas, Micronesia and the Marshalls. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58033876",
"title": "Japanese entry into World War I",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1734,
"text": "Japan and Great Britain had both avoided military alliances before 1900. That changed in 1902 with the signing of a treaty. It was a diplomatic milestone that saw an end to Britain's splendid isolation, and removed the need for Britain to build up its navy in the Pacific. The alliance was renewed and expanded in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911. The original goal was opposition to Russian expansion. The alliance facilitated Japanese entry into the World War, but did not require Japan to do so. Britain had not consulted Japan before declaring war on Germany, but soon after the war began it requested Japanese help in identifying the location of German shipping, which it admitted was a non-neutral act. Japan decided that for its own prestige in world affairs it had to join the war effort. The European allies formally gave Japan the status of a full ally, and Britain, France, Russia and Italy guaranteed support at the peace conference for Japan's claims to take over Germany's possessions in China. However, Britain was increasingly annoyed at Japanese aggression, and quietly warned that it should not occupy German islands in the South Pacific (which were desired by Australia and New Zealand), should not become involved in the Eastern Pacific, and should not seize the Dutch East Indies. When Japan ignored the hints, Britain made them public, and Tokyo felt insulted. Japan entered the war without restrictions, but in practice it took German possessions in China, German islands north of the equator, and made serious threats to Chinese autonomy, the Twenty-One Demands. China, feeling the very heavy pressure from Tokyo, and gaining widespread support from all the other Allies, decided it had to enter the war as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bidy74
|
how do glute muscles become weak?
|
[
{
"answer": "The same way any other muscle gets weaker. Over time and extended periods of low use, they deteriorate and lose mass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8055330",
"title": "Muscle coactivation",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "Muscle coactivation allows muscle groups surrounding a joint to become more stable. This is due to both muscles (or sets of muscles) contracting at the same time, which produces compression on the joint. The joint is able to become stiffer and more stable due to this action. For example, when the bicep and the triceps coactivate, the elbow becomes more stable. This stabilization mechanism is also important for unexpected loads impeded on the joint, allowing the muscles to coactivate and provide stability to the joint in a quick fashion. This mechanism is controlled neuromuscularly, which allows the muscle(s) to contract. This occurs through a motor neuron sending a signal (through creating action potentials) to the muscle fiber to contract by releasing Acetylcholine. When signals are sent to all muscle fibers in a muscle group, the muscle group will contract as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11280915",
"title": "Frailty syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Muscle weakness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Muscle weakness, also known as muscle fatigue, (or \"lack of strength\") refers to the inability to exert force with one's skeletal muscles. Weakness often follows muscle atrophy and a decrease in activity, such as after a long bout of bedrest as a result of an illness. There is also a gradual onset of muscle weakness as a result of sarcopenia - the age-related loss of skeletal muscle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3266190",
"title": "Muscle weakness",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Peripheral muscle fatigue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Though not universally used, \"metabolic fatigue\" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the muscle fiber. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the ability of Ca to stimulate actin and myosin to contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3779092",
"title": "Muscles of the hip",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Gluteal group.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The gluteal muscles include the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae. They cover the lateral surface of the ilium. The gluteus maximus, which forms most of the muscle of the buttocks, originates primarily on the ilium and sacrum and inserts on the gluteal tuberosity of the femur as well as the iliotibial tract, a tract of strong fibrous tissue that runs along the lateral thigh to the tibia and fibula. The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus originate anterior to the gluteus maximus on the ilium and both insert on the greater trochanter of the femur. The tensor fasciae latae shares its origin with the gluteus maximus at the ilium and also shares the insertion at the iliotibial tract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47670171",
"title": "Muscle imbalance",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "In terms of selective muscle weakness or poor flexibility muscular imbalance is frequently regarded as an etiological factor in the onset of musculoskeletal disorders. There are a variety of areas that can be affected, each causing different symptoms hence there are also different treatments available, but in general cases muscle strengthening techniques were developed for the use on the weak or tight muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424433",
"title": "Weakness",
"section": "Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Types.:Peripheral muscle fatigue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Though not universally used, \"metabolic fatigue\" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the myocytes. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the ability of Ca to stimulate actin and myosin to contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18447032",
"title": "Muscle contracture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "For example, in the case of partial paralysis (i.e. poliomyelitis) the loss of strength and muscle control tend to be greater in some muscles than in others, leading to an imbalance between the various muscle groups around specific joints. Case in point: when the muscles which dorsiflex (flex the foot upward) are less functional than the muscles which plantarflex (flex the foot downward) a contracture occurs, giving the foot a progressively downward angle and loss of flexibility. Various interventions can slow, stop, or even reverse muscle contractures, ranging from physical therapy to surgery. A common cause for having the ankle lose its flexibility in this manner is from having sheets tucked in at the foot of the bed when sleeping. The weight of the sheets keep the feet plantarflexed all night. Correcting this by not tucking the sheets in at the foot of the bed, or by sleeping with the feet hanging off the bed when in the prone position, is part of correcting this imbalance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
216qhy
|
why is fertilizer the primary ingredient in many homemade bombs?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the nitrogen//nitrogen-based chemicals in the fertilizer. The nitrogen stuff is great for growing crops... but it's also good for explosives.\n\nYou can search for \"nitrogen explosive compounds\", but read here this one example of why:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37401",
"title": "Fertilizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31212288",
"title": "List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Post-independence.:Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 2013, a Pakistani firm invented a new formula to make fertilizers that cannot be converted into bomb-making materials. The firm, Fatima Fertilizer, had succeeded in making non-lethal alternatives to ammonium nitrate, a key ingredient in the fertilizers it makes. Fertilizers with ammonium nitrate, however, can easily be converted into bomb-making ingredients. This invention was praised by the Pentagon. “Such a long-term solution would be a true scientific breakthrough,” US Army Lieutenant General Michael Barbero, the head of the Pentagon's Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization, said in a statement. After this invention, CNN reported that the United States and Pakistan reached an agreement to jointly make fertilizers with non-explosive materials. But diplomatic sources told Dawn that an agreement could only be reached after the new material is tested. The sources said that US experts would soon visit Pakistan for testing the new material with experts from the Fatima Group, Pakistan's major fertilizer manufacturer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37401",
"title": "Fertilizer",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37401",
"title": "Fertilizer",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Liquid vs solid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic fertilizers are urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride. Solid fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as prills, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g., UAN). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage. The addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called \"fertigation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26270315",
"title": "Soil management",
"section": "Section::::Practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- Using fertilizers increases nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and potassium in the soil. The use of fertilizers influences soil pH and often acidifies soils, with the exception of potassium fertilizer. Fertilizers can be organic or synthetic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16270616",
"title": "Glossary of environmental science",
"section": "Section::::F.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 252,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 252,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- fertilizers (also spelled fertilisers) - compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377228",
"title": "Cyanogen",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "It attained importance with the growth of the fertilizer industry in the late 19th century and remains an important intermediate in the production of many fertilizers. It is also used as a stabilizer in the production of nitrocellulose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c91rpz
|
how is it that someone (like myself) is allergic to almost every antibiotic? what makes the body hate them so much?
|
[
{
"answer": "Essentially an allergy is an immune response to a foreign substance. \n\nFor you, the antibiotics has 'proteins' antigens which trigger the white cells of you immune system to attack them. This appears as massive inflammation due to degranulation of mast cells releasing imflammatory proteins etc. Typically presenting as Rashes to full blown anaphylaxis (air way compromise) \n\n & #x200B;\n\nWhen patients come with multiple drug 'allergies' it important to differentiate what is a true allergy vs what is a side effect of antibiotic such as nausea/diarrhoea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55313",
"title": "Allergy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Aside from these ambient allergens, allergic reactions can result from foods, insect stings, and reactions to medications like aspirin and antibiotics such as penicillin. Symptoms of food allergy include abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea, itchy skin, and swelling of the skin during hives. Food allergies rarely cause respiratory (asthmatic) reactions, or rhinitis. Insect stings, food, antibiotics, and certain medicines may produce a systemic allergic response that is also called anaphylaxis; multiple organ systems can be affected, including the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system. Depending on the rate of severity, anaphylaxis can include skin reactions, bronchoconstriction, swelling, low blood pressure, coma, and death. This type of reaction can be triggered suddenly, or the onset can be delayed. The nature of anaphylaxis is such that the reaction can seem to be subsiding, but may recur throughout a period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3274245",
"title": "Soy allergy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking can help make protein molecules less allergenic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55313",
"title": "Allergy",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A wide variety of foods can cause allergic reactions, but 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, soy, eggs, wheat, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish. Other food allergies, affecting less than 1 person per 10,000 population, may be considered \"rare\". The use of hydrolysed milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6317707",
"title": "Egg allergy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Allergies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy. Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58859",
"title": "Allergen",
"section": "Section::::Types of allergens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "An allergic reaction can be caused by any form of direct contact with the allergen—consuming food or drink one is sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander (inhalation), or brushing a body part against an allergy-causing plant (direct contact). Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the body's overreaction to the allergen, and allows for the patient to be transported to a medical facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50688850",
"title": "List of incurable diseases",
"section": "Section::::A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "BULLET::::- Allergic diseases – Allergies, or allergic diseases, are conditions in which histamines are released. Types of allergy include food allergies (not to be confused with Food Intolerances or Food Poisoning), atopic dermatitis, allergic , anaphylaxis, and allergic rhinitis (also known as hay fever, which is the most common), for example. No cure exists for allergies, but several treatments exist such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, avoiding the allergen, and allergen immunotherapy (also known as desensitization.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gljcj
|
Is cancer a preventable disease?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. Nutrition plays a big role. For instance, [selenium prevents prostate cancer](_URL_0_).\n\n[Here's a book](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes yes, sometimes no.\n\nI mean, the obvious: don't smoke anything if you want to lower your risk of mouth/throat/lung cancer.\n\nDon't tan excessively or refuse to wear sunscreen if you want to lower your risk of skin cancers.\n\nExercise.\n\nHave protected sex and get tested for STIs. \n\nI think you get my drift.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You addressed it in your post, but I just want to point it out as well : \"Prevention\" in medicine is like \"safety\" in engineering. It depends on what you mean by \"prevention\".\n\nIf by prevention you mean complete prevention, as in cancer risk is gone...no. Not going to happen. \n\nBut for what you are asking, yes. You can significantly lower your risk (most likely; there is the of a \"doom gene\" somewhere that means you're getting cancer no matter what you do). However, the degree to which you can lower your risk of a certain cancer is not the same as the degree to which I can lower my risk of the same cancer, largely due to genetics. Personal history, like smoking, sunburn, etc plays a role too, although most people think of these as prevention. I personally don't think of it that way because if you did it in the past, there's not a lot you can do to change that fact now. Your history is just as set as your genes. More so, actually.\n\nNot sure why....just feel like expounding here...\n\nCancer is a multihit disease. Consider an oversimplified individual cell. This cell is only supposed to grow (divide) in response to very specific signals. It has layers of protection to ensure that happens as dictated and only as dictated, with checkpoints all along the way that slow or halt the pathway to division. These checkpoints must be shut down or circumvented in order for the cell to divide. This can happen in a healthy way (controlled division) or as a pathology (cancer).\n\nIt should go without saying, but the checkpoints are all gene products in some way. Some are proteins, some are the products of proteins, some are RNA, etc, but they all work to slow or prevent division of the cell, and they all ultimately come from specific genes or sets of genes.\n\nSay there are 5 of these checkpoints, A, B, C, D, and E. But, unlucky you, you inherited a bad copy of a gene crucial to making C, so you only have 4 of the checkpoints. No worries, though, you still have A, B, D, and E. But suddenly...a wild gamma ray appears, and now the gene that encodes A has mutated into uselessness. OK, it's not great, but you still have B, D, and E. \n\nUntil you take your next drag on that cigarette and you mutate D into uselessness. OK...there's still B and E.... but then you get a free radical straying where it's not supposed to and the gene that ecodes the the thing crucial to the processing of E is mutated so it no longer interacts with E. And then a few weeks later, when the cell divides due to a legitimate signal, a replication error takes out something in the pathway that makes B.\n\nAnd now all bets are off. All the stuff telling the cell \"Stop growing!\" is gone, and any tiny little push towards \"grow!\" is heeded and taken on with gusto. Cancer.\n\nSome of those things you had zero control over and were set from the beginning; the inherited gene, for example. \n\nSome you had no real control over and happened through the course of life, like the gamma ray.\n\nSome were strictly your choice, like the cigarette. \n\nBut then there are things like that free radical; you get those as a course of metabolism. They are inevitable, but their half-life and frequency can be reduced by diet. \n\nAnd the replication error? Certain micronutrients may have been able to reduce the frequency of replication errors (another risk factor). Maybe if you hadn't gotten injured in just that way, that division never would have occured. This is an example of another important aspect; there are risk factors that are simply not known or are not really predictable. \n\nJust for the record: It's not really that simple. The checkpoints aren't all just \"yes/no\" things (some are checkpoints, they just aren't all checkpoints); many work as a balancing act. Once you get an imbalnce, you \"tip\" towards division.\n\nThere are also gene products that work the other way; they initiate division. It's possible to go that way as well, but as it's a gain of function mutation it's much, much more rare than the loss of function mutations you get elsewhere.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease cancer risk. The vast majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors. Many of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Thus, cancer is generally preventable. Between 70% and 90% of common cancers are due to environmental factors and therefore potentially preventable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44325909",
"title": "Cancer prevention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Cancer prevention is the practice of taking active measures to decrease the incidence of cancer and mortality. The practice of prevention is dependent upon both individual efforts to improve lifestyle and seek preventative screening, and socioeconomic or public policy related to cancer prevention. Globalized cancer prevention is regarded as a critical objective due to its applicability to large populations, reducing long term effects of cancer by promoting proactive health practices and behaviors, and its perceived cost-effectiveness and viability for all socioeconomic classes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44325909",
"title": "Cancer prevention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors, and many, but not all, of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Greater than a reported 75% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, overweight / obesity, an insufficient diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring background radiation, and other cases of cancer are caused through hereditary genetic disorders. Current gene editing techniques under development may serve as preventative measures in the future. Future preventative screening measures can be additionally improved by minimizing invasiveness and increasing specificity by taking individual biologic make up into account, also known as \"population-based personalized cancer screening.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Greater than 30% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, excess weight/obesity, poor diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections and air pollution. Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring background radiation and cancers caused through hereditary genetic disorders and thus are not preventable via personal behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6780123",
"title": "Non-communicable disease",
"section": "Section::::Key diseases.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "For the vast majority of cancers, risk factors are environmental or lifestyle-related, thus cancers are mostly preventable NCD. Greater than 30% of cancer is preventable via avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, being overweight or obesity, low fruit and vegetable intake, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. Infectious agents are responsible for some cancers, for instance almost all cervical cancers are caused by human papillomavirus infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422803",
"title": "G1 phase",
"section": "Section::::In cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "However, the cure for some forms of cancer also lies in the G phase of the cell cycle. Many cancers including breast and skin cancers have been prevented from proliferating by causing the tumor cells to enter G cell cycle arrest, preventing the cells from dividing and spreading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Because cancer is a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer. Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2aryiq
|
What is the maximum rate of rainfall possible?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've observed rain falling at a rate of 3 inches per hour before over a long period of time many years ago during a hurricane. That unit is without respect to area. Over 1 square mile that is [ 63360 (inches per mile) x 63360 x 3 ] = ~2,350,000 cubic feet of water per square mile per hour. Yes, clouds are big enough. Clouds are only the visible (condensed) water vapor. There's much more water that's invisible in the air itself in gas phase. Rainfall has been recorded falling at rates MUCH higher than 3 inches per hour many times, but it's quite rare. [many records indicate 15+inches per hour occur over brief time spans in very small areas]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a record of a [34 inch rainfall event over 12 hours](_URL_0_) in Smethport, Pennsylvania on July 18, 1942. \n\nIt has also been claimed that 15.78\" of rain fell at Sahngdu in Inner Mongolia on July 3, 1975 in one hour; but that observation is poorly documented.\n\nI suppose those could would have to do as far as historically verifiable upper limits go.\n\nWhen you talk of clouds \"maxing out\" on their carrying capacity, you've got to remember that most rain is formed when hot moist air rises. This cools that hot and water saturated air, thus decreasing it's carrying capacity (as the solubility of water vapor in the atmosphere decreases as temperature goes down). To \"max out\", as you say, the intensity of the rainfall, you have to get the hottest and wettest air possible to rise and cool as rapidly as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the hydrologic sciences we have observed maximums, but our observation techniques (radar, satellite, rain gauge) all have their own associated measurement errors. Theoretically, there is not a defined upper bound. Instead we characterize rainfall rate distributions using a probability distribution. An exponential distribution is a simple distribution that is commonly used, and it does not have an upper bound, although the very high values would be very unlikely. \n\nAs air temperature rises, the air can \"hold on to\" more water vapor. If the air was hot enough, and cooled very quickly, theoretically it could precipitate all of its water all at once, resulting in a very high rain rate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some great answers so far, but I think everyone is missing the point. /u/evilmercer is not asking what the maximum observed rate has been historically, but what the maximum *theoretical* rate of rainfall is. Given the wording of his question, I believe he is seeking two separate answers:\n\n* What is the maximum rate of rainfall from an air density perspective?\n\n* Would a storm system be able to create this rate of rainfall, even momentarily?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is a link to a blog by Chris Burt from Weather Underground regarding rainfall rate records. [link](_URL_1_)\n\n[And a handy chart.] (_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Civil engineers may use a \"probable maximum precipitation\" which is like what you have described. This rate differs from location to location, and is dependent on factors like local weather and geography. In the US, the [National Weather Service](_URL_0_) has documents that describe this rate for different regions. As mentioned by /u/GreenTeaForDays and the paper below, there are alternate ways of describing the maximum rate using probability distributions.\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's assume we start with a mass of air covering one square kilometer and extending to the top of the atmosphere, and that it's at 100% humidity at a very high temperature, say 40 degrees.\n\n40 degree air holds 50g water per kg of air.\n\nAt atmosphere of pressure is 101kPa, which means a column of air of 1m^2 weighs about 10^4 kg, so our 1km^2 air mass weighs 10^10 kg. Therefore it holds 5x10^11 g water.\n\nThat's 5x10^8 L, or 5x10^5 m^3 , which is enough to cover 1 km^2 to a depth of 0.5m.\n\nSo if we have a mass of fully saturated atmosphere, and dumped all the rain out at once, we would get 50cm of rain. \n\nNote that if the fully saturated atmosphere is 50 degrees instead, that roughly doubles the carrying capacity and we can get 100cm of rain.\n\nThe only question left is how quickly can we do that? I'll leave that to someone more qualified.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Engineer here. What you're referring to is the \"Probable Maximum Precipitation\". Civil Engineers typically design to protect the public during a 100-yr storm event (ie: a 1% chance of occurrence per year) and sometimes a 500-yr storm event (0.2% chance), there are mathematical models, however, that can theoretically estimate just how much rain can physically occur. Further information here [NOA PMP](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Woo, it's good to be a hydrologist sometimes!\n\nWhat you're referring to is called probable maximum precipitation (PMP). It's a theoretical maximum that's used for the design of dams and other things that would necessarily need to know something like that.\n\nThe short answer is: There is no short answer. It's very location dependent. The way that we do it is basically by maximizing everything that goes into rainfall (lift, available moisture, etc.) and then running a model and seeing what comes out. We basically turn the model up to 11. But that varies depending on where you are. Some places just don't have the lift source that others do, or the available moisture in the air.\n\nHere are some references if you wanna get detailed about it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBut since we're all looking for numbers, the maximum *rate* is incredibly high, in the tens of inches per hour. However, it quickly becomes a question of how long that rate can keep up. Rain sucks energy and moisture out of the air. It can't just keep raining like that forever, so there's a maximum instant rate, a max 1-hr total, max 3-hr total, and so on out to a couple of days. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question can't be definitively answered. If you could control all variables at will you could get a 1x1x1 mile sheet of water to fall at once. You'd just need enough cloud cover and to change the temperature fast enough to instantly condense all of it to water. Obviously something like that would be practically impossible.\n\nHowever, a maximum actual rainfall is beyond our ability to usefully calculate. There's lots of answers in here with suppositions about terrain channeling or other enhancing factors, but at that point everyone is just guessing about random things. \n\nIf you want to know the maximum rainfall rate (mm of rain/unit of time/unit of area) that is possible in naturally occurring conditions your best bet is to look at the historical answers people are posting. Anything else is going to be a thought experiment that is both going to be highly dubious in terms of considering all relevant variables and totally baseless in terms of whether their assumptions are possible.\n\nIn addition, the measured area is a very important characteristic that you can't just offhandedly say 1x1 miles or something. If you went small enough you could have 1 drop land there and have a rainfall of hundreds of meters of rain per second per square meter. Obviously that's a misleading result. I think the better way to think about it is, how fast can a cloud condense. This gets to the heart of the matter, how fast can rain be generated, without needing to consider anything else. \n\nI don't have time to look up atmospheric values and consult my psychrometric tables, but I'm sure someone here could perform such a calculation by making some reasonable assumptions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well I don't know about on earth, but you could theoretically have a planet whose atmosphere was composed of super critical H2O then have it cool. The atmosphere would exit the critical phase and become liquid water. If the entire atmosphere were like this though then it would be a lot less like rain and more like an amorphous hovering blob of water whose edges were fuzzy as it bordered on the critical point. It wouldn't really fall because the atmosphere would have approximately the same density as the water and it would be constantly entering and exiting liquid phase as the temperature and pressure shifted locally. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The thing you're asking for is called \"[Probable Maximum Precipitation](_URL_0_)\" and is defined for different areas and time periods. The shortest period and smallest area you're going to get an answer for is 6 hours and 10 mi^2, respectively. \n\nThe numbers are remarkably high - for the northern midwest the 24-hour 10 mi^2 PMP is on the order 30\", which is near the mean annual rainfall. For comparison, the 100-year 24-hour storm in the same region is roughly 7\". \n\nWhat controls the PMP is that there is nowhere near that much moisture in the atmosphere at any given time - from the earth's surface to the top of the atmoshere at any given point there's only enough moisture, roughly, to create 1 inch of rain. So to get more than that you have to transport moisture in from the oceans, and the air currents that carry that moisture only move so fast. \n\nThe link above will lead you to information on how these figures are estimated - it's complicated. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47011858",
"title": "Murarisha",
"section": "Section::::Weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 1500 mm for every year. The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 850 mm. The average total annual rainfall is 1500 mm. The average annual temperature is 32 °C, and the average maximum temperature is 35 °C, while the average minimum temperature is 28 °C. In the summer the temperature is up to 35 °C, but in winter it drops to approximately 10 °C. Annual rainfall is about 1500 mm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42068004",
"title": "Jhuruli",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 1500 mm for every year. The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 850 mm. The average total annual rainfall is 1500 mm. The average annual temperature is 32 °C, and the average maximum temperature is 35 °C, while the average minimum temperature is 28 °C. In the summer the temperature is up to 35 °C, but in winter it drops to approximately 10 °C. Annual rainfall is about 1 500 mm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "737029",
"title": "Cloudburst",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Rainfall rate equal to or greater than per hour is a cloudburst. However, different definitions are used, e.g. the Swedish weather service SMHI defines the corresponding Swedish term \"skyfall\" as 1 mm/min for short bursts and 50 mm/h for longer rainfalls. The associated convective cloud can extend up to a height of above the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3814024",
"title": "Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology",
"section": "Section::::Slow/looping motion on rainfall magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Storms which have moved slowly, or loop, over a succession of days lead to the highest rainfall amounts for several countries. Riehl calculated that 33.97 inches (863 mm) of rainfall per day can be expected within one-half degree, or 35 miles (56 km), of the center of a mature tropical cyclone. Many tropical cyclones progress at a forward motion of 10 knots, which would limit the duration of this excessive rainfall to around one-quarter of a day, which would yield about 8.50 inches (216 mm) of rainfall. This would be true over water, within 100 miles (160 km) of the coastline, and outside topographic features. As a cyclone moves farther inland and is cut off from its supply of warmth and moisture (the ocean), rainfall amounts from tropical cyclones and their remains decrease quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3080964",
"title": "May 1995 Louisiana flood",
"section": "Section::::Rainfall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "For both waves of rainfall, several locations neared or exceeded 24‑hour rainfall amounts estimated as having a 1% chance of being exceeded in a given year, (100 year average recurrence interval) as determined by both the NOAA Atlas 14 and reports by the Southern Regional Climate Center. The rainfall maximum near Necaise of was estimated as having only a 0.1% chance of being exceeded in a given year (1000 year average recurrence interval).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10121805",
"title": "Parâng Mountains",
"section": "Section::::Climate.:Precipitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "The average annual rainfall is between 900 and 1200mm. The most abundant rainfall is recorded around the altitude of 1600m to 1800m. June is the month with the highest precipitations, 110mm at the bottom of the mountain and 160mm at altitudes over 1500m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324352",
"title": "Ramsgate",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Rainfall averages around 600 mm per year, a figure similar to that for the driest parts of England. Over 1 mm of rain can be expected on 106.6 days. Averages refer to a mixture of the 1971-2000 and 1981-2010 climate periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9b0ii6
|
Do the Strong and Weak Forces have a field like Gravitation and EM?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, but unlike gravity and EM, their fields have very short interaction lengths. They are mediated by W+-/Z bosons and gluons, respectively. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The strong force has 8 gauge fields (the gluon fields). The weak force has the complex W field (so there is a particle and antiparticle), and the real Z field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.:Strong nuclear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The (aptly named) strong interaction is the \"strongest\" of the four fundamental forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.:Weak nuclear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word \"weak\" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 10 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed, which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 10 kelvins. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27984",
"title": "Strong interaction",
"section": "Section::::Behavior of the strong force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The strong force is described by quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a part of the standard model of particle physics. Mathematically, QCD is a non-Abelian gauge theory based on a local (gauge) symmetry group called SU(3).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10103",
"title": "Electroweak interaction",
"section": "Section::::Formulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The distinction between electromagnetism and the weak force arises because there is a (nontrivial) linear combination of \"Y\" and \"T\" that vanishes for the Higgs boson (it is an eigenstate of both \"Y\" and \"T\", so the coefficients may be taken as −\"T\" and \"Y\"): \"U\"(1) is defined to be the group generated by this linear combination, and is unbroken because it does not interact with the Higgs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33629",
"title": "Weak interaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The effective range of the weak force is limited to subatomic distances, and is less than the diameter of a proton. It is one of the four known force-related fundamental interactions of nature, alongside the strong interaction, electromagnetism, and gravitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3955450",
"title": "Neutral current",
"section": "Section::::In simple terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "The weak force is best known for its role in nuclear decay. It has very short range but (apart from gravity) is the only force to interact with neutrinos. The weak force is communicated via exchange particles like other subatomic forces. Perhaps the most well known of the exchange particles for the weak force is the W particle which is involved in beta decay. W particles have electric charge – there are both positive and negative W particles – however the Z boson is also an exchange particle for the weak force but does \"not\" have any electrical charge. Exchange of a Z boson transfers momentum, spin, and energy, but leaves the interacting particles’ quantum numbers unaffected – charge, flavor, baryon number, lepton number, etc. Because there is no transfer of electrical charge involved, exchange of Z particles is referred to as “neutral” in the phrase “neutral current”. However the word “current” here has nothing to do with electricity – it simply refers to the exchange of the Z particle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27984",
"title": "Strong interaction",
"section": "Section::::Behavior of the strong force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The word \"strong\" is used since the strong interaction is the \"strongest\" of the four fundamental forces. At a distance of 1 femtometer (1 fm = 10 meters) or less, its strength is around 137 times that of the electromagnetic force, some 10 times as great as that of the weak force, and about 10 times that of gravitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p4kfg
|
What are some lesser known epidemics of the past?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bubonic epidemic no one ever hears about: [The Plague of Justinian](_URL_0_). \n\nIt is estimated to have killed over twenty-five million people, only 25% of the casualties caused by the Black Death, but the PoJ was the first recorded instance of a (confirmed) Yersinia pestis epidemic. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone knows about the mortality following infectious diseases brought by Europeans to the New World, but not many people seem to know about a likely home-grown epidemic of what appears to be a viral hemorrhagic fever referred to as cocoliztli. In 1545 and 1576 the two epidemics of this pathogen killed twice as many people as the 1519-20 smallpox epidemic in the Aztec homeland.\n\nThe smallpox epidemic of the 1519-1520 decimated the population of Mexico. Estimates vary, but perhaps 5 to 8 million people perished in the epidemic. Less than a generation later, an epidemic of [cocoliztli](_URL_2_) burned through the Aztec heartland, followed by another in in 1576. We have only rough estimates of the death toll, but conservative figures put the tally for the two epidemics at 10-15 million people. \n\nThe infection was quick onset, with mortality occurring in a matter of days, and was highly contagious. Victims had high fevers, abdominal and chest pains, dysentery, seizures, and blood flowing from the ears and nose. These symptoms differ from smallpox, and doctors at the time were careful to distinguish it from the earlier epidemic. Today, the consensus is a viral hemorrhagic disease, perhaps similar to [Hantavirus](_URL_1_), was the cause of cocoliztli. Researchers have linked [climatic patterns](_URL_0_), notably a drought followed by extreme wet periods, to the timing of the epidemics, and think a population explosion of the rat host accounts for the spread, and ferocity, of the two catastrohpic cocoliztli epidemics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question is too broad for this subreddit, falling under the [no \"Throughout history\" questions](_URL_0_). However, it would be a good topic for a Tuesday Trivia feature post, so if you're interested in seeing it used that way (and credited to you), please message the mod responsible, /u/caffarelli. Thank you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21009963",
"title": "Meningitis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "It appears that epidemic meningitis is a relatively recent phenomenon. The first recorded major outbreak occurred in Geneva in 1805. Several other epidemics in Europe and the United States were described shortly afterward, and the first report of an epidemic in Africa appeared in 1840. African epidemics became much more common in the 20th century, starting with a major epidemic sweeping Nigeria and Ghana in 1905–1908.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543486",
"title": "Third plague pandemic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The name refers to this pandemic being the third major bubonic plague outbreak to affect European society. The first was the Plague of Justinian, which ravaged the Byzantine Empire and surrounding areas in 541 and 542. The second was the Black Death, which killed at least one third of Europe's population in a series of expanding waves of infection from 1346 to 1353.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2322219",
"title": "Epidemic dropsy",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Besides India, widespread epidemics have been reported from Mauritius, Fiji Islands, Northwest Cape districts of South Africa, Madagascar and also from Nepal. Apart from a South African study, where the epidemic occurred through contamination in wheat flour, all the epidemics occurred through the consumption of mustard oil contaminated with argemone oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20321147",
"title": "Typhus",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gaol Fever.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Epidemics occurred routinely throughout Europe from the 16th to the 19th centuries, including during the English Civil War, the Thirty Years' War, and the Napoleonic Wars. Pestilence of several kinds raged among combatants and civilians in Germany and surrounding lands from 1618 to 1648. According to Joseph Patrick Byrne, \"By war's end, typhus may have killed more than 10 percent of the total German population, and disease in general accounted for 90 percent of Europe's casualties.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57771582",
"title": "1832 Sligo cholera outbreak",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The outbreak was part of a second worldwide pandemic caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae and lasted from 1829 to 1851. The approach of the cholera epidemic was well documented at the time, but how it was spread was a mystery. In the first pandemic, the disease was first noted in India, Moscow, Russia in 1830, Finland and Poland in 1831, and Great Britain in 1831. It struck first at the ports, and Sligo was the second busiest port on the west coast at the time after Limerick. Overall, the outbreak killed at least 50,000 people in Ireland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2366736",
"title": "Oropouche fever",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Large epidemics are common and very swift, one of the earliest largest having occurred at the city of Belém, in the Brazilian Amazon state of Pará, with 11,000 recorded cases. In the Brazilian Amazon, oropouche is the second most frequent viral disease, after dengue fever. Several epidemics have generated more than 263,000 cases, of which 130,000 alone occurred in the period from 1978 to 1980. Presently, in Brazil alone it is estimated that more than half a million cases have occurred. Nevertheless, clinics in Brazil may not have adequate testing reliability as they rely on symptoms rather than PCR viral sequencing, which is expensive and time consuming, in many cases there may be conviction with other similar mosquito-borne viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46177",
"title": "Epidemic typhus",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Epidemics occurred throughout Europe and occurred during the English Civil War, the Thirty Years' War and the Napoleonic Wars. During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow in 1812, more of his soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. A major epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816–19, and again in the late 1830s, while yet another major typhus epidemic occurred during the Great Irish Famine between 1846 and 1849. The Irish typhus spread to England, where it was sometimes called \"Irish fever\" and was noted for its virulence. It killed people of all social classes, since lice were endemic and inescapable, but it hit particularly hard in the lower or \"unwashed\" social strata. In Canada, the 1847 North American typhus epidemic killed more than 20,000 people, mainly Irish immigrants in fever sheds and other forms of quarantine, who had contracted the disease aboard coffin ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
43xvog
|
why can you only know an electron's position if you give up on knowing its momentum and vice versa?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine you wanted to take a detailed and clear photo of a mosquito buzzing around your room. You'd have to zoom in really close to get such a picture. Imagine then that you've zoomed in far enough so as to be able to clearly see the mosquitoes features and decide to snap a photo. What do you see? A mosquito stuck in time. How can you possibly tell from that still picture where the mosquito will fly to next or even at what speed its flying at. The same is true for the opposite. To be able to see the mosquitoes movements and speed you'd have to zoom out, but then the mosquito becomes a small insect buzzing around the room and you've lost any sense of detail and picture quality.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not that you don't *know* the electron's momentum and position at the same time. Electrons don't **have** well-defined momentum and a well-defined position at the same time.\n\nElectrons operate under the rules of quantum mechanics, where they actually exists as a probability wave. And the position and momentum of a subatomic particle share the same relation as position and wavelength for a normal wave: If you drop a stone in a pond, the wave radiates outward, dissipating as it goes. So you can *kind* of define its position, in a fuzzy sort of way (its position is spread out across part of the surface of the pond), and you can *kind* of give an average wavelength (but since the wave dies out as it travels, it's not super accurate either), but you don't have either very accurately.\n\nThe more confined you make the position of a ripple like that, the less-defined its wavelength becomes, to the point that a ripple that exists in a single, well-defined spot has no wavelength at all. And if you want a proper wavelength, you have to spread the wave across the entire pond, in which case the wave has no position.\n\nThat's the same relation as the one between position and momentum in a subatomic particle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine taking a photo of a ball in the air.\n\n[In this photo](_URL_1_), you can see exactly where the ball is. Its position is totally clear. But you have no idea of its movement. Is it falling down? Moving rightwards? No way to tell.\n\n[Now look at this photo.](_URL_0_) You can tell by the blur that it's moving vertically, so now you know its momentum. But it's so blurry that you can't tell its position. Is it at the top of that blur at that instant? At the bottom? You can't tell.\n\nTaking a photo of a ball, you can't know its *exact* position or its momentum at the same time. Same thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "396320",
"title": "Matrix mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Development of matrix mechanics.:Matrix basics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "This principle of uncertainty holds for many other pairs of observables as well. For example, the energy does not commute with the position either, so it is impossible to precisely determine the position and energy of an electron in an atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Wave–particle duality and uncertainty principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "An elegant illustration of the uncertainty principle is Heisenberg's thought experiment for locating an electron with an ideal microscope. The position of the electron can be determined to within the resolving power of the microscope, which is given by a formula from classical optics\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "123450",
"title": "Philosophy of physics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of quantum mechanics.:Uncertainty principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The uncertainty principle arose as an answer to the question: How does one measure the location of an electron around a nucleus if an electron is a wave? When quantum mechanics was developed, it was seen to be a relation between the classical and quantum descriptions of a system using wave mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23145199",
"title": "Introduction to eigenstates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Because of the uncertainty principle, statements about both the position and momentum of particles can only assign a probability that the position or momentum will have some numerical value. The uncertainty principle also says that eliminating uncertainty about position maximises uncertainty about momentum, and eliminating uncertainty about momentum maximizes uncertainty about position. A probability distribution assigns probabilities to all possible values of position and momentum. Schrödinger's wave equation gives wavefunction solutions, the squares of which are probabilities of where the electron might be, just as Heisenberg's probability distribution does.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Copenhagen interpretation.:Eigenstates and eigenvalues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Because of the [[uncertainty principle]], statements about both the position and momentum of particles can assign only a [[probability]] that the position or momentum has some numerical value. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate clearly the difference between the state of something that is indeterminate, such as an electron in a probability cloud, and the state of something having a definite value. When an object can definitely be \"pinned-down\" in some respect, it is said to possess an [[eigenstate]].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36667",
"title": "Counterfactual definiteness",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1660,
"text": "For example, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that one cannot simultaneously know, with arbitrarily high precision, both the position and momentum of a particle. Suppose one measures the position of a particle. This act destroys any information about its momentum. Is it then possible to talk about the outcome that one would have obtained if one had measured its momentum instead of its position? In terms of mathematical formalism, is such a counterfactual momentum measurement to be included, together with the factual position measurement, in the statistical population of possible outcomes describing the particle? If the position were found to be r then in an interpretation that permits counterfactual definiteness, the statistical population describing position and momentum would contain all pairs (r,p) for every possible momentum value p, whereas an interpretation that rejects counterfactual values completely would only have the pair (r,⊥) where ⊥ denotes an undefined value. To use a macroscopic analogy, an interpretation which rejects counterfactual definiteness views measuring the position as akin to asking where in a room a person is located, while measuring the momentum is akin to asking whether the person's lap is empty or has something on it. If the person's position has changed by making him or her stand rather than sit, then that person has no lap and neither the statement \"the person's lap is empty\" nor \"there is something on the person's lap\" is true. Any statistical calculation based on values where the person is standing at some place in the room and simultaneously has a lap as if sitting would be meaningless.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439497",
"title": "Classical limit",
"section": "Section::::Quantum theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1015,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, an electron can never be at rest; it must always have a non-zero kinetic energy, a result not found in classical mechanics. For example, if we consider something very large relative to an electron, like a baseball, the uncertainty principle predicts that it cannot really have zero kinetic energy, but the uncertainty in kinetic energy is so small that the baseball can effectively appear to be at rest, and hence it appears to obey classical mechanics. In general, if large energies and large objects (relative to the size and energy levels of an electron) are considered in quantum mechanics, the result will appear to obey classical mechanics. The typical occupation numbers involved are huge: a macroscopic harmonic oscillator with = 2 Hz, = 10 g, and maximum amplitude = 10 cm, has = , so that ≃ 10. Further see coherent states. It is less clear, however, how the classical limit applies to chaotic systems, a field known as quantum chaos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
omav3
|
Are thoughts physical objects?
|
[
{
"answer": "Thoughts are to your brain like Walking is to your legs.\n\nThoughts are an emergent property of brain activity, just like walking is what happens when you legs work.\n\nYour brain is a physical thing, your legs are a physical thing. Thoughts aren't, walking isn't. Can you pick up \"walking\" and put it in a jar? Where does \"walking\" go when you stop moving your legs? Do you see?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thoughts are webs of electricity traveling through different sections of your brain. Most are reactionary responses to outside stimuli, and then chained together based on memories that surface during the process... \n\nI try not to think about it really; that our entire lives are just a chain of reactionary electric charges pulsing on a lump of meat...\n\nI'm sad now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're physical, but not objects exactly, more like patterns of energy and matter moving around inside the brain.\n\nThink about a flashlight. It's a physical object. Turn it on and electricity flows through it and light comes out one end. The electricity and light are physical, but they're not objects (unless you count electrons and photons as objects).\n\nBecause our brains (and the rest of our bodies) are three-dimensional, all brain (and other bodily) activity is three-dimensional.\n\nIt *is* really hard to think about this stuff!\n\nI'm going to try to answer what I think is the heart of your question: we perceive physical objects \"out there\" in the universe. Since we perceive thoughts in a similar way, is that because they're like the \"real objects\" we perceive with our senses?\n\nThe answer is no, you've got it backward. We don't really perceive physical objects directly, we just perceive the effect they have on our brain. Thoughts, already being in the brain, aren't perceived by the senses, but more directly by the brain. So it's not that thoughts are things, more like things are thoughts.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "342912",
"title": "Meditations on First Philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Summary of \"Meditations\".:Meditation V: Concerning the Essence of Material Things, and Again Concerning God, That He Exists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Before asking whether any such objects exist outside me, I ought to consider the ideas of these objects as they exist in my thoughts and see which are clear and which confused. (Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21659303",
"title": "Questions of Truth",
"section": "Section::::Key themes and ideas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Brain and Consciousness\" suggests that \"pretty much everything in the universe has a physical aspect and an informational aspect, neither of which is more foundational than the other\", and that informational entities like the Mass in B Minor cannot be considered as material objects. It proposes that \"your body and your mind are different aspects of you\", and that the inherent uncertainties of neuron firing mean that the brain is not fully deterministic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13281443",
"title": "Semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce",
"section": "Section::::Semiotic elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "Thought is not necessarily connected with a brain. It appears in the work of bees, of crystals, and throughout the purely physical world; and one can no more deny that it is really there, than that the colors, the shapes, etc., of objects are really there. Consistently adhere to that unwarrantable denial, and you will be driven to some form of idealistic nominalism akin to Fichte's. Not only is thought in the organic world, but it develops there. But as there cannot be a General without Instances embodying it, so there cannot be thought without Signs. We must here give \"Sign\" a very wide sense, no doubt, but not too wide a sense to come within our definition. Admitting that connected Signs must have a Quasi-mind, it may further be declared that there can be no isolated sign. Moreover, signs require at least two Quasi-minds; a Quasi-utterer and a Quasi-interpreter; and although these two are at one (i.e., are one mind) in the sign itself, they must nevertheless be distinct. In the Sign they are, so to say, welded. Accordingly, it is not merely a fact of human Psychology, but a necessity of Logic, that every logical evolution of thought should be dialogic. (Peirce, 1906 )\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342912",
"title": "Meditations on First Philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Summary of \"Meditations\".:Meditation V: Concerning the Essence of Material Things, and Again Concerning God, That He Exists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "I find in myself innumerable ideas of things which, though they may not exist outside me, can't be said to be nothing. While I have some control over my thoughts of these things, I do not make the things up: they have their own real and immutable natures. Suppose, for example, that I have a mental image of a triangle. While it may be that no figure of this sort does exist or ever has existed outside my thought, the figure has a fixed nature (essence or form), immutable and eternal, which hasn't been produced by me and isn't dependent of my mind. (Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1722616",
"title": "Physical object",
"section": "Section::::In psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "In some branches of psychology, depending on school of thought, a physical object has physical properties, as compared to mental objects. In (reductionistic) behaviorism, a objects and their properties are the (only) meaningful objects of study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1722616",
"title": "Physical object",
"section": "Section::::In philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Examples are a cloud, a human body, a weight, a billiard ball, a table, or a proton. This is contrasted with abstract objects such as mental objects, which exist in the mental world, and mathematical objects. Other examples that are not physical bodies are emotions, the concept of \"justice\", a feeling of hatred, or the number \"3\". In some philosophies, like the Idealism of George Berkeley, a physical body is a mental object, but still has extension in the space of a visual field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1697555",
"title": "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge",
"section": "Section::::Part I (Note: Part II was never published).:Knowledge of external objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "Comparing Ontology with Epistemology, Berkeley asked, \"But, though it were possible that solid, figured, moveable \"substances\" may exist without the mind, corresponding to the ideas we have of bodies, yet how is it possible for us to know this?\" Knowledge through our senses only gives us knowledge of our senses, not of any unperceived things. Knowledge through reason does not guarantee that there are, necessarily, unperceived objects. In dreams and frenzies, we have ideas that do not correspond to external objects. \"…[T]he supposition of external bodies is not necessary for the producing our ideas….\" Materialists do not know how bodies affect spirit. We can't suppose that there is matter because we don't know how ideas occur in our minds. \"In short, if there were external bodies, it is impossible we should ever come to know it….\" Suppose that there were an intelligence that was not affected by external bodies. If that intelligence had orderly and vivid sensations and ideas, what reason would it have to believe that bodies external to the mind were exciting those sensations and ideas? None.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fzshs
|
why on mobile devices can i find nothing except live and cover songs on youtube?
|
[
{
"answer": "Youtube checks the user-agent header and blocks certain videos from appearing on mobile. Music videos seem to be a popular choice for such filtering. I don't know why it's done, but you can get around it.\n\nYou need to change your user agent header so you appear to be coming from a desktop browser. (or strip it altogether - I don't know how YouTube reacts to this but it should work). If your phone/browser is locked down and doesn't allow you to do this, and you don't want to root it, you could set up a proxy server on a Raspberry Pi or similar low-cost device, and have that spoof the user-agent for you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5768113",
"title": "1:43 (band)",
"section": "Section::::History.:First album: 2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "There are now over 100,000 videos posted on YouTube using “Sa Isang Sulyap”—all in all, these videos have been viewed more than 400 million times. It is also one of the most downloaded songs today by mobile phone users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20821742",
"title": "2000s in the music industry",
"section": "Section::::Digital business models.:Advertisement-based service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "YouTube (owned by Google Inc.) is the premier site for finding music videos for both independent bands and mainstream bands that have released their music on CD or digitally, while also being useful for finding rare songs. YouTube is a multimedia provider, so it is difficult to say how much entertainment it has provided to music consumers, however it did provide about one-third of all 11 billion online video views in the US in the month of April 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35973967",
"title": "YinYueTai",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The website started when the founder could not easily find the music video which he was looking for, or when he found it on some site that had too many ads. Currently YinYueTai has no ads, and unlike YouTube where you can find multiple copies of the same music video, YinYueTai only keeps one copy of each music video on site for easy search.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45711197",
"title": "Knower (band)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In early 2010, the group began to upload their music to YouTube. Their first video, a cover of Britney Spears's song \"3\" got a lot of hits quickly thanks to Jack Conte promoting it on YouTube. Another early video release, \"Window Shop\" (originally recorded on Louis Cole's first album) also got a lot of hits thanks to a front page YouTube feature. In this same year, they released their first album called \"Louis Cole and Genevieve Artadi.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Content accessibility.:Platforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "Most modern smartphones are capable of accessing YouTube videos, either within an application or through an optimized website. YouTube Mobile was launched in June 2007, using RTSP streaming for the video. Not all of YouTube's videos are available on the mobile version of the site. Since June 2007, YouTube's videos have been available for viewing on a range of Apple products. This required YouTube's content to be transcoded into Apple's preferred video standard, H.264, a process that took several months. YouTube videos can be viewed on devices including Apple TV, iPod Touch and the iPhone. In July 2010, the mobile version of the site was relaunched based on HTML5, avoiding the need to use Adobe Flash Player and optimized for use with touch screen controls. The mobile version is also available as an app for the Android platform. In September 2012, YouTube launched its first app for the iPhone, following the decision to drop YouTube as one of the preloaded apps in the iPhone 5 and iOS 6 operating system. According to GlobalWebIndex, YouTube was used by 35% of smartphone users between April and June 2013, making it the third-most used app.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51542715",
"title": "2010s in the music industry",
"section": "Section::::Digital Music Distributors.:YouTube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Launched in November 2015, YouTube Music is an app that allows users to search through their database of over 30 million audio tracks. But YouTube is also unique because it offers a breadth of concert footage/audio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35915694",
"title": "Multiply (website)",
"section": "Section::::Blogging Paired with Media Sharing and Storage.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Since its inception the website had allowed users to upload music playlists to their profile page. Initially users could upload up to 10 songs at a time with an unlimited number of songs allowed on any given playlist (they could upload more songs after the first ten by starting a second upload and specifying that they should be added to a pre-existing playlist.) This brought the site initial popularity due to the ease with which people could share copyrighted digital music. Originally one could download each track individually in mp3 format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1py4v4
|
why is the distribution of elements on earth not uniform?
|
[
{
"answer": "there is difference between coal and minerals. coal is now there, where were many trees/plants.\n\nminerals were \"pushed\" near surface by few things (like volcanos or seismic movement) so from this is irregularity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically because each element is chemically unique, and therefore behaves differently to other elements in given conditions. \n\nTake for example crystallisation from a magma. As the magma cools, certain elements are able to form stable crystalline structures (minerals). Different minerals can start to crystallise at different temperatures, and different minerals have completely different chemistries. So, for example, pyroxene (which crystallises early) can crystallise out lots of aluminium, whereas quartz (which forms late) mostly only crystallises out silica. This gets even more complicated when you realise some elements can substitue for others in crystal structures, so for example [Europium can be preferentially substituted into plagiclase feldspar](_URL_0_) in place of Calcium.\n\nThis kind of chemical differentiation is very common, and there's lots of different processes in which it is important. But there's other differentiation processes too. For example, simple density sorting can be really important. The reason we find large concentrations of gold in many places is because gold-rich rocks have been eroded by rivers, and the gold grains have been deposited by those rivers simply due to density contrast. That leads to a secondary 'placer' deposit of gold which is far more enriched than the rocks from which the gold originally came. \n\nThe processes which form oceanic crust are different to those which form continental crust, so again the mineral assemblages (and therefore elemental distributions) of the two systems are very different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The earth was molten for a long time after it's formation. Over the millions of years that this took, much of the heavier elements sank to the center of the earth, which is why we have a core mainly of iron and nickle. \n\nSome iron was left on the surface of the earth(or deposited by ateriods), mainly dissolved in the ocean. When Cyanobacteria evolved and started producing oxygen through photosynthesis, the oxygen reacted with the iron and sank to the bottom the ocean, causing the banded iron formations that we often mine. \n\nI don't know about other elements, but I would imagine other physical processes caused them to react and become accumulated in certain areas. \n\nA quick wikipedia search on Gold says that most of that also sank to the center of the earth and most of what we have now is from asteroids. \n\n\nAnd then there's things like coal and oil which are not natural elements but the result of dead plant life and the carbon in cells. Over millions of years plant material accumulated and at some point became trapped under the ground. Depending on the pressure and temperature generated by the earth above it, the carbon in the plant material is transformed into coal, oil, natural gas, ect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The distribution of elements on earth can be traced back to the big bang. In the beginning we only saw hydrogen(H) and helium(He). Through fission and fusion reactions the rest of our elements where produced with even numbers elements being more abundant due to the fact they are slightly more stable then the odd numbered ones. This ratio of elemental abundance can be seen as fairly standard across the universe (due to analysis of objects that made their way to earth). With all of these elements we see different density due to a range of atomic radii. In terms of elemental distribution on earth it can be seen much like adding different solids to a glass of water some will mix together some will not. Some will float due to the density difference and some will sink. The earths mantle, much like the ocean has convection cells within it can can take what maybe was a uniform disposition in early earth and turn it what we see today.\n\nTl;Dr The earth is much like the ocean, convection cells are key to dispersion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the other answers have missed what I think based on your wording is your primary misapprehension.\n\nWhen we say that heavy elements in the Earth were created in supernovae we do not mean that the earth was sitting here and then a supernova went off nearby and some of the material from the explosion rained down on the planet.\n\nThe supernova that created the heavy elements in the earth went off a long time (I guess billions of years although I'm not sure) before the solar system even existed. The solar system then formed from a molecular cloud which contained elements created by earlier supernovae.\n\nOnce the Earth actually formed in orbit around the sun the processes and forces that other replies talk about lead to the distribution of elements in the crust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9421870",
"title": "Diagonal relationship",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The organization of elements on the periodic table in to horizontal rows and vertical columns makes certain relationships more apparent (periodic law). Moving rightward and descending the periodic table have opposite effects on atomic radii of isolated atoms. Moving rightward across the period decreases the atomic radii of atoms, while moving down the group will increase the atomic radii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438948",
"title": "Equation of time",
"section": "Section::::Major components of the equation.:Obliquity of the ecliptic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1313,
"text": "However, even if the Earth's orbit were circular, the perceived motion of the Sun along our celestial equator would still not be uniform. This is a consequence of the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis with respect to the plane of its orbit, or equivalently, the tilt of the ecliptic (the path the Sun appears to take in the celestial sphere) with respect to the celestial equator. The projection of this motion onto our celestial equator, along which \"clock time\" is measured, is a maximum at the solstices, when the yearly movement of the Sun is parallel to the equator (causing amplification of perceived speed) and yields mainly a change in right ascension. It is a minimum at the equinoxes, when the Sun's apparent motion is more sloped and yields more change in declination, leaving less for the component in right ascension, which is the only component that affects the duration of the solar day. A practical illustration of obliquity is that the daily shift of the shadow cast by the Sun in a sundial even on the equator is smaller close to the solstices and greater close to the equinoxes. If this effect operated alone, then days would be up to 24 hours and 20.3 seconds long (measured solar noon to solar noon) near the solstices, and as much as 20.3 seconds shorter than 24 hours near the equinoxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1983277",
"title": "Moseley's law",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "The ordering of atoms in the periodic table did tend to be according to atomic \"weights\", but there were a few famous \"reversed\" cases where the periodic table demanded that an element with a higher atomic weight (such as cobalt at weight 58.9) nevertheless be placed at a lower position (\"Z\" = 27), before an element like nickel (with a lower atomic weight of 58.7), which the table demanded take the higher position at \"Z\" = 28. Moseley inquired if Bohr thought that the electromagnetic emission spectra of cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight, or by their periodic table position (atomic number, \"Z\"), and Bohr said it would certainly be by \"Z\". Moseley's reply was \"We shall see!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35922840",
"title": "Dividing line between metals and nonmetals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The dividing line between metals and nonmetals can be found, in varying configurations, on some representations of the periodic table of the elements (see mini-example, right). Elements to the lower left of the line generally display increasing metallic behaviour; elements to the upper right display increasing nonmetallic behaviour. When presented as a regular stair-step, elements with the highest critical temperature for their groups (Li, Be, Al, Ge, Sb, Po) lie just below the line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6719257",
"title": "Introduction to the mathematics of general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Curvilinear coordinates and curved spacetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "A good example of this is the surface of the Earth. While maps frequently portray north, south, east and west as a simple square grid, that is not in fact the case. Instead, the longitude lines running north and south are curved and meet at the north pole. This is because the Earth is not flat, but instead round.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28019649",
"title": "Map series",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Nature of the sheet divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The sheets are divided from each other either square to the map grid, or along the meridians and parallels. In the first case, the sheets will all be the same size. In the second case, the sheet size will decrease towards the north (for a northern hemisphere map) or the south (for a southern hemisphere map).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21447866",
"title": "Complete spatial randomness",
"section": "Section::::Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "\"Uniform\" is used in the sense of following a uniform probability distribution across the study region, not in the sense of “evenly” dispersed across the study region. There are no interactions amongst the events, as the intensity of events does not vary over the plane. For example, the independence assumption would be violated if the existence of one event either encouraged or inhibited the occurrence of other events in the neighborhood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
et2i2j
|
when smoking, why does your throat hurt only when you breathe in air?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're breathing in hot air and chemicals that get absorbed by your lungs and cooled down by the time they're breathed out.\n\nYou should probably look into quitting it's super unhealthy :).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27001",
"title": "Smoke",
"section": "Section::::Dangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritating. The most dangerous is carbon monoxide leading to carbon monoxide poisoning, sometimes with the additive effects of hydrogen cyanide and phosgene. Smoke inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness. Sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride in contact with moisture form sulfuric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid, which are corrosive to both lungs and materials. When asleep the nose does not sense smoke nor does the brain, but the body will wake up if the lungs become enveloped in smoke and the brain will be stimulated and the person will be awoken. This does not work if the person is incapacitated or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57386068",
"title": "Epigenetic effects of smoking",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms for changes in DNA methylation.:Effects on DNA methylating proteins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Inhaling cigarette smoke increases blood levels of carbon monoxide which negatively affects oxygenation throughout the body leading to hypoxia. One response to hypoxia is the upregulation in synthesis of the major methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine. Upregulation of this methyl donor through heightened expression of methionine adenosyltransferase 2A leads to increased DNA methylation, which can lead to the down-regulation of target genes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "949134",
"title": "Smoke screen",
"section": "Section::::Chemicals used.:Zinc chloride.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Its toxicity is caused mainly by the content of strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, but also due to thermal effects of reaction of zinc chloride with water. These effects cause lesions of the mucous membranes of the upper airways. Damage of the lower airways can manifest itself later as well, due to fine particles of zinc chloride and traces of phosgene. In high concentrations the smoke can be very dangerous when inhaled. Symptoms include dyspnea, retrosternal pain, hoarseness, stridor, lachrymation, cough, expectoration, and in some cases haemoptysis. Delayed pulmonary edema, cyanosis or bronchopneumonia may develop. The smoke and the spent canisters contain suspected carcinogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12693013",
"title": "Smoke composition",
"section": "Section::::Obscurants.:Zinc chloride smoke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Its toxicity is caused mainly by the content of strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, but also due to thermal effects of reaction of zinc chloride with water. These effects cause lesions of the mucous membranes of the upper airways. Damage of the lower airways can manifest itself later as well, due to fine particles of zinc chloride and traces of phosgene. In high concentrations the smoke can be very dangerous when inhaled. Symptoms include dyspnea, retrosternal pain, hoarseness, stridor, lachrymation, cough, expectoration, and in some cases haemoptysis. Delayed pulmonary edema, cyanosis or bronchopneumonia may develop. The smoke and the spent canisters contain suspected carcinogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12254052",
"title": "Smoking",
"section": "Section::::Health effects and regulation.:Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Inhaling smoke into the lungs, no matter the substance, has adverse effects on one's health. The incomplete combustion produced by burning plant material, like tobacco or cannabis, produces carbon monoxide, which impairs the ability of blood to carry oxygen when inhaled into the lungs. There are several other toxic compounds in tobacco that constitute serious health hazards to long-term smokers from a whole range of causes; vascular abnormalities such as stenosis, lung cancer, heart attacks, strokes, impotence, low birth weight of infants born by smoking mothers. 8% of long-term smokers develop the characteristic set of facial changes known to doctors as smoker's face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585815",
"title": "Health effects of tobacco",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Chemical carcinogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Sidestream tobacco smoke, or exhaled mainstream smoke, is particularly harmful. Because exhaled smoke exists at lower temperatures than inhaled smoke, chemical compounds undergo changes which can cause them to become more dangerous. As well, smoke undergoes changes as it ages, which causes the transformation of the compound NO into the more toxic NO. Further, volatilization causes smoke particles to become smaller, and thus more easily embedded deep into the lung of anyone who later breathes the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "Section::::Spirometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Asthma, COPD, and smokers have reduced airflow ability. People who suffer from asthma and COPD show decreases in exhaled air due to inflammation of the airways. This inflammation causes narrowing of the airways which allows less air to be exhaled. Numerous things cause inflammation some examples are cigarette smoke and environmental interactions such as allergies, weather, and exercise. In smokers the inability to exhale fully is due to the loss of elasticity in the lungs. Smoke in the lungs causes them to harden and become less elastic, which prevents the lungs from expanding or shrinking as they normally would.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d9vt3n
|
Why can Phosphate have five bonds? (More than an octet)
|
[
{
"answer": "First off, I want to say that d-orbitals are not involved in the bonding of hypervalent main group compounds like PCl5. The central atoms in molecules like PCl5, SF6, etc. still obey the octet rule. Many introductory resources claim otherwise, but there is ample computational evidence that that this is the case. I can provide references if you are interested.\n\nNow that that is out of the way, essentially what happens is that each phosphorous-chlorine bond has less than two electrons. You can have chemical bonds that have fewer than two electrons, a simple example of this is H2^+, which is a stable molecule even though there is only one electron holding the two H nuclei together.\n\nMolecular orbital theory explains this as I explained above: there are four bonding molecular orbitals that bond the phosphorous to the 5 chlorine atoms, each bonding orbital connects the phosphorous to multiple chlorine atoms. The rest of the electrons are in nonbonding orbitals on the chlorine atoms. If you know anything about molecular orbital theory, you know that this isn't strange.\n\nThe valence bond theory picture is perhaps more intuitive. You can think of molecules like PCl5 as a set of ionic resonance structures. That is, think of it as the ionic molecule PCl4^+ Cl^- with 5 resonance structures, each with a different Cl atom having the negative charge. The thing to keep in mind about resonance structures is that they do not distinctly exist: The real electronic structure of the molecule is the average of all the resonance structures together. This produces the same result as molecular theory: on average each P-Cl bond is less than two electrons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "266466",
"title": "Octet rule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that elements tend to bond in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas. The rule is especially applicable to carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens, but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Bonding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the \"duet rule\", and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848862",
"title": "Nucleoside triphosphate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "A nucleoside triphosphate is a molecule containing a nitrogenous base bound to a 5-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), with three phosphate groups bound to the sugar. They are the building blocks of both DNA and RNA, which are chains of nucleotides made through the processes of DNA replication and transcription. Nucleoside triphosphates also serve as a source of energy for cellular reactions and are involved in signalling pathways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51596",
"title": "Inositol trisphosphate",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Phosphate groups can exist in three different forms depending on a solution's pH. Phosphorus atoms can bind three oxygen atoms with single bonds and a fourth oxygen atom using a double/dative bond. The pH of the solution, and thus the form of the phosphate group determines its ability to bind to other molecules. The binding of phosphate groups to the inositol ring is accomplished by phosphor-ester binding (see phosphoric acids and phosphates). This bond involves combining a hydroxyl group from the inositol ring and a free phosphate group through a dehydration reaction. Considering that the average physiological pH is approximately 7.4, the main form of the phosphate groups bound to the inositol ring in vivo is PO. This gives IP a net negative charge, which is important in allowing it to dock to its receptor, through binding of the phosphate groups to positively charged residues on the receptor. IP has three hydrogen bond donors in the form of its three hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl group on the 6th carbon atom in the inositol ring is also involved in IP docking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2782231",
"title": "Phosphoryl chloride",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Like phosphate, phosphoryl chloride is tetrahedral in shape. It features three P−Cl bonds and one strong P=O double bond, with an estimated bond dissociation energy of 533.5 kJ/mol. On the basis of bond length and electronegativity, the Schomaker-Stevenson rule suggests that the double bond form is dominant, in contrast with the case of POF. The P=O bond involves the donation of the lone pair electrons on oxygen \"p\"-orbitals to the antibonding combinations associated with phosphorus-chlorine bonds, thus constituting \"π\" bonding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44622167",
"title": "Transition metal alkyne complex",
"section": "Section::::Structure and Bonding.:η, η-coordination bridging two metal centers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Because alkynes have two π bonds, alkynes can form stable complexes in which they bridge two metal centers. The alkyne donates a total of four electrons, with two electrons donated to each of the metals. And example of a complex with this bonding scheme is η-diphenylacetylene-(hexacarbonyl)dicobalt(0).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158542",
"title": "Cyclic nucleotide",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry of cNMPs.:Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "These three components are connected so that the nitrogenous base is attached to the first carbon of ribose (1’ carbon), and the phosphate group is attached to the 5’ carbon of ribose. While all nucleotides have this structure, the phosphate group makes a second connection to the ribose ring at the 3’ carbon in cyclic nucleotides. Because the phosphate group has two separate bonds to the ribose sugar, it forms a cyclic ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
81powv
|
The New Testament largely covers the final three years of Jesus's life; is there any more known about the first 30 years of his life?
|
[
{
"answer": "The simple answer is no.\n\nApocryphal sources exist but are universally pretty late. Even the length of Jesus' ministry isn't exactly known. We assume it was a three year ministry because of the Gospel of John, but the interesting point there is that the Gospel of John isn't a common source for information concerning the historical Jesus -- it's just too different from the synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). But the synoptics do not specify how long Jesus was active. Gospel of John provides a clear time frame while the other Gospels do not. \n\nBut even the seem to disagree a lot about Jesus before his ministry. Mark has no infancy narrative, and while Matthew and Luke do both diverge in pretty significant ways. Luke's narrative include a story about Jesus as a child at the Temple while Matthew's infancy narrative is more concerned with Joseph than anything else. \n\nThe epistles are directed to communities who we can presume were already told the story of Jesus by whichever evangelist founded the community so those are more concerned with the theological implications of history. In general there's not a whole of history about Jesus there. \n\nDocuments like the Infancy Gospel of Thomas or the Protoevangelium of James do exist, but they're all later and, while interesting reads, do not appear to be historical accounts. Outside of Christian texts, when Jesus is mentioned by ancient historians Jesus is not really the focus -- there's more concern for Christians than for Christ.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "904531",
"title": "Robert Dale Owen",
"section": "Section::::Spiritualism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "For a \"century and a half\", then, after Jesus' death, we have no means whatever of substantiating even the existence of the Gospels, as now bound up in the New Testament. There is a perfect blank of 140 years; and a most serious one it is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "341983",
"title": "The Late, Great Planet Earth",
"section": "Section::::Antichrist in the 1970s, Rapture in the 1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Although Lindsey did not claim to know the dates of future events with any certainty, he suggested that indicated that Jesus' return might be within \"one generation\" of the rebirth of the state of Israel, and the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple, and Lindsey asserted that \"in the Bible\" one generation is forty years. Some readers accepted this as an indication that the Tribulation or the Rapture would occur no later than 1988. In his 1980 work \"The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon\", Lindsey predicted that \"the decade of the 1980s could very well be the last decade of history as we know it\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1168010",
"title": "Life of Jesus in the New Testament",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The life of Jesus in the New Testament is primarily outlined in the four canonical gospels, which includes his genealogy and nativity, public ministry, passion, resurrection and ascension. Other parts of the New Testament – such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written within 20–30 years of each other, and which include references to key episodes in Jesus' life, such as the Last Supper, and the Acts of the Apostles, () which includes more references to the Ascension episode than the canonical gospels - also expound upon the life of Jesus. In addition to these biblical texts, there are extra-biblical texts that Christians believe make reference to certain events in the life of Jesus, such as Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Christ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12187943",
"title": "Unknown years of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::The 18 unknown years.:New Testament gap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Following the accounts of Jesus' young life, there is a gap of about 18 years in his story in the New Testament. Other than the statement that after he was 12 years old () Jesus \"advanced in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and men\" (), the New Testament has no other details regarding the gap. While Christian tradition suggests that Jesus simply lived in Galilee during that period, modern scholarship holds that there is little historical information to determine what happened during those years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59245857",
"title": "Historicist interpretations of the Book of Daniel",
"section": "Section::::Origins in Judaism and Early Church.:Protestant interpretations.:Seventh-day Adventists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "In the Seventh-day Adventist interpretation of Daniel chapter 9, the 490 years is an uninterrupted period starting from \"the time the word goes out to rebuild and restore Jerusalem,\" of Daniel 9:25 and ending 3½ years after Jesus' death./ref The starting point identified with a decree by Artaxerxes I in 458/7 BCE to provide money to rebuild Jeruslaem and its temple. The appearance of \"Messiah the Prince\" at the end of the 69 weeks (483 years) is aligned with Jesus' baptism in 27 CE. The 'cutting off' of the \"anointed one\" is applied to the Jesus' execution 3½ years after the end of the 483 years, bringing \"atonement for iniquity\" and \"everlasting righteousness\". Jesus' death is said to 'confirm' the \"covenant\" between God and mankind by in 31 CE \"in the midst of\" the last seven years. The end of the 70th week is associated with 34 CE when the gospel was redirected from only the Jews to all peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4800285",
"title": "Arrest of Jesus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "In the New Testament, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus' arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. In each Gospel, these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2399670",
"title": "The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ",
"section": "Section::::Major points.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "BULLET::::- There are 18 unknown years of Jesus' life missing in the Bible (ages 12–30). Like Nicolas Notovitch did before in his \"The Unknown Life Of Jesus Christ: By The Discoverer Of The Manuscript\" (1887), the \"Aquarian Gospel\" documents these 18 years as a time when Jesus travels to the centers of wisdom in western India, Tibet, Persia, Assyria, Greece, and Egypt. In each of these capital cities, he is educated, tested, and teaches the religious leaders. Jesus inevitably proves that he is 'God's chosen one' (the Christ) in these locales and brings back this multi-cultural wisdom and confidence to Galilee and Judea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qwcl2
|
how wind can push my car sideways when my wheels are pointed straight forward?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eh? When does your car move sideways?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263198",
"title": "Opposite lock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Before entry to the bend, the car is turned towards the bend slightly, but quickly, so as to cause a rotating motion that induces the rear of the car to slide outwards. Power is applied which applies further sideways movement. At the same time, opposite lock steering is applied to keep the car on the desired course. As the car reaches the bend it will have already turned through most of the needed angle, traveling sideways and losing some speed as a result. A smooth application of power at this point will accelerate the car into the bend and then through it, gradually removing the sideways component of travel. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166356",
"title": "Pseudovector",
"section": "Section::::Physical examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Consider the pseudovector angular momentum . Driving in a car, and looking forward, each of the wheels has an angular momentum vector pointing to the left. If the world is reflected in a mirror which switches the left and right side of the car, the \"reflection\" of this angular momentum \"vector\" (viewed as an ordinary vector) points to the right, but the \"actual\" angular momentum vector of the wheel (which is still turning forward in the reflection) still points to the left, corresponding to the extra sign flip in the reflection of a pseudovector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1437746",
"title": "South-pointing chariot",
"section": "Section::::Chariots without differential gears.:Mechanical designs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "Some of the ancient descriptions suggest that some south-pointing chariots could move in only three ways: straight ahead, or turning left or right with a fixed radius of curvature. A third wheel might have been used to fix the turning radius. If the chariot was turning, the pointing doll was connected by gears to one or other of the two main road wheels (e.g. whichever was on the outside of the curve around which the chariot was moving) so the doll rotated at a fixed speed, relative to the rate of the chariot's movement, to compensate for the predetermined rate of turn. The doll turned in opposite directions depending on which road wheel was connected to it, so its rotation compensated for the chariot turning left or right. This design would have been simpler than using a differential gear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3221992",
"title": "Banked turn",
"section": "Section::::Frictionless banked turn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "As opposed to a vehicle riding along a flat circle, inclined edges add an additional force that keeps the vehicle in its path and prevents a car from being \"dragged into\" or \"pushed out of\" the circle (or a railroad wheel from moving sideways so as to nearly rub on the wheel flange). This force is the horizontal component of the vehicle's normal force. In the absence of friction, the normal force is the only one acting on the vehicle in the direction of the center of the circle. Therefore, as per Newton's second law, we can set the horizontal component of the normal force equal to mass multiplied by centripetal acceleration:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "779651",
"title": "Automobile handling",
"section": "Section::::Common handling problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "BULLET::::- Oversteer – the rear wheels tend to crawl or slip towards the outside of the turn more than the front. The driver must correct by steering away from the corner, otherwise the car is liable to spin, if pushed to its limit. Oversteer is sometimes useful, to assist in steering, especially if it occurs only when the driver chooses it by applying power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29784269",
"title": "Pullback motor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263228",
"title": "Handbrake turn",
"section": "Section::::Physics involved.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways direction. The latter provides the centripetal force that makes the rear end of the car follow the turn. When the driver locks the rear wheels with the handbrake, both directions offer the same resistance, so the rear end tends to keep moving in the existing direction (due to inertia) and thus slides out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
avy48o
|
why is it that there are plenty of tropical small islands throughout the pacific (guam, us virgin islands, etc) but there are hardly such islands in the atlantic ocean?
|
[
{
"answer": "The pacific ocean is a hotbed for volcanic activity. Under water volcano explodes, creates an island, plants and animals move in. Pretty neat",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few volcanic hotspots that just happen to mostly all be in the Pacific. As the tectonic plates move, the islands shift with them, but the hotspot stays in place, resulting in island chains, like the Hawaiian Archipelago.\n\n\nThere are still some hotspots in the Atlantic Ocean, such as the Caribbean islands (not including Cuba).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Going down the middle of the Atlantic ocean is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the longest continuous mountain range in the world. It's the separating point between two tectonic plates, basically one long hot spot where molten rock is constantly bubbling up from below. However, the tectonic plates are diverging, meaning they are moving away from each other. The rate of movement means the rising rock is never in place over the hot spot long enough to allow islands to form.\n\nIn the Pacific ocean there are lots of plates moving in different directions. When they push against each other it keeps rock in place long enough for it to build up out of the water to produce an island.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The entire Hawaiian chain and another chain of eroded islands are due to the hotspot under the Big Island of Hawaii having made islands for millions and millions of years as it drifted and the plates moved.\n\nThere are more plate tectonics going on in the Pacific than the Atlantic so more uplift and volcanic islands going on",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "689835",
"title": "Northwestern Hawaiian Islands",
"section": "Section::::Biodiversity and endemism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The Hawaiian Islands are about from North America and from Asia, and it is because of this isolation that the Hawaiian Islands have extraordinary numbers of unique species. Only a species that could fly or swim immense distances could reach the archipelago. But whereas Polynesians, and later, Europeans, have largely altered the ecosystem of the Main Hawaiian islands by introducing alien species, the ecosystems of the NWHI remain, for the most part, intact. The extensive coral reefs found in Papahānaumokuākea are home to over 7,000 marine species. Of the many species that live here, over 1,700 species of organisms are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (i.e., they are found nowhere else). For this reason, the region has been dubbed \"America's Galápagos\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60772038",
"title": "Flora of French Polynesia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The flora of these islands is relatively poor in terms of diversity of species, due to their geographical isolation. However, most of the islands are covered by tropical forest. That is because the soil of volcanic origin is very fertile, and the climate is warm and humid. Among the trees of these islands that stand out are the coconut tree, the breadfruit , the casuarina, the banana, the ceiba, the banyan, the ilang-ilang, the polynesian chestnut, the flamboyant and the Caribbean pine. Among the bushes that stand out are the tiaré flower (emblem of Tahiti), the hibiscus, the plumeria, the bougainvillea, the gardenia, the jasmine and the oleander.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17442148",
"title": "List of birds of Trinidad and Tobago",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The islands are within a few miles of Venezuela, and the species are therefore typical of tropical South America. However, the number of species is relatively low compared to the mainland, as would be expected on small islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50322852",
"title": "List of the highest islands of North America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "This article defines the ocean islands of greater North America to include the coastal islands of North America, the islands of the Caribbean Sea, the Lucayan Archipelago, the islands of Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat), the islands of Canada, and the islands of Alaska. The Hawaiian Islands are not included because they are considered part of Oceania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23070",
"title": "Pacific Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Landmasses and islands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the andesite line and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. Some of these islands are structurally associated with nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24592087",
"title": "List of fish of Hawaii",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "In total the Hawaiian Islands comprise a total of 137 islands and atolls, with a total land area of . This archipelago and its oceans are physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania. The climate of Hawaii is typical for a tropical area, although temperatures and humidity tend to be a bit less extreme than other tropical locales due to the constant trade winds blowing from the east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646606",
"title": "Prince Edward Islands",
"section": "Section::::Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1164,
"text": "The islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra ecoregion that includes a small number of subantarctic islands. Because of the paucity of land masses in the Southern Ocean, the islands host a wide variety of species and are critical to conservation. In the cold subantarctic climate, plants are mainly limited to grasses, mosses, and kelp, while lichens are the most visible fungi. The main indigenous animals are insects along with large populations of seabirds, seals and penguins. At least twenty-nine different species of birds are thought to breed on the islands, and it is estimated the islands support upwards of 5 million breeding seabirds, and 8 million seabirds total. Five species of albatross (of which all are either threatened or endangered) are known to breed on the islands, including the wandering albatross, dark-mantled, light-mantled, Indian yellow-nosed and grey-headed albatross. The islands also host fourteen species of petrel, four species of prion, the Antarctic tern, and the brown skua, among others seabirds. Four penguin species are found, including king penguins, Eastern rockhoppers, gentoos and macaroni penguins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wx6g9
|
how do night contacts work?
|
[
{
"answer": "My understanding is they reshape the eye. The degree of how concave or convex the lens of the eye causes near sightedness or far sightedness. Sleep contacts temporarily shape your eyes back to neutral. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "494866",
"title": "Diver communications",
"section": "Section::::Hand signals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Hand signals are a form of sign system used by divers to communicate when underwater. Hand signals are useful whenever divers can see each other, and some can also be used in poor visibility if in close proximity, when the recipient can feel the shape of the signaller's hand and thereby identify the signal being given. At night the signal can be illuminated by the diver's light. Hand signals are the primary method of underwater communication for recreational scuba divers, and are also in general use by professional divers, usually as a secondary method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32596250",
"title": "Day and night camera",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "A day and night camera is a security camera that can see the picture during the day hours, when there is enough sunlight, and during the night in total darkness or minimum illumination. A day and night camera has special lenses that allow infrared emission produced by infrared LEDs and reflected from objects to go through and reach a CCD or CMOS chip inside the camera. As a result, the end user can see picture in total darkness at the distance of infrared emission produced by LEDs. A day and night camera can have infrared LEDs mounted on its housing or can accept the emission, produced by an infrared turret. Day and night cameras often have modifications in their digital signal processor (DSP) that compensates for the difference in illumination between day and night modes. HDR technology may also be used in more expensive models to compensate for the difference in illumination between shaded and lighted areas of surveillance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1761236",
"title": "40-meter band",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The band is most useful for inter-continental communication for one or two hours before sunset, during the night and for one or two hours after sunrise. It is extremely useful for short to medium distance contacts from local contacts out to a range of 500–1500 km (300–1000 miles) or more, depending on conditions, during the day. In higher latitudes, daytime intercontinental communication is also possible during the short days of winter, for example a good path often opens between Japan and northern Europe in the hours leading up to European midday from late November through late January, with a long path opening to the west coast of the United States and Canada after midday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25126575",
"title": "Matzo Ball",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Logistics.:Tickets and crowd.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Rudnick has observed that the best use of the night is to speak to many potential romantic or business contacts over the course of the night, and to follow up and stay in touch with them over the following months to see what develops, instead of spending the entire night talking with only one person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74845",
"title": "Contact lens",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Functions.:Corrective contact lenses.:Other types of vision correction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "ChromaGen contact lenses have been used and shown to have some limitations with vision at night although otherwise producing significant improvements in color vision. An earlier study showed very significant improvements in color vision and patient satisfaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19244343",
"title": "Balisor",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "High voltage power cables, particularly those close to airports, need to be visible day and night. During the day, brightly coloured balls positioned along the length of the cables are sufficient, but during the night, lighting is necessary. These beacons provide this lighting by glowing red, the standard colour used in aviation for warning beacons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022",
"title": "Infrared",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Night vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 505,
"text": " Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
thjts
|
based off of this photo that keeps going around reddit what would actually happen to the moon and this person.
|
[
{
"answer": "Alot of shrapnel, if not that then the lack of oxygen after a couple of days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4357802",
"title": "Reagan Wilson",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In November 1969, a nude photo of Wilson made a trip to the Moon. As a joke, NASA ground staff hid a small nude photo of her (along with fellow playmates Angela Dorian, Cynthia Myers and Leslie Bianchini) inside the schedule of Apollo 12's mission commander, Pete Conrad. Although it is certain that the photo made the trip to the lunar surface aboard the Lunar Module, it is not known if it was taken outside for the moonwalk. Pete Conrad was the third man to walk on the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1042209",
"title": "Who Are You",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Moon died on 7 September 1978, just under a month after the album's release; on the cover, he is shown sitting in a chair labelled \"Not to be taken away\". Photographer Terry O'Neil had insisted Moon sit with the back of the chair facing the camera so as to hide his distended stomach, a result of his alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36649",
"title": "Mount St. Helens",
"section": "Section::::Human history.:Human impact from the 1980 eruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said, \"Someone said this area looked like a moonscape. But the moon looks more like a golf course compared to what's up there.\" A film crew, led by Seattle filmmaker Otto Seiber, was dropped by helicopter on St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. Their compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred on May 25, but the crew survived and was rescued two days later by National Guard helicopter pilots. Their film, \"The Eruption of Mount St. Helens\", later became a popular documentary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9479413",
"title": "Astronauts Gone Wild",
"section": "Section::::Encounters with astronauts.:Buzz Aldrin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Sibrel's first encounter is with the Apollo 11 crewmember Buzz Aldrin. Inside an office room, he shows Aldrin his \"secret\" footage, which Sibrel says was sent to him by mistake from NASA. According to Sibrel, this footage shows the crew rigging a shot inside their spacecraft to appear halfway to the Moon, when they were really in Earth orbit and trying to deceive the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187916",
"title": "Man in the Moon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The Man in the Moon refers to any of several pareidolic images of a human face, head or body that certain traditions recognize in the disc of the full moon. The images are composed of the dark areas of the lunar \"maria\", or \"seas\" and the lighter highlands of the lunar surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54885912",
"title": "December 1968",
"section": "Section::::December 29, 1968 (Sunday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "BULLET::::- The photo of Earth from the Moon, \"Earthrise\", was released to the public by NASA along with eight other spectacular photographs taken during the Apollo 8 mission. The display coincided with the first press conference (at Houston) by astronauts Borman, Lovell and Anders since their return to Earth, and the images were shown on live television, then repeated on evening newscasts around the world and published in the next day's newspapers. In addition to the famous view of a half-lit image of Earth were two pictures of craters on the Moon's far side from an altitude of ; a photo of the nearside craters Goclenius and Magelhaens; a view of the Mare Tranquillitatis where the first Earthmen would land in Apollo 11; and two other views of the Earth's Western Hemisphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35573211",
"title": "Lunar pareidolia",
"section": "Section::::The Man in the Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The Man in the Moon is an imaginary figure resembling a human face, head, or body, that observers from some cultural backgrounds typically perceive in the bright disc of the full moon. Several versions are displayed above. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xzirz
|
The lack of a strong socialist party in the US linked to the absence of feudalism?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the contention that feudalism was a heavy contributor to socialism is a pretty weak one. What is Lipset's evidence for that assertion? I think the rise of socialism is a heck of a lot more complex than \"the struggle against feudalism and the ravages of industrialization took on a class conscious character in a relatively homogeneous population\".\n\n\nIf we don't accept that as true, we have to look for other reasons that African-Americans didn't turn to socialism as an answer. On the other hand, it must also be remembered that the socialist movement in the United States was heavily involved in the civil rights struggle (and one of the justifications of the heavy handed FBI surveillance and infiltration of those civil rights movements).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please do not ignore population density. It is such a huge factor that I don't understand how it always gets ignored.\n\nThe whole concept of social mobility or lack of a class system in the US rested or maybe still does on cheap land or homesteading, meaning theat people did not feel they are \"condemned\" to a life of being working-class employees and never starting their own business. I can't quote directly but I have heard Lincoln saying something like that the absence of a permanent working class makes American democracy possible, because after a few years of being a wage-earner people pack up and go on the frontier and become independent. What he may have meant with it, that democracy tends towards socialism in the sense that the poor will often vote to confiscating the property of the rich, but when they can just homestead land for themselves then not.\n\nEurope was basically... \"full\" for a long, long time. Sometimes wars depopulated a territory, e.g. the Ottomans parts of Hungary which means the Habsburgs brought in German settlers to repopulate those regions, but in general there was more of the indeed semi-feudal attitude that class barriers are fixed and born into because land was taken, so if your family had no property what could you do? No wealth, hardly any education meant you are working class forever. If you look at the British comedy You Rang Milord, you get the impression that it is somehow the same thing to be a Lord and own a factory. And it suggests that a working class person could not develop an own workshop into a factory because he would not have that style and dress and taste to be considered a classy gentleman, so it would be inappropriate for him to be a businessman. Working-class American millionaries who did not have gentlemanly styles and tastes and upbringing were often ridiculed in Europe up to say first decades of the 20th century, there was this stereotype of the crass Californian soap king who has money yet he talks like a working class person . So yes European capitalism was at least partially based on aristocratic elements at least in style and taste being gentlemanly.\n\nThe point I am making is simply that the lack of rigid classes in the US largely comes from low population density and thus free or cheap land, because anyone who did not want to work for others could as well become an independent farmer, a mini-agrobusinessman. In Europe if you are born working class, pretty much all the arable land is already taken, population density is so high that you could not walk 10km in a German forest without hitting a village, so you are probably staying working class.\n\nI was asking the same question as yourself from the exactly opposite angle: how is it possible that one simply cannot sell a right-libertarian, pro-capitalist political philosophy in Europe? And my answer was that due to high population densities, people do not feel independent enough, it is hard to own land, to own a house, they often feel they are stuck as employees and renters, thus the whole sense of independence needed for libertarian thinking does not appear, they think they are stuck with the boss and the landlord forever so they want them to be regulated.\n\nConsider the following. Victor David Hanson wrote a nice elegy about how his California Swedish ancestors were the perfect libertarians who always worked hard and never asked for government handouts. He just missed one, **crucially** important detail: they worked on their own land which they got back when it wa free or almost so. Why did those guys even have to move from Sweden to California and why did their relatives who stayed home probably became social democrats? In my opinion the evidence is very clear that it was population density, so free or cheap land that did the trick. They were condemned to be perpetual wage laborers in Sweden because all the good land was taken, which predisposes one towards socialism, they could find cheap or free land in California so basically they could work their own land, farm it and become middle-class, independent agri-businessmen, so for them accepting libertarian values was easy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1706432",
"title": "History of the socialist movement in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1323,
"text": "Socialism in the United States has been composed of many tendencies, often in important disagreements with each other as it has included utopian socialists, social democrats, democratic socialists, communists, Trotskyists and anarchists. The socialist movement in the United States has historically been relatively weak. Unlike socialist parties in Europe, Canada and Oceania, a major social democratic party never materialized in the United States and the socialist movement remains marginal, \"almost unique in its powerlessness among the Western democracies\". In the United States, socialism \"brings considerable stigma, in large part for its association with authoritarian communist regimes\". Writing for \"The Economist\", Samuel Jackson argues that in the United States the word socialism has been used as a pejorative term without clear definition by conservatives and libertarians to taint liberal and progressive policies, proposals and public figures. Nonetheless, a 2013 article in \"The Guardian\" states: \"Contrary to popular belief, Americans don't have an innate allergy to socialism\". For instance, Milwaukee has had several socialist mayors such as Emil Seidel, Daniel Hoan and Frank Zeidler. Socialist Party presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs won nearly one million votes in the 1920 presidential election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4584893",
"title": "Revolutions of 1989",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Development of the Eastern Bloc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Socialism had been gaining momentum among working class citizens of the world since the 19th century. These culminated in the early 20th century when several states and colonies formed their own communist parties. Many of the countries involved had hierarchical structures with monarchic governments and aristocratic social structures with an established nobility. Socialism was undesirable within the circles of the ruling classes (which had begun to include industrial business leaders) in the late 19th/early 20th century states; as such, communism was repressed. Its champions suffered persecution while people were discouraged from adopting it. This had been the practice even in states which identified as exercising a multi-party system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28903916",
"title": "American Left",
"section": "Section::::Explanations for weakness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Academic scholars have long studied the reasons why no viable socialist parties have emerged in the United States. Some writers ascribe this to the failures of socialist organization and leadership, some to the incompatibility of socialism and American values, and others to the limitations imposed by the American Constitution. Lenin and Trotsky were particularly concerned because it challenged core Marxist beliefs, that the most advanced industrial country would provide a model for the future of less developed nations. If socialism represented the future, then it should be strongest in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14605419",
"title": "San Jose Ojos de Agua, El Salvador",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "the socialist party, is the direct descendent of the guerrilla troops that fought against the Salvadoran government, and was legally constituted as a political party on September 1, 1992 (Stahler-Sholk 1994:3). Since the Civil War the two have remained the country’s principal political parties, still divided by the left-right binary. Today ARENA describes itself as a party in whose “forming principals express that a democratic and representational system, which guarantees the freedom of action and the consequences of individual peaceful goals, are the quickest and stablest path to achieve integral development of the nation” (ARENA 2007). The FMLN “has begun to take steps…to act as a consequence of the historically created challenges, in order to make the party an organization of ‘social fighters…’and ‘to unify more’ the struggle for power (Comisión Nacional de Educación Política 2002). Other political parties in El Salvador include The Christian Democratic Party, The United Democratic Center, and The Party of National Conciliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26847",
"title": "Socialism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1464,
"text": "The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism. By the late 19th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement. By this time, socialism emerged as \"the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement\" and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, some economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism or a non-planned administrative or command economy. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism and progressivism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38777061",
"title": "Internationalism (politics)",
"section": "Section::::Socialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Socialist internationalism is anti-imperialist, and therefore supports the liberation of peoples from all forms of colonialism and foreign domination, and the right of nations to self-determination. Therefore, socialists have often aligned themselves politically with anti-colonial independence movements, and actively opposed the exploitation of one country by another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375445",
"title": "Socialism in New Zealand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Several prominent political parties in New Zealand, such as the New Zealand Labour Party, have historical links to socialism but are not generally considered socialist today due to their acceptance of a market economy. More likely to receive this label are the small Marxist organisations that exist outside the mainstream political world, such as the International Socialist Organisation and Socialist Aotearoa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21qt5m
|
why do we still take test and learn the same as how people did in the whole of history when technology has advanced so far?
|
[
{
"answer": "Learning has advanced a great deal since formal education began. There are some things that have become redundant, and some things may seem useless. For instance, why bother learning that there are 4 quarts in a gallon when I can just look it up? But many people, myself included, would argue that a fundamental understanding of the simple elements is necessary for an understanding of the complex. Albert Einstein wouldn't have been able to come up with the things he had if he hadn't been good at math (he didn't actually fail math, that's an urban legend). Facts tend to rest on other facts in our minds, and rote memorization doesn't lead to understanding; a book can contain all the facts in the world, but it doesn't come up with new ideas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18915928",
"title": "As We May Think",
"section": "Section::::Outline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "\"Section 1:\" The use of Science has improved tremendously in many ways for humans. The knowledge of science has grown considerably. However, the way we manage knowledge has remained the same for centuries. We are no longer able to access the breadth of scientific breakthroughs. Alternatively, the technology has matured greatly and allows us to now produce complicated, yet cheap and dependable machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18915928",
"title": "As We May Think",
"section": "Section::::Outlook in the use of science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Indeed, as of today, \"science has provided the swiftest communication between individuals; it has provided a record of ideas and has enabled man to manipulate and to make extracts from that record so that knowledge evolves and endures throughout the life of a race rather than of an individual\". Improved technology has become an extension of our capabilities, much as how external hard drives function for computers so it may reserve more memory for more practical tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12476035",
"title": "Moravec's paradox",
"section": "Section::::The biological basis of human skills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Some examples of skills that have appeared more recently: mathematics, engineering, human games, logic and scientific reasoning. These are hard for us because they are not what our bodies and brains were primarily evolved to do. These are skills and techniques that were acquired recently, in historical time, and have had at most a few thousand years to be refined, mostly by cultural evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1944675",
"title": "Educational technology",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Sociocultural criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Winner viewed technology as a \"form of life\" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning. For example, the use of robots in the industrial workplace may increase productivity, but they also radically change the process of production itself, thereby redefining what is meant by \"work\" in such a setting. In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reflect a person's knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12476035",
"title": "Moravec's paradox",
"section": "Section::::Historical influence on artificial intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Rodney Brooks explains that, according to early AI research, intelligence was \"best characterized as the things that highly educated male scientists found challenging\", such as chess, symbolic integration, proving mathematical theorems and solving complicated word algebra problems. \"The things that children of four or five years could do effortlessly, such as visually distinguishing between a coffee cup and a chair, or walking around on two legs, or finding their way from their bedroom to the living room were not thought of as activities requiring intelligence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54245",
"title": "Technological singularity",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Although technological progress has been accelerating, it has been limited by the basic intelligence of the human brain, which has not, according to Paul R. Ehrlich, changed significantly for millennia. However, with the increasing power of computers and other technologies, it might eventually be possible to build a machine that is more intelligent than humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17690366",
"title": "Frontal lobe injury",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Types of tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Before more advanced technology came about, scientists tested individual behavior using more low-tech means. As technology progressed, so did the tests scientists administer to evaluate a person's cognitive function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hv6j3
|
why is norway so horrendously expensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is difficult to transport anything to Norway because the land is very difficult to traverse and the sea can be incredibly rough. However though it does have large income from oil it also has an extremely generous social welfare system and that means high taxes and that means expensive goods and services.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it has something to do with their ridiculously high taxes which support some really expansive government programs like their national health care and national child care systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57615",
"title": "Economy of Norway",
"section": "Section::::Industrial revolution.:Petroleum and post-industrialism.:Post-industrial economic developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cost of living. Norway is among the most expensive countries in the world, as reflected in the Big Mac Index and other indices. Historically, transportation costs and barriers to free trade had caused the disparity, but in recent years, Norwegian policy in labor relations, taxation, and other areas have contributed significantly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16279219",
"title": "Outline of Norway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Since World War II, Norway has experienced rapid economic growth, and is now amongst the wealthiest countries in the world. Norway is the world's third largest oil exporter after Russia and Saudi Arabia and the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of GDP. It has also rich resources of gas fields, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Norway was the second largest exporter of seafood (in value, after China) in 2006. Other main industries include food processing, shipbuilding, metals, chemicals, mining and pulp and paper products. Norway has a Scandinavian welfare system and the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33346223",
"title": "Norwegian paradox",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has described Norway's economic performance as a \"paradox\". Other scholars also refer to it as a \"puzzle\". The concept has been developed due to the combination of low innovation and high economic performance in the country. Even when the rents of oil and gas sector are excluded, Norway's productivity and income are among the highest in the world. However, at the same time Norwegian R&D investment has a relatively small share of the country's GDP compared to other industrial economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21241",
"title": "Norway",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "Norwegians enjoy the second-highest GDP per-capita among European countries (after Luxembourg), and the sixth-highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Today, Norway ranks as the second-wealthiest country in the world in monetary value, with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation. According to the CIA World Factbook, Norway is a net external creditor of debt. Norway maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (2001–2006), and then reclaimed this position in 2009, through 2015. The standard of living in Norway is among the highest in the world. \"Foreign Policy\" magazine ranks Norway last in its Failed States Index for 2009, judging Norway to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. The OECD ranks Norway fourth in the 2013 equalised Better Life Index and third in intergenerational earnings elasticity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29171781",
"title": "Economy of Greater Oslo",
"section": "Section::::Cost of living.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Oslo is one of the most expensive cities in the world. As of 2006, it is ranked tenth according to the Worldwide Cost of Living Survey provided by Mercer Human Resource Consulting and first according to the Economist Intelligence Unit. The reason for this discrepancy is that the EIU omits certain factors from its final index calculation, most notably housing. Although Oslo does have the most expensive housing market in Norway, it is comparably cheaper than other cities on the list in that regard. Meanwhile, prices on goods and services remain some of the highest of any city. Oslo is hosting 2654 of the largest companies in Norway. Within the ranking of Europe's largest cities ordered by their number of companies Oslo is on position 5. A whole group of oil and gas companies is situated in Oslo. According to a report compiled by Swiss bank UBS in the month of August 2006, Oslo and London were the world's most expensive cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57615",
"title": "Economy of Norway",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "The economy of Norway is a developed mixed economy with state-ownership in strategic areas. Although sensitive to global business cycles, the economy of Norway has shown robust growth since the start of the industrial era. The country has a very high standard of living compared with other European countries, and a strongly integrated welfare system. Norway's modern manufacturing and welfare system rely on a financial reserve produced by exploitation of natural resources, particularly North Sea oil. According to United Nations data for 2016, Norway together with Luxembourg (a small state) and Switzerland are the only three countries in the world with a GDP per capita above US$70,000 that are not island nations nor microstates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27581983",
"title": "Pensions in Norway",
"section": "Section::::State pensions (Alderspensjon).:Minimal state pension (Minstepensjon).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Living costs in Norway are very high and have been increasing tremendously over the past few decades. Therefore, the Norwegian minimal state pension, which has been designed to cover the most basic living expenses in Norway, is adjusted each year to the increasing living costs in Norway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b3u5x9
|
Prior to the rise of Ataturk, what made someone in the Ottoman Empire a “Turk”?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer: ethnicity and language (both in place well before the 19th century), plus some negative experiences with other nationalities (mostly in the 19th-20th centuries, triggering the rise of Turkish nationalism.) When you read the memoirs of the future political and military leaders of Turkey, at one point almost all of them mention a story like this:\n\nThe young X (the future leader) enters an elite Ottoman school/military academy. There he meets others from different parts of the Empire. He witnesses how Albanians, Arabs (insert any other nationality here) create societies and promote their national culture. Yet he does not belong to any of these groups, and often he insists on the shared Ottoman identity. He feels alienated. At some stage, he thinks this does not work anymore (1912 Albanian independence and the Arabic revolt during WW1 being primary turning points for many, apparently) and he becomes more Turkish than Ottoman. This general story is repeated so many times that it is fair to say the Turkish identity resurfaced in the late 19th-early 20th century as a negative reaction to other nationalisms.\n\nWhat Turkish culture is probably a question too deep for me to delve into here. The native tongues seem to have played a vital role in reinforcing unity among ethnic groups in the Empire, so Turkish as your native tongue (which often even though not always meant you are ethnically Turkish) plus undergoing experiences similar to the story I told made people Turks. A reminder though: it is simply a mistake to suppose that such individuals and modern states created the national identity of Turkishness. There are several much older occasions in which people spoke of themselves as \"Turks\" and clearly regarded others as non-Turkic/Turkish \"others.\" A 15th century Ottoman chronicle by Mehmed Neşrî Efendi, for example, describes how Murad I of the Ottoman Empire said he ached to showcase “the Turkish manliness” against the Serbian Army, in the 14th century! So what we are talking here about is the Turkishness as understood from the late 19th century onwards but “Turkishness” itself has deeper roots in history. \n\nFinally, I do not think that most ordinary Turks felt failed or ignored by the Ottomans. They did not really think of the Ottomans as someone else either, it seems. There was a time following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 when the state sought to instill such a mentality (now largely exaggerated for modern political purposes). Indeed, there are speeches by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in which he criticizes how the Ottoman conquests were merely for the benefit of the Palace and the Sultan but at the cost of much Turkish blood. The Ottoman past was often used as a yardstick to demonstrate the success of the Republic, one success being the more clear expression of Turkishness in the Republican era. But at the end of the day, I highly doubt even the elites regarded the Ottoman Empire as an enemy per se. The confrontation with the Ottoman past in the Republic of Turkey never reached levels witnessed in the French Revolution or in the Soviet Union. It was never an issue of nationality alone anyway since the Ottoman past was often criticized also for not being secular, modern and independent enough too.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "506881",
"title": "Turkish War of Independence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "With the establishment of the Turkish National Movement, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and the abolition of the sultanate, the Ottoman era and the Empire came to an end, and with Atatürk's reforms, the Turks created the modern, secular nation-state of Turkey on the political front. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "854",
"title": "Anatolia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Among the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan I. The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known. The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights of Saint John.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088822",
"title": "Turkish people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Once Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led the Turkish War of Independence against the Allied forces that occupied the former Ottoman Empire, he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the Turkish National Movement considered the Turkish homeland. The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed and the newly founded Republic of Turkey was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of radical political and social reforms that transformed Turkey into a secular, modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20982080",
"title": "List of national founders",
"section": "Section::::Eurasia.:Switzerland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 211,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 211,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. Following the First World War, the huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. The Turkish War of Independence (1919–23), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues in Anatolia, resulted in the establishment of the modern Republic of Turkey (\"Türkiye Cumhuriyeti\") in 1923. He subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old Ottoman-Turkish state into a new secular republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4445638",
"title": "Turkification",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late Ottoman era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The late Ottoman government sought to create \"a core identity with a single Turkish religion, language, history, tradition, culture and set of customs\", replacing earlier Ottoman traditions that had not sought to assimilate different religions or ethnic groups.The Ottoman Empire had an ethnically diverse population that included Turks, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Greeks, Persians, Bulgarians, Serbs, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews and Laz people. Turkish nationalists claimed that only Turks were loyal to the state. Ideological support for Turkification was not widespread in the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288559",
"title": "Young Turks",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.:Materialism and positivism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "Another guiding principle for the Young Turks was the transformation of their society into one in which religion played no consequential role, a stark contrast from the theocracy that had ruled the Ottoman Empire since its inception. However, the Young Turks soon recognized the difficulty of spreading this idea among the deeply religious Ottoman peasantry and even much of the elite, as the Ottoman Empire had not experienced the Enlightenment in the same way that Western Europe had. The Young Turks thus began suggesting that Islam itself was materialistic. As compared with later efforts by Muslim intellectuals, such as the attempt to reconcile Islam and socialism, this was an extremely difficult endeavor. Although some former members of the CUP continued to make efforts in this field after the revolution of 1908, they were severely denounced by the Ulema, who accused them of \"trying to change Islam into another form and create a new religion while calling it Islam\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288559",
"title": "Young Turks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Young Turks (, from ) was a political reform movement in the early 20th century that consisted of Ottoman exiles, students, civil servants, and army officers. They favoured the replacement of the Ottoman Empire's absolute monarchy with a constitutional government. Later, their leaders led a rebellion against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. With this revolution, the Young Turks helped to establish the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, ushering in an era of multi-party democracy for the first time in the country's history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
x3vdo
|
I hoped this isn't looked down upon in this subreddit, but I think that it's inevitable. Either way, I'm curious. How accurate are the age of empire games?
|
[
{
"answer": "Off the top of my head:\n\nAge of Empires 3 is completely made up.\n\n* Specifically, there were no Ottomans in the New World and no Russians except on the Pacific Coast\n\n* The Ottomans did [invade](_URL_1_) Malta in 1565. New Brunswick is a real place.\n\n* The [Sepoy Rebellion](_URL_2_) really did happen, and I remember some of the reasons for it being depicted accurately in the game. The campaign ends before getting to the bloody bad ending, though.\n\n* The China campaign is based on fanciful [speculation](_URL_0_) \n\nAge of Empires 2 used more real history in its campaigns, but took significant liberties as well. I think most of the battles really happened but were nothing like as depicted in the games, such as the [siege of Acre](_URL_3_)\n\nAs far as I know the weapons, units, buildings, and nations in the games are mostly real. Though in Age of Empires III most of the national leaders were not alive at the same time.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Playing Age of Empires to figure out history is like playing Warcraft to figure out the plot of Lord of the Rings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The encyclopedia in AoE2 was really solid, taught me much the younger version of me would never have learbed otherwise. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has been a very long time since I played, but I remember the stories surrounding the campaign modes being fairly accurate.\n\nAll the factions were real and existed at some point. Often they did not exist simultaneously--AOE is the most egregious offender, with the Shang and the Romans--the game sometimes uses weird names (like Saracens and Tuetons).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"So! You have come to hear the tale of Frederick Barbarossa?\"\nI can't tell you that these games are particularly accurate, but they helped plant the seeds which created a love of history for me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42255194",
"title": "Stuart Ashen",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Published works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "On 24 February 2017 Ashen announced a sequel to \"Terrible Old Games You've Probably Never Heard Of\", titled \"Attack of the Flickering Skeletons: More Terrible Old Games You've Probably Never Heard Of\", again through Unbound, was released on 2 November 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1614138",
"title": "Empires in Arms",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Alessio Cavatore comments: \"Anyone who knows the game \"Empires in Arms\" (\"EiA\") would agree that it is a monster. It is one of the longest, most complicated, and most demanding board games that has ever been produced. It's certainly the longest I've ever played, and I've played quite a few. However, \"EiA\" has also been the most exciting, engrossing, and rewarding board-gaming experience of my life.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1472611",
"title": "Castlevania: Legacy of Darkness",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "In 2006, series producer Koji Igarashi stated that \"These games were taken out of the timeline [...] not because I didn't work on them, but because they were considered by their directors to be side projects in the series\". Since the 2002 removal, the events of \"Legacy of Darkness\" have occupied an ambiguous place in timelines published by Konami of Japan, Konami of America, and various gaming publications. The most recent English language timeline, distributed with preordered versions of \"\" in North America by Konami of America, includes Legacy of Darkness but does not describe the game's plot. IGA later clarified that he looks at the titles as \"...a Castlevania \"gaiden\" (subseries)\" and complimented them by stating \"...they both have a really unique take on the Castlevania world.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2011001",
"title": "Galactic Civilizations II: Dread Lords",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.:StarForce controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "On March 5, 2006, a StarForce employee publicly posted a working link to a BitTorrent search engine listing of \"Galactic Civilizations II\" torrents during a discussion about the popularity of the game. Their action was publicized on various websites, including Digg, Neowin, and Penny Arcade. Stardock also posted an article, partially in response to inaccurate reporting of their own reasons for releasing the game without copy protection. Starforce later closed the thread, posting an apology and stating that the employee \"just wanted to show that every non-protected game can be cracked\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8615255",
"title": "Crystalicum",
"section": "Section::::The Setting.:The Void (Pustka).:The Great Void (Wielka Pustka).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The Role-Playing Game is a bit unclear on its specific time placement. While the Great Void is mentioned as impassable in the player's guide, \"The Known Universe\" ends with the protagonist telling the news of the Dragon King's expedition's return and deciding to travel to the newly discovered worlds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873176",
"title": "Castlevania (1986 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "IGN's Colin Moriarty wrote a piece that discussed the idea that this game as well as other \"Castlevania\" titles were overshadowed by the 1997 \"\" which he considered the best title in the series. He cited this game's absence from IGN's top 100 games of all-time as well as the absence of the second and third \"Castlevanias\" from \"Game Informer\"s top 100 games of all-time list. He suggested that the reason this is the case is because of the NES games' high learning curve and difficulty level. He also felt that \"Symphony of the Night\"s influence on the series after its release caused people to forget about the NES games. He praised the Virtual Console for allowing players unfamiliar with these games to experience them more easily. IGN's Lucas M. Thomas included its 25th anniversary in a list of forgotten anniversaries which took place in 2011. He felt it odd that \"Castlevania\" had so many titles before its 25th anniversary and only one title during 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28393605",
"title": "Age of Empires Online",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "\"Age of Empires Online\" was the third most played Games for Windows Live title for the year 2012 based on unique users. Upon its shutdown in 2014, \"Age of Empires Online\" had its players embark on 500 million single-player quests, another 13.7 million multiplayer quests, and 2 million arena matches in its three-year history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7m9evl
|
if trees initially were non-biodegradable, and a fungus adapted to degrade them could the same be done for plastic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sure and we are working on it. But its a slow process and we are producing literally thousands of tonnes of plastic every day. \n\nRecycle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! Exactly this is being done, and micro-organisms have already been bred that (for example) love to eat spilled petroleum. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThis was recently covered in today I learned and a few times in r/askscience",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37499830",
"title": "Biodegradable additives",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Biodegradable additives have the potential to significantly reduce the accumulation of plastics in the environment. Plastics are ubiquitous in everyday life and are produced and disposed of in huge quantities each year. Many common plastics, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, poly(vinyl chloride), and poly(ethylene terephthalate), that can be found in most consumer products are not biodegradable. Furthermore, only about 9-10% of discarded plastics are recycled each year. Non-biodegradable plastics accumulate in the environment, threatening human, animal, and environmental health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6104177",
"title": "Biodegradable plastic",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In addition, oxo-degradable plastics are commonly percieved to be biodegradable. However, they are simply conventional plastics with additives called prodegredants that accelerate the oxidation process. While oxo-degradable plastics rapidly break down through exposure to sunlight and oxygen , they persist as huge quantities of microplastics rather than any biological material. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27265528",
"title": "Microplastics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Additionally, plastics degrade slowly, often over hundreds if not thousands of years. This increases the probability of microplastics being ingested and incorporated into, and accumulated in, the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The entire cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment is not yet known, but research is currently underway to investigate this issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6104177",
"title": "Biodegradable plastic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually bacteria. This is not to be confused with bioplastics which are simply plastics derived from renewable raw resources. Thus, not all bioplastics are biodegradable. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "889890",
"title": "Endophyte",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Environmental remediation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The endophyte Pestalotiopsis microspora isolated from stems of plants from the Ecuadorian Rainforest by Yale Researchers, was shown in laboratory experiments to be able to digest Polyurethane plastic as the fungus's sole carbon source. While other fungi have demonstrated the ability to remediate polyurethane plastic, the two isolates in this experiment were able to grow on this plastic in the absence of light or oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26145195",
"title": "Plastic",
"section": "Section::::Properties and classifications.:Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or ultra-violet radiation, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6104177",
"title": "Biodegradable plastic",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Under proper conditions, some biodegradable plastics can degrade to the point where microorganisms can completely metabolise them to carbon dioxide (and water). For example, starch-based bioplastics produced from sustainable farming methods could be almost carbon neutral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g9n08
|
what is software and how does it all work?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's a **very** broad question, so rather than go into detail, I'll just give some very high-level answers, and you can ask for clarification as needed.\n\n > how does software work?\n\nSoftware is simply a set of instructions for a computer to follow. The \"how\" is fairly complex, but it boils down to setting voltages on billions of tiny circuits inside the computer in a very specific way.\n\n > For that matter hardware too\n\nHardware is generally composed of billions of transistors, which are like tiny electrical \"switches\". A signal to one part can switch the transistor on or off, allowing other signals to either be blocked or allowed through.\n\nUsing transistors, you can build logic gates: circuits that perform operations like AND (give a high-voltage output only if both of the inputs are high-voltage), OR (give a high-voltage output if *either* of the inputs are high-voltage), NOT (give a high-voltage output for a low-voltage input, and vice versa), etc.\n\nUsing logic gates, you can build slightly more complex things, like adder circuits that can add binary numbers.\n\nUsing those more complex circuits, you can build even more complex things, like a CPU that can act on certain pre-defined instructions.\n\n > I hear these terms - application, server, middleware.\n\nAn application is just a piece of software, and is generally used to describe something that needs an operating system to run (the Operating system itself is just a very complex bit of software, but is generally not referred to as an \"application\"). Internet Explorer is an application, for instance. So is iTunes. And Steam. And anything else that your computer can run.\n\nA server is a computer that is set up to listen for network requests and respond to them (usually \"serving up\" webpages, hence the \"server\" name).\n\nMiddleware is a bit abstract. It's specialized software that exists to make it easier for other types of software to communicate with each other.\n\n > When I read something like - \"x application was built on top of y server\" - what does that mean?\n\nIt's hard for me to say without knowing what X and Y are. My guess is that they're using the other definition of \"server\" that I haven't mentioned. Software that takes requests and sends responses is also referred to as a \"server\". For instance, when you check your email, your computer contacts the \"mail server\". In one sense, this describes the computer that is responding with your email. But in the other sense, the \"mail server\" is the specific application/software running on that computer that does all the mail-related stuff. The same computer might also serve up web pages, and the application that does that would be a \"web server\". The computer itself can be referred to as either a \"mail server\" or a \"web server\" depending on context (though it's pretty standard just to call it \"the server\").\n\nAlso, the opposite of a \"server\" is a \"client\". Whatever application/computer consumes messages sent by a server is referred to as a client. So Internet Explorer is a \"web client\", for instance. If you play online games, the game software itself is a client.\n\nSo \"x application was built on top of y server\" probably means that \"x application\" is some type of middleware that acts as both a server and a client, taking requests from other programs, modifying them somehow, and passing them on to \"y server\".\n\nBut again, without specifics, it's hard to say for certain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks to all who replied - for your time and answers. And for not putting me down for my lack of knowledge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7878457",
"title": "Computer",
"section": "Section::::Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "\"Software\" refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. It is often divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible computer, it is sometimes called \"firmware\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24775031",
"title": "Outline of software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Software – collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of \"programs, procedures, algorithms\" and its \"documentation\" concerned with the operation of a data processing system. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software \"cannot be touched\". Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5213",
"title": "Computing",
"section": "Section::::Computer.:Computer software and hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Computer software or just \"software\", is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of \"programs, procedures, algorithms\" and its \"documentation\" concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast with the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible. Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37764426",
"title": "Outline of natural language processing",
"section": "Section::::Natural language processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "BULLET::::- A system that includes software – software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904443",
"title": "Outline of human–computer interaction",
"section": "Section::::What \"type\" of thing is human–computer interaction?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "BULLET::::- A system that includes software – software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5309",
"title": "Software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18457137",
"title": "Personal computer",
"section": "Section::::Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Computer software is any kind of computer program, procedure, or documentation that performs some task on a computer system. The term includes application software such as word processors that perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems that interface with computer hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware that controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1u2p2s
|
why do different regions of usa sell varying octanes of gas? i can buy 85 octane in idaho, but can't find anything less than 87 in arizona.
|
[
{
"answer": "Elevation.\n\n\"Octane\" is a description of how much compression the fuel can be put under before it spontaneously ignites. The higher the octane number, the more pressure the fuel can take before it just ignites. An engine wants to take the fuel/air mixture as close to this point as possible (but not past it) before the spark plug sparks and lights the fuel. This (I think) ensures the most power for a given amount of fuel.\n\nWhen you go to a higher elevation (like the mountains in Idaho), the air is thinner. This means the pistons in the engine can't compress the air as much. Since the pressure in the engine can't go as high, you need to use a fuel designed to ignite at a lower level of compression, a.k.a. a lower octane number.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23639",
"title": "Gasoline",
"section": "Section::::Octane rating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The octane rating of typical commercially available gasoline varies by country. In Finland, Sweden and Norway, 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53334161",
"title": "U.S. State Fuel Octane Standards",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Most states do not mandate certain standard gasoline grade octane ratings. In the United States and Canada, octane ratings are in AKI, commonly shown as \"(R+M)/2\". All states require gas pump to be labeled with the correct octane level and nearly all states do regular testing to make sure gas stations are in compliance. A minimum 87 octane fuel is recommended for most vehicles produced since 1984. Older cars with carburetors could operate with lower octane fuel at higher elevations. Regardless of legality fuel with an octane rating of less than 87 is generally not offered for sale in most states. However 85 and 86 octane gasoline can still commonly be found in several rocky mountain states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23639",
"title": "Gasoline",
"section": "Section::::Octane rating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "In the United States, octane ratings in unleaded fuels vary between 85 and 87 AKI (91–92 RON) for regular, 89–90 AKI (94–95 RON) for mid-grade (equivalent to European regular), up to 90–94 AKI (95–99 RON) for premium (European premium).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147242",
"title": "Octane rating",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Isooctane as a reference standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Octanes are a family of hydrocarbons that are typical components of gasoline. They are colorless liquids that boil around 125 °C (260 °F). One member of the octane family, isooctane, is used as a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline or LPG fuels to resist self-ignition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61260",
"title": "Filling station",
"section": "Section::::Octane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "In China, the most commonly found octane grade is RON 91 (regular), 93 (mid grade) and 97 (premium). Almost all of the fuel has been unleaded since 2000. In some premium gas stations in large cities, such as Petrol China and SinoPec, RON 98 gas is sold for racing cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6027241",
"title": "Butanol fuel",
"section": "Section::::Properties of common fuels.:Octane rating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "The octane rating of n-butanol is similar to that of gasoline but lower than that of ethanol and methanol. n-Butanol has a RON (Research Octane number) of 96 and a MON (Motor octane number) of 78 (with a resulting \"(R+M)/2 pump octane number\" of 87, as used in North America) while t-butanol has octane ratings of 105 RON and 89 MON. t-Butanol is used as an additive in gasoline but cannot be used as a fuel in its pure form because its relatively high melting point of 25.5 °C (79 °F) causes it to gel and solidify near room temperature. On the other hand, isobutanol has a lower melting point than n-butanol and favorable RON of 113 and MON of 94, and is thus much better suited to high fraction gasoline blends, blends with n-butanol, or as a standalone fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53334161",
"title": "U.S. State Fuel Octane Standards",
"section": "Section::::State Octane Ratings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The octane ratings below are the lowest allowed by law and may or may not reflect the actual levels offered for sale at most gas stations. Ethanol's effect on octane is not considered--these are ratings that are seen at the pump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tat36
|
what causes laziness? is it a physical condition?
|
[
{
"answer": "Recent studies show a link to [dopamine](_URL_0_) which is a brain chemical. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lack of feeling of self-efficacy or not feeling that your actions are effective in producing the results you want. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess everyone is too lazy to reply, OP. There are some good explanations for this, but my vague, non-scientific understanding is, it is indeed a physical condition, one that we inherited from our ancestors. I'm sure you can find a more technical/accurate/correct explanation of this, but here's the gist of it.\n\nOur brains have a vulnerability that makes it extremely easy to get addicted to things. Watching TV can stimulate you (you are rewarded with dopamine). The more TV you watch, the more you want to watch it. The brain is rewiring itself to crave TV, because it was a source of dopamine release. Why does the brain do this? Because it worked to our ancestors favour. Their brain would be wired to be 'addicted' to gathering food, because it was necessary for survival and even the act of simply gathering the food would be rewarding to them, giving them a higher chance of surviving the next drought. This routine of gathering now becomes ingrained.\n\nSo after a while, any moment you are not watching TV, your brain will be agitated, because your primitive brain isn't doing something it thinks is useful (because you're not getting dopamine) so you will crave TV. So basically, you are addicted to a low energy, highly stimulated state, it's as simple as that. Ever notice that you browse reddit for hours, even when you've seen everything, and there's nothing even remotely enjoyable about it? It's your brain telling you \"keep looking, you'll find it! (dopamine)\". As your brain continues to rewire itself, it also starts to cull the circuits in the brain that it deems 'un-useful', such as the ability to learn. Soon, TV will be the only thing that gives you a dopamine fix, which means everything else in the world will seem boring, and this is the root of laziness.\n\nOur brains are still plastic, however. Abstain from TV for a long enough time and you will no longer be addicted to it. Don't game for a few years, you will never be compelled to game again. \n\nHere's a study that examines the physical changes in the brain when addicted to internet use, and the similarities to drug addiction: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you describe laziness as \"not wanting to do things that you dislike\", then I think that answers the question in itself. I dislike an action, therefore I choose not to do it. Some people are able to recognize that they should do things they dislike but do them anyway, like exercise or study for school. But others don't care/want/think that the outcome is worth the cost of action. So they just don't.\n\nIMO it comes down to a matter of perception. The way you *think* causes you to be lazy or not, but even the word itself is subjective. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depression, Stress, Dopamine Addiction are one of many top valid reasons to why a person is lazy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know if laziness itself is a physical condition exactly, we don't seem to have too much real information on it. Many animals are fairly sedentary when their resource needs are already met, though. Perhaps it has something to do with conserving energy. Fatigue, on the other hand, which is sometimes mistaken for laziness, most certainly is a physical condition. Fatigue is an inability to make use of muscle strength to the degree that wouldn't be expected considering the person's physique. It can make it hard to lift things, to walk around, or even just to get out of bed. It can be temporary, due to a minor illness, or it can be chronic due to something more serious, ranging from autoimmune diseases to cancer to mood disorders.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans have evolved to be lazy about anything but survival. This was for good reason - getting carried away wasting energy on non-survival tasks was a luxury you couldn't afford when food was scarce.\n\nNowadays, we can trivially meet all our survival needs. It takes no effort at all. Our bodies thus don't want us to do anything - they want us to sit on the couch doing nothing just in case there's an emergency and we need that saved energy.\n\nThe biggest first-world problem is that our bodies don't like living in first world countries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's natural to try to find the least energy-consuming route which fills all of your needs, it makes sense evolutionarily to live while requiring as little food as possible by not wasting calories unnecessarily.\n\nThere's a study floating around the internet somewhere about chimps who were taught to paint for money (which could be spent on food etc). The chimps originally enjoyed painting, but eventually they realised that they would get paid no matter how little effort they put into it, and so they started to try to do the absolute minimum required to get the money, and stopped enjoying it. I think humans are the same, with all things we perceive to have rewards (that use up energy). Low energy pursuits like watching TV and surfing online are easier to persuade our body to do because it knows we'll waste less calories doing it than other activities, while still getting a reward.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Despite better responses than my own, I wanna post. So there.\n\nI heard about this on a Nat Geo program about huma nevolution. Basically laziness is the evolutionary way to conserve energy. Do as little amount of physical activity, and you need less energy = less food = less time hunting/scrounging for food = less danger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's often a question of what people are motivated by. For example, in a classroom, some people are motivated by getting an A. These people will study hard and do all the homework so that they get the A, even if they don't fully understand what they are doing.\n\nOther people are motivated by understanding the subject instead. They will study hard to understand the basics, but not worry about details, and then they happily get a B, but end up having a much better understanding than the A students. \n\nSo each of these groups might consider the others lazy...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is definitely an /r/askscience question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Low blood methylphenidate levels. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is indirectly why I take Adderall. For a free dopamine spike. Try to avoid judging me too quickly, because I know that sounds like I abuse it, but I only have a small Rx and it is legitimately for ADD. But if you think about it, the extra dopamine and therefore \"reward\" the brain is getting, helps one focus on mundane tasks, which is why it works.\n\nThe brain is \"rewarded\" or at least feels like it is rewarded, no matter what task you undertake, because the Adderall is providing the dopamine the brain so desperately wants. Even if I am reading a boring article on a topic I have no interest in, or painting the walls in my house, my brains still says \"this is cool, I like this\" since I have that extra dopamine.\n\nDopamine spike = motivation basically. The motivation you need to mow the lawn, clean the house, do your homework, whatever else you normally put off or never do otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "728513",
"title": "Laziness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Laziness is a habit rather than a mental health issue. It may reflect a lack of self-esteem, a lack of positive recognition by others, a lack of discipline stemming from low self-confidence, or a lack of interest in the activity or belief in its efficacy. Laziness may manifest as procrastination or vacillation. Studies of motivation suggest that laziness may be caused by a decreased level of motivation, which in turn can be caused by over-stimulation or excessive impulses or distractions. These increase the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for reward and pleasure. The more dopamine that is released, the greater intolerance one has for valuing and accepting productive and rewarding action. This desensitization leads to dulling of the neural patterns and affects negatively the anterior insula of the brain responsible for risk perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "728513",
"title": "Laziness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1150,
"text": "ADHD specialists say engaging in multiple activities can cause behavioral problems such as attention/focus failure or perfectionism and subsequently pessimism. In these circumstances laziness can manifest as a negative coping mechanism (aversion), the desire to avoid certain situations in the hopes of countering certain experiences and preconceived ill results. Lacanian thought says laziness is the \"acting out\" of archetypes from societal programming and negative child rearing practices. Boredom is sometimes conflated with laziness; one study shows that the average Briton is bored 6 hours a week. Thomas Goetz, University of Konstanz, Germany, and John Eastwood, York University, Canada, concur that aversive states such as laziness can be equally adaptive for making change and toxic if allowed to fester. An outlook found to be helpful in their studies is \"being mindful and not looking for ways out of it, simultaneously to be also open to creative and active options if they should arise.\" They point out that a relentless engaging in activities without breaks can cause oscillations of failure, which may result in mental health issues. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1295947",
"title": "Dysthymia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1346,
"text": "Dysthymia characteristics include an extended period of depressed mood combined with at least two other symptoms which may include insomnia or hypersomnia, fatigue or low energy, eating changes (more or less), low self-esteem, or feelings of hopelessness. Poor concentration or difficulty making decisions are treated as another possible symptom. Mild degrees of dysthymia may result in people withdrawing from stress and avoiding opportunities for failure. In more severe cases of dysthymia, people may even withdraw from daily activities. They will usually find little pleasure in usual activities and pastimes. Diagnosis of dysthymia can be difficult because of the subtle nature of the symptoms and patients can often hide them in social situations, making it challenging for others to detect symptoms. Additionally, dysthymia often occurs at the same time as other psychological disorders, which adds a level of complexity in determining the presence of dysthymia, particularly because there is often an overlap in the symptoms of disorders. There is a high incidence of comorbid illness in those with dysthymia. Suicidal behavior is also a particular problem with persons with dysthymia. It is vital to look for signs of major depression, panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, alcohol and substance misuse and personality disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2525075",
"title": "Zeitgeber",
"section": "Section::::Psychological effects of changes.:Mood disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "Disturbances in zeitgebers can exert a negative influence on emotion and mood as well as cognitive functioning. The disturbance of biological rhythms by zeitgebers is theorized to increase risk for some forms of psychopathology. There is strong evidence that individuals with depression experience irregular biological rhythms, including disrupted sleep-wake cycles, temperature, and cortisol rhythms. These findings support the theory first proposed by Ehlers, Frank, and Kupfer in 1988 that says that stressful life events can lead to depressive episodes by disrupting social and biological rhythms, leading to negative symptoms like sleep disturbance that can trigger depression in vulnerable individuals. Recent work has also demonstrated that interventions like light therapy, sleep deprivation, and some pharmacological antidepressants may be effective in treating depression by reordering these rhythms to their natural state. Such interventions influence an individual's mood, body temperature, cortisol levels, and melatonin production, all of which appear to be irregular in depressed individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8389",
"title": "Major depressive disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:DSM and ICD criteria.:Subtypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Melancholic depression\" is characterized by a loss of pleasure in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early-morning waking, psychomotor retardation, excessive weight loss (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa), or excessive guilt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16407460",
"title": "Endogenous depression",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Endogenous depression \"(melancholia)\" is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8049165",
"title": "Involutional melancholia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Involutional melancholia or involutional depression is a traditional name for a psychiatric disorder affecting mainly elderly or late middle-aged people, usually accompanied with paranoia. It is classically defined as \"depression of gradual onset occurring during the involutional years (40-55 in women and 50-65 in men), with symptoms of marked anxiety, agitation, restlessness, somatic concerns, hypochondriasis, occasional somatic or nihilistic delusions, insomnia, anorexia, and weight loss.\" Involutional melancholia is not recognized as a psychiatric disorder by the DSM-5, the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) classification and diagnostic tool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
214xta
|
What was the basis of the Nazi war machine? How did the managed economy of the Nazis work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Nazis did not nationalize all off industry; now they forced Jews to sell their businesses for peanuts to non-Jewish owners, under the policy of Aryanization/Arisierung - that was in 1938.\n\nHowever they placed limited on what owners could do with their property, effectively the nazi state managed an increasing part of the economy - this tendency began in 1936 (the Nazi's had a four year plan between 1936-40); from 1939 this the economy switched to war economy and between 1942-45 most of the economy was managed directly by the state.\n\nFor instance farmers would be told what they should plant (they also did price fixing), and factories would be told what to produce; however the old manager was still in charge, provided he was not Jewish. \n\nMuch of the free market was gradually abolished; by 1936 prices and salaries were fixed; the central bank lost its independence; etc.\n\nMuch of the prewar years was based on deficit spending; actually the Bruehning government started this, but because of Versaille/Young plan he was not allowed to finance these measure by inflation. The measures were efficient at stopping unemployment; however the planning body was a mess of different interest and priorities, the office of the four year plan (Goehring) would quarrel with leader of war economy (Schacht) vs. Wehrmacht officials, etc.\n\nAlso deficit spending had the result that there were no currency reserves left by 1939.\nSo it is correct to say that eventually the business plan of the Nazi system was war, also planning went for war in 1939; the second four year plan would have ended early in 1940, the object of the plan was to create a self sufficient economy/decrease dependence on imported raw materials and to prepare for war.\n\n----\n\"Deutsche Wirtschaft und Wirtschaftspolitik 1914 - 1945\" Prof. Dr. Rainer Goemmel\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44551490",
"title": "European interwar economy",
"section": "Section::::Germany’s Fascist Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Hitler completely reorganized the economic landscape in Germany. The economic chamber of the Third Reich consisted of over two hundred organizations and national councils involved in industry, commercial, and craft lines. Large public works programs, such as the construction of the Autobahn, stimulated the economy and reduced unemployment. These programs also prevented the recurrence of inflation, which plagued the German economy immediately following World War 1 and led to widespread civil unrest. As the economy slowly recovered under the Nazi Party, Hitler adapted the economy to cater towards war preparations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4337123",
"title": "Economic history of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Nazi economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "During the Hitler era (1933–45), the economy developed a hothouse prosperity, supported with high government subsidies to those sectors that tended to give Germany military power and economic autarky, that is, economic independence from the global economy. During the war itself the German economy was sustained by the exploitation of conquered territories and people. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21212",
"title": "Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Wartime economy and forced labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The Nazi war economy was a mixed economy that combined a free market with central planning. Historian Richard Overy describes it as being somewhere in between the command economy of the Soviet Union and the capitalist system of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31045316",
"title": "Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1128,
"text": "Hitler primarily viewed the German economy as an instrument of power and believed the economy was not about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation's citizenry, but rather that economic success was paramount for providing the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest. While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. The Nazis thus sought to secure a general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government. Between 1933 and 1939, military expenditures were upwards of 82 billion Reichsmarks and represented 23 percent of Germany's gross national product as the Nazis mobilised their people and economy for war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Post-war controversy.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "After the war, Albert Speer claimed that the German economy achieved greater armaments output, not because of diversions of capacity from civilian to military industry but through streamlining of the economy. Richard Overy pointed out some 23 percent of German output was military by 1939. Between 1937 and 1939, 70 percent of investment capital went into the rubber, synthetic fuel, aircraft and shipbuilding industries. Hermann Göring had consistently stated that the task of the Four Year Plan was to rearm Germany for total war. Hitler's correspondence with his economists also reveals that his intent was to wage war in 1943–1945, when the resources of central Europe had been absorbed into the \"Third Reich\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2194173",
"title": "Home front during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Axis.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Germany had not fully mobilized in 1939, nor even in 1941. Not until 1943, under Albert Speer (the minister of armaments in the \"Reich\"), did Germany finally redirect its entire economy and manpower to war production. Instead of using all available Germans, it brought in millions of slave workers from conquered countries, treating them badly (and getting low productivity in return). Germany's economy was simply too small for a longer all-out war. Hitler's strategy was to change this by a series of surprise blitzkriegs. This failed with defeats in Russia in 1941 and 1942, and against the economic power of the allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4652",
"title": "Blitzkrieg",
"section": "Section::::Post-war controversy.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Adam Tooze wrote that the German economy was being prepared for a long war. The expenditure for this war was extensive and put the economy under severe strain. The German leadership were concerned less with how to balance the civilian economy and the needs of civilian consumption but to figure out how to best prepare the economy for total war. Once war had begun, Hitler urged his economic experts to abandon caution and expend all available resources on the war effort but the expansion plans only gradually gained momentum in 1941. Tooze wrote that the huge armament plans in the pre-war period did not indicate any clear-sighted blitzkrieg economy or strategy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1i628l
|
how to talk to children
|
[
{
"answer": "Use simple words, but otherwise talk to them the same way you'd talk to a regular person. If they don't understand, they'll let you know - they're kids.\n\nAlso, some people tend to talk to children like they're stupid. They're (usually) not. They just don't have your experience or command of the English language. Most kids are reasonably perceptive; they pick up on context, draw inferences, and take visual cues in communication just like an adult.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reading your username makes me question your intentions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, don't tell them your name is ANAL_ANARCHY.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's a pretty wide range. I was a counsellor at a day camp , and these are the differences I saw: \n\nAge 5-8ish: Explain things calmly, ask them what they like - like the things they like. Ask questions, answer questions. Be kind. Granted I was in a very specific circumstance, but generally all my interactions felt slightly \"parental\". \n\nAge 8 -12: Act like they're you. Growing up, I hated being talked down to. They'll ask if they don't understand something. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one here said to squat down and talk to them at eye level. It helps them take you more seriously without them feeling threatened by grownups they don't know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2898903",
"title": "Edmund Blair Bolles",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"So Much to Say\" (1980), regarding the language of children from birth to age five. It proposes that children are driven to talk because they have \"something to say,\" have private emotions and thoughts to report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297247",
"title": "Symbolic communication",
"section": "Section::::Symbolic communication in humans.:Challenges to communication.:Symbolic communication in children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Children who have delayed speech or other mental illnesses cannot grasp the concept of verbal communication, so they turn to symbol communication. These children may already understand basic symbols like head-nodding for \"yes\" or head shaking for \"no\" from watching their parents or others around them. Children who have a hard time speaking cannot demonstrate their literacy skills confluent with other children their age. Parents who take special care in helping their child use by using symbolic communication at first see a huge growth in their speech and communication skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1404732",
"title": "Vocabulary development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "From an early age, infants use language to communicate. Caregivers and other family members use language to teach children how to act in society. In their interactions with peers, children have the opportunity to learn about unique conversational roles. Through pragmatic directions, adults often offer children cues for understanding the meaning of words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47190030",
"title": "Next Foundation",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Talking Matters is a programme that promotes the importance of talking with babies. This programme is designed to address the differences in language children have when they start school. It is a community-based programme that focusses on the child's brain development in the first 0–3 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "863241",
"title": "Baby talk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Baby talk is a type of speech associated with an older person speaking to a child. It is also called caretaker speech, infant-directed speech (IDS), child-directed speech (CDS), child-directed language (CDL), or motherese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21456295",
"title": "Happy (1960 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The idea of a talking child was adapted from Jackie Cooper's earlier NBC sitcom \"The People's Choice\", which features a talking basset hound named Cleo. The idea of a talking infant was later reused in the film \"Look Who's Talking\" and the 1990s sitcom, \"Baby Talk\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39698676",
"title": "Small Talk (book)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Small Talk was written with the intention of giving parents the confidence to enhance their child's communication in those all-important early years when the brain is busy creating pathways to the jaw, lips and tongue, establishing the building blocks of first speech.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
apsr8l
|
did thousands of people die trying 'food' that we now know is poisonous?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably. And more than a few avoided food that we know is fine. Many people in Europe in the 1400s thought fruit was slightly poisonous and shouldn't be given to young children. Many people used to think tomatoes were toxic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably more like tens of millions, especially when it came to spoiled food. If someone ate cheese it means someone else ate rotten meat and fish.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1967671",
"title": "Palytoxin",
"section": "Section::::Poisoning incidents.:Ingestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "There have been cases where people died after eating foods containing palytoxin or poisons similar to it. In the Philippines people died after eating \"Demania reynaudii\", a crab species. After eating bluestripe herring some people died in Madagascar. People who had eaten smoked fish and parrotfish experienced near fatal poisoning in Hawaii and Japan respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1370244",
"title": "Methylmercury",
"section": "Section::::Biological impact.:Human health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "There have been several episodes in which large numbers of people were severely poisoned by food contaminated with high levels of methylmercury, notably the dumping of industrial waste that resulted in the pollution and subsequent mass poisoning in Minamata and Niigata, Japan and the situation in Iraq in the 1960s and 1970s in which wheat treated with methylmercury as a preservative and intended as seed grain was fed to animals and directly consumed by people (see Basra poison grain disaster). These episodes resulted in neurological symptoms including paresthesias, loss of physical coordination, difficulty in speech, narrowing of the visual field, hearing impairment, blindness, and death. Children who had been exposed in-utero through their mothers' ingestion were also affected with a range of symptoms including motor difficulties, sensory problems and intellectual disability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3460180",
"title": "Chiquinquirá",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "In November, 1967, 81 people in Chiquinquirá, most of them children, were fatally poisoned and hundreds more became seriously ill after eating bread that had been made with flour that had been contaminated with a powdered insecticide. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31309377",
"title": "Food spoilage",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Issues of food spoilage do not necessarily have to do with the quality of the food, but more so with the safety of consuming said food. However, there are cases where food has been proven to contain toxic ingredients. 200 years ago, Claviceps purpurea, a type of fungus, was linked to human diseases and 100 years ago in Japan, yellow rice was found to contain toxic ingredients. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6529281",
"title": "Actaea rubra",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "There have been no reported cases of severe poisoning or deaths in North America, but children have been fatally poisoned by its European relative \"A. spicata\". It is claimed that poisoning is unlikely from eating the fruits of this species also.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39986764",
"title": "Bihar school meal poisoning incident",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Initial indications were that the food was contaminated by an organophosphate, a class of chemicals commonly found in insecticides. A local government administrator commented \"It appears to be a case of poisoning but we will have to wait for forensic reports ... Had it been a case of natural food poisoning, so many children would not have died.\" Dr Amar Kant Jha, superintendent of Patna Medical College and Hospital in Patna, said that the survivors were emitting toxic vapours, which led his team to suspect almost immediately that they had been poisoned with an organophosphate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3459904",
"title": "Barred parakeet",
"section": "Section::::Aviculture.:Toxic foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Common toxic foods include avocado and guacamole, substances containing caffeine (such as tea and coffee), fruit pits and apple seeds (which contain amounts of cyanide), persimmons, onions (prolonged exposure can lead to a blood condition called hemolytic anemia), mushrooms (cause digestion problems and can induce liver failure), dried/uncooked beans (contain hemaglutin, toxic to birds), the stems, vines, and leaves of tomatoes (the actual fruit is fine), and eggplant. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
phqs3
|
When people say some metals are "better" at conducting electricity what does this mean, do they conduct faster or more efficiently?
|
[
{
"answer": "Both. The conductivity of a material is the constant that relates the current per unit area to the applied electric field. σ = J/E. So using a more conductive material you could design a circuit that moves the same amount of current using a weaker field (more efficient) or moves more current at the same field (faster) or somewhere in between.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "72536",
"title": "Thermal conduction",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.) are usually good conductors of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. The \"electron fluid\" of a conductive metallic solid conducts most of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less of the energy. Electrons also conduct electric current through conductive solids, and the thermal and electrical conductivities of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as copper, also conducts heat well. Thermoelectricity is caused by the interaction of heat flux and electric current. Heat conduction within a solid is directly analogous to diffusion of particles within a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Conductivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz law, which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37904380",
"title": "Copper in renewable energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Regarding the sustainability of renewable energy systems, it is worthy to note that in addition to copper's high electrical and thermal conductivity, its recycling rate is higher than any other metal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58761",
"title": "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes",
"section": "Section::::University of Leiden.:Superconductivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes measured the electrical conductivity of pure metals (mercury, and later tin and lead) at very low temperatures. Some scientists, such as William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a complete halt or, in other words, metal resistivity would become infinitely large at absolute zero. Others, including Kamerlingh Onnes, felt that a conductor's electrical resistance would steadily decrease and drop to nil. Augustus Matthiessen said that when the temperature decreases, the metal conductivity usually improves or in other words, the electrical resistivity usually decreases with a decrease of temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230641",
"title": "Copper interconnects",
"section": "Section::::Electromigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "Resistance to electromigration, the process by which a metal conductor changes shape under the influence of an electric current flowing through it and which eventually leads to the breaking of the conductor, is significantly better with copper than with aluminium. This improvement in electromigration resistance allows higher currents to flow through a given size copper conductor compared to aluminium. The combination of a modest increase in conductivity along with this improvement in electromigration resistance was to prove highly attractive. The overall benefits derived from these performance improvements were ultimately enough to drive full-scale investment in copper-based technologies and fabrication methods for high performance semiconductor devices, and copper-based processes continue to be the state of the art for the semiconductor industry today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19042",
"title": "Metal",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Electrical and thermal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The electronic structure of metals means they are relatively good conductors of electricity. Electrons in matter can only have fixed rather than variable energy levels, and in a metal the energy levels of the electrons in its electron cloud, at least to some degree, correspond to the energy levels at which electrical conduction can occur. In a semiconductor like silicon or a nonmetal like sulfur there is an energy gap between the electrons in the substance and the energy level at which electrical conduction can occur. Consequently, semiconductors and nonmetals are relatively poor conductors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59438",
"title": "Thermal conductivity",
"section": "Section::::Influencing factors.:Electrical conductivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "In metals, thermal conductivity approximately tracks electrical conductivity according to the Wiedemann–Franz law, as freely moving valence electrons transfer not only electric current but also heat energy. However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of phonon carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive silver is less thermally conductive than diamond, which is an electrical insulator, but due to its orderly array of atoms it is conductive of heat via phonons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1f6i12
|
3g/4g.
|
[
{
"answer": "Awesome question!\n\nBasically, telecom companies install cell towers, which allow you to connect your phone with a wireless connection. Similar how you connect a laptop to a wifi access point, you connect your phone to a cell tower.\n\nIf you're close to the tower, and your phone is set up to connect to that particular type of tower, you get a connection. The tower is connected to the internet with wires, and everyone is happy.\n\nHope that helps :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "3rd generation and 4th generation. Some phones and cell phone carries still use 3rd generation speeds(3g) and technologies while others use 4th generation(4g) speeds and tech which is faster. It's like the internet then verses the internet now. Like Verizon DSL I think only offers 1.5M/s while the newer fast fiber services can offer much much more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's a pretty broad question. I think it's really 3 questions in one, so I'll try to tackle each one individually.\n\n\n**What's the difference between 2G, 3G, and 4G?**\n\nImagine there is a deliver service. At the beginning they have a very basic setup of just a few horses that run on small local roads. It can only deliver a small amount of packages a day because of constraints on the delivery center, the amount you can put on your horses, and the 1 lane roads you're stuck using. That's basically 2G or EDGE service.\n\n\nA few years later after government regulators agree that they're doing a good job and will help widen the roads and everyone thinks it's a good time to update the entire delivery centers and buy some trucks. Now everyone have a much larger facility for moving packages/data from point A to point B. There are also new larger trucks that can fit more per load, and the roads are now bigger for everyone to drive more load through. Great! You've got 3G! \n\n\n3G operates pretty fast but soon everyone and their mom want to send packages so the government says ok, we'll reserve some highway space, some 16-wheeler trucks, and automated systems in delivery centers to get packages moved as quickly as possible. Now you're at 4G speed, you can now move A LOT of data at once.\n\n\nIn this analogy the delivery centers are the switch centers at the major telecom companies. To move more data through with each new generation of service (2G, 3G, 4G) the equipment need to be updated. The roads in this are basically spectrum frequency. Which are regulated by the government/FCC. The feds have to sell or free up additional spectrum for telecom companies to operate more data on the higher frequency channels. Trucks are basically the underlying internet backbone that can accommodate for more and faster data transmission. Without all 3 upgrading almost at the same speed, it's impossible to move from from one generation to the next. Also, your cell phones have to upgrade to the latest generation of processors too because high data-speeds require faster chips to process it. \n\n----------------\n**So how does my cell phone communicate data wirelessly?** \n\nThink of your phone as a just like a mailbox that you leave a request letter in the morning for Youtube. The delivery guy picks up your letter requesting a large order of videos from Youtube and delivers it to them. In the letter you ask \"Please send me a video on XYZ to my address.\" When Youtube gets your request via the delivery service, it will package it all up and send you the video as many large packages. Depending on the speed of the delivery centers, size of the trucks, and width of the road the packages can arrive slowly one by one or really fast almost instantaneously. 2G, 3G, and 4G are just different agreed upon standards the service centers, trucks, and roads that are built. The newer generations are faster at delivering packages. \n\n\nThink of your phone as almost like a mailbox. With each new generation of technology, it has to be bigger, stronger, and more automated to support all the packages/data that you've ordered. If you have an old phone that's using 2G, it's pretty much like a tiny mailbox that the deliver service just says \"Nope, it won't be able to handle the load. If you want to use our 3G service, upgrade it so we can fit these larger boxes in.\"\n\n\n------------------\n**How does the data go from your phone to the receiving tower and then get moved to Youtube?**\n\nScatter around the entire world are cell phone towers, hundreds of thousands of them. They're like listening stations that can talk directly with your phone when it's near. When you turn your cell phone one or walk within range of a new tower, the phone will ask \"who's the closes cell tower?\" A lot of towers will reply by shouting back \"Tower XYZ, I'm here!\", \"Tower ABC, I'm here.\" Depending on how clear your phone hears the response, your phone will start a conversation with one that has the highest quality connection and sounds the clearest. Each cell phone tower is connected to a landline that's hookup to the internet. It acts as an intermediary that passes on your request from the phone, to the tower, from the tower through the landline, into the internet, and through to Youtube. Youtube then replies, passes the video right back. No magical satellite is needed unless you're somewhere super remote and it's cheaper for the cell tower to talk to the satellite than it is to lay down some land lines to the tower.\n\n\nIf you want to get a bit more technical, 3G and 4G differences are more than just more bandwidth but requires all new equipment by the cell phone carriers to handle all of the new extra load. It takes forever for some places to move to 4G from 3G because of the cost of setting up new infrastructure. Upgrading costs millions of dollars that require faster computers, more expensive connections, and new software to handle everything. None of it is cheap or easy. Which is why it's taking forever for 4G to move forward.\n\n\nIf I made any technical errors, please excuse me, I'm trying to remember as much as I can from college 11 years ago.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I expected to learn so much about the technological differences between the different data types, 2G, 3G, 4G, 4G LTE, and 4G WIMAX. So disappointed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a very, very good talk given by a Google performance (Make The Web Fast team) guy on the efforts required to get a page to display on a cellphone in under 1000ms (1 second). It isn't ELI5-type material, but it gives a LOT of technical specs on the different cell phone modes, different technologies and the way connection setup, data transmission and screen rendering happens on a mobile device. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "486547",
"title": "4G",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47267734",
"title": "List of mobile phone generations",
"section": "Section::::3G.:3.5G.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "3.5G is a grouping of disparate mobile telephony and data technologies designed to provide better performance than 3G systems, as an interim step towards the deployment of full 4G capability. The technology includes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47267734",
"title": "List of mobile phone generations",
"section": "Section::::3G.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "3G technology provides an information transfer rate of at least 200 kbit/s. Later 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers. This ensures it can be applied to wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV technologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282450",
"title": "3G",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "3G, short for third generation, is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology. It is the upgrade for 2G and 2.5G GPRS networks, for faster internet speed. This is based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications use services and networks that comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union. 3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "486547",
"title": "4G",
"section": "Section::::Principal technologies in all candidate systems.:IPv6 support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes, 4G is based on packet switching \"only\". This requires low-latency data transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282450",
"title": "3G",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Both 3GPP and 3GPP2 are working on the extensions to 3G standards that are based on an all-IP network infrastructure and using advanced wireless technologies such as MIMO. These specifications already display features characteristic for IMT-Advanced (4G), the successor of 3G. However, falling short of the bandwidth requirements for 4G (which is 1 Gbit/s for stationary and 100 Mbit/s for mobile operation), these standards are classified as 3.9G or Pre-4G.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366",
"title": "Economy of Pakistan",
"section": "Section::::Major sectors.:Services.:Telecommunication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "3G and 4G was simultaneously launched in Pakistan on 23 April 2014 through a SMRA Auction. Three out of Five Companies got a 3G licence i.e. Ufone, Mobilink and Telenor while China Mobile's Zong got 3G as well as a 4G licence. Whereas fifth company, Warid Pakistan did not participate in the auction procedure, But they launched 4G LTE services on their existing 2G 1800 MHz spectrum due to Technology neutral terms and became world's first Telecom Company to transform directly from 2G to 4G. With that Pakistan joined the 3G and 4G world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fjz4f
|
Does "smell" expand at different rate, due to surrounding temperature?
|
[
{
"answer": "Absolutely. When you smell something, molecules from whatever source you're smelling are in your nose. But they had get there from the source - they had move. As it happens, temperature is actually a measure of molecular motion; when things get hotter, the molecules are moving faster. And if the molecules are moving faster, they get to your nose faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1569600",
"title": "Thermal expansion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31578087",
"title": "MEMS magnetic field sensor",
"section": "Section::::Temperature effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "When the temperature increases, the Young's modulus of the material used to fabricate the moving structure decreases, or more simply, the moving structure softens. Meanwhile, thermal expansion and thermal conductivity increase, with the temperature inducing an internal stress in the moving structure. These effects can result in the shift of the resonant frequency of the moving structure which is equivalent to noise for resonant frequency shift sensing or the voltage sensing. In addition, temperature rise will generate larger Johnson noise (affect the piezoresistive transduction) and increase mechanical fluctuation noise (which affects optical sensing). Therefore, advanced electronics for temperature effect compensation have to be used to maintain sensitivity as temperature changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7728392",
"title": "Entropy (order and disorder)",
"section": "Section::::Phase change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Thus, according to Boltzmann, owing to increases in thermal motion, whenever heat is added to a working substance, the rest position of molecules will be pushed apart, the body will expand, and this will create more \"molar-disordered\" distributions and arrangements of molecules. These disordered arrangements, subsequently, correlate, via probability arguments, to an increase in the measure of entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1569600",
"title": "Thermal expansion",
"section": "Section::::Coefficient of thermal expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient, and the most relevant for fluids. In general, substances expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are, respectively, approximately twice and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:General physical considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Note that in this example we have assumed that temperature is low enough that heat capacities are not influenced by molecular vibration (see heat capacity). However, vibrational modes simply cause gammas which decrease toward 1, since vibration modes in a polyatomic gas give the gas additional ways to store heat which do not affect temperature, and thus do not affect molecular velocity and sound velocity. Thus, the effect of higher temperatures and vibrational heat capacity acts to increase the difference between the speed of sound in monatomic vs. polyatomic molecules, with the speed remaining greater in monatomics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113469",
"title": "Joule–Thomson effect",
"section": "Section::::Physical mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "There are two factors that can change the temperature of a fluid during an adiabatic expansion: a change in internal energy or the conversion between potential and kinetic internal energy. Temperature is the measure of thermal kinetic energy (energy associated with molecular motion); so a change in temperature indicates a change in thermal kinetic energy. The internal energy is the sum of thermal kinetic energy and thermal potential energy. Thus, even if the internal energy does not change, the temperature can change due to conversion between kinetic and potential energy; this is what happens in a free expansion and typically produces a decrease in temperature as the fluid expands. If work is done on or by the fluid as it expands, then the total internal energy changes. This is what happens in a Joule–Thomson expansion and can produce larger heating or cooling than observed in a free expansion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14066275",
"title": "Inversion temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "where formula_11 is the critical temperature of the substance. So for formula_12, an expansion at constant enthalpy increases temperature as the work done by the repulsive interactions of the gas is dominant, and so the change in energy is negative. But for formula_13, expansion causes temperature to decrease because the work of attractive intermolecular forces dominates, giving a positive change in energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ejkw8
|
Why did American snipers in World War 2 were given the Springfield 1903 when the M1 Garand uses the same type of ammunition and is Semi-Automatic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer. Because that's what they had on hand. \n\nShort answer number 2. Because nobody had bothered developing the M1 as a sniper platform until late in the war.\n\nLong answer. Well, nobody was bothering with the M1 until late in the war. Seriously, that's about the gist of it. None of this mess about \"Semi autos being inherently inaccurate compared to bolt rifles\" (The Russians would like to introduce you to the SVT 40, and some of the lovely and lethal ladies who used it to great effect on the Eastern Front) or pinging clips and such. \n\nWhen the US entered WWII they didn't even have enough M1 Garands to go around yet, famously the Marines started the war with a large quantity of 03 Springfields on hand, as they had yet to fully transition to the M1. The first priority was getting standard M1's out to all the troops, and ramping up production of them to match the needs of the rapidly growing armed forces.\n\nSo, when a sniper rifle was needed, it was simpler to use the existing 03 Springfield platform to use as sniper rifles. They had been built in sniper configurations before, the tech was all worked out, there was a ton of civilian knowledge on how to turn them into scoped rifles. It was easy, simple and straightforward. The M1C and D rifles didn't make an appearance until 1944 and beyond, because of the need to first focus on getting standard rifles to the troops, and the fact that an entire program of turning the M1 into a sniper rifle had to be started up. \n\nThe M1 C and D were standard sniper rifles during the Korean War, and served quite well there, which should settle the myth of the weakness of a semi auto platform as a sniper rifle. You can also see the Russians have fielded many successful semi auto sniper rifles, such as the SVT 40, and the famous Dragonuv. The M1 was not a standard sniper platform in WWII, because it had not been developed as such yet, nothing more, nothing less. \n\nAre bolt guns more inherently accurate? On off the shelf rack grade units? Probably. But when you start building match grade semi auto and bolt action rifles, I don't think it really matters anymore. Modern out of the box AR 15's get exceptional accuracy, and it's not uncommon to find or build sub MOA units for competition or varmint hunting. It's not the action of the gun, as much as it is the way it is built. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is a [good article](_URL_0_) on the development of the M1 Garand sniper rifle. Note that it wasn't until 1943 that they even thought about developing one as a sniper. The first prototype was rejected because it was an unsatisfactory attempt to use existing off the shelf components that were largely incompatible with how the Garand operated. After the first prototype, the Army developed a series of guidelines specifying how the scope was to be placed, and how the weapon should function in terms of adjusting eye relief of the scope, use of iron sights and ability to easily insert a fresh clip. The ultimate end result were the M1C and D snipers used late in the war and in Korea. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aside from some of the excellent info already listed here, I've seen no mention of the nature of the Garand receiver's method of loading compared to the Springfield.\n\nThe Garand loaded from the top in an 8 round en-bloc clip, which meant that any optic mounted on its receiver had to either sit significantly forward of the action or off to one side. Neither of these is conducive to accuracy, even if an experienced shooter on another platform may be able to adapt to it with practice.\n\nThe Garand's direct descendent, the M14, was much better suited to a sniper role (and has filled this role from Vietnam to the present day in US service). It is fed from a 20 round box magazine underneath the receiver rather than on top, so any optic mounted to it can sit in a more conventional location. Two highly accurized versions, the M21 and M25 feature heavily in long range lore, with the name Carlos Hathcock coming up often.\n\nWhile it's now possible to make a semi-auto rifle as accurate as a bolt gun, there aren't a lot of people who would doubt that a bolt gun can be fitted to a sniper role for a lot less money than a semi-auto. It's worth looking into the M24 program, which didn't come around until the late 1980s, and was based on the Remington 700 bolt action rather than the large reserves of M14 receivers that the DOD already had in inventory. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39287076",
"title": "American military technology during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Small arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The US entered the war with the M1 Garand as its service rifle. However, due to its size and weight, it was not an ideal weapon for some specialist roles such as engineers, tank crew, radio operators etc. So the lighter and smaller M1 Carbine was introduced in mid-1942. A semi-automatic weapon it used different ammunition to the M1 rifle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40841971",
"title": "Winchester model 30",
"section": "Section::::History.:Winchester Automatic Rifle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Since the Garand had demonstrated effectiveness as an infantry rifle in combat, the Ordnance Department suggested Winchester revise the design again to include a bipod and selective fire capability as a possible alternative to the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). The Winchester Automatic Rifle (WAR) tested by the Ordnance Department in December 1944 was several pounds lighter than the BAR. Ten more WARs were tested during the summer of 1945 by the Army Infantry Board and by the Marine Corps Equipment Board; but interest in the project ended upon conclusion of Second World War hostilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39186",
"title": "Semi-automatic rifle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gas-operated rifles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nation's bolt-action rifle as the standard-issue infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375767",
"title": "Semi-automatic firearm",
"section": "Section::::Early history (1885–1945).:Notable gas-operated rifles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nation's bolt-action rifle as the standard-issue infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319543",
"title": "M14 rifle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The M14 was the last American battle rifle issued in quantity to U.S. military personnel. It was replaced by the M16 assault rifle, a lighter weapon using a smaller caliber intermediate cartridge. The M14 rifle remains in limited service in all branches of the U.S. military as an accurized competition weapon, a ceremonial weapon by honor guards, color guards, drill teams and ceremonial guards, and sniper rifle/designated marksman rifle but is still used in battlefields by special forces and standard infantry units. Civilian semi-automatic models are used for hunting, plinking, target shooting, and shooting competitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "397216",
"title": "M1903 Springfield",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "According to Bruce Canfield's encyclopedic \"U.S. Infantry Weapons of WW II\", final variants of the M1903 (the A3 and A4) were delivered in February 1944. By then, most American combat troops had been re-equipped with the M1 Garand. However, some front-line infantry units in both the U.S. Army and Marine Corps retained M1903s as infantry rifles beyond that date and continued to use them alongside the M1 Garand until the end of the Second World War in 1945. The Springfield remained in service for snipers (using the M1903A4), grenadiers (using a spigot type rifle 22 mm grenade launcher), and Marine Scout Sniper units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149051",
"title": "M1 Garand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The M1 Garand is a .30-06 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U.S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U.S. forces, though many hundreds of thousands were also provided as foreign aid to American allies. The Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also widely used by civilians for hunting, target shooting, and as a military collectible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bbtwe
|
why are asians buying real estate all over the world, causing a housing crisis in various cities?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because ownership of real property is, for the most part, a fundamental part of the country in which they are purchasing it in. \n\nThey do not have the ability - or confidence - to put their cash into a fixed asset that can reasonably be assured to keep its value in their own country, in particular, China.\n\nCash is fickle and does nothing in a bank (and can be seized). Ownership of property is as good as cash, especially if the market value increases over time, and if owned elsewhere is harder to seize.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The majority of Asia is getting more wealthy, in part (at least in China) de to a real estate bubble 10 times the size of the American one that popped last decade. The small percentage that are investing in foreign markets are preparing for the worst and rightly so. Brace yourself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not \"Asian\", it's only Chinese. China is about to implode and the people know it. The Chinese stock market is ludicrously overpriced because everyone in China buys stocks on margin, and when the price blips, everyone is leveraged to ridiculous levels and goes bankrupt overnight, so the blip becomes a catastrophe. People want to get their money out of China and into somewhere safe. If you have money to put somewhere, the options are real estate or offshore investment.\n\nChina is so paranoid that they will not allow people to move money out of the country, (the limit is something like $5000/day and only with a foreign passport), so that makes it impossible to *legally* invest in foreign stocks, leaving only real estate. (note that it's at the point now that Chinese companies are suing their own subsidiaries in America, so they have to pay themselves a settlement into their own American account, which *is* legal - sort of)\n\nChina is so paranoid that they will not allow people to buy land - if you buy an apartment, you don't own the land it's built on. And looking at Chinese real estate (remember those entire cities for 200,000 apartments, all of which are empty?), Chinese people are too smart to huff what the government is selling, so they need to buy real estate off shore. This is different to buying stocks off shore for legislative/tax reasons (I think the investment property is a business, but there are also people buying properties for their kids to stay in whilst studying as an excuse etc)\n\nAs for why it forms a bubble, that's because foreign governments are eyeing building industry bribes/donations/kickbacks along with wages for union members, stamp duties and other land taxes for treasuries and deciding that a bubble is a good thing.\n\nThis in turn means the people in Sydney, Auckland, Vancouver etc are buying real estate at greatly inflated prices on mortgages (i.e, buying on margin), so when housing prices here blip, everyone goes broke and the blip becomes a catastrophe. And the cycle repeats. Thanks China!!\n\n\n\nedit: For the $0.50 brigade who think China is too strong to fall: We saw exactly this happening in the 1990's with Japan. Everyone was worried that the Japanese were infinitely rich with foreign currency from their exports inflating their markets beyond reasonable levels; we said they were buying too much property, racists/nationalists were saying they were buying what they couldn't conquer in WWII. Reality kicked in, Japanese stocks fell to realistic levels, everyone went broke and the Japanese economy is, even 25 years later, in such a bad shape that interest rates are negative.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm chinese,I think I can answer this _URL_0_'s factor of culture.we think real estate is the real treasure.and home make us feel _URL_1_ the ancient china, we also kept gold, silver to keep safety.we don't trust cash,because it always devaluate.you also can hear some news of chinese collected gold all over the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Asians?\n\nThey're just the latest buyers in a real estate cycle managed by real estate agents who's made money over and over again on the same properties once sold to whites, jews, Japs etc etc. \n\nThe rich Chinese are actually paying the most for housing because they've got the most money to spend right now. Next will probably be arabs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One more thing that other people haven't touched upon is that China in particularely, and most Asian countries in general, are quickly becomming much more integrated into the global trade and travel networks. Visa and integration requirements for Chinese migrants and visitors have been relaxed repeatedly over the past decade and flight connections have gotten a lot cheaper, quicker and more reliable. In fact, a retour ticket Amsterdam-Bejing is often cheaper than a retour ticket Amsterdam-New York; at roughly 500 - 700 euros for a retour ticket between Europe and China, it's very affordable even for middle class Chinese to travel between Europe and China regularly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why don't we only allow citizens to buy real estate? Many countries have this law and we have enough wealth here that it wouldn't impact local economies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a lot of good explanations here, but I'm not sure any of it is really ELI5. I'll try. \n\nSo the Chinese economy is in a precarious position because everyone there is buying on margin. Let's say you take out a small business loan to open a sushi joint. The guy selling you fish also took out such a loan to sell fish. And the guy supplying your knives took out a loan to open a knife shop. And someone down the street has a sushi delivery business and you supply his sushi. Now imagine what happens if even one of those businesses goes away. Let's say the knife guy has a sudden financial problem (he needs knee surgery or whatever). He can't pay his loans and now he doesn't have a knife supply company. So you don't have knives. You can't make sushi without knives so you no longer supply to the guy delivering and he goes out of business, too. Also, the guy supplying your fish just lost his biggest customer, so he ALSO goes out of business, as do all the other sushi places he supplied for. That's basically the way a bubble like this bursts: one problem creates a ripple effect and before you know it it's everywhere. \n\nSeeing that this is going to happen (or fearing it) a lot of Chinese are nervous (because they saw how our own housing bubble went). But they're not allowed to invest in foreign markets and they are not allowed to own land in China, so they're putting their money someplace more stable: into real estate away from China. If china's stocks die, it won't hit real estate in other nations very hard. \n\nThis is tricky in other places because now the Chinese own a lot of land they're not using. They own houses they're not living in and buildings that they're not renting and warehouses they're not working in. So there's less housing available on the market. Because of supply and demand, this means that prices are rising despite the fact that there are not more people actually living in these places or using this property. That works a bit like this: \n\nyou and your friends go to a market to buy clothes. The guy at the stall says he can sell you shirts, which is cool, but when you get there half his stock is already spoken for and \"sold\". He's got money and he's got people who say they're coming for that sweater you want. So he has less he can sell you and he has no motivation to sell it to you for less, because he's not hurting for sales. That makes the market worse for you as a buyer, because you have less to choose from AND you have no leverage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why does my mom own 12 houses? 3 in the same neighborhood?\n\nWhy do new land developments crop up when the old houses go unlived in?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wealthy people in China taking their money out of the country. If you make obscene amounts of money you need to figure out ways to protect it so they don't really mind overpaying a bit. Plus they can send their kids overseas to live there and go to college, etc. There are so many of them that everyone notices. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because every other asset in China is a bubble or has a huge problem with it.\n\nSource: Was investment banker there for 3 years, every single deal that involved a Chinese company/asset went wrong in some way. Most of them were \"walk aways.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The housing crisis in my region is caused by 'ghost houses' people use for indoor marijuana grows. You get used to only half the homes on your street having people in them. It sucks most of all for kids, because it guarantees parents have to schedule and drive their kids to playdates because there's likely no other kids in your neighborhood. And if there are kids, and there's growing going on in the home, you'll never be invited inside, and you probably don't want your kids there anyway because a grow house is still a potential target for a home invasion or fire due to amateur electrical wiring. They really can't legalize and regulate the industry fast enough.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As someone from Vancouver, our provincial government is corrupt as fuck and is doing nothing to stop the foreign investments into real estate, meaning you can own a nice 1br condo in Vancouver for a cool 700k...\n\nNot to mention a lot of it is dirty money made in ways that wouldn't be legal if it wasn't made in China. A lot of people here own a nail salon, or a hair cutting place and drive a 80,000 car. Half of the new developments here sit empty and the developers are taking a huge advantage of it by building more and even going so far as to market these developments in China.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18428915",
"title": "South East Asian and Hong Kong property markets",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Housing in Asia has an important role in economic growth. In the early 1990s large urbanization in Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines and other Southeast Asia countries brought about a large housing price appreciation. Asia attracted global economic interest up until the economic crash of 1997. A decade later, the Asian economy has been stabilized, and has allowed the property market to advance. As a result, foreign investment is continuing to grow. The market is currently experiencing a 50% increase in the amount being invested into Asian countries globally. Although some countries in Asia may not be suitable for international investment, due to government manipulated gdp figures and overvalued realestate fueled by unsustainably high debt to income ratios.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3392",
"title": "British Columbia",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990s to present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "By 2018, housing prices Vancouver were the second-least affordable in the world, behind only Hong Kong. Many experts point to evidence of money-laundering from mainland China as a contributing factor. The high price of residential real estate has led to the implementation of an empty homes tax, a housing speculation and vacancy tax, and a foreign buyers' tax on housing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26525853",
"title": "Home mortgage slave",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Housing demand in urban China has greatly increased. Export-oriented economy and educational opportunities in Chinese cities have accelerated the country's urbanization, as have cities with available public goods limiting their access to residents who have purchased and registered real estate. Further raising the demand are distrust in the country's social safety net, cultural expectation for long-term residences, and \"poor public housing implementation\" that has left affordable housing hard to find. An inflated industry increases GDP statistics, the primary criteria for promoting public officials, which promotes governmental inaction. Real estate companies, banks, the government, and already-established urban residents have indirectly increased prices by speculating on the booming market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1283673",
"title": "Link REIT",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Economic hardship on lower classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The Link was called a \"bloodsucker\" by housing estate residents after the company acquired the Housing Authority shopping centres, renovated them, and raised rents. This has led to local shops being pushed out, higher prices, and the dominance of chain stores within the estates. This trend has reduced entrepreneurship opportunities for lower income people in Hong Kong's public housing estates and new towns, diminishing their chances to achieve social mobility, and has increased the cost of living.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11345553",
"title": "Little Fuzhou",
"section": "Section::::Manhattan enclave.:Gentrification and Decline/Fuzhou Cultural Center Transferring To Brooklyn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1687,
"text": "Especially since many new real estate developers, who are not of Chinese descent have been increasingly and aggressively purchasing more and more apartment buildings in Manhattan's Chinatown including in the Little Fuzhou portion, many Chinese residents have been subjected to harassment in an attempt to force them out of the affordable housing units with the desire to rent to more higher level income professionals. In a July 2018 report from \"Voices of NY\", Fuzhou owned businesses have been declining on East Broadway due to the rents being too expensive and now there are many empty storefronts and the street, which used to be bustling with many Fuzhou immigrants walking around and with many busy Fuzhou businesses during the 1990s-2000s, including being the cultural heart and business center for the Fuzhou immigrants in New York as well as nationally have become quieter since the 2010s and there is a rapid increasing population of non Asians now. As a result, the street is now slowly starting to resemble the 1970s-80s, which during that time there were not as many people and busy businesses and there only had been moderate influx of Chinese immigrants, mainly the Cantonese at the time; although with moderate numbers of Fuzhou immigrants as there was still a significant portion of remaining Latino and Jewish residents; the only difference is that this time the non Asian population that are growing are primarily high-income Caucasians and the remaining, but declining Chinese population are mainly old timer Fuzhou immigrants, although some long time Cantonese immigrants that had settled there before the large influx of Fuzhou immigrants are also still remaining.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19394651",
"title": "Homelessness",
"section": "Section::::Global statistics.:Developing and undeveloped countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Poor urban housing conditions are a global problem, but conditions are worst in developing countries. Habitat says that today 600 million people live in life- and health-threatening homes in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. For example, more than three in four young people had insufficient means of shelter and sanitation in some African countries like Malawi. \"The threat of mass homelessness is greatest in those regions because that is where population is growing fastest. By 2015, the 10 largest cities in the world will be in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Nine of them will be in developing countries: Mumbai, India – 27.4 million; Lagos, Nigeria – 24.4; Shanghai, China – 23.4; Jakarta, Indonesia – 21.2; São Paulo, Brazil – 20.8; Karachi, Pakistan – 20.6; Beijing, China – 19.4; Dhaka, Bangladesh – 19; Mexico City, Mexico – 18.8. The only city in a developed country that will be in the top ten is Tokyo, Japan – 28.7 million.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39040986",
"title": "Illegal housing in India",
"section": "Section::::History and background.:Overpopulation and inadequate affordable housing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "A lack of housing coupled with high population growth, and has resulted in individuals living in low-cost illegal buildings or building shanties or huts on illegal land. For instance, many people have moved to the greater Mumbai area in search of jobs, and without affordable housing, thousands sleep in slums or on the streets. As a result, there is a trend of increased illegal housing in municipalities within Mumbai Metropolitan Development Authority. In the Thane district alone, there were reported to be 500,000 illegal buildings by 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kt2rm
|
why can we tell an airplane is pitched up when looking straight down the aisle.
|
[
{
"answer": "Cause of your ears. Your ears have, on the inside of your skull, structures in them that are filled with fluid. The insides of these structures are lined with little sensory nerves that \"tell you\" where the fluid is. Since gravity pulls the fluid downward, these organs tell you which way is down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/captainarbitrary nailed it. However, you may also be able to tell by the slight change in g forces. Although a good pilot (or good autopilot) can handle the plane in such a way that you only ever feel lighter or heavier, as opposed to much side to side or front to back force.\n\nFun fact, the phrase \"flying by the seat of your pants\" refers to WWI pilots that flew planes without many instruments, and used the g forces they felt in their butt against the seat to help them know what the plane was doing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10395710",
"title": "Aileron roll",
"section": "Section::::Execution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "After the initial pitch-up, the pilot places the elevators in the neutral position. Failure to do this will cause the aircraft to continue pitching up during the upright part of the maneuver, and downward in the inverted part, resulting in something resembling a barrel roll. The pilot then applies full aileron, accomplished by moving the stick to either the right or left. As the aircraft rolls about its longitudinal axis, the nose will begin to drop. Upon completing the roll, the nose will usually be 10 to 30 degrees below the horizon, so the pilot will need to pitch-up to return to level flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3480112",
"title": "Skid (aerodynamics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "In a straight flight, the tail of the airplane aligns the fuselage into the relative wind. However, in the beginning of a turn, when the ailerons are being applied in order to bank the airplane, the ailerons also cause an adverse yaw of the airplane. For example, if the airplane is rolling clockwise (from the pilot point of view), the airplane yaws to the left. It assumes a crab-like attitude relative to the wind. This is called a slip. The air is flowing crosswise over the fuselage. In order to correct this adverse slip, the pilot must apply rudder (right rudder in this example). If the pilot applies too much rudder, the airplane will then slip to the other side. This is called a skid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43930834",
"title": "Steep turn (aviation)",
"section": "Section::::Parallax error based on pilot seat position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "This applies to cockpits with two seats (usually Pilot & Co-Pilot) arranged horizontally or abreast. Assuming the pilot performing the manoeuvre is positioned in the left seat (command seat) when a steep turn to the right is performed, the nose will appear to fall. Conversely, a steep turn to the left will make it seem like the nose is rising against the horizon. This is parallax error based purely on the pilot's vantage point and instinctively causes a pull back or a push down reaction on the control stick / column which is an incorrect reaction. A good way of eliminating the effect of this error is to keep an eye on the horizon and maintain the aircraft's position relative to the horizon line thereby allowing you to approximate the 45 degree angle the panel top creates against the horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39806589",
"title": "Wingover",
"section": "Section::::Sequence and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "The aircraft makes a tight, 180 degree change in heading while covering minimum horizontal distance. The maneuver begins by making roughly a quarter loop, bringing the plane up into a vertical or near-vertical climb, allowing the airspeed to drop. Before the airplane stalls (begins to fall) the pilot applies hard rudder input, bringing the plane into a sweeping, vertical flat-turn, during which the wing swings over the top of the turn toward the direction of the nose. Both the lowered airspeed and gravity provide assistance with the turn, similar to a stall turn (hammerhead turn), except the plane never actually stalls. Instead, as the speed decreases, the plane makes a gentle, 180 degree flat-turn over the top of the climb, then dives to the original altitude along a parallel flightpath, completing a quarter loop to return to level flight at the original speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3731162",
"title": "Gulf Air Flight 072",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The investigation showed that during the go-around, as the captain was dealing with the flap over-speed situation, he applied a nose-down side-stick input, resulting in a nose-down pitch. While the aircraft was accelerating with TOGA power in total darkness, the somatogravic illusion could have caused the captain to perceive (falsely) that the aircraft was ‘pitching up’. He would have responded by making a ‘nose down’ input. The aircraft descended and flew into the sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11107891",
"title": "Atlantic Southeast Airlines Flight 2311",
"section": "Section::::Accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "One witness interviewed by the NTSB, a pilot driving on a road southwest of the airport, told investigators that he saw the airplane in normal flight at normal altitudes, and that he believed that the approach was not abnormal. The airplane completed a 180-degree turn from the downwind leg of the approach and continued the turn. He then saw the aircraft pitch slightly, before it rolled to the left until the wings were vertical. The airplane then turned nose-down and smashed into the ground. He saw no fire or smoke during the flight and he believed both propellers were rotating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29308417",
"title": "1955 MacArthur Airport United Airlines crash",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Between and down the runway, the aircraft reached take-off speed, lifted off the ground, and began climbing normally as the crew retracted the landing gear. Upon climbing through , the aircraft began banking to the right. The climbing bank continued to increase at a rate which alarmed witnesses, and soon after the aircraft rolled through 90° (at which point the wings were vertical to the ground). At a height of around , with all four engines producing take-off thrust, the nose began to fall. Moments later the right wing and nose impacted the ground, causing the fuselage to cartwheel over, before the aircraft came to rest, with the correct side up. It was immediately engulfed in flames. All three members of the flight crew were instantly killed. Although emergency services at Long Island MacArthur promptly responded to the crash, the aircraft was destroyed by the post-crash fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.