id
stringlengths 5
6
| input
stringlengths 3
301
| output
list | meta
null |
|---|---|---|---|
bibh8o
|
how does the 20 questions electronic game work?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's basically a \"binary search\". Let's look at guessing a number between 1 and 100.\n\nYou pick a number in the middle (50) and *that rules out half the questions*. If the number you want is higher or lower, you repeat this (25), and again (12) and again (6) and again (3) and again (2). You can mathematically show that you can always find the number in 7 or fewer guesses by following this. In fact, the number of things you can identify by a series of *N* yes/no questions is 2^*N*.\n\nFor *N* = 20, that gives you over a million possibilities. The number is *even bigger* if the question allows for multiple answers other than just yes/no.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\n\nFirst, come up with a bunch of yes/no questions that would be good for a 20 questions game.\n\nSecond, collect a bunch of objects, and answer some or most of these questions for each object.\n\nNow, you have a good database of objects and an associated list of the yes/no answers for each object. \n\nWhen it comes time to ask a question, have the computer look through the list and find a question that has roughly half of the objects with a yes and half with a no. When the player answers, your list of objects is now half as small. If some of your objects didn't have an answer for that question, keep those too. Now, look at your remaining objects, and repeat the process, always picking a question that splits the objects into about half yes and half no. After 20 questions, halving each time, you will have sorted through about 1,000,000 possible answers. The questions might not always seem to make sense, but to the computer, this is the most efficient way to find your item.\n\nAt this point you have a working system, but it takes a long time to get this data. If you are smart, you can make your game even better the longer it gets played \n\nNow, have a bunch of people play the game. LOTS of people. Keep track of their answers as you go. Put it on [A WEBSITE](_URL_0_) so you can get answers from thousands of people. If they have an object you couldn't guess, add it to the list, and save the answers you got, or update the answers you already have. If you get lucky and narrow the answer down before all 20 questions are used up, look at some of the other questions for that object you don't have answers for and ask those so you always get more data. This is why if you play the online version it might seem like it's on the right track and suddenly ask if your potato \"wears a cape\". It already knows the answer is \"potato\" ; it's just collecting more info about potatoes to make it even smarter. You could even ask the player if there is a particular question they should have asked and if so add that to the list of possible questions for next time. If people sometimes answer differently for the same question, keep track of the percent yes vs no and take that into account when asking your questions (i.e. If \"are potatoes healthy\" gets 50/50 yes or no, don't eliminate that answer right away if you ask that question. \n\nLast, grab your latest version of the database, put it in the toy, and done.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "588859",
"title": "Twenty Questions",
"section": "Section::::Computers, scientific method and situation puzzles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "The abstract mathematical version of the game where some answers may be wrong is sometimes called Ulam's game or the Rényi–Ulam game. The game suggests that the information (as measured by Shannon's entropy statistic) required to identify an arbitrary object is at most 20 bits. The game is often used as an example when teaching people about information theory. Mathematically, if each question is structured to eliminate half the objects, 20 questions will allow the questioner to distinguish between 2 or 1,048,576 objects. Accordingly, the most effective strategy for Twenty Questions is to ask questions that will split the field of remaining possibilities roughly in half each time. The process is analogous to a binary search algorithm in computer science or successive approximation ADC in analog-to-digital signal conversion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5228649",
"title": "Obsidian (1997 video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Included is a minigame which uses a \"twenty questions\" algorithm (similar to what would eventually be used in 20Q). The game comes preprogrammed with a set of guesses, but after losing it asks the player for criteria that would have led it to a correct guess, and then records that information into a text file. Because of this, the game is able to (theoretically) \"learn\" how to become so good as to beat the player every time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50321327",
"title": "Mutant Meeples",
"section": "Section::::Rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "All players first figure out a possible solution in their minds. Once a player has found a solution, he/she announces it. A solution can involve one to three Meeples, each of which can have up to ten moves. After this, an hourglass is flipped, and the rest of the players have this time to figure out a shorter solution. After the hourglass has run out, the solutions are tried out, from shortest to longest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5344335",
"title": "Facts in Five",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "A round of the game begins with players taking turns drawing cards and selecting a Category (or a Class on certain cards). Five Categories are selected this way. Next, players draw five letter tiles in turn, and the timer is started. Before the timer runs out, players must write down at most one entry for each category/beginning-letter pair (thus, a maximum of 25 answers). Five rounds make up a complete game, with scoring based on the number of valid answers given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4564027",
"title": "Questions (game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Questions is a game that is played by participants maintaining a dialogue of asking questions back and forth for as long as possible, without making any declarative statements. Play begins when the first player serves by asking a question (often \"Would you like to play questions?\"). The second player must respond to the question with another question (e.g. \"How do you play that?\"). Each player must quickly continue the conversation by using only questions. Hesitation, statements, or non sequiturs are not allowed, and cause players to foul. The game is usually played by two players, although multiplayer variants exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575221",
"title": "The Incredible Machine (series)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "The general goal of the games is to create a series of Rube Goldberg devices: arrange a given collection of objects in a needlessly complex fashion so as to perform some simple task (e.g., \"put the ball into a box\" or \"start a mixer & turn on a fan\"). Available objects ranged from simple ropes and pulleys to electrical generators, bowling balls, and even cats and mice to humans, most of which had specific interactions with or reactions to other objects (for example, mice will run towards nearby cheese). The levels usually have some fixed objects that cannot be moved by the player, and so the only way to solve the puzzle is carefully arrange the given objects around the fixed items. There is also a \"freeform\" option that allows the user to \"play\" with all the objects with no set goal or to also build their own puzzles with goals for other players to attempt to solve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "400074",
"title": "Maven (Scrabble)",
"section": "Section::::Algorithms.:Game phases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1751,
"text": "The \"mid-game\" phase lasts from the beginning of the game up until there are nine or fewer tiles left in the bag. The program uses a rapid algorithm to find all possible plays from the given rack, and then part of the program called the \"kibitzer\" uses simple heuristics to sort them into rough order of quality. The most promising moves are then evaluated by \"simming\", in which the program simulates the random drawing of tiles, plays forward a set number of plays, and compares the points spread of the moves' outcomes. By simulating thousands of random drawings, the program can give a very accurate quantitative evaluation of the different plays. (While a Monte Carlo search, Maven does not use Monte Carlo tree search because it evaluates game trees only 2-ply deep, rather than playing out to the end of the game, and does not reallocate rollouts to more promising branches for deeper exploration; in reinforcement learning terminology, the Maven search strategy might be considered \"truncated Monte Carlo simulation\". A true MCTS strategy is unnecessary because the endgame can be solved. The shallow search is because the Maven author argues that, due to the fast turnover of letters in one's bag, it is typically not useful to look more than 2-ply deep, because if one instead looked, e.g. 4-ply, the variance of rewards will be larger and the simulations will take several times longer, while only helping in a few exotic situations: \"We maintain that if it requires an extreme situation like CACIQUE to see the value of a four-ply simulation then they are not worth doing.\" As the board value can be evaluated with very high accuracy in Scrabble, unlike games such as Go, deeper simulations are unlikely to change the initial evaluation.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6a8r03
|
Why was the Avro Arrow destroyed?
|
[
{
"answer": "During the late 50’s the threat perceived to radiate from the soviets was changing.\nIt is argued that the Canadian Government was operating in an information vacuum with regards to this threat.\n\nAs a reaction to the detonation of the Soviet Hydrogen Bomb in 1953 NORAD was under development, a system that should provide early warning for the US when Russian Bomber approached the Continent, and would coordinate the responsive measures. In order to push the warning line forward units would have to be stationed on Canadian soil. \n\nThis came into play around the same time a new government came into power in Canada, that of Diefenbaker. A discussion broke out whether or not the Norad agreement would mean that Canada was giving up it’s sovereignty, as Canadian units would fall under American control. In the end the Canadians perceived the Russians to be a greater thread and agreed to NORAD. \n\nCoincidental with the development of NORAD was the development of the Avro CF-105 Interceptor. Many people around Diefenbaker noted that he was not open to take advice on defence. Thus the government at first ignored some important views by not taking advice from a group of military advisors that upheld the view that the perceived Bomber Threat was quickly turning into an IBCM threat. \n\nThe main thought with regards to air power at the time was an offensive one: Namely that it was important to strike first. From WWII the notion survived that of a large bomber force only a small number of bombers would be shot down. In the case of these bombers carrying an nuclear load even a handful of survivers could have a devastating effect. To quote prof J.I. Jackson:\n\n“the real air defence is the thermonuclear retaliatory or counter force, supported by the radar warning system that will allow it to take off before it can be destroyed on the ground. The defensive interceptor and electronic weapons are no longer the teeth of the air defence system, but rather comprise a subsidiary arm of the warning net, and have the same purpose in this as civil defence and defence against missile bearing submarines in helping to dissipate the casualties of the attack.” (1)\n\nTo repudiate the claim that Canada was bullied into stopping the program. Recent declassification of documents (around 2011) shows that in fact the US was interested in absorbing the biggest part of the costs of procuring the CF-105 for both the RCAF and the RAF air defence squadrons. The tragedy is that this information never reached the Canadian decision makers. The US was not interested in the CF-105 for use in the USAF, mainly as a result of the F-108 that they had on the drawing board.\n\n“. While the confused decision-making structure, dislike of committees, and seeming mistrust of senior military leadership were inescapable features of Diefenbaker’s personality, there is evidence that he was failed by those entrusted with ensuring needed information was pushed forward. In this case, information that told of a potential US commitment to assist in the acquisition of larger numbers of CF-105s to meet NORAD requirements and answer an enduring threat to the continent did not reach Diefenbaker.” (2)\n\n\nThe CF-105 was cancelled on the prevailing thought that now existed with the Canadian decision makers: Namely that the bomber threat was waning, and that IBCM’s now were the main threat. This proved to be erroneous as the bombers of the USSR still were a threat, at least until the late 1960’s In addition the critical information on the US’s willingness to purchase a number of CF-105’s for the RCAF never reached Diefenbaker. Thus the decision was made based on economics: Do we buy aircraft to defend against a threat we think is waning, or do we participate in NORAD and stationing of the BOMARC missille system, which is cheaper than the number of CF-105’s we need? They decided for the latter. If Diefenbaker had the relevant information available to him it is quite likely that the decision would have been different. \n\n\n**Sources**\n\n(1) Brad W. Gladman, Continental Air Defence: Threat Perception and Response, (2012) p 14.\n_URL_1_\n\nIbid, p 37.\n\nNorad at 40, historical overview\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13179150",
"title": "Arrowcar",
"section": "Section::::History.:Status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "After Green Arrow (Oliver Queen) lost his fortune, the Arrow-Car became too expensive to keep. Various wrecks of the cars became highly prized among collectors of super-memorabilia, such as the Arrow-Car once destroyed during a fight between Green Arrow, Arsenal, and Solomon Grundy. When a fully functional Arrow-Car went on the auction block for sale, criminal elements bought it and wanted to use it for their own purposes. For instance the criminal Scavenger claimed it for his weapon collection, but Batman bought it on Green Arrow's behalf. However, once it broke down on the way back to Star City after picking it up, Green Arrow decided to destroy it after all, using the same detonator he used the first time, but this time knowing it would work since he had had it fixed by Superman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69755",
"title": "Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Cancellation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The Arrow's cancellation was announced on 20 February 1959. The day became known as \"Black Friday\" in the Canadian aviation industry. Diefenbaker claimed the decision was based on \"a thorough examination\" of threats and defensive measures, and the cost of defensive systems. More specifically, the cost would have needed to be amortized over hundreds of manufactured models. At the time the trend was \"away from conventional bombers\" that the Avro Arrow could intercept and \"towards atmospheric weapons like intercontinental ballistic missiles\", according to Global News. As a result, the foreign demand for the Avro Arrow had declined substantially. Canada's alternative to the Arrow was to purchase some American McDonnell F-101 Voodoo interceptors and Bomarc B missiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "703058",
"title": "Aircraft flight control system",
"section": "Section::::References.:Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Arrowheads (Richard Organ, Ron Page, Don Watson, Les Wilkinson). \"Avro Arrow: the story of the Avro Arrow from its evolution to its extinction\", Erin, Ontario, Canada: Boston Mills Press 1980 (revised edition 2004). .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80459",
"title": "Avro Canada",
"section": "Section::::References.:Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- Page, Ron, Richard Organ, Don Watson and Les Wilkinson (The \"Arrowheads\"). \"Avro Arrow: The Story of the Avro Arrow from its Evolution to its Extinction.\" Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press, 1979, reprinted Stoddart, 2004. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69755",
"title": "Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow",
"section": "Section::::References.:Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- Page, Ron, Richard Organ, Don Watson and Les Wilkinson (the \"Arrowheads\"). \"Avro Arrow: The Story of the Avro Arrow from its Evolution to its Extinction.\" Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press, 1979, reprinted Stoddart, 2004. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27334190",
"title": "Avro Canada CF-103",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- Page, Ron, Richard Organ, Don Watson and Les Wilkinson (\"The Arrowheads\"). \"Avro Arrow: The Story of the Avro Arrow from its Evolution to its Extinction\". Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press, 1979, reprinted Stoddart, 2004. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69755",
"title": "Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "On 20 February 1959, Prime Minister of Canada John Diefenbaker abruptly halted the development of the Arrow (and its Iroquois engines) before the scheduled project review to evaluate the program could be held. Canada tried to sell the Arrow to the US and Britain, but no agreements were concluded. Two months later, the assembly line, tooling, plans and existing airframes and engines were ordered to be destroyed. The cancellation was the topic of considerable political controversy at the time, and the subsequent destruction of the aircraft in production remains a topic for debate among historians and industry pundits. \"This action effectively put Avro out of business and its highly skilled engineering and production personnel scattered...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
anirql
|
Has there been a time in Western culture when muscular men were not considered sexy/attractive?
|
[
{
"answer": " > The cultural standards by which a woman's weight and shape have determined her sexiness have changed dramatically over time in Western/European societies. For example large, curvy \"rubenesque\" women were deemed sexy for much of the 17th and 18th centuries whereas today, thinness is praised > curves.\n\nYour premise is really a pretty bold claim and mostly seems like a simplistic misinterpretation of art, it has been addressed here many times, for example here _URL_0_ by u/chocolatepot , who also, if briefly, addresses male beauty. \n\nIn any case, one should really differentiate between various \"considerations\" of \"sexy/attractive\": \n\nIs a depiction meant to be idealistic or maybe just realistic, is it about some general expectations from the opposite sex, or rather *self*-image, or artistic ideas, or tastes of particular artists (what's their sex? sexual orientation? status?), or just detached symbolism, or idea(l)s of particular groups... All of those are related yet ultimately very different questions requiring their own kinds of sources. \n\nJust consider how you'd evaluate what modern bodybuilding vs regular fashion magazines vs pornography vs various movie genres vs what men/women expect vs what they fantasize about vs what they tend to end up with (don't) say about beauty ideals... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2354206",
"title": "Strongman (strength athlete)",
"section": "Section::::Incorrect usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "\"Strongman\" is often incorrectly used to describe a person who does weightlifting or bodybuilding. Due to the circus and entertainment background, nineteenth-century bodybuilders were expected to mingle with the crowd during intermission and perform strength feats like card tearing, nail bending, etc. to demonstrate strength as well as symmetry and size. Also, many strongmen sold photos of themselves nude or near-nude, flexing and posing. Although, what they considered the epitome of male beauty was different from modern ideals – particularly the very low emphasis on chest size, and great emphasis on oblique size, and symmetry as evidenced by photos of Eugen Sandow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053447",
"title": "Physical attractiveness",
"section": "Section::::Male.:Musculature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to men are more muscular than the men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to women. From this, some have concluded that men perceive a more muscular male body to be ideal, as distinct from a woman's ideal male, which is less muscular than what men perceive to be ideal. This is due to the within-gender prestige granted by increased muscularity and within-gender competition for increased muscularity. Men perceive the attractiveness of their own musculature by how closely their bodies resemble the \"muscle man.\" This \"muscle man\" ideal is characterized by large muscular arms, especially biceps, a large muscular chest that tapers to their waist and broad shoulders. Among Australian university students, the male body composition found to be most attractive (12.16 kg fat, 63.27 kg muscle) was in line with the composition that was perceived as healthiest, and was well within the healthy range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462933",
"title": "Body image",
"section": "Section::::Gender differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Some research has suggested this relationship between muscle and masculinity may begin early in life, as boys' action figures are often depicted as super-muscular, often beyond the actual limits of human physiology. The connection between masculinity and muscle is however a cultural trend traced as far back as the Classical antiquity and linked to the war performance and its peaceful substitutes, the athletic events. In addition, men with lower, more feminine, Waist–hip ratio (WHR) feel less comfortable and self-report lower body esteem and self-efficacy than men with higher, more masculine, WHRs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462933",
"title": "Body image",
"section": "Section::::Gender differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Men's body image is a topic of increasing interest in both academic articles and in the popular press. Current research indicates many men wish to become more muscular than they currently perceive themselves to be, often desiring up to 26 pounds of additional muscle mass. According to the study, western men desire muscle mass over that of Asian men by as much as 30 pounds. The desire for additional muscle has been linked to many men's concepts about masculinity. A variety of research has indicated a relationship between men's endorsement of traditionally masculine ideas and characteristics, and their desire for additional muscle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1095712",
"title": "Muscle dysmorphia",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Media exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "As Western media emphasize physical attractiveness, some marketing campaigns now exploit male body-image insecurities. Over the past 20 years, the number of men's-fitness magazines and of partially-undressed, well-muscled men in advertisements have increased. Such media provoke bodily comparisons and pressure individuals to conform, yet increase the gap between men's perceptions of their own muscularity versus their desired muscularity. In college-aged men, a strong predictor of a muscularity quest is internalization of the idealized male bodies depicted in media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38363198",
"title": "Monte Saldo",
"section": "Section::::The Sculptor's Dream.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Monte Saldo was one of the few men who have enhanced a reputation made on the stage as a strongman by feats performed away from its atmosphere of glamour and make-believe. The first man in the world to 'swing' over his own bodyweight with one hand, and one of the most successful trainers of strong men ever known...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38363686",
"title": "The Montague Brothers",
"section": "Section::::The Sculptor's Dream.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Monte Saldo was one of the few men who have enhanced a reputation made on the stage as a strongman by feats performed away from its atmosphere of glamour and make-believe. The first man in the world to 'swing' over his own bodyweight with one hand, and one of the most successful trainers of strong men ever known...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24og33
|
how is chewing bones good for dogs teeth, and can it benefit humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "Their teeth are specifically designed to crush softer bones like ribs and vertebrae unlike our teeth. When dogs eat lots of softer foods like commercial dog food their teeth can't get tartar build up on it just like our teeth; gnawing on bones will help scrape the build up off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7404294",
"title": "Osteophagy",
"section": "Section::::Animals.:Domestic dog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "While the media often portrays domestic dogs chewing bones, this is slightly misleading. Dogs chew bones only to eat any residual meat and bone marrow left on them, so it is not truly a form of osteophagy. Most modern toy \"bones\" for dogs are actually rawhide, which is simply dried animal skin, as animal bones are actually dangerous for dogs to chew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10125321",
"title": "Dog toy",
"section": "Section::::Bones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The term \"bones\" can include animal bones as well as manufactured bones such as Nylabones and dental bones. Animal bones offer a lot of chewing potential but the true nutritional benefits are derived from the soft tissues attached to the bone such as meat, cartilage, fat and connective tissue ... not from the bones themselves. There are dangers associated with animal bones, including broken teeth and possible ingestion of large fragments of bone which can cause serious injury or death. It is important to supervise dogs when they are chewing bones and make sure to remove the bone when it is reduced to a size that could possibly be swallowed. Make sure dogs have plenty of fresh water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26998504",
"title": "Chihuahua (dog)",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "This breed requires expert veterinary attention in areas such as birthing and dental care. Dental care is a must for these small dogs, whose jaw size makes for weaker teeth. Although daily brushing provides the best preventive measure, feeding a dental diet or using dental chews for dogs is an effective approach pet owners can take to help prevent and control accumulation of plaque and tartar to avoid consequences of severe periodontal disease. The best physical characteristics of dog food to contribute to cleaning a dog's teeth would be food that is large and dense, so more time is spent chewing, which leads to the surface of the teeth being cleaned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25631460",
"title": "Tooth",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Canines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In dogs, the teeth are less likely than humans to form dental cavities because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing. Sometimes called cuspids, these teeth are shaped like points (cusps) and are used for tearing and grasping food\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1624954",
"title": "Raw feeding",
"section": "Section::::Health claims.:Bone and dental health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Including bone in raw diets is commonly practiced, as it is a good source of both calcium and phosphorus. Feeding raw bone can have some adverse effects on a dog's health if fed in whole form. Whole bones in the diet increase the risk of dental fractures, intestinal obstructions, gastroenteritis, and intestinal perforations. Feeding ground bones instead of whole bones reduces the risk of these adverse effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51599956",
"title": "Dental health diets for dogs",
"section": "Section::::Reflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Preventative action is required to prevent the continuous accumulation of plaque, tartar, and calculus, and to reduce the long term risk of dental diseases. Although a dental diet is formulated to reduce plaque and/or tartar and plays an important role in oral care and hygiene, it is not the only method that can be used to care for a dog’s teeth. Daily dental dog chews and teeth brushing will scrape away plaque before it forms into tartar. Regular dental check-ups by a veterinarian will assess the health of the mouth and jaw, and advise whether dental cleanings are required. These are all necessary and crucial steps to maintain oral health, and contribute to the overall health of a dog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314628",
"title": "Tooth enamel",
"section": "Section::::Other mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Dogs are less likely than humans to have tooth decay due to the high pH of dog saliva, which prevents an acidic environment from forming and the subsequent demineralization of enamel which would occur. In the event that tooth decay does occur (usually from trauma), dogs can receive dental fillings just as humans do. Similar to human teeth, the enamel of dogs is vulnerable to tetracycline staining. Consequently, this risk must be accounted for when tetracycline antibiotic therapy is administered to young dogs. Enamel hypoplasia may also occur in dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
avisrz
|
how do audio recordings that are stored in binary code on devices get re-converted to the sound that comes out of my phone’s speakers?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is covered thanks to a device called a DAC (digital to analogue converter).\n\nWhen audio is traveling in a speaker wire, it is just an electrical impulse - it has a voltage and a frequency based on what the sound is. That voltage and frequency is then amplified (by an amplifier) and pushed to a speaker cone, which vibrates at that specific amplitude and frequency to make sound waves in the air.\n\nA DAC is able to take the bianary data and create impulses in the speaker wire at that specific voltage and frequency, which then travels down the wire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "673951",
"title": "Digital recording",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "In digital recording, audio signals picked up by a microphone or other transducer or video signals picked up by a camera or similar device are converted into a stream of discrete numbers, representing the changes over time in air pressure for audio, and chroma and luminance values for video, then recorded to a storage device. To play back a digital sound recording, the numbers are retrieved and converted back into their original analog waveforms so that they can be heard through a loudspeaker. To play back a digital video recording, the numbers are retrieved and converted back into their original analog waveforms so that they can be viewed on a video monitor, television or other display.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53712",
"title": "Digital audio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "In a digital audio system, an analog electrical signal representing the sound is converted with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) into a digital signal, typically using pulse-code modulation. This digital signal can then be recorded, edited, modified, and copied using computers, audio playback machines, and other digital tools. When the sound engineer wishes to listen to the recording on headphones or loudspeakers (or when a consumer wishes to listen to a digital sound file), a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) performs the reverse process, converting a digital signal back into an analog signal, which is then sent through an audio power amplifier and ultimately to a loudspeaker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156859",
"title": "Comparison of analog and digital recording",
"section": "Section::::Hybrid systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "There are many benefits to using digital recording over analog recording because “numbers are more easily manipulated than are grooves on a record or magnetized particles on a tape”. Because numerical coding represents the sound waves perfectly, the sound can be played back without background noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92943",
"title": "Digital-to-analog converter",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Audio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Most modern audio signals are stored in digital form (for example MP3s and CDs) and, in order to be heard through speakers, they must be converted into an analog signal. DACs are therefore found in CD players, digital music players, and PC sound cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11499306",
"title": "Call-recording software",
"section": "Section::::Considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Digital lines cannot be recorded unless the call recording system can capture and decode the proprietary digital signalling, which some modern systems can. Sometimes a method is supplied with a digital private branch exchange (PBX) that can process the proprietary signal (usually a conversion box) before being channeled to a computer for recording. Alternatively a hardware adapter can be used on a telephone handset as the digital signal is converted at that point to analogue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4556078",
"title": "History of sound recording",
"section": "Section::::Recording on film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In the 1990s, digital audio systems were introduced and began to prevail. In some of them the sound recording is again recorded on a separate disk, as in Vitaphone; others use a digital, optical sound track on the film itself. Digital processes can now achieve reliable and perfect synchronization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53712",
"title": "Digital audio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Digital audio systems may include compression, storage, processing, and transmission components. Conversion to a digital format allows convenient manipulation, storage, transmission, and retrieval of an audio signal. Unlike analog audio, in which making copies of a recording results in generation loss and degradation of signal quality, digital audio allows an infinite number of copies to be made without any degradation of signal quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14094l
|
[Meta] Book List Meta Thread
|
[
{
"answer": "General question (as in every sources thread): What about non-English language sources? Yay/Nay? Only for country specific topics? ...?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "^^I ^^did ^^not ^^find ^^Edward ^^Gibbon ^^dull ^^at ^^all...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the way the posts are going I am seriously worried about hitting the character limit in a few days and, worse, making the list unwieldy. Any suggestions?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We often get questions of \"whats a good book on\" I feel like the list is perhaps not visible enough. Maybe we could add the links to our perma threads right after the FAQ on the sideboard. Or perhaps link to them IN the FAQ. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Any room for more on the nature of colonialism in general (accross various empires, rather than focusing on a specific country)?\n\nAlso, I loved Peter Hopkirks books (Setting the East Ablaze: Lenin's Dream of an Empire in Asia, 1984 / \nThe Great Game: the Struggle for Empire in Central Asia, 1990 / \nOn Secret Service East of Constantinople: The Great Game and the Great War, 1994). \n\nDoes anyone know of any books similar to Peter Hopkirks subject matter? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8508674",
"title": "OttoBib",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "OttoBib.com is a website with a free tool to generate an alphabetized bibliography of books from a list of International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) with output in MLA, APA, Chicago/Turabian, BibTeX and Wikipedia format. Each query also generates a \"temporary\" permalink (self-destructs in about one month) which can be used to recall the bibliography without reentering the ISBN data. The site is a metasearch engine, integrating data from several sources, including the U.S. Library of Congress API, the Amazon.com database of books, and ISBNdb.com. OttoBib accepts ISBNs with either 10 or 13 digits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "970458",
"title": "Book discussion club",
"section": "Section::::Organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "BULLET::::- BookBuffet is a website directed toward book groups and avid readers with literary news, book reviews, author podcasts, technology tips, and vetted resource links. Members register their group to use a set of tools where they can maintain a joint calendar, communicate, and keep track of books their group has read as well as rate books and share reviews. Book group moderators (people who lead book groups) can keep track of all their various client groups, communicate, and share information in chat forums. There is also a \"find a group\" feature for people looking to join an existing group. Founded by Paula Shackleton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5818536",
"title": "Mark Pilgrim",
"section": "Section::::Books and articles.:\"Dive Into Python\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Much of the book consists of example programs with annotations and explanatory text, and it generally describes how to modify an example to serve new purposes. One early example program reads through a directory of MP3 files and lists the header information, such as artist, album, etc. Other topics covered include object oriented programming, documentation, unit testing, and accessing and parsing HTML and XML.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48103",
"title": "Gödel, Escher, Bach",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "The book contains many instances of recursion and self-reference, where objects and ideas speak about or refer back to themselves. One is Quining, a term Hofstadter invented in homage to Willard Van Orman Quine, referring to programs that only produce their own source code. Another is the presence of a fictional author in the index, Egbert B. Gebstadter, a man with initials E, G, and B and a surname that partially matches Hofstadter. A phonograph dubbed \"Record Player X\" destroys itself by playing a record titled \"I Cannot Be Played on Record Player X\" (an analogy to Gödel's incompleteness theorems), an examination of canon form in music, and a discussion of Escher's lithograph of two hands drawing each other. To describe such self-referencing objects, Hofstadter coins the term \"strange loop\"—a concept he examines in more depth in his follow-up book \"I Am a Strange Loop\". To escape many of the logical contradictions brought about by these self-referencing objects, Hofstadter discusses Zen koans. He attempts to show readers how to perceive reality outside their own experience and embrace such paradoxical questions by rejecting the premise—a strategy also called \"unasking\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5851133",
"title": "Perl Cookbook",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The Perl Cookbook, , is a book containing solutions to common short tasks in Perl. Each chapter covers a particular topic area (\"Strings\", \"Ties, Objects, and Classes\", \"CGI\") and is divided into around a dozen \"recipes\" each on a particular problem (\"Reversing A String By Word Or Character\", \"Accessing Overridden Methods\", \"Managing Cookies\"). Each recipe has four parts: \"Problem\", \"Solution\", \"Discussion\", and \"See Also\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34901371",
"title": "Book Drum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Book Drum is a wiki that assembles and publishes companion profiles of fiction and non-fiction books. Each profile consists of page-by-page illustrated reading notes called “bookmarks”, summary, review, author’s biography, glossary, setting description and map. Contributors can upload images and embed maps, videos, links and related texts to illustrate and explain a book. Most contributors are readers, but some profiles have been created by the books’ own authors, and others by school classes. Some of the most popular profiles include \"War and Peace\", \"The Reader\" and \"Dracula\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40843378",
"title": "BookLikes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "BookLikes is a \"social cataloging\" website founded in June 2011 by Dawid Piaskowski, a software engineer, e-business analyst and entrepreneur, and Joanna Grzelak-Piaskowska, a linguist and literary scholar. The website allows individuals to freely search BookLikes' database of books and reviews. Users can sign up and register books to generate library catalogs. They can also create their own groups of book suggestions and discussions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14c61l
|
Is it possible to make 3D contact lenses similar to 3D glasses given out at Movie Screenings?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think it's a great idea, and I see no reason it shouldn't be doable. Indeed, polarized contact lenses have already been [patented](_URL_0_). And whereas linearly polarized contact lenses to reduce glare like polarized sunglasses would be impractical (since the effect depends on the orientation of the lens), 3D movies use circular polarization, so the rotational orientation of each lens wouldn't matter. And I bet having the polarizer cover the eye's entire field of vision would produce a much more comfortable effect than looking through awkward glasses.\n\nAll of Balthanos's critiques are pretty easily dealt with, too: Let people buy these things on their own (so the burden of idiocy is on the consumer, not the theater); and if leaving polarizing eyewear on during the day were a safety hazard, polarized sunglasses probably wouldn't be a thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32909684",
"title": "Multiscopy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "This allows the observer to view the 3D subject from different angles as they move their head, simulating the real-world depth cue of shifting parallax. It also reduces or eliminates the complication of pseudoscopic viewing zones typical of \"no glasses\" 3D displays that use only two images, making it possible for several randomly located observers to all see the subject in correct 3D at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23998041",
"title": "Hank Green",
"section": "Section::::Career.:2D-Glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "In 2011, Green created \"2-D\" glasses, which allow one to watch 3-D movies in 2-D. The glasses were originally created for those who experience discomfort watching 3-D movies (such as Green's wife) and consist of either two right or two left lenses from a pair of regular 3-D glasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77819",
"title": "Movie theater",
"section": "Section::::Design.:3D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "3D film is a system of presenting film images so that they appear to the viewer to be three-dimensional. Visitors usually borrow or keep special glasses to wear while watching the movie. Depending on the system used, these are typically polarized glasses. Three-dimensional movies use two images channeled, respectively, to the right and left eyes to simulate depth by using 3-D glasses with red and blue lenses (anaglyph), polarized (linear and circular), and other techniques. 3-D glasses deliver the proper image to the proper eye and make the image appear to \"pop-out\" at the viewer and even follow the viewer when he/she moves so viewers relatively see the same image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23927197",
"title": "Varilux",
"section": "Section::::Varilux Experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "In a theater showing a 3D film, viewers wearing polarized, stereoscopic glasses follow in the footsteps of a young man with presbyopia. Stage-by-stage, he experiences the vision produced by single-vision and bifocal lenses, and then that of standard progressive lenses, and ultimately Varilux lenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31454062",
"title": "Laser blended vision",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Preoperative screening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Unlike with monovision surgery where it is generally advised to perform a \"monovision contact lens trial\", Laser Blended Vision screening does not incorporate this as it would automatically exclude many suitable candidates from having the procedure. This is because a much larger proportion of people are suitable for Laser Blended Vision (95%) than monovision (59-67%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31454062",
"title": "Laser blended vision",
"section": "Section::::Treatment results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Patients treated using Laser Blended Vision, have an increased depth of field compared to traditional monovision. With use of contact lens monovision there is a diminishing effect on distance vision, depth of field and contrast sensitivity (neural subtraction) which is not seen with Laser Blended Vision; in fact Laser Blended Vision has been shown to provide better distance vision binocularly than with the dominant distance eye alone (neural summation). According to a comprehensive review of the medical literature conducted by Dr. BJ Evans, only 59-67% of patients are tolerant to mono vision, compared to the tolerance to Laser Blended Vision in more than 95% of patients screened and treated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246007",
"title": "3D film",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Mainstream resurgence (2003–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In late 2005, Steven Spielberg told the press he was involved in patenting a 3D cinema system that does not need glasses, and which is based on plasma screens. A computer splits each film-frame, and then projects the two split images onto the screen at differing angles, to be picked up by tiny angled ridges on the screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42tx06
|
how can a 60hz monitor have a response time of 5ms when 1/60hz = 16.7 ms?
|
[
{
"answer": "The response time is usually the time it takes a pixel to change from black to white, or some predetermined gray to another gray value to estimate the average real usage. This will determine the amount of time it takes the average pixel to change to the updated value after a new frame is received by the monitor; the shorter the response time, the quicker the screen updates. If the response time is as long as a frame update interval, the screen never finishes updating, and you get a blurry mess when you are watching video or playing games; the shorter response time helps eliminate this effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3969529",
"title": "Sound level meter",
"section": "Section::::Measurements.:Time Weighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "A Slow measurement (yellow line) will take approximately 5 seconds (attack time) to reach 80 dB and around 6 seconds (decay time) to drop back down to 50 dB. S is appropriate when measuring a signal that fluctuates a lot. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7677",
"title": "Computer monitor",
"section": "Section::::Measurements of performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "BULLET::::- Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active (white) again, measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515770",
"title": "Refresh rate",
"section": "Section::::Computer displays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "On smaller CRT monitors (up to about ), few people notice any discomfort between 60–72 Hz. On larger CRT monitors ( or larger), most people experience mild discomfort unless the refresh is set to 72 Hz or higher. A rate of 100 Hz is comfortable at almost any size. However, this does not apply to LCD monitors. The closest equivalent to a refresh rate on an LCD monitor is its frame rate, which is often locked at 60 fps. But this is rarely a problem, because the only part of an LCD monitor that could produce CRT-like flicker—its backlight — typically operates at around a minimum of 200 Hz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325626",
"title": "WWVH",
"section": "Section::::Broadcast format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "BULLET::::- The 5 ms second ticks are 6 cycles of rather than 5 cycles of 1,000 Hz. The 800 ms minute beep is also 1,200 Hz. (Like WWV, this is omitted during minutes 29 and 59, and changed to 1,500 Hz at the top of each hour.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41662",
"title": "Response time (technology)",
"section": "Section::::Display technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Response time is the amount of time a pixel in a display takes to change. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts. Display monitors with long response times would create display motion blur around moving objects, making them unacceptable for rapidly moving images. Response times are usually measured from grey-to-grey transitions, based on a VESA industry standard from the 10% to the 90% points in the pixel response curve. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584454",
"title": "Cardiotocography",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Baseline fetal heart rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The baseline FHR is determined by approximating the mean FHR rounded to increments of 5 beats per minute (bpm) during a 10-minute window, excluding accelerations and decelerations and periods of marked FHR variability (greater than 25 bpm). There must be at least 2 minutes of identifiable baseline segments (not necessarily contiguous) in any 10-minute window, or the baseline for that period is indeterminate. In such cases, it may be necessary to refer to the previous 10-minute window for determination of the baseline. Abnormal baseline is termed \"bradycardia\" when the baseline FHR is less than 110 bpm; it is termed \"tachycardia\" when the baseline FHR is greater than 160 bpm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296102",
"title": "Specific Area Message Encoding",
"section": "Section::::Header format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the format \"hhmm\", using 15 minute increments up to one hour, using 30 minute increments up to six hours, and using hourly increments beyond six hours. Weekly and monthly tests sometimes have a 12-hour or greater purge time to assure users have an ample opportunity to verify reception of the test event messages; however; 15 minutes is more common, especially on NOAA Weather Radio's tests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rs845
|
what is the root cause of what appears to be unequal treatment of minorities by police?
|
[
{
"answer": "From my point of view as a late 20s black male. The root cause is cultural conditioning, and that is something that will never go away which is why I strongly believe it's a problem that will never be solved. Now if you don't know what I mean by cultural conditioning, everything from kids movies, TV shows, commercials, what you hear on the news etc has an impact on the way you think. It's so deeply engrained in our society that it's impossible to break. Caucasians automatically think, whether they are racist or not that African Americans are more violent. African Americans feel from a very young age that the world is against them, you hear it a lot in rap songs on TV shows etc, so the mind state is completely different. I was taught at a very young age that it isn't a fair playing field and it would be something that I will have to live with the rest of my life. Now luckily I am semi successful, and have a family of my own and a son, I find myself passing on those same teachings to him. Fair or unfair, it doesn't matter, some people call it white privilege and I don't necessarily see it as that. To me it's more so of a black disadvantage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Young black men are responsible for 50% of violent crimes. They tend to live in concentrated areas (Chicago, DC, ATL, Baltimore). Naturally cops are going to focus on the heavy crime areas because the people that live there need help\n\n\nThe problem is the cops focus on this area can be racist. Or it might just seem racist to the inhabitants. Say you pull over every young black male, obviously many are going to be innocent of serious crimes. But now they are harassed. And they might be breaking small crimes (weed, traffic, registration) so they are more likely to be arrested or ticketed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24457106",
"title": "Race and crime",
"section": "Section::::Racial disparity.:Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24457106",
"title": "Race and crime",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60690604",
"title": "Anti-police sentiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "Racial inequalities is a major factor that has contributed to forming an anti-police sentiment. As such, the history of law enforcement's employment of coercive measures that have led to instances of police brutality involving underprivileged communities is paramount to our \"understanding of the substantial race gap\" between the two social groups. Thus, members of minority groups in disadvantaged neighborhoods that are heavily policed typically consider police in a pessimistic light due to an absence of trust, another aspect that can influence an anti-police stance. This distrust has paved the way for the questioning of police legitimacy as it threatens public “compliance and cooperation”. Furthermore, fear has also become a contributing factor that is particularly common with disadvantaged social groups due to the knowledge that “the law is not on their side”. Despite race being a driving aspect, the domineering nature of the police pertaining to the restriction of youth freedom has also perpetuated anti-police sentiments among young people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010174",
"title": "Race and crime in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Explanations for racial discrepancies.:Discrimination by law enforcement and the judicial system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354224",
"title": "Discrimination based on skin color",
"section": "Section::::Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in Sweden, Italy, and England and Wales. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15051",
"title": "Immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Effects of immigration.:Crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of immigrants among crime suspects. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15051",
"title": "Immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Effects of immigration.:Social.:Discrimination.:Criminal justice system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities. A 2012 study found that \"(i) juries formed from all-white jury pools convict black defendants significantly (16 percentage points) more often than white defendants, and (ii) this gap in conviction rates is entirely eliminated when the jury pool includes at least one black member.\" Research has found evidence of in-group bias, where \"black (white) juveniles who are randomly assigned to black (white) judges are more likely to get incarcerated (as opposed to being placed on probation), and they receive longer sentences.\" In-group bias has also been observed when it comes to traffic citations, as black and white cops are more likely to cite out-groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6cvu5t
|
do animals get sick from licking another of the same animal it's wounds/blood?
|
[
{
"answer": "Whenever an animal hunts other animals and eats meat, they're eating some of their blood. Their stomachs just pulverize everything. Same for if they were to lick another of the same species. Same for humans, too, pretty much. Something like a blood transfusion would probably cause problems, though, because it bypasses the stomach. And humans can get problems from having too much iron, not sure if carnivores experience anything similar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Wound licking is an instinctive response in humans and many other animals to lick an injury. Dogs, cats, small rodents, horses, and primates all lick wounds. Saliva contains tissue factor which promotes the blood clotting mechanism. The enzyme lysozyme is found in many tissues and is known to attack the cell walls of many gram-positive bacteria, aiding in defense against infection. Tears are also beneficial to wounds due to the lysozyme enzyme. However, there are also infection risks due to bacteria in the human mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "Section::::In animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Wound licking is also important in other animals. Removal of the salivary glands of mice and rats slows wound healing, and communal licking of wounds among rodents accelerates wound healing. Communal licking is common in several primate species. In macaques, hair surrounding a wound and any dirt is removed, and the wound is licked, healing without infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "Section::::Licking of people's wounds by animals.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "As with the licking of wounds by people, wound licking by animals carries a risk of infection. Allowing pet cats to lick open wounds can cause cellulitis and sepsis due to bacterial infections. Licking of open wounds by dogs could transmit rabies if the dog is infected with rabies, although this is said by the CDC to be rare. Dog saliva has been reported to complicate the healing of ulcers. Another issue is the possibility of an allergy to proteins in the saliva of pets, such as Fel d 1 in cat allergy and Can f 1 in dog allergy. Cases of serious infection following the licking of wounds by pets include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Wound licking is beneficial but too much licking can be harmful. An Elizabethan collar may be used on pet animals to prevent them from biting an injury or excessively licking it, which can cause a lick granuloma. These lesions are often infected by pathogenic bacteria such as \"Staphylococcus intermedius\". Horses that lick wounds may become infected by a stomach parasite, \"Habronema\", a type of nematode worm. The rabies virus may be transmitted between animals, such as the kudu antelopes by wound licking of wounds with residual infectious saliva.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8770937",
"title": "Pasteurella multocida",
"section": "Section::::Disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "In humans, \"P. multocida\" is the most common cause of wound infections after dog or cat bites. The infection usually shows as soft tissue inflammation within 24 hours. High leukocyte and neutrophil counts are typically observed, leading to an inflammatory reaction at the infection site (generally a diffuse, localized cellulitis). It can also infect other locales, such as the respiratory tract, and is known to cause regional lymphadenopathy (swelling of the lymph nodes). In more serious cases, a bacteremia can result, causing an osteomyelitis or endocarditis. The bacteria may also cross the blood–brain barrier and cause meningitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "There are potential health hazards in wound licking due to infection risk, especially in immunocompromised patients. Human saliva contains a wide variety of bacteria that are harmless in the mouth, but that may cause significant infection if introduced into a wound. A notable case was a diabetic man who licked his bleeding thumb following a minor bicycle accident, and subsequently had to have the thumb amputated after it became infected with \"Eikenella corrodens\" from his saliva. The practice of metzitzah during circumcision is controversial as it can transmit the herpes virus to the infant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3987221",
"title": "Lick granuloma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Lick granuloma is a form of self-trauma and skin disorder in which most commonly dogs, but also cats, continuously lick a small area of their body until it becomes raw and inflamed. The most common areas affected are the lower (distal) portions of their legs, such as the carpus (wrist), or sometimes another part of their body such as the base of their tail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
50t450
|
why can't a human be frozen while still alive, and jumpstart and come back to life when they thaw out (like avatar)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Someone with more knowledge can come by with more info, but the primary reason is that our cells cannot withstand the ice crystals that form when they are frozen. When our cells freeze they rupture and die. If all of our cells freeze, they all die. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61261825",
"title": "Melting Me Softly",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Ma Dong-chan (Ji Chang-wook) and Go Mi-ran (Won Jin-ah) are both frozen during an experiment. They wake up 20 years later instead of 24 hours later and must keep their body temperature above 30°C in order to survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8975219",
"title": "List of Utawarerumono characters",
"section": "Section::::Main characters.:Hakuoro.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1496,
"text": "Centuries, or possibly millennia, later, his frozen body is found by researchers who thaw him out and dub him 'Iceman'. Under the pretense of helping him, the scientists are investigating his ability to survive in the world outside of their enclosed environment (which has become uninhabitable by humans while he was hibernating). They are also interested in further increasing their longevity. They create numerous artificial beings based on his DNA for further study, including subject #63 whom he names \"Mutsumi\". A sympathetic researcher allows Iceman to escape along with numerous subjects including subject #3510, whom Iceman had previously named Mikoto. They have a child together, but are both eventually recaptured. Having reproduced, Mikoto is of particular interest to the scientists, who dissect her. On learning of this, Iceman goes berserk, and his abilities as Witsarunemitea awaken (he turns the scientists into near immortal amoeba-like entities, fulfilling their wish for longevity). Realizing what he is doing, he asks Mutsumi to destroy him; but she is unsuccessful. Instead, she manages to seal him, but he is separated into two entities: Hakuoro, possessing his good side and his human form; and a formless evil side that must possess a host body to act physically. However, the seal cannot hold indefinitely and the two halves periodically break free. In the current timeline, Hakuoro awakens with no memories, and the darker side possesses the Onkamiyamukai scholar, Dii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8586726",
"title": "The Extreme (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Falling out into the frozen tundra, the Animorphs find themselves freezing to death. They morph wolves, but they need energy to keep going. At night - since none of them can sleep - Ax tells the chilling tale of the new aliens, the Venber, a species from the Andalite moon Venbea, that was wiped out centuries ago by a race known as \"The Five\", melting them for computer semiconductors. Not only that, but the Yeerks have cloned them by cross-breeding them with humans, giving them their new humanoid shape. Then they find a polar bear had just killed and partially consumed a seal. The Animorphs eat the remains. Much to their surprise, not even Cassie has any scruples. They also find two seal pups - the pups of the seal they'd just eaten. Regretfully, they acquire the pups and leave them to their fate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423387",
"title": "Antifreeze protein",
"section": "Section::::Freeze tolerance versus freeze avoidance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Freeze avoidant: These species are able to prevent their body fluids from freezing altogether. Generally, the AFP function may be overcome at extremely cold temperatures, leading to rapid ice growth and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19349845",
"title": "Cryopreservation",
"section": "Section::::Natural cryopreservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Freeze tolerance, in which organisms survive the winter by freezing solid and ceasing life functions, is known in a few vertebrates: five species of frogs (\"Rana sylvatica\", \"Pseudacris triseriata\", \"Hyla crucifer\", \"Hyla versicolor\", \"Hyla chrysoscelis\"), one of salamanders (\"Hynobius keyserlingi\"), one of snakes (\"Thamnophis sirtalis\") and three of turtles (\"Chrysemys picta\", \"Terrapene carolina\", \"Terrapene ornata\"). Snapping turtles \"Chelydra serpentina\" and wall lizards \"Podarcis muralis\" also survive nominal freezing but it has not been established to be adaptive for overwintering. In the case of \"Rana sylvatica\" one cryopreservant is ordinary glucose, which increases in concentration by approximately 19 mmol/l when the frogs are cooled slowly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267014",
"title": "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience",
"section": "Section::::Applied sciences.:Health and medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cryonics – A field of products, techniques, and beliefs supporting the idea that freezing the clinically dead, at very low temperatures (typically below −196 degrees Celsius) will enable future revival or re-substantiation. These beliefs often hinge on the existence of advanced human or alien societies, in the distant future, who will possess as-of-yet unknown technology for the stabilization of dying cells. There is no evidence a human being can be revived after such freezing, and no solid scientific evidence suggests that reanimation will be possible in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42742734",
"title": "Welfare of farmed insects",
"section": "Section::::Slaughter methods.:Industrial farms.:Freezing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "While freezing is sometimes said to be a humane way to kill certain arthropods, others dispute this. According to \"AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals,\" freezing is \"not considered to be humane\" when not preceded by another form of anesthesia. The British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA) Terrestrial Invertebrate Working Group (TIWG) reports on a survey conducted by Mark Bushell of BIAZA institutions. He found that refrigeration and freezing were the most common methods \"of euthanasia of invertebrates although research has suggested that this is probably one of the least ethical options.\" That said, freezing is a worst-case method if chemical or instantaneous physical destruction is not possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21njka
|
What did Stalin do the first week of Barbarossa?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stalin chose to let secretary of State Molotov announce the German invasion to the citizens of the USSR. According to Molotov's own words: \"[Stalin] didn't want to be the first to speak. He needed a clear picture. He couldn't respond like an automaton to everything. He was a human being after all.\" During the first couple of days Stalin was simply swamped in work, formulating a military answer to the situation at the front which was quite disastrous.\n\nAfter a couple of days though, Stalin seems to have suffered some sort of mental breakdown. After a meeting with, amongst others, NKVD-chief Beria and Molotov in Stalin's dacha he supposedly uttered these words: \"Everything's lost. I give up. Lenin left us a proletarian state and now we've been caught with our pants down and let the whole thing go to shit.\" After that meeting Stalin remained in his dacha and went incommunicado. According to Molotov 'Stalin shut himself away from everybody, was receiving nobody and wasn't answering the phone'. \n\nBecause conducting a war without the leader of the country in office is quite difficult seven members of the Politburo decided to go check on Stalin themselves. They found him 'thinner, haggard, gloomy'. He asked the Politburo-members if he would still be able to lead the country to victory. They responded favourably and Stalin was appointed head of the State Defence Committee. The next day Stalin returned to Moscow and on July 3rd he held his first radio speech since the German invasion. \n\nSo did Stalin really have a breakdown? According to Simon Sebag Montefiore's Stalin: Court of the Red Tsar (the main source for this answer) the breakdown 'was real enough: he was depressed and exhausted'. But Montefiore also points to quotes from Molotov and Politburo-member Anastas Mikoyan who said it was also 'for effect'. Stalin used his breakdown to see if he still had the trust of the Politburo. \n\nEDIT Request for the downvoters: if you don't like my answer, please do give an alternative or point me towards the mistakes in my answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "72249",
"title": "Otto Skorzeny",
"section": "Section::::Eastern Front.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Skorzeny took part in the invasion of the Soviet Union with the SS Division Das Reich and subsequently fought in several battles on the Eastern Front. In October 1941, he was in charge of a \"technical section\" of the German forces during the Battle of Moscow. His mission was to seize important buildings of the Communist Party, including the NKVD headquarters at Lubyanka, and the central telegraph office and other high priority facilities, before they could be destroyed. He was also ordered to capture the sluices of the Moscow-Volga Canal because Hitler wanted to turn Moscow into a huge artificial lake by opening them. The missions were canceled as the German forces failed to capture the Soviet capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33350625",
"title": "Grigori Tokaty",
"section": "Section::::Great patriotic war and aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa in 1941 rapidly overrunning Soviet front-line forces. The Academy's staff was evacuated to Sverdlovsk in the Urals. Tokaty returned to Moscow during the Battle of Moscow. He later flew in bombing raids over Stalingrad using American bombers delivered through lend-lease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8900317",
"title": "Ivan Bagramyan",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Ukraine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "Bagramyan was instrumental in the planning of two Soviet counter-offensives against the Germans, including the major push made by Soviet forces in December during the Battle of Moscow, and for this was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General. In the same month, he was made the chief of staff of a military operations group that would oversee three Army Groups: the Southern, the Southwestern and Bryansk Fronts. In March 1942, he went along with Khrushchev and Timoshenko to Moscow to present the plans of a new counter-offensive in the Ukrainian city of Kharkiv to Stalin. Stalin, impressed with his plan, approved the operation and on April 8, promoted Bagramyan as Chief of Staff of the Southwestern Front. On 12 May 1942, armies of the Southwestern Front attacked Kharkiv but the launch of the offensive came at an inopportune moment since they were attacking from the Barvenkovo Salient, a region that German forces were near closing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1634379",
"title": "Operation Little Saturn",
"section": "Section::::Soviet counter-offensive: Operation Little Saturn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "After the defeat of the Romanian Army around Stalingrad and the successful encirclement of the German Sixth Army, Stalin started a counter-offensive nicknamed \"Operation Little Saturn\" in order to enlarge the area controlled by the Soviet Army in eastern Ukraine until Kharkov and Rostov.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "609983",
"title": "Semyon Budyonny",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "During Operation Barbarossa the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Budyonny was commander-in-chief of the Soviet forces in Ukraine that were disastrously defeated, resulting in 1.5 million Soviet personnel killed or taken prisoner. He received the blame for many of Stalin's military strategic errors, but was retained in the Soviet high command because of his political connections and popularity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4983571",
"title": "Dmitry Pavlov (general)",
"section": "Section::::Downfall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "During first days of Operation Barbarossa his command, Soviet Western Front suffered a disastrous defeat in the Battle of Białystok-Minsk, during the first days of the invasion, Pavlov was relieved of his command on 1 July 1941, arrested and accused of criminal incompetence and treason. He was the only arrested commander of any Soviet front during Operation Barbarossa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22618",
"title": "Operation Barbarossa",
"section": "Section::::Further German advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "Chief of the OKH, General Franz Halder, Fedor von Bock, the commander of Army Group Center, and almost all the German generals involved in Operation Barbarossa argued vehemently in favor of continuing the all-out drive toward Moscow. Besides the psychological importance of capturing the Soviet capital, the generals pointed out that Moscow was a major center of arms production, the center of the Soviet communications system and an important transport hub. Intelligence reports indicated that the bulk of the Red Army was deployed near Moscow under Semyon Timoshenko for the defense of the capital. Panzer commander Heinz Guderian was sent to Hitler by Bock and Halder to argue their case for continuing the assault against Moscow, but Hitler issued an order through Guderian (bypassing Bock and Halder) to send Army Group Center's tanks to the north and south, temporarily halting the drive to Moscow. Convinced by Hitler's argument, Guderian returned to his commanding officers as a convert to the Führer's plan, which earned him their disdain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ng3cs
|
how do radio stations broadcast album art?
|
[
{
"answer": "Radio stations have extra radio bandwidth that they don't need for the audio alone. They can use this bandwidth to send additional data to your radio such as the station name, song title, artist, or I guess the album art. It's essentially sending data over a wireless internet connection, point-to-point from the station to your radio. This is not an efficient connection though due to the distance and interference, so its uses are limited. \n \nYou usually need a radio capable of receiving this kind of data (and a station properly equipped) otherwise your radio doesn't know how to interpret this data and display it for you. It would just think it was noise and ignore that part of the signal. This system is also heavily regulated in how it can be used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17141740",
"title": "Radio art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The artist who works in radio art is not necessarily a trained DJ, programmer, producer, or engineer, but one who uses sound to make art. The radio medium can be used in ways which are different from what it was intended for. In that sense, the way the message is transmitted and received by an audience is as important as the message itself. \"As an aural art form it reaffirms that it's not just what we say, but the way we say it.\" In Victoria Fenner's words, \"Radio art is art which is specifically composed for the medium of radio and is uniquely suited to be transmitted via the airwaves.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17141740",
"title": "Radio art",
"section": "Section::::Art radio and webradio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "An art radio is a radio station that would dedicate every second of its transmission time to radio art. Although this kind of project can seem utopian in the traditional state of radio, there are few lasting experiences in the underground or community side such as London's ResonanceFM which intend to make radio with art and promote the \"art of listening\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15066092",
"title": "Radia",
"section": "Section::::Shows.:Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Usually each member radio station commissions an artist from their local artistic community and gives him/her carte blanche for producing a show. In that sense, Radia uses radio as a gallery for sound art pieces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17141740",
"title": "Radio art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Artists use (i.e. radio transmission, airwaves...) to communicate artistic compositions for interpretation – exposing their audience to alternate means to experiencing their art through sound verses visualization. Radio Art contributes to new media art - a digitally driven art movement growing in response to the informative technological revolution we live in. “From the artist's point of view radio is an environment to be entered into and acted upon, a site for various cultural voices to meet, converse, and merge in. These artists cross disciplines, raid all genres and recontextualize them into hybrids.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17141740",
"title": "Radio art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Radio art projects can be collaborative including various professional sources, unifying an audio broadcast with science, experimentation, geography, entertainment, etc.\" Some have approached radio as an architectural space to be constructed sonically and linguistically; or as the site of an event, an arena, or stage. Some used it as a gathering place, or a conduit, a means to create community. Other artists have employed the media landscape itself as the narrative, while others looked into the body as the site and the source; the voicebox, the larynx become medium and metaphor.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52150772",
"title": "Transmission Arts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Transmission Arts, also sometimes known as Radio art, are defined \"as a multiplicity of practices and media working with the idea of transmission or the physical properties of the Electromagnetic spectrum (radio). Transmission works often manifest themselves in participatory live art or time-based art, and include, but are not limited to, sound, video, light, installation, and performance.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156659",
"title": "Announcer",
"section": "Section::::Radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Radio announcers are often known as disc jockeys (DJs). While some read from scripts, others completely ad-lib. These DJs’ tasks consist of on-air interviewing, taking/responding to listener requests, running contests, and making remarks about various subjects like the weather, traffic, sports, and other news. Most radio announcers announce the artists and titles of songs, but don’t necessarily choose what song airs on the radio. Many stations have a management teams who select the songs ahead of time. Today radio stations have DJs update the station’s website with music, guest interviews, show schedules, and photos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9yp7fi
|
What determines what wavelength of light is reflected from object?
|
[
{
"answer": "The transmission/reflection spectrum of a material is a function of the [electronic structure](_URL_1_) of the molecules composing it. You can imagine an electron as a charge on a harmonic potential; the electric field in passing light excites the electron into an oscillatory motion. When the frequency of the excitory field is much slower or much faster than the electron, it doesn't move much and transmits most of the light. Near resonance, it absorbs more of the light, and just above resonance frequency, it reflects most. The overall reflection spectrum will have features of all of the atoms and molecules in the material; for example, you can see the contributions of various gases to the [atmospheric transmission spectrum](_URL_0_). If you want a more quantitative treatment of this, MIT opencourseware has [some good slides](_URL_2_) on the topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TL;DR: it's the number of protons in most common atoms on the reflective layer of apple surface. The most outer layer is transparent wax (try to scrub apple with knife, it's fun).\n\nWavelength of any photon is determined by it's energy. wavelength = planks constant * speed of light / energy.\n\nWhat defines energy of reflected photon? Amount of energy absorbed by electron that was \"hit\" by incoming photon.\n\nStory version. A photon \"hitting\" an atom of apple may transfer its energy (excite) to atom's electron. Electron, being weird quantum fella, can only absorb energy from certain discrete list of values, too less or too much and interaction doesn't happen. Now suppose the photon was just right and excited an electron to a higher energy state. Electron doesn't like to excited and uses quantum magic to emit a photon in random direction and drops to it's stable (lower) energy state. Emitted photon's energy is precisely difference between excited and stable energy states.\n\nWhy different atoms have different energy levels? _URL_0_\n\nMore broad article on particle radiation from particle deceleration _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25880",
"title": "Refractive index",
"section": "Section::::Relations to other quantities.:Reflectivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Apart from the transmitted light there is also a reflected part. The reflection angle is equal to the incidence angle, and the amount of light that is reflected is determined by the reflectivity of the surface. The reflectivity can be calculated from the refractive index and the incidence angle with the Fresnel equations, which for normal incidence reduces to\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1641247",
"title": "Anti-reflective coating",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Textured coatings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "If wavelength is smaller than the textured size, the reflection reduction can be explained with the help of the geometric optics approximation: rays should be reflected many times before they are sent back toward the source. In this case the reflection can be calculated using ray tracing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41958",
"title": "Lidar",
"section": "Section::::General description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Wavelengths vary to suit the target: from about 10 micrometers (infrared) to approximately 250 nm (UV). Typically, light is reflected via backscattering, as opposed to pure reflection one might find with a mirror. Different types of scattering are used for different lidar applications: most commonly Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering, Raman scattering, and fluorescence. Suitable combinations of wavelengths can allow for remote mapping of atmospheric contents by identifying wavelength-dependent changes in the intensity of the returned signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3136353",
"title": "Umov effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "where α is the albedo of the object. Thus, highly reflective objects tend to reflect mostly unpolarized light, and dimly reflective objects tend to reflect polarized light. The law is only valid for large phase angles (angles between the incident light and the reflected light).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1064079",
"title": "Total external reflection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Total internal reflection describes the fact that radiation (e.g. visible light) can, at certain angles, be totally reflected from an interface between two media of different indices of refraction (see Snell's law). Total internal reflection occurs when the first medium has a larger refractive index than the second medium, for example, light that starts in water and bounces off the water-to-air interface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1384005",
"title": "Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)",
"section": "Section::::Measuring absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The absorbance of an object quantifies how much of the incident light is absorbed by it (instead of being reflected or refracted). This may be related to other properties of the object through the Beer–Lambert law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679297",
"title": "Specular reflection",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Internal reflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "When light is propagating in a material and strikes an interface with a material of lower index of refraction, some of the light is reflected. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs: all of the light is reflected. The critical angle can be shown to be given by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5gush7
|
the us is known as the "no vacation nation", the only developed nation without mandatory pto.
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Because why should I pay someone not to work?\" That's what it amounts to basically, you can always find someone for the same job that will work for less pay or less benefits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there's no political will for it. Laws have to be drafted and passed through the Congress and then get signed by the President. Americans have been electing politicians who tend to side with business owners, and they don't want mandatory PTO. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The USA is among the most anti-regulation cultures among the wealthy nations. This dates back to our history as (1) the world's first large democracy and (2) the product of a revolutionary war fought for independence from an allegedly overbearing government (of England).\n\nIn addition to our dislike of regulations, we also have a culture in which people identify with rich business owners -- many average people imagine \"in the future, that could be me\". So people often support efforts to avoid regulating businesses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For 40 years, the U.S. and the Soviet Union fought a cold war, as the world's two superpowers.\n\nThe Soviet Union stood for communism, and this caused the U.S. to take the polar opposite position, to stand for unbridled capitalism. The cold war is over, but the culture that came from this is still there.\n\nSo even today, the U.S. struggles with things that every other country has long since agreed upon and solved. This is why we don't have mandatory paid vacation, why we struggle to provide our people with health care, and so on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because large corporations (who are opposed to more regulation, especially regulation that requires them to pay people who aren't working) have incredibly strong lobbying power with US Legislators.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not regulated, but in my 18 year professional experience it is kind of mandatory. Management would encourage pto (I was never one that needed to be encouraged, but knew people that had to be). They'd get a little shunned if they didn't. family members in less professional roles, let's say a mill/warehouse job got x amount of weeks earned and they'd happily take. Move to the service industry, like wait staff or retail...they can literally become slaves an although they've earned pto it's frowned upon. Perhaps I'm completely off with no statistics, just my work experience for over 20 years and family/friends.\n\nUS is still far behind on work/life balance, regardless. \n\nEdit: not literally, figuratively.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Before the 1960s most Europeans worked more than Americans. Then tax rates started going up for Europeans and down for Americans. Because the government gets 30-50% of the value of your salary but none of the enjoyment you get from a day off, it makes sense for people who are paying more in taxes to work less. See the work of Edward Prescott for more on that.\nPeople who work less get paid less, and most Americans would rather work more and get paid more. Those who feel differently can negotiate to work less or work part time. America is a big diverse country and there is no need for a one size fits all policy.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "a couple things:\n\nthe US is not one set of regulations, to a European think of the states as the individual countries in europe. \n\ni get more PTO via employment negotiation. the least amount i have ever had in my working life was 40 per year, higher than in the EU.\n\nin the US a large federal government is frowned upon. we would rather do things ourselves than have big brother coddle us. it works for europe and that is cool, but he have backbones here. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not about what makes sense or not. It's about culture. Every person here is a decendant of an immigrant. It takes grit, determination and a strong work ethic to just up and leave everything you know and work your butt of in some new place hoping for a better life. Take the fact that we have self selected for people who generally embrace the the narrative of 'hard work above all else leads to prosperity', throw in our Puritan roots and our general distaste for the government intervening in our lives (compared to other places) which dates back to the revolution. You end up with a culture that lends itself to this policy being viewed differently here than elsewhere in the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Capitalism. Most people in the US care more about making money right now than the well being of people around them or future generations.\n\nSource: I am an American.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "workers are an expendable commodity and are just another profit drain. workers contribute nothing to my bottom line, they only serve to worsen my bottom line. fuck workers...they don't do anything for me. \n\nfirst you give them safer working conditions where they won't get injured, then they'll want 60 work weeks.\n\nonce you give them 60 hour work weeks, they are going to want Sundays off...\n\nonce you give them Sundays they are gonna want Saturdays too.\n\nThose greedy bastards, once you give them weekends - they're going to want a 40 hour work week too. \n\nAll of those things cut into my profits. Man Fuck the Workers. Once you give them weekends they're going to want me to stop polluting the rivers and lakes they go to to recreate.\n\nDammit - now they've got weekends and less pollution, now they are going to start wanting paid vacations. Fuck the workers...those bastards should be paying me for the priviledge of making me money...\n\n\n(pretty much any conversation about workers rights in this country including but not limited to: vacation, minimum wage, executive pay, environmentalism, pollution control, child labor, gender pay gap, work place safety)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Whether I agree or not, the idea is essentially that deregulated market competition should balance out the need for regulation.\n\nCompany A and Company B are both trying to hire employee C; Company A and Company B are both free to structure the job/hours/dress-code/etc., as they please, and employee C is free to choose.\n\nSo you have Company A and Company B who are each attempting to hire the highest caliber of employee for their field from the same pool, and the best way to hire the best talent is through the best available employment package an employer can offer.\n\nCompany A offers 20 days of PTO, Company B offers 15. Employee C goes with Company D because they allow you to bring your dog to the office.\n\nIts the idea of competition in lieu of regulation as a stabilizer for equality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And even if you get PTO good luck trying to use it and not be given a guilt trip or told you're \"Not a team player\". Get 3 weeks vacation, so far gotten to use 1.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People seem to be dancing around the truth of the matter. The truth is our \"democracy\" is almost 100% controlled by business, especially big business. Our laws are decided upon by businesses through lobbying, not politicians trying to better our population.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"No Vacation Nation\" wasn't actually the first title they came up with. Initially, they floated the idea of \"Vote against your own self-interest Nation\". Critics considered it too confusing. Then they tried \"The No Minimum Wage Nation\" but test audiences were skeptical that this would be too revealing. So the suits settled on \"No Vacation Nation\" as they knew they could maximize bootstraps much easier from the common worker using this terminology. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Long story short: American political attitudes tend toward defining fairness as defending the interests of the powerful back to our founding. We've had a few bouts of progressivism, but they were short-lived and generated massive backlashes from the moneyed elites.\n\nHealthy happy workers are not necessary because workers are expendable in the eyes of big capital. Who cares about the long run when executives and shareholders have only temporary interests in business and superficial interests in society, with every interest in maximizing short term profit before moving on to the next venture? Those companies that do offer benefits only do so when the job market demands it. Huge numbers of Americans do not have enough demand for their work to be able to get any benefits beyond a flat hourly wage or commission.\n\nIt took a war that killed half a million to end slavery and huge chunks of the country's land were acquired by brute force against Native Americans and Mexico. People are still trying to abolish the minimum wage and any guarantee of healthcare, food or housing. People still protest the existence of food and drug purity and labeling and environmental protection.\n\nThe average American voter favors progressive policy when asked about specifics, but votes the opposite when the time comes. This is partially due to lack of information on policy and partly due to the idea that we are all kings in our own right and the state cannot tell us how to do business or handle our property.\n\nIt's the best country in the world to live in if you make an upper middle class living or better, but the majority have little more than trinkets and distractions to mark their lives as better than those of medieval serfs. And every serf dreams of being a lord. And there is some genuine philosophical agreement with libertarian principles and some genuine corruption.\n\ntldr: Protections for the little guy in the US are the exception to the rule and those that exist are under constant assault while others are trojan horses that hurt the little guy while claiming to protect him because 'Murica.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "But who takes a job that does not have vacation time? I have never had a job unless I was the owner that did not have vacation time. There are choices to be made and by not taking jobs with no paid time off will make employers provide it. So in thinking about this there is a group who have no paid time off in my company. The thing is they work for 3 weeks and then have 3 weeks with no work essentially only working 6 months a year and they make 100k plus a year. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because US business does not give a damn about the US worker\n\nUS business cares about profits. it uses those profits to buy politicians that pass regulations that will not decrease profits\n\nexecutive bonuses are threatened? layoffs.\n\nshareholder dividends are threatened? layoffs.\n\nless regulation in another country? close US production.\n\nUS employees too expensive? H1Bs and illegal aliens. \n\nyeah, you read that right. why do illegal immigrants come to the US in search of higher wages? because US businesses pay them. its a fraction of what US residents would earn but that's ok - it reduces prices for consumers and increases profits for companies.\n\nwanna solve the problem of illegal immigration? fine businesses found hiring illegal aliens out of existence. \n\ndon't get me started about healthcare - no job, no health insurance, too damn bad.\n\nso that's why US workers get little vacation time",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we don't fuckin need to. Everybody with a full time job gets vacation time or their company won't have anybody filling their positions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow, amazed at some of the crappy responses here. Lots of people saying mandatory isn't required, typically coming from people who work for companies that DO provide it, which are in general, well-paying jobs of a higher status. So, because a typical well-off American already gets PTO, they don't consider it important that workers of every level in America recieve PTO. The issue is not about PTO; it's about Americans feeling it necessary that they be better than others. So, they don't consider a fast food employee for example, as someone deserving of PTO- they are not worthy enough, they don't work hard enough, and they aren't skilled enough- only upper class or upper middle class Americans should have that privilege. It's really sort of like a caste system; the upper class constantly want to deny benefits to the lower class so they can retain their privileged status, and when any issue revolving around the matter is brought to the surface, the status quo is quick to jump on it and defend a system in which they benefit and others suffer. It's not fair, and the onyl motivation for it is that Americans like to look down on and trash those less fortunate by saying things like, \"well we don't need PTO for all employees- this job doesn't deserve it anyway,\" and \"Americans don't want the government requiring it,\" when the majority of Americans actually do support mandatory vacation time, albeit the majority of the poor and powerless, so it will never garner attention, and you can't rely on the majority and the powerful to raise the issue in the defense of the other side, because those are the same elitists who benefit from NOT having to pay people for time off, and also the same people who get off on being \"better\" than other Americans because they are fortunate enough to get PTO anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is the worst ELI5 of 2016. Like by far. This is not the platform to push your agenda on. Make some whiney post on /r/politics, they'll love you there /u/usscan",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "509409",
"title": "Vacation",
"section": "Section::::Vacation policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "According to the U.S. Travel Association, Americans collectively did not use 662 million vacation days in 2016. More than half of all working people in the United States forfeited paid time off at the end of the year. Two-thirds of people still do work while they are on vacation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4881604",
"title": "Work–life balance",
"section": "Section::::Global comparisons.:European Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In all twenty-five European Union countries, voters \"punish\" politicians who try to shrink vacations. \"Even the twenty-two days Estonians, Lithuanians, Poles and Slovenians count as their own is much more generous than the leave allotted to U.S. workers.\" According to a report by the Families and Work Institute, the average vacation time that Americans took each year averaged 14.6 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6940740",
"title": "Working holidays in Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Working holidays in Australia is a program that enables eligible young people aged between 18 and 30 years to visit Australia and to supplement their travel funds through incidental employment. Forms of working holiday visas (today, Work and Holiday (subclass 462) and Working Holiday (subclass 417)) have existed since January 1975, designed to \"promote international understanding by enabling young people to experience the culture of another country.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434750",
"title": "United States",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The United States is the only advanced economy that does not guarantee its workers paid vacation and is one of just a few countries in the world without paid family leave as a legal right, with the others being Papua New Guinea, Suriname and Liberia. While federal law does not require sick leave, it is a common benefit for government workers and full-time employees at corporations. 74% of full-time American workers get paid sick leave, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, although only 24% of part-time workers get the same benefits. In 2009, the United States had the third-highest workforce productivity per person in the world, behind Luxembourg and Norway. It was fourth in productivity per hour, behind those two countries and the Netherlands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4881604",
"title": "Work–life balance",
"section": "Section::::Global comparisons.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "American workers are legally not entitled to any paid holidays. However, most employers will give the 10 days off of national holidays. This is one of the lowest paid holidays total in the world. Brazil has a total of 41 paid days off and Australia has 38 days off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075686",
"title": "United States labor law",
"section": "Section::::Contract and rights at work.:Working time and family care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 2865,
"text": "People in the United States work among the longest hours per week in the industrialized world, and have the least annual leave. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 article 24 states: \"Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.\" However, there is no general federal or state legislation requiring paid annual leave. Title 5 of the United States Code §6103 specifies ten public holidays for federal government employees, and provides that holidays will be paid. Many states do the same, however, no state law requires private sector employers to provide paid holidays. Many private employers follow the norms of federal and state government, but the right to annual leave, if any, will depend upon collective agreements and individual employment contracts. State law proposals have been made to introduce paid annual leave. A 2014 Washington Bill from United States House of Representatives member Gael Tarleton would have required a minimum of 3 weeks of paid holidays each year to employees in businesses of over 20 staff, after 3 years work. Under the International Labour Organization Holidays with Pay Convention 1970 three weeks is the bare minimum. The Bill did not receive enough votes. By contrast, employees in all European Union countries have the right to at least 4 weeks (i.e. 28 days) of paid annual leave each year. Furthermore, there is no federal or state law on limits to the length of the working week. Instead, the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 §207 creates a financial disincentive to longer working hours. Under the heading \"Maximum hours\", §207 states that time and a half pay must be given to employees working more than 40 hours in a week. It does not, however, set an actual limit, and there are at least 30 exceptions for categories of employee which do not receive overtime pay. Shorter working time was one of the labor movement's original demands. From the first decades of the 20th century, collective bargaining produced the practice of having, and the word for, a two-day \"weekend\". State legislation to limit working time was, however, suppressed by the US Supreme Court in \"Lochner v New York\". The New York State Legislature had passed the Bakeshop Act of 1895, which limited work in bakeries to 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week, to improve health, safety and people's living conditions. After being prosecuted for making his staff work longer in his Utica, Mr Lochner claimed that the law violated the Fourteenth Amendment on \"due process\". Despite the dissent of four judges, a majority of five judges held that the law was unconstitutional. The whole \"Lochner\" era of jurisprudence was reversed by the US Supreme Court in 1937, but experimentation to improve working time rights, and \"work-life balance\" has not yet recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7091584",
"title": "Annual leave",
"section": "Section::::Leave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Most countries around the world have labour laws that mandate employers give a certain number of paid time-off days per year to workers. Canada requires at least two weeks (and at least three weeks for most workers in Saskatchewan); in the European Union the countries can set freely the minimum, but it has to be at least equivalent to 4 working weeks. Full-time employment in Australia requires twenty annual leave days a year. US law does not require employers to grant any vacation or holidays, and about 25 per cent of all employees receive no paid vacation time or paid holidays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ci7j1
|
Mathematically speaking, if a given game of Sudoku, in its initial state, has only one possible outcome, will it always solvable without having to resort to guessing a cell's value?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sure, if it has a unique solution, it's \"solvable\" by giving that unique solution. Whether it's solvable by some particular algorithm is going to be very dependent on the details of that algorithm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unless the person who made the puzzle made a mistake a sudoku puzzle has only one correct solution and enough information from the start to solve it without guessing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48868100",
"title": "Sudoku Codes",
"section": "Section::::Density evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "For a standard formula_57 Sudoku this results in a probability of formula_58 for a unique solution. An analog calculation is done for all cardinality combinations. In the end the distribution of output cardinalities are summed up from the results. Note that the order of the input cardinality is interchangeable. The calculation of non-decreasing constraint combinations is therewith sufficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1095,
"text": "Consider Sudoku, a game where the player is given a partially filled-in grid of numbers and attempts to complete the grid following certain rules. Given an incomplete Sudoku grid, of any size, is there at least one legal solution? Any proposed solution is easily verified, and the time to check a solution grows slowly (polynomially) as the grid gets bigger. However, all known algorithms for finding solutions take, for difficult examples, time that grows exponentially as the grid gets bigger. So, Sudoku is in NP (quickly checkable) but does not seem to be in P (quickly solvable). Thousands of other problems seem similar, in that they are fast to check but slow to solve. Researchers have shown that many of the problems in NP have the extra property that a fast solution to any one of them could be used to build a quick solution to any other problem in NP, a property called NP-completeness. Decades of searching have not yielded a fast solution to any of these problems, so most scientists suspect that none of these problems can be solved quickly. This, however, has never been proven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2912292",
"title": "Mathematics of Sudoku",
"section": "Section::::Maximum number of givens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "As for the \"most\" clues possible in a Sudoku while still \"not\" rendering a unique solution, it is four short of a full grid (77). If two instances of two numbers each are missing and the cells they are to occupy are the corners of an orthogonal rectangle, and exactly two of these cells are within one region, there are two ways the last digits can be added (two solutions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3143089",
"title": "Repeated game",
"section": "Section::::Examples of cooperation in finitely repeated games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Example 2 shows a two-stage repeated game with a unique Nash equilibrium. Because there is only one equilibrium here, there is no mechanism for either player to threaten punishment or promise reward in the game’s second round. As such, the only strategy that can be supported as a subgame perfect Nash equilibrium is that of playing the game’s unique Nash equilibrium strategy (D, N) every round. In this case, that means playing (D, N) each stage for two stages (n=2), but it would be true for any finite number of stages \"n\". To interpret: this result means that the very presence of a known, finite time horizon sabotages cooperation in every single round of the game. Cooperation in iterated games is only possible when the number of rounds is infinite or unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18423220",
"title": "Generalized game theory",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:General game solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Solutions may be reached through a sequence of proposed alternatives, and when the actors find the ultimate solution acceptable, the proposed solutions may be said to be convergent. Roszkowska and Burns (2002) showed that not every game has a common solution, and that divergent proposals may arise. This may result in a no equilibrium being found, and stems from dropping the assumption for the existence of a Nash equilibrium that the game be finite or that the game have complete information. Another possibility is the existence of a rule which allows a dictator to force an equilibrium. The rules which make up the norms of the game are one way of resolving the problem of choosing between multiple equilibria, such as those arising in the so-called folk theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2828651",
"title": "Exact cover",
"section": "Section::::Noteworthy examples.:Sudoku.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 208,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 208,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "More precisely, solving Sudoku is an exact hitting set problem, which is equivalent to an exact cover problem, when viewed as a problem to select possibilities such that each constraint set contains (i.e., is hit by) exactly one selected possibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2539764",
"title": "Two envelopes problem",
"section": "Section::::Other simple resolutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1117,
"text": "Tsikogiannopoulos (2012) presented a different way to do these calculations. Of course, it is by definition correct to assign equal probabilities to the events that the other envelope contains double or half that amount in envelope A. So the \"switching argument\" is correct up to step 6. Given that the player's envelope contains the amount A, he differentiates the actual situation in two different games: The first game would be played with the amounts (A, 2A) and the second game with the amounts (A/2, A). Only one of them is actually played but we don't know which one. These two games need to be treated differently. If the player wants to compute his/her expected return (profit or loss) in case of exchange, he/she should weigh the return derived from each game by the average amount in the two envelopes in that particular game. In the first case the profit would be A with an average amount of 3A/2, whereas in the second case the loss would be A/2 with an average amount of 3A/4. So the formula of the expected return in case of exchange, seen as a proportion of the total amount in the two envelopes, is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7oam2x
|
How can I find a certain persons coat of arms from the 1000s?
|
[
{
"answer": "You almost certainly won't find it at all. Formal heraldry, in which each individual possesses a unique, identifying coat of arms based on symbols inherited from the father and mother, did not develop until the 13th century. It's likely that 11th century Normans decorated their shields, but this would have been cosmetic rather than heraldic in nature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21030125",
"title": "Langscheid (Sundern)",
"section": "Section::::Coat of arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The coat of arms first appeared on a seal dating from 1652 AD and later in the coat of arms collection of Arnsberg of 1700 AD. It was officially authorized on October 26, 1911 with Enkhausen's patron saint St. Laurentius holding the shield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31497518",
"title": "O'Higgins family",
"section": "Section::::Arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The earliest known coat of arms was recorded in 1724 by Sir John Higgins Bt of Montoge with Sir James Terry, Athlone Herald in the Court of James II at St. Germaine. Sir John Higgins's branch of the family moved to Limerick after they lost their lands at Monteige in Sligo and eventually relocated in France and later in Spain where John Higgins was knighted and became personal physician to the King of Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "880247",
"title": "Neuenrade",
"section": "Section::::Coat of arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The coat of arms is based on the coat of arms of the counts of the Mark, showing a chequered red-white bar on a yellow shield. The oldest version of the coat of arms is known from a wood carving in the city church dated from the 16th century; it showed Saint Mary on top of the coat of arms of the Mark. Later the Mary picture was moved inside the shield. It was officially granted on November 25, 1912.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178024",
"title": "Våler, Hedmark",
"section": "Section::::General information.:Coat-of-arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 7 August 1987. The arms show a gold-colored winged arrow pointing down on a red background. The arms are based on the legend that in 1022, King Olaf II of Norway (Saint Olaf) shot an arrow and where the arrow hit the ground, he built the church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268290",
"title": "Corpus Christi College, Cambridge",
"section": "Section::::Traditions and anecdotes.:Coat of arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "The coat of arms was granted in 1570 by Robert Cooke, Clarencieux King of Arms, at the request of the Master, Archbishop Matthew Parker. It was by this that Parker introduced into the college the symbol of the mythical pelican with the body of a swan and the head of an eagle. It was believed in the Middle Ages that a pelican lived in a tree and laid three eggs; ant that after they hatched the pelican quarrels with the. and inadvertently kills them, while the mother pelican pecked at her own breast, spilling her blood on them and restoring them to life. This became a potent symbol for Christ feeding his followers spiritually with his body and blood. It was often associated with the Corpus Christi cult during the Middle Ages but not with the Cambridge guild until the granting of the arms in the 16th Century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47677286",
"title": "Bogdanowicz coat of arms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The earliest mention of the Coat of arms is July 27, 1791 when attributed to Theodore of Rosko-Bogdanowiczowi by Leopold II., He was a merchant living in Szionda rewarded for his supply of the Austrian army. He came from a family of lesser nobility descended from an ancestor was Deoda (Leopold) Bogdanovich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177967",
"title": "Rygge",
"section": "Section::::General information.:Coat-of-arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The coat-of-arms is from modern times. It was granted on 30 November 1984. The arms show a golden spur on a red background. A spur like this was found in the area that dated back to the Viking Age. It is one of the largest golden items that was ever found in Norway and was thus chosen as a symbol on the arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16f8mj
|
What happened to all the Aquatic Dinosaurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "For some of the part, lots of sea creatures survived. Look at sharks, they've been around for a very very long time. An asteroid strike would have also affected the water, it would have been to cold for some animals in more tropical seas to have survived, areas would have iced over too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off, the obligatory \"Giant marine reptiles were not technically dinosaurs\" (some were actually pretty closely related to certain lizard groups, others were in completely different groups, none were dinosaurs proper)\n\nSecond: These marine reptiles tended to be large, active top predators. Life is always a bit more precarious for top predators. Blot out the sun for a few years and you'd see phytoplankton populations crash, leading to a crash in small fish. This would decrease populations of the larger fish that top predators eat. Lacking food, many would starve. And top predators usually have pretty low populations because their food supply is limited even during the best of times, and each individual needs to eat a lot. Fewer individuals mean lower chance of survival.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't an archaeology question, but a paleontology question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This does not belong in archaeology. This is geology or paleontology",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19107206",
"title": "Niobrara Formation",
"section": "Section::::Flora and fauna.:Vertebrate fauna.:Non-avian dinosaurs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 744,
"text": " Nonavian dinosaurs have been found in the Niobrara Chalk despite it being located hundreds of miles out to sea at the time. The most reasonable theory is that the carcasses drifted out to sea. It is unlikely that the bodies were carried out by outgoing tides along the shorelines where they died, but rather it is more probable that the dinosaurs were carried offshore by floodwaters during a storm. In the shallow waters the bodies would have begun to decompose and bacteria within the carcass would have produced gasses that would have accumulated in the gut, thereby making the body buoyant. Next, the prevailing winds and currents would have carried it out to sea, where it would eventually settle to the bottom and be buried in sediment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24035218",
"title": "Paleobiota of the Niobrara Formation",
"section": "Section::::Dinosaurs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 744,
"text": " Nonavian dinosaurs have been found in the Niobrara Chalk despite it being located hundreds of miles out to sea at the time. The most reasonable theory is that the carcasses drifted out to sea. It is unlikely that the bodies were carried out by outgoing tides along the shorelines where they died, but rather it is more probable that the dinosaurs were carried offshore by floodwaters during a storm. In the shallow waters the bodies would have begun to decompose and bacteria within the carcass would have produced gasses that would have accumulated in the gut, thereby making the body buoyant. Next, the prevailing winds and currents would have carried it out to sea, where it would eventually settle to the bottom and be buried in sediment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30600763",
"title": "Evolution of reptiles",
"section": "Section::::Rise of dinosaurs.:Role reversal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event wiped out all of the non-avian dinosaurs (birds are generally regarded as the surviving dinosaurs) and several mammalian groups, placental and marsupial mammals diversified into many new forms and ecological niches throughout the Paleogene and Neogene eras. Some reached enormous sizes and almost as wide a variation as the dinosaurs once did. Nevertheless, mammalian megafauna never quite reached the skyscraper heights of some sauropods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958030",
"title": "Pseudosuchia",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "As the Mesozoic progressed, the Protosuchia gave rise to more typically crocodile-like forms. While dinosaurs were the dominant animals on land, the crocodiles flourished in rivers, swamps, and the oceans, with far greater diversity than they have today. With the end Cretaceous extinction, the dinosaurs became extinct, with the exception of the birds, while the crocodilians continued with little change. Today, the crocodiles, alligators, and gharials are the surviving representatives of this lineage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23948682",
"title": "Guizhouichthyosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Following the Permian-Triassic extinction event (also colloquially known as The Great Dying), the decline and disappearance of eugeneodonts and giant nautiloids left an environmental niche empty that many marine reptiles began to fill. \"Guizhouichthyosaurus\" was one of the largest marine vertebrates of the time, whose only predators composed of large macro-predatory Ichthyosaurs (that of which preferred to hunt smaller ichthyosaurs). The rise of the shelled cephalopods (ammonites that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event, along with the appearance of belemnites) gave ichthyosaurs an abundant food supply with little competition. \"Guizhouichthyosaurus\" and other ichthyosaurs began to adapt to hunting these cephalopods through larger eyes, and thick bodies, to handle the pressures of diving deep to hunt for their prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2768798",
"title": "Jurassic National Monument",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Dinosaurs became entrapped in the cohesive and adhesive mud as they drank and hunted near the floodpond. The preserved fauna consists of almost all dinosaurs with the majority being carnivorous dinosaurs including \"Allosaurus\" (material from at least 44 individuals make up almost 67% of all remains), \"Torvosaurus\" (1), \"Ceratosaurus\" (1), \"Stokesosaurus\" (2), \"Marshosaurus\" (2), and possibly an \"Ornitholestes\". Herbivorous dinosaurs include \"Camarasaurus\" (5), \"Haplocanthosaurus\" (1), \"Barosaurus\" (1), \"Amphicoelias\" (1), \"Mongolosaurus\" (1), an unidentified sauropod, \"Camptosaurus\" (5), \"Stegosaurus\" (4), a possible ankylosaur (1), and an unidentified ornithopod. Non-dinosaurian fauna include a crocodile (\"Goniopholis\"), 2 turtles (\"Glyptops\"), 4 genera of gastropoda (snails), and 4 genera of charophyte.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8311",
"title": "Dinosaur",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.:Evolution and paleobiogeography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds. Some other diapsid groups, such as crocodilians, sebecosuchians, turtles, lizards, snakes, sphenodontians, and choristoderans, also survived the event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a7gt32
|
when i’m driving, the wind can blow my car all over the road. when i’m parked, the wind can’t move my car one inch. why?
|
[
{
"answer": "But it does move your car. If you're driving down the road and a gust of wind hits the side of your car it's going to push it off to the side until you correct it. That's because your car is already in motion but it's shifted slightly to the side during that motion. However while it's parked that same gust of wind will cause it to rock back and forth a bit. The only difference is that it doesn't feel as extreme because you're not in motion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014537",
"title": "Alvis Stalwart",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "However, this system causes \"wind up\" in the transmission (inter-component stress) as all the wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, which during cornering is impossible. This led to rapid wear and breakage of the bevel gear boxes if the vehicle was used on firm surfaces, such as tarmac or concrete – in off-road conditions, the natural 'slip' of a loose surface, such as mud or gravel reduced wind up. This problem is of special concern for modern-day Stalwart owners – to get a vehicle to a show either requires moving it by low-loader or driving it on the road, risking damage to the transmission. Alternatively, the front and rear driveshafts can be removed, eliminating wind up at the expense of off-road capability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459689",
"title": "Warning sign",
"section": "Section::::Modern traffic warning sign shapes and colors.:Crosswinds or Side winds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Flying socks, as indicated by a windsock on red triangle or yellow diamond signs, indicate locations where a strong side wind may cause the trajectory of the moving vehicle to change drastically, perhaps even \"flying\" across lanes, causing an accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "134252",
"title": "Lewisberry, Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::Gravity Hill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The intersection of Pennsylvania Route 177 and Pleasant View Road near the borough is said to allow an automobile in neutral to drift uphill. According to legend, this effect is caused by the ghosts of children once killed in a bus accident, who push the car uphill to prevent similar occurrences. However, the phenomenon is caused by a gravity hill optical illusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1156993",
"title": "Rolling",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Most land vehicles use wheels and therefore rolling for displacement. Slip should be kept to a minimum (approximating pure rolling), otherwise loss of control and an accident may result. This may happen when the road is covered in snow, sand, or oil, when taking a turn at high speed or attempting to brake or accelerate suddenly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "885929",
"title": "Chesapeake Bay Bridge–Tunnel",
"section": "Section::::Operations, maintenance, and regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "BULLET::::- Strong winds have blown over certain vehicles. Therefore, some vehicles are banned when the wind speed exceeds . Level 6 wind restrictions with hurricane-force winds (at least , i.e. approaching the wind speed of a Category 1 hurricane, which is at least ), and other inclement weather conditions ban all traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25948",
"title": "Refraction",
"section": "Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Air temperature variations close to the surface can give rise to other optical phenomena, such as mirages and Fata Morgana. Most commonly, air heated by a hot road on a sunny day deflects light approaching at a shallow angle towards a viewer. This makes the road appear reflecting, giving an illusion of water covering the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4968735",
"title": "Laurens van den Acker",
"section": "Section::::Others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Richard Blackburn wrote in an article in Sydney Morning Herald that van den Acker 'still has some of the sketches' of cars 'he penned as a five-year-old, with smoke bellowing from exhausts and cartoon-like lines depicting the wind. He keeps them because they \"capture the emotion of motion\". In layman's terms that means creating forms and surfaces that look as if they're moving when they're standing still.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dl2of
|
why do the us elections need donations? what for? what would happen if that was not allowed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Funding for the various candidates does not come from the Government in the US save for a very small pool of funds used to get things started. So the money that the candidates use has to either come from their own personal savings, come from party coffers, or come from donations made directly to them for the campaign. \n\nThe parties also do not charge dues from their members as is common in many European countries. So all money that the parties have is from donations made to the party, or unused funds from candidates as they full out of the race. \n\nThe money that is collected is spent on the campaign. You have the costs of paying workers in every state to spread word of your campaign and your stances, paying pollsters to collect data, paying campaign managers and policy advisers, paying for ad time on TV and in other media, travel costs to go do speeches and to attend debates, renting locations for various events, etc. Money that is not spent can be used to reimburse any personal money spent, donated to charity, or sent to the party general fund. \n\nIf donations were not allowed the richest person would win elections because they would be able to buy the most ads and get their platform known to more people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40557",
"title": "Campaign finance reform in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current proposals for reform.:Matching funds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "Another method allows the candidates to raise funds from private donors, but provides matching funds for the first chunk of donations. For instance, the government might \"match\" the first $250 of every donation. This would effectively make small donations more valuable to a campaign, potentially leading them to put more effort into pursuing such donations, which are believed to have less of a corrupting effect than larger gifts and enhance the power of less-wealthy individuals. Such a system is currently in place in the U.S. presidential primaries. As of February 2008, there were fears that this system provided a safety net for losers in these races, as shown by loan taken out by John McCain's campaign that used the promise of matching funds as collateral. However, in February 2009 the Federal Election Commission found no violation of the law because McCain permissibly withdrew from the Matching Payment Program and thus was released from his obligations. It also found no reason to believe that a violation occurred as a result of the Committee’s reporting of McCain’s loan. The Commission closed the files.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519775",
"title": "Political campaign",
"section": "Section::::Modern election campaigns in the United States.:Process of campaigning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "One of the most important aspects of the major American political campaign is the ability to raise large sums of money, especially early on in the race. Political insiders and donors often judge candidates based on their ability to raise money. Not raising enough money early on can lead to problems later as donors are not willing to give funds to candidates they perceive to be losing, a perception based on their poor fundraising performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166873",
"title": "Campaign finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Impact of finance on the results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1149,
"text": "A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166873",
"title": "Campaign finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public financing of campaigns.:Public financing at the state and local level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 1072,
"text": "A small number of states and cities have started to use broader programs for public financing of campaigns. One method, which its supporters call Clean Money, Clean Elections, gives each candidate who chooses to participate a fixed amount of money. To qualify for this subsidy, the candidates must collect a specified number of signatures and small (usually $5) contributions. The candidates are not allowed to accept outside donations or to use their own personal money if they receive this public funding. Candidates who choose to raise money privately rather than accept the government subsidy are subject to significant administrative burdens and legal restrictions, with the result that most candidates accept the subsidy. This procedure has been in place in races for all statewide and legislative offices in Arizona and Maine since 2000, where a majority of officials were elected without spending any private contributions on their campaigns. Connecticut passed a Clean Elections law in 2005, along with the cities of Portland, Oregon and Albuquerque, New Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367725",
"title": "Donation",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "In politics, the law of some countries may prohibit or restrict the extent to which politicians may accept gifts or donations of large sums of money, especially from business or lobby groups (see campaign finance). Donations of money or property to qualifying charitable organizations are also usually tax deductible. Because this reduces the state's tax income, calls have been raised that the state (and the public in general) should pay more attention towards ensuring that charities actually use this 'tax money' in suitable ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Campaign finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Fundraising plays a large role in getting a candidate elected to public office. Without money, a candidate may have little chance of achieving their goal. In the 2004 general elections, 95% of House races and 91% of senate races were won by the candidates who spent the most on their campaigns. Attempts to limit the influence of money on American political campaigns dates back to the 1860s. Recently, Congress passed legislation requiring candidates to disclose sources of campaign contributions, how the campaign money is spent, and regulated use of \"soft money\" contributions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Campaign finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1206,
"text": "Successful participation, especially in federal elections, requires large amounts of money, especially for television advertising. This money is very difficult to raise by appeals to a mass base, although in the 2008 election, candidates from both parties had success with raising money from citizens over the Internet, as had Howard Dean with his Internet appeals. Both parties generally depend on wealthy donors and organizations—traditionally the Democrats depended on donations from organized labor while the Republicans relied on business donations. This dependency on donors is controversial, and has led to laws limiting spending on political campaigns being enacted (see campaign finance reform). Opponents of campaign finance laws cite the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech, and challenge campaign finance laws because they attempt to circumvent the people's constitutionally guaranteed rights. Even when laws are upheld, the complication of compliance with the First Amendment requires careful and cautious drafting of legislation, leading to laws that are still fairly limited in scope, especially in comparison to those of other countries such as the United Kingdom, France or Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2feqql
|
Why are 6- (and sometimes 5-) membered rings far more prevalent in chemical compounds than rings with 4 or 3 members?
|
[
{
"answer": "3 and 4 membered rings have high energy bond angles that are strained and unstable. 5 and 6 membered rings allow the bond angles to relax and that allows the compound to be more stable and energetically favorable. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's due to the energy required to form bonds at certain angles away from neutral/most energetically favorable/ideal. IIRC correctly, for single-bonded carbons the ideal angle is 109.5 degreed (tetrahedral). \n\nThe angles required to close a six-member ring require the least amount of energy. Smaller ring will close the angles more than they want to close, larger ring will open the angles more than they want to close. This causes what is known as ring strain. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bond angles are unfavorable in small saturated rings and have high bond strain. You can see this by using a model kit. Bonding/anti bonding orbitals are highly eclipsed and this results in a high energy, strained scenario. Non bonded interactions can add to this effect. Still, 3 members rings exist (cyclopropane, bicyclo[1.1.0]butane, cyclopropene, etc.) but 60 deg and less angles are far from ideal tetrahedral geometry. Common rings have what's called Pitzer strain, while large rings have little or no strain at all. Strained molecules have a higher potential energy when bonds are forced to make abnormal angles. Since nature tends to conserve energy whenever possible, small rings (below 5) are unusual. There are a few examples known - such as the 4-membered ring in penicillin (beta lactam ring system). Small conjugated ring systems tend to spontaneously rearrange to \"more favored\" spacial/energetic arrangements (e.g., Cope rearrangement). TL;DR rings are stable, except when they aren't. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30366884",
"title": "Ring (chemistry)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "A molecule containing one or more rings is called a cyclic compound, and a molecule containing two or more rings (either in the same or different ring systems) is termed a polycyclic compound. A molecule containing no rings is called an acyclic or open-chain compound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17926212",
"title": "Vinylcyclopropane rearrangement",
"section": "Section::::Use in total synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "Five-membered carbon rings are ubiquitous structural motifs in natural products. In contrast to the larger, fully \"consonant\" cyclohexane scaffold cyclopentanes and their derivatives are \"dissonant\" according to the Lapworth-Evans model of alternating polarities. The dissonance in polarity clearly limits the ways by which cyclopentanes can be disconnected which becomes evident in the decreased number of general methods available for making five-membered rings versus the corresponding six-membered rings. Especially the fact that there is no Diels-Alder-equivalent for the synthesis of five-membered rings has been bothering synthetic chemists for many decades. Consequentially, after the vinylcyclopropane rearrangement was discovered around 1960 it didn't take long for the synthetic community to realize the potential inherent to form cyclopentenes by means of the vinylcyclopropane rearrangement. As the vinylcyclopropane rearrangement progressed as a methodology and the reaction conditions improved during the 1970s, first total syntheses making use of the vinylcycopropane rearrangement started to appear around 1980. Key figures to apply this reaction in total synthesis were Barry M. Trost, Elias J. Corey, Thomas Hudlicky, Leo A. Paquette,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6426156",
"title": "Hexachlorophosphazene",
"section": "Section::::Inorganic rings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Chemists have long known of rings containing carbon, e.g. benzene, pyridine, and cyclohexane. Related cyclic compounds lacking in carbon have also been studied. Hexachlorophosphazene is one such inorganic ring. Other well known inorganic rings include borazine, SN, and the cyclic siloxanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040920",
"title": "Sigma bond",
"section": "Section::::Organic molecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Molecules with rings have additional sigma bonds, such as benzene rings, which have 6 C−C sigma bonds within the ring for 6 carbon atoms. The anthracene molecule, CH, has three rings so that the rule gives the number of sigma bonds as 24 + 3 − 1 = 26. In this case there are 16 C−C sigma bonds and 10 C−H bonds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20869108",
"title": "Stability constants of complexes",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting the stability constants of complexes.:The chelate effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "5-membered and 6-membered chelate rings give the most stable complexes. 4-membered rings are subject to internal strain because of the small inter-bond angle is the ring. The chelate effect is also reduced with 7- and 8- membered rings, because the larger rings are less rigid, so less entropy is lost in forming them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3875671",
"title": "Dieckmann condensation",
"section": "Section::::Reaction mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Due to the steric stability of five- and six-membered rings, these structures will preferentially be formed. 1,6 diesters will form five-membered cyclic β-keto esters, while 1,7 diesters will form six-membered β-keto esters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16454909",
"title": "Nisoxetine",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Tricyclic (three-ring) structures can be found in many different drugs, and for medicinal chemists allows restrictions for the conformational mobility of two phenyl rings attached to a common carbon or hetero (non-carbon) atom. Small molecular changes, such as substituents or ring flexibility can cause changes in the pharmacological and physiochemical properties of a drug. The mechanism of action for the phenoxyphenylpropyamines can be explained by the critical role of the type and position of the ring substitution. The unsubstituted molecule is a weak SSRI. A compound highly potent and selective for blocking norepinephrine reuptake, a SNRI, results from 2-substitutions into the phenoxy ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
192srr
|
If it was possible to look at from close, what would the ignition of a star look like ?
|
[
{
"answer": "It wouldn't be easily perceivable. Externally, it's actually a gradual process. Most people don't appreciate that stars begin their lives hot even before fusion starts. This is due to the energy of gravitational contraction. When you compress something to make it smaller you heat it up, and a proto-star is very highly compressed (through gravity) compared to the light-year sized nebula that spawned it. All of that energy that used to be in the form of gravitational potential energy is now in the form of heat.\n\nAs the star contracts the surface will stay at around the same temperature though the core will get hotter until fusion kicks in. Afterward the star will heat up a bit and contraction will halt as an equilibrium between fusion energy production and heat output becomes balanced. Interestingly, stars generally become better behaved and large explosive outbursts become less common as fusion kicks on. This is because in the early stages the primary mode of heat transport is convection (due to the high opacity of the plasma), which isn't very efficient and leads to large variations in temperature on the star (which can cause violent flares, mass ejections, and contributes to a very strong stellar wind). As the interior of the star heats up, radiative energy transport becomes more prominent and the star becomes differentiated into layers of material that are all at very close to the same temperature at a given radius from the core.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48407",
"title": "367",
"section": "Section::::Events.:By topic.:Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the region of the constellation \"Perseus\", a star not visible to the naked eye, and 1,533 light years distant from Earth, explodes in a nova. The light from the star, now called GK Persei, will first be seen on Earth on February 21, 1901\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43752786",
"title": "SDSS J001820.5−093939.2",
"section": "Section::::Identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "A star with ≲ M ≲ explodes because of the energy consumption arising from an electron-positron pair-production instability during the static O-burning stage, and is referred to as a pair-instability supernova (PISN). Theoretical estimates of early chemical enrichment predict that the metallicity produced by the PISN explosions of a first generation of very massive stars matches the Fe abundance of SDSS J0018-0939. They also predict that stars formed from gas enriched by PISN are quite rare; only one star among 500 stars. Although about 500 stars in the metallicity range –3 [Fe/H]–2 have been observed to date with high-resolution spectroscopy, SDSS J0018-0939 is unique in its observed abundance pattern. No other similar object has been found yet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1996903",
"title": "Cassiopeia A",
"section": "Section::::Expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Observations of the exploded star through the Hubble telescope have shown that, despite the original belief that the remnants were expanding in a uniform manner, there are high velocity outlying eject knots moving with transverse velocities of 5,500−14,500 km/s with the highest speeds occurring in two nearly opposing jets. When the view of the expanding star uses colors to differentiate materials of different chemical compositions, it shows that similar materials often remain gathered together in the remnants of the explosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7138173",
"title": "Sanduleak -69 202",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The star was originally charted by the Romanian-American astronomer Nicholas Sanduleak in 1970, but remained just a number in a catalogue until identified as the star that exploded in the first naked eye supernova since the invention of the telescope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38462710",
"title": "LRLL 54361",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "This newly discovered object may offer insight into a star's early stages of formation, when large masses of gas and dust are falling into a newly forming binary star - called a pulsed accretion model. This object emits a burst of light at regular intervals of 25.34 days, possibly caused by repeated close approaches between the two component stars which are gravitationally linked in an eccentric orbit - the flashes may be the result of large amounts of matter falling into the growing protostars. Since the stars are obscured by the dense disk and envelope of dust surrounding them, direct observation is difficult. This process of star birth has been witnessed in its later stages, but has to date not been seen in such a young system, nor with such intensity and regularity. These new stars are thought to be only a few hundred thousand years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33501",
"title": "White dwarf",
"section": "Section::::Binary stars and novae.:Type Ia supernovae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Observations have failed to note signs of accretion leading up to Type Ia supernovae, and this is now thought to be because the star is first loaded up to above the Chandrasekhar limit while also being spun up to a very high rate by the same process. Once the accretion stops the star gradually slows until the spin is no longer enough to prevent the explosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690340",
"title": "Pyrotechnic star",
"section": "Section::::Putting into use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Stars can be used in aerial shells, Roman candles, star mines, and certain bottle rockets. When used in aerial shells, the stars may sometimes be required to be \"primed\" with an ignition coating, consisting of a pyrotechnic mixture with an ignition temperature lower than that of the star. This is usually done if the star composition does not ignite easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1otyor
|
How did attacking a city generally work in the 11th/12th-ish centuries?
|
[
{
"answer": "I will assume that you mean Europe, and specifically Western Europe.\n\nA walled city was a very tough nut to crack for any attacking force. A walled city would have the local militia, and quite likely at least a small garrison of professional soldiers under the employ of the liege. \n\nNow, an army needed to have overwhelming force if they were to attack a fortified city. Sun Tzu states that a three to one advantage is needed, but even that wasn't always enough. At the [Siege of Rhodes](_URL_0_), the Knights Hospitaller, numbering only about 3,500 knights and soldiers, held off 20,000 soldiers, including 3,000 janissaries of the Ottoman Empire. \n\nObviously, the quality of the attacking and defending forces means a lot in a situation where one is actually going in in that fashion. Such a means, however, usually wasn't the case. Sending your men at the walls with ladders, rams, and towers was usually only done when the city HAD to be taken, usually because reinforcements were coming to help the defenders, or other such situations.\n\nTypically, it would turn into a siege. Simply put, during a siege, the attackers were trying to wait out the defenders. If possible, entrances to the city would be blocked off, your own forces would entrench (protecting them from the defenders as well as possible reinforcements), and you would starve out the defenders. \n\nThis was not always easy. Sometimes the attacking force could not block all points of supply, such as if the city were on the coast, had several gates, or the attacking force was small. Cities could hold out for months of years in this fashion. Many cities had their own sources of water such as wells within the walls for just such a situation. There were usually supplies inside for at least a short siege. Things could get pretty dire, however, with people eating horses and mules, and sometimes even people.\n\nThis isn't to say the situation was great for the attackers. Dysentery was very common with besiegers, and the risk of disease decimating an attacker was huge. In pre-modern armies, disease killed more soldiers than anything else by a huge margin. \n\nAttackers, as stated, also had to worry about reinforcements coming to aid the defenders. Often, besiegers would build a fortress around the city, made of wood or other materials, to protect themselves from defenders sallying forth or attempts to break the siege.\n\nAnd, of course, the attackers had to worry about supply as well. During the First Crusade, the crusaders ran so low on supplies that they would cut meat from dead soldiers and horses and eat it.\n\nIf the defenders surrendered early, they might expect some mercy (ie not be killed in the streets). If they tried to fight it out, there was typically no mercy. Either way, looting was very common, and soldiers generally expected to supplement whatever pay they were given with this looting of cities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "81553",
"title": "Teotihuacan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Scholars had thought that invaders attacked the city in the 7th or 8th century, sacking and burning it. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the ruling class. Some think this suggests that the burning was from an internal uprising. They say the invasion theory is flawed, because early archaeological work on the city was focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by the upper classes. Because all of these sites showed burning, archaeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction was centered on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. The sculptures inside palatial structures, such as Xalla, were shattered. No traces of foreign invasion are visible at the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422038",
"title": "Vigo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "In the 16th and 17th centuries, the city was attacked several times. In 1585 and 1589, during an unsuccessful attack by the English counter-Armada, Francis Drake raided the city and temporarily occupied it, burning many buildings. Several decades later a Turkish fleet tried to attack the city. As a result, the city's walls were built in 1656 in the reign of Philip IV of Spain. They are still partially preserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30876585",
"title": "Würzburg",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "All of the city's churches, cathedrals, and other monuments were heavily damaged or destroyed. The city center, which mostly dated from medieval times, was totally destroyed in a firestorm in which 5,000 people perished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "522075",
"title": "Bizerte",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity : (1100 BC to 647 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 439 AD Genseric, the king of the Vandals (East Germanic tribes) and his followers invaded the city and used the port as a base for invasions into other parts of the Western Roman Empire: the city of Rome and the islands of Sardinia, Malta, Corsica and Sicily. The town appears on the medieval Peutinger Map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38748",
"title": "Brittany",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gallo-Roman era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "During the 3rd century AD, the region was attacked several times by Franks, Alamanni and pirates. At the same time, the local economy collapsed and many farming estates were abandoned. To face the invasions, many towns and cities were fortified, like Nantes, Rennes and Vannes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36313891",
"title": "History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The Ayyubid period ended with waves of destruction of the city. Its fortifications were destroyed first, and later most of the buildings, as part of a deliberate scorched earth policy intended to prevent all future crusades from gaining a foothold in the city and region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3062492",
"title": "Reillanne",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The earliest record of a city on this site is the Roman town of Alaunia in 909. That city was at the bottom of the hill, but was destroyed by invading barbarians in the 10th century. The residents moved the city to the top of the hill and built a castle for defense. The castle was destroyed during the Wars of Religion but the city itself survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3lai0z
|
basic bonsai tree care.
|
[
{
"answer": "Bonsai are trees that are deliberately grown in a way to dwarf them, and are often sculpted into specific shapes. So you start with the standard \"give it the right amount of water, food, pot space and light\" that applies to almost all houseplants. \n\nBut the species, age and size of the bonsai all make a huge difference in how much of each it should be given when, and how it should be pruned. \n\nSo to avoid posting a book, it's probably best you go to bonsai care-related sites like this one: _URL_0_\nand look up the specifics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4428062",
"title": "Tree shaping",
"section": "Section::::Related practices.:Bonsai.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Bonsai is the art of growing trees in small containers. Bonsai uses techniques such as pruning, root reduction, and shaping branches and roots to produce small trees that mimic full-sized mature trees. Bonsai is not intended for production of food, but instead mainly for contemplation by viewers, like most fine art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173276",
"title": "Bonsai",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The Japanese loanword \"bonsai\" has become an umbrella term in English, attached to many forms of potted or other plants, and also on occasion to other living and non-living things. According to Stephen Orr in \"The New York Times\", \"the term should be reserved for plants that are grown in shallow containers following the precise tenets of bonsai pruning and training, resulting in an artful miniature replica of a full-grown tree in nature.\" In the most restrictive sense, \"bonsai\" refers to miniaturized, container-grown trees adhering to Japanese tradition and principles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277709",
"title": "Vitellaria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The shea tree is a traditional African food plant. It has been claimed to have potential to improve nutrition, boost food supply in the \"annual hungry season\", foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173276",
"title": "Bonsai",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation for the viewer, and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity for the grower. By contrast with other plant cultivation practices, bonsai is not intended for production of food or for medicine. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees growing in a container.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28917283",
"title": "Bonsai cultivation and care",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The term \"bonsai\" is generally used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots. In this article \"bonsai\" should be understood to include any container-grown tree that is regularly styled or shaped, not just one being maintained in the Japanese bonsai tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18955875",
"title": "Tree",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Art.:Bonsai.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation (for the viewer) and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity (for the grower). Bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees growing in a container, beginning with a cutting, seedling, or small tree of a species suitable for bonsai development. Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species that produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot confinement with crown and root pruning. Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles, that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai and a miniature deciduous forest can even be created using such species as Japanese maple, Japanese zelkova or hornbeam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15880608",
"title": "Indoor bonsai",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Note that bonsai and similar practices like \"penjing\", \"hòn non bộ\", and \"saikei\" all involve the long-term cultivation of small trees in containers. The term \"bonsai\" is generally used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots. In this article \"bonsai\" should be understood to include any container-grown tree that is raised indoors and regularly styled or shaped, not just one being maintained in the Japanese bonsai tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1us9jm
|
gold trading and how it's used to "back" currency and the like
|
[
{
"answer": "Gold was money, used in trade, made into coins or bullion, sometimes by governments, most often by gold specialists.\n\nCurrency is a substitute for the real money (though not only gold was used as money). Currency was usually a paper substitute for real money that were called \"Bank Notes.\" Ideally, for every one unit of currency, there should be an equal amount of actual money secured somewhere, usually a bank's vault. \n\nInstead of trading the gold itself, because it was a heavy metal and could be a target of robbery, people would leave the gold in the vault and trade the paper notes (that could be kept in pocket, even in large denominations) that represented a claim to the gold in the vault.\n\nThe USA started with BOTH a gold and silver money system. An ounce of silver was $1. An ounce of gold was $20. These were denominations set by law. About 1873 the government stopped allowing people to bring silver to the mint to make silver coins. So, essentially gold was the only public money, and all Bank Issued Currency (and all currency is bank issued, with one exception during the civil war era) was denominated by dollars, but \"backed\" by the appropriate proportion of gold money.\n\nThat means, theoretically, anyone should be able to take the piece of paper they got from trading to the bank that issued the paper, and get gold. FDR outlawed Americans from doing that in 1933 (and confiscated peoples gold money), and Nixon outlawed foreigners doing in in 1971 (which was only partly allowed after WWII though the \"Bretton Woods\" agreement.)\n\nThe reality was, of course, far more paper currency was made than ounces and tons of gold to back it up. Which is ultimately why a \"gold standard\" usually becomes a fraud.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37412",
"title": "Gold standard",
"section": "Section::::Advocates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using a Modern Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24-carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt-backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. However, this proposal has not been taken up, and the global monetary system continues to rely on the US dollar as the main trading and reserve currency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21534875",
"title": "Fixed exchange-rate system",
"section": "Section::::Types of fixed exchange rate systems.:The gold standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Because the central bank must always be prepared to give out gold in exchange for coin and currency upon demand, it must maintain gold reserves. Thus, this system ensures that the exchange rate between currencies remains fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2697304",
"title": "Gold as an investment",
"section": "Section::::Gold price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Gold has been used throughout history as money and has been a relative standard for currency equivalents specific to economic regions or countries, until recent times. Many European countries implemented gold standards in the latter part of the 19th century until these were temporarily suspended in the financial crises involving World War I. After World War II, the Bretton Woods system pegged the United States dollar to gold at a rate of US$35 per troy ounce. The system existed until the 1971 Nixon Shock, when the US unilaterally suspended the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold and made the transition to a fiat currency system. The last major currency to be divorced from gold was the Swiss Franc in 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21534875",
"title": "Fixed exchange-rate system",
"section": "Section::::Types of fixed exchange rate systems.:The gold standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Under the gold standard, a country’s government declares that it will exchange its currency for a certain weight in gold. In a pure gold standard, a country’s government declares that it will freely exchange currency for actual gold at the designated exchange rate. This \"rule of exchange” allows anyone to enter the central bank and exchange coins or currency for pure gold or vice versa. The gold standard works on the assumption that there are no restrictions on capital movements or export of gold by private citizens across countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12240",
"title": "Gold",
"section": "Section::::Monetary use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "After World War II gold was replaced by a system of nominally convertible currencies related by fixed exchange rates following the Bretton Woods system. Gold standards and the direct convertibility of currencies to gold have been abandoned by world governments, led in 1971 by the United States' refusal to redeem its dollars in gold. Fiat currency now fills most monetary roles. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to gold; it backed 40% of its value until the Swiss joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23246807",
"title": "New York Gold Exchange",
"section": "Section::::History.:During Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "Gold trading was significant for the U.S.'s foreign trade, but the majority of trading on the Exchange was speculative. Historian John Steele Gordon notes that \"hundreds of pure speculators\" traded at Gilpin's, but that \"respectable merchants who needed gold for business purposes or to hedge against fluctuations in the price of greenbacks\" also traded there. Business historian Robert Sobel has called the gold exchange \"the most informal and certainly the wildest market in American history\" because of its wild profit and loss swings, its high rate of bankruptcy and frequent occurrences of \"short-changing, adulteration, and late delivery\" of gold. After a series of robberies of gold, brokers at the exchange set up a system of private certificates which could be drawn upon deposits at the Bank of New York. As a result of the arrangement, the Bank of New York became the second-largest holder of gold in the nation, after the U.S. federal government. In 1865, however, Edward \"E. B.\" Ketchum of Ketchum, Son & Co. forged more than $1.5 million certificates and then fled; this and other such episodes prompted the establishment of a Gold Exchange Bank, with daily account reserve statements and other anti-fraud measures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37412",
"title": "Gold standard",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "BULLET::::- The gold standard provides fixed international exchange rates between participating countries and thus reduces uncertainty in international trade. Historically, imbalances between price levels were offset by a balance-of-payment adjustment mechanism called the \"price–specie flow mechanism\". Gold used to pay for imports reduces the money supply of importing nations, causing deflation, which makes them more competitive, while the importation of gold by net exporters serves to increase their money supply, causing inflation, making them less competitive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xo4jx
|
why does the speed of a car seem slower when i'm inside it rather than outside?
|
[
{
"answer": "Relativity!!!\nwhen you are in a car you are in car's frame (in other words you are moving with speed of car) and when you look from window all objects have a speed equals to object's speed minus car's speed (vector addition) which slows down everything which seems to you like car is moving slow",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1277015",
"title": "Steering law",
"section": "Section::::The steering law in human–computer interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "which says that the instantaneous speed of the user is proportional to the width of the tunnel. This makes intuitive sense if we consider the analogous task of driving a car down a road: the wider the road, the faster we can drive and still stay on the road, even if there are curves in the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54560065",
"title": "Traffic in Metro Manila",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Environmental effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The more cars there are on the road, the more pollution is emitted into the air. This is because motor vehicles are one of the main sources of pollution in the world. On the other hand, there is an inverse relationship between the moving speed of traffic and air pollution. The slower the traffic moves, the more pollution is emitted into the air. This is due to the fact that cars burn the most fuel when accelerating to get up to speed. More gas is used up whenever there is an on and off pressing on the gas and break pedals during traffic jams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2581346",
"title": "Vauxhall Prince Henry",
"section": "Section::::Road test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "\"The engine is by no means silent. Exhaust and tappet noise with a continuous if subdued howl of pinions all merge with other unidentifiable sounds but there is no suggestion these noises may not be maintained so long as the driver wishes with unflagging regularity for hour after hour. The seat puts the driver up high and its easy to underestimate road speed. It is one thing to go fast in a straight line but quite another to cover a distance at high average speed. This car has truly amazing roadholding, it is high and narrow yet it passes through roundabouts almost as if there were none there. It is the designer's perfect balance of the whole chassis which makes this phenomenon possible.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20491903",
"title": "Velocity",
"section": "Section::::Constant velocity vs acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "For example, a car moving at a constant 20 kilometres per hour in a circular path has a constant speed, but does not have a constant velocity because its direction changes. Hence, the car is considered to be undergoing an acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "898506",
"title": "Fastback",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "More specifically, \"Road & Track\" have defined the fastback as \"A closed body style, usually a coupe but sometimes a sedan, with a roof sloped gradually in an unbroken line from the windshield to the rear edge of the car. A fastback naturally lends itself to a hatchback configuration and many have it, but not all hatchbacks are fastbacks and vice versa.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236721",
"title": "Crumple zone",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed, they have inertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction and speed (Newton's first law of motion). In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision and to absorb energy to reduce the difference in speeds between the vehicle and its occupants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27232354",
"title": "Nagel–Schreckenberg model",
"section": "Section::::Outline of the model.:Example simulation in the state with traffic jams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "So, the Nagel–Schreckenberg model includes the effect of cars getting in each other's way and so slowing each other down. The average velocity at this density is a little over 1, while at low density it is a little less than the maximum velocity of 5. It also shows that this is a collective phenomenon in which cars bunch up into traffic jams. When jamming occurs the distribution of cars along the road becomes highly non-uniform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ch067
|
how does the body correctly sort food and fluid (especially when you eat and drink together)?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bladder is not directly connected to the digestive system, so there's no \"sorting\" involved. The small intestine extracts water and nutrients from the food in to the blood, with the help of friendly bacteria, and you poop out what's not used with a lot of dead bacteria. The kidneys, on the other hand, filter impurities and waste products out of the blood, with some water, and sends them to your bladder. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > When it gets down your food pipes* how does the stomach and bladder get their individual shares of what’s been consumed??\n\nThe sorting happens in the intestines. It makes intuitive sense that the solids you eat become poop and the liquids you drink become pee, but that isn't actually true! \n\nEverything you swallow goes to your stomach, where it all gets mixed and broken down into a soup-like consistency. Then it goes to the intestines. Your intestines absorb the water out of it (including water that used to be in solid food), and absorb the nutrients. What's left over at the end of all this absorbing is poop. Poop also contains a lot of old, dead cells from the intestinal walls, and bacteria. \n\nAll the water and nutrients that got absorbed will flow around in your bloodstream, going where they need to go. Once this is done, the extra water is filtered out by the kidneys, because a lot of the waste products we need to pee out (like urea) have to be dissolved in water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3077180",
"title": "Rumen",
"section": "Section::::Stratification and mixing of digesta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Water and saliva enter through the rumen to form a liquid pool. Liquid will ultimately escape from the reticulorumen from absorption through the wall, or through passing through the reticulo-omosal orifice, as digesta does. However, since liquid cannot be trapped in the mat as digesta can, liquid passes through the rumen much more quickly than digesta does. Liquid often acts as a carrier for very small digesta particles, such that the dynamics of small particles is similar to that of liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66254",
"title": "Drinking",
"section": "Section::::Methods: Humans & Animals.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14434367",
"title": "Fluid compartments",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The human body and even its individual body fluids may be conceptually divided into various fluid compartments, which, although not literally anatomic compartments, do represent a real division in terms of how portions of the body's water, solutes, and suspended elements are segregated. The two main fluid compartments are the intracellular and extracellular compartments. The intracellular compartment is the space within the organism's cells; it is separated from the extracellular compartment by cell membranes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231030",
"title": "Baleen whale",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Internal systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1251,
"text": "When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract. Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing urine more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36604500",
"title": "Vacuum filler",
"section": "Section::::Objective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "In the food sector, moving or transporting fluids is achieved with the aid of pump technology. Colloquially, this is known as filling or portioning. Various different types of pumps are used, depending on the type of filling products to be moved. Vacuum fillers with vane cell feed systems and vacuum feeding are commonly used for viscous products. The products are transported with the aid of a hopper with a feeding device, a vane cell feed system under a vacuum and appropriate volume expulsion in the pump housing. This is basically a volumetric feed principle, which means that a certain weight is defined via a volume. In addition to the vane cell feed systems, also known as rotary vane pumps, there are also screw feed systems with feed augers, toothed wheel feed systems and evacuated lifting cylinders. With all these systems, transportation is achieved via volume expulsion under a vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2429234",
"title": "Fluid balance",
"section": "Section::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Fluid can leave the body in many ways. Fluid can enter the body as preformed water, ingested food and drink and to a lesser extent as metabolic water which is produced as a by-product of aerobic respiration (cellular respiration) and dehydration synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "572635",
"title": "Intestinal villus",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "There are also enzymes (enterocyte digestive enzyme) on the surface for digestion. Villus capillaries collect amino acids and simple sugars taken up by the villi into the blood stream. Villus lacteals (lymph capillary) collect absorbed chylomicrons, which are lipoproteins composed of triglycerides, cholesterol and amphipathic proteins, and are taken to the rest of the body through the lymph fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25mzw4
|
Why were there fewer African American soldiers in Vietnam than in other American-waged wars?
|
[
{
"answer": "It does seem unusually low. Where did you get that statistic? [This site](_URL_0_) claims (my emphasis):\n\n > The Vietnam War saw the *highest proportion* of blacks ever to serve in an American war. During the height of the U.S. involvement, 1965-69, blacks, who formed 11 percent of the American population, made up 12.6 percent of the soldiers in Vietnam... the percentage of black combat fatalities in that period was a staggering 14.9 percent.\n\nSource: *The Oxford Companion to American Military History*. 1999.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3504833",
"title": "Military history of African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 208,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 208,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The Vietnam War saw many great accomplishments by many African Americans, including twenty who received the Medal of Honor for their actions. African Americans were over-represented in hazardous duty and combat roles during the conflict, and suffered disproportionately higher casualty rates. Civil-rights leaders protested this disparity during the early years of the war, prompting reforms that were implemented in 1967–68 resulting in the casualty rate dropping to slightly higher than their percentage of the total population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3059193",
"title": "Covert racism",
"section": "Section::::History in the U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "When black G.I.s returned home from the Vietnam War, they were denied the money promised to them to support their education and help them buy homes. While only 9.5% of soldiers serving in Vietnam were black, they comprised nearly 20% of front line troops, and 25% or more of airborne divisions. Black servicemen were twice as likely to re-enlist in the Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force and three times as likely to re-enlist in the Army as their white counterparts, not for any sense of adventure, but because they found the monetary rewards to be promising and they were treated as equals or near equals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21001269",
"title": "History of the United States Army",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.:Cold War.:Vietnam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 1444,
"text": "The Vietnam War is often regarded as a low point in the Army's record due to the extensive use of drafted enlisted personnel versus mobilization of Army Reserve and Army National Guard personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating restrictions placed on the Army by U.S. political leaders (i.e., no invasion of communist-held North Vietnam). While American forces had been stationed in the Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence and advisory/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American forces effectively established and maintained control of the \"traditional\" battlefield, however they struggled to counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tactical level, American soldiers (and the U.S. military as a whole) did not lose a sizable battle. For instance in the Tet Offensive in 1968, the U.S. Army turned a large scale attack by communist forces into a massive defeat of the Viet Cong on the battlefield (though at the time the offensive sapped the political will of the American public) which permanently weakened the guerrilla force. Thereafter, most large scale engagements were fought with the regular North Vietnamese Army. In 1973 domestic political opposition to the war finally forced a U.S. withdrawal. In 1975, Vietnam was unified under a communist government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19284932",
"title": "Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support",
"section": "Section::::Enter the Americans and the North Vietnamese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "In 1965, both the United States and North Vietnam rapidly increased the numbers of their soldiers in South Vietnam. Communist forces totaled 221,000 including an estimated 105 Viet Cong and 55 PAVN battalions. American soldiers in Vietnam totaled 175,000 by the end of the year, and the South Vietnamese army numbered more than 600,000. Commanding General William Westmoreland rejected the use of the U.S. army to pacify rural areas, instead utilizing U.S. superiority in mobility and firepower to find and combat Viet Cong and PAVN units. Intensification of the conflict caused many peasants and rural dwellers to flee to the cities for safety. The number of internal refugees increased from about 500,000 in 1964 to one million in 1966. By December 1966, South Vietnam could only claim—optimistically in the U.S.'s view—to control 4,700 of the country's 12,000 hamlets and 10 of its 16 million people\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42521522",
"title": "Black genocide",
"section": "Section::::Systemic racism as genocide.:Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1163,
"text": "African Americans pushed for equal participation in US military service in the first part of the 20th century and especially during World War II. Finally, President Harry S. Truman signed legislation to integrate the US military in 1948. However, Selective Service System deferments, military assignments, and especially the recruits accepted through Project 100,000 resulted in a greater representation of blacks in combat in the Vietnam War in the second half of the 1960s. African Americans represented 11% of the US population but 12.6% of troops sent to Vietnam. Cleveland Sellers said that the drafting of poor black men into war was \"a plan to commit calculated genocide\". Former SNCC chairman Stokely Carmichael, black congressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. and SNCC member Rap Brown agreed. In October 1969, King's widow Coretta Scott King spoke at an anti-war protest held at the primarily black Morgan State College in Baltimore. Campus leaders published a statement against what they termed \"black genocide\" in Vietnam, blaming President Richard Nixon in the US as well as President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and Vice President Nguyễn Cao Kỳ from South Vietnam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1449184",
"title": "Vietnam War casualties",
"section": "Section::::United States armed forces.:Disproportion of African American casualties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Blacks suffered disproportionately high casualty rates in Vietnam. In 1965 alone they comprised 14.1% of total combat deaths, when they only comprised approximately 11% of the total U.S. population in the same year. With the draft increasing due to the troop buildup in South Vietnam, the military significantly lowered its admission standards. In October 1966, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara initiated Project 100,000 which further lowered military standards for 100,000 additional draftees per year. McNamara claimed this program would provide valuable training, skills and opportunity to America's poor – a promise that was never carried out. Many black men who had previously been ineligible could now be drafted, along with many poor and racially intolerant white men from the southern states. This led to increased racial tension in the military. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15799614",
"title": "Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In actual numbers, African-American soldiers eventually comprised 10% of the entire Union Army (United States Army). Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20% of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b8i8i9
|
why are germs so difficult to wash off, and yet so easy to spread?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because even a tiny bit that gets off or that remains can then apread to cover the whole surface in a relatively small timeframe, since when bacteria multiplies, its population size basically just straight up doubles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2013448",
"title": "Scrubber",
"section": "Section::::Bacteria spread.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Poorly maintained scrubbers have the potential to spread disease-causing bacteria. The problem is a result of inadequate cleaning. For example, the cause of a 2005 outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Norway was just a few infected scrubbers. The outbreak caused 10 deaths and more than 50 cases of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31613602",
"title": "Bed bug control techniques",
"section": "Section::::Contaminated belongings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Disposal of items from the contaminated area can reduce the population of bed bugs and unhatched eggs. Removal of items such as mattresses, box springs, couches etc. is costly and usually insufficient to eradicate infestation because of eggs and adults hiding in surrounding areas. If the entire infestation is not eliminated prior to bringing new or cleaned personal and household items back into a home, these items will likely become infested and require additional treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10438113",
"title": "Ralstonia solanacearum",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Banana.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Exclusion of the disease where it is not present is the only effective means of control. If an area does become infected, all of the infected plants must be eliminated, which is why strong sanitation practices must be used to reduce the spread of disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41271227",
"title": "Bacterial blight of cassava",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Seeds are known to be able harbor the pathogen, but successful sanitation measures have been described. Infected seed immersed in water at 60 °C showed no sign of bacterial survival while the seed showed no reduction in germination potential. Furthermore, the sanitation of tools and big machinery are crucial to avoid the infection of healthy plants through mechanical inoculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23937771",
"title": "Scarification (botany)",
"section": "Section::::Common uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Because scarified seeds tend to germinate more often and in less time than unaltered seeds, scarification finds use not just in industry but on the small scale. In home gardens, for example, the seeds of plants which are otherwise difficult to grow from seed may be made viable through scarification. The thawing and freezing of water, fire and smoke and chemical reactions in nature are what allow seeds to germinate but we can speed the process up by using the various methods described thus far. The common objective is opening the testa and allow air and water into the seed. In horticulture, scarification is often used to facilitate the controlled and uniform germination of seed lots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2196984",
"title": "Schistosoma haematobium",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The main cause of schistomiasis is the dumping of human waste into water supplies. Hygienic disposal of waste would be sufficient to eliminate the disease. Water for drinking bathing should be boiled in endemic regions. Infested water should be avoided. However, agricultural activities such as fishing and rice cultivation involve long contact with water, making avoidance impractical. Systematic eradication of snails is an effective method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11128398",
"title": "Pythium aphanidermatum",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Several cultural management methods can be effective in avoiding disease caused by \"Pythium aphanidermatum\". The pathogen thrives in a moist environment, so it is important to prevent an excessive amount of moisture from building up in the plant media Irrigation that is too frequent and usage of soil that has poor drainage are common mistakes that result in inoculation. In addition, poor ventilation and insufficient exposure to sunlight can cause the plants themselves to accumulate moisture, potentially spreading disease. Sanitation of the soil using chemical treatment and minimizing the amount of plant debris in which the pathogen can survive is also an effective cultural practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2c87p1
|
why can some people only twist their tongues in one direction?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't twist my tongue at all. I just tried.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a purely genetic trait akin to having a widow's peak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Whoa just realized that I can't twist my tongue two ways.\n\nWell it sort of works the other way but it's not quite the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "306392",
"title": "Ed, Edd n Eddy",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "All the children have multicolored tongues; Antonucci said that the idea came after he saw his son and his friends with different-colored tongues because of eating different candy while he was working on a storyboard. The characters went through a number of \"walking cycles,\" a process used to determine how each character should walk or run, turn around, blink, etc. before the crew came up with the final product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7181074",
"title": "List of Ed, Edd n Eddy characters",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "All the children have multicolored tongues; Antonucci said that the idea came after he saw his son and his friends with different-colored tongues because of eating different candy while he was working on a storyboard. The characters went through a number of \"walking cycles\", a process used to determine how each character should walk or run, turn around, blink, etc. before the crew came up with the final product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31551",
"title": "Tongue-twister",
"section": "Section::::Types of tongue-twisters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Many tongue-twisters use a combination of alliteration and rhyme. They have two or more sequences of sounds that require repositioning the tongue between syllables, then the same sounds are repeated in a different sequence. An example of this is the song Betty Botter ():\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664745",
"title": "Codex Gigas",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Illustration of the Devil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "This doubling of tongues evokes negative associations with serpents, which have forked tongues, a metaphoric reference to dishonest human beings. The expression 'forked tongues' is an ancient one and is found in the Bible (Nordenfalk 1975, n. 15).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31551",
"title": "Tongue-twister",
"section": "Section::::Types of tongue-twisters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Some tongue-twisters take the form of words or short phrases which become tongue-twisters when repeated rapidly (the game is often expressed in the form \"Say this phrase three (or five, or ten, \"etc.\") times as fast as you can!\"). Some examples include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31551",
"title": "Tongue-twister",
"section": "Section::::Types of tongue-twisters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Tongue-twisters may rely on rapid alternation between similar but distinct phonemes (e.g., \"s\" and \"sh\" ), combining two different alternation patterns, familiar constructs in loanwords, or other features of a spoken language in order to be difficult to articulate. For example, the following sentence was claimed as \"the most difficult of common English-language tongue-twisters\" by William Poundstone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4743980",
"title": "Tip of the tongue",
"section": "Section::::Universality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Tip of the tongue experiences occur in people regardless of gender. The tip of the tongue phenomenon is known to occur in young adulthood, middle age, and older adulthood. Tip of the tongue experiences in childhood have not been studied. Education level is not thought to be a factor in the experience of tip of the tongue states. Monolinguals, bilinguals, and multilinguals all experience tip of the tongue states, although with varying frequencies (see Effects of bilingualism).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cnk4d
|
Is there any facts to back up the claim that before the Vikings came, North American Indians had a homogeneous culture that covered a large portion of the Continent but due to foreign diseases brought along by the Vikings most of them died out?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're kind of mixing up two different claims. And it's a little difficult to disentangle them in a short answer. You might start with the popular questions page topics about [Native Americans and European Diseases](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd be interested to know where you heard this, because I think you may be jamming a few ideas together to come up with a misguided whole.\n\nThere are some generally recognized large geographic regions that serve as rough boundaries for [cultural areas](_URL_0_), but to say that there was a homogenous culture across the continent is just wrong. Even those generally agreed upon areas could shift with time and always held an immense cultural diversity in agricultural practices, lineage, religion, art, technology, architecture, and everything else that falls under the rubric of culture. Calling pre-columbian North America \"homogeneous\" is just so wrong it's hard to even know where to begin.\n\nAs for the Vikings bringing some sort of infection that depopulated the continent? No, there is no evidence of this. There's really very little evidence of any lasting effect of historically brief Viking settlement in Newfoundland. That's why they are a footnote in American history to the invasion Columbus kicked off, which did bring disease that spread out before the Europeans, depopulating as they went.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14098",
"title": "History of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Pre-colonization.:Migration into the continents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "New studies shed light on the founding population of indigenous Americans, suggesting that their ancestry traced to both east Asian and western Eurasians who migrated to North America directly from Siberia. A 2013 study in the journal Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy in Mal’ta Siberia suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have \"had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought\" Professor Kelly Graf said that \"Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day Native Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia.\" A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13139823",
"title": "Post-classical history",
"section": "Section::::The Americas.:North America.:Norse Contact and the Polar Regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "While there was little regular contact between the Americas and the Old World the Norse Vikings explored and even colonized Greenland and Canada as early as 1000. None of these settlements survived past Medieval Times. Outside of Scandinavia knowledge of the discovery of the Americas was interpreted as a remote island or the North Pole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5042916",
"title": "Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Indigenous peoples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Canadian indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24545319",
"title": "Native American disease and epidemics",
"section": "Section::::European contact.:Impact on population numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1239,
"text": "Many Native American tribes experienced great depopulation, averaging 25–50 percent of the tribes' members lost to disease. Additionally, smaller tribes neared extinction after facing a severely destructive spread of disease. The significant toll that this took is expounded upon in the article Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas. A specific example was Cortes' invasion of Mexico. Before his arrival, the Mexican population is estimated to have been around 25 to 30 million. Fifty years later, the Mexican population was reduced to 3 million, mainly by infectious disease. This shows the main effect of the arrival of Europeans in the new world. With no natural immunity against these pathogens, Native Americans died in huge numbers. Yale historian David Brion Davis describes this as \"the greatest genocide in the history of man. Yet it's increasingly clear that most of the carnage had nothing to do with European barbarism. The worst of the suffering was caused not by swords or guns but by germs.\" By 1700, less than five thousand Native Americans remained in the southeastern coastal region. In Florida alone, there were seven hundred thousand Native Americans in 1520, but by 1700 the number was around 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3434750",
"title": "United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Effects on and interaction with native populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The first interaction between Europeans and Native Americans was made by the Norsemen. A number of surviving Norse sagas provide information regarding The Maritimes and its indigenous people. The Norse attempted to settle in North America about 500 years before Columbus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "696591",
"title": "Clovis culture",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to Clovis First.:Coastal migration route.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1037,
"text": "Studies of the mitochondrial DNA of First Nations/Native Americans published in 2007 suggest that the people of the New World may have diverged genetically from Siberians as early as 20,000 years ago, far earlier than the standard theory suggests. According to one alternative theory, the Pacific coast of North America may have been free of ice, allowing the first peoples in North America to come down this route prior to the formation of the ice-free corridor in the continental interior. No evidence has yet been found to support this hypothesis except that genetic analysis of coastal marine life indicates diverse fauna persisting in refugia throughout the Pleistocene ice ages along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia; these refugia include common food sources of coastal aboriginal peoples, suggesting that a migration along the coastline was feasible at the time. Some early sites on the coast, for example Namu, British Columbia, exhibit maritime focus on foods from an early point with substantial cultural continuity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5090778",
"title": "Chronology of Western colonialism",
"section": "Section::::Before the 15th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1000: Norsemen are the first Europeans to discover America. The first American-born European child is Snorri Thorfinnsson. Norsemen are the first Europeans to have a hostile confrontation with the Native Americans. These Viking explorers are likely to have used America as a source of vital goods, such as timber, to sustain the colonies of Iceland and Greenland for centuries. The colony at L'Anse aux Meadows in Canada and the Maine Penny in the United States are the most reliable proof of Norse presence in America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s0eqr
|
Can we tell the exact moment a subject begins to fall asleep by looking at the brain activity? Or is it a more gradual process?
|
[
{
"answer": "The clear definition of sleep onset is not yet clear (mainly because people can report being awake, even though there are clear behavioral changes that can indicate the presence of sleep). There are various measures that can be used however to measure sleep onset.\n\n- EMG (electromyogram) shows a gradual decrease in muscle tone as sleep approaches.\n- EOG (electrooculogram) shows slow possibly asynchronous eye movements.\n- EEG (electroencephalogram) will show different 'types' brainwaves that depend on different sleep stage\n\nGenerally it is thought that EEG changes to stage 1 sleep, accompanied by slow eye movements identifies the transition to sleep. So to answer your first question, it is possible to quite reliably measure the onset of sleep. Not within the millisecond but generally within a couple of seconds. To answer your second question, in what part of the brain are the most changes observed is a harder question. An EEG measures mainly cortical activity and based on this activity can make inferences about what sleep stage someone is in. However, the brain areas that are responsible for initiating and maintaining sleep are subcortical areas (areas in and near the brainstem and midbrain) and can not be measured using an EEG.\n\nVarious other measures have been used to discover which brain areas are involved in sleep (lesion studies, MRI, ERP etc). The current view proposed by Saper is that the transition between wakefulness and sleep is governed by a 'flip-flop switch' between various arousal promoting neurotransmitter systems in the brainstem and midbrain involved in waking (such as noradrenalin, histamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine) and the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) involved that uses the neurotransmitter GABA. Oxerin/hypocretin plays an important role in the interaction between these two systems through the flip-flop switch i mentioned earlier, a good overview of all this is given in this short video (_URL_0_).\n\nConsciousness in the sense of being active and responsive (which relates to sleep and therefore to measures of arousal and attention) and consciousness in the general sense (which is way more complex and involves more things) are two different things. But looking at sleep definitely gives us an understanding of one part of what consciousness is.\n\nSources: \n- Cascardon & Dement - Normal human sleep: an overview\n- Saper - The neurobiology of sleep\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52901461",
"title": "Hal Blumenfeld",
"section": "Section::::Scientific contributions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Using powerful brain imaging methods and electrical recordings Blumenfeld recently found that normal conscious perception of visual stimuli is accompanied by a cascade of activity moving through the brain in less than one second. These pictures provide a new view of how the brain normally processes information to create a conscious experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19059196",
"title": "Disk-over-water method",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The subject—for example, a rat or pigeon—is placed on a disk. When the subject shows signs of falling asleep, the disk begins to slowly rotate, at a few revolutions per minute. The subject must walk to keep pace with the disk, or it will be carried into a pool of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25429544",
"title": "Sleep onset",
"section": "Section::::Physiological overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1516,
"text": "The sleep cycle is normally defined in stages. When an individual first begins to sleep, stage 1 is entered, marked by the presence of some theta activity, which indicates that the firing of neurons in the neocortex is becoming more synchronized, as well as alpha wave activity (smooth electrical activity of 8–12 Hz recorded from the brain, generally associated with a state of relaxation). This stage is a transition between sleep and wakefulness. An individual's eyelids will from time to time slowly open and close and their eyes will roll upward and downward. Before one reaches sound sleep, stage 2 is entered. The EEG during this phase is normally irregular, but contains periods of theta activity, sleep spindles, and K complexes. Sleep spindles are short bursts of waves of 12–14 Hz that occur between two and five times a minute during states 1-4 of sleep. They appear to play a role in memory consolidation, and increased number of sleep spindles are correlated with increased scores on tests of intelligence. K complexes are sudden, sharp waveforms, which, unlike sleep spindles, are usually found only during stage 2 of sleep. They spontaneously occur at the rate of approximately one per minute, but often can be triggered by unexpected noises. It has been found that K complexes consist of isolated periods of inhibition. They appear to be the precursor of delta waves, also known as slow wave sleep, which appear during the deepest levels of sleep. Both these stages are classified as non-REM sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1593173",
"title": "Eugene Aserinsky",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "He made the discovery after hours spent studying the eyelids of sleeping subjects. While the phenomenon was in the beginning more interesting for a fellow of PhD student Aserinsky, William Charles Dement, both Aserinsky and their PhD adviser, Nathaniel Kleitman, went on to demonstrate that this \"rapid-eye movement\" was correlated with dreaming and a general increase in brain activity. Aserinsky and Kleitman pioneered procedures that have now been used with thousands of volunteers using the electroencephalograph. Because of these discoveries, Aserinsky and Kleitman are generally considered the founders of modern sleep research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281133",
"title": "Namagiri Thayar",
"section": "Section::::Namagiri and Srinivasa Ramanujan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "While asleep, I had an unusual experience. There was a red screen formed by flowing blood, as it were. I was observing it. Suddenly a hand began to write on the screen. I became all attention. That hand wrote a number of elliptic integrals. They stuck to my mind. As soon as I woke up, I committed them to writing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563803",
"title": "Neuroscience of sleep",
"section": "Section::::Brain activity during sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also, sleep intensity of a particular region is homeostatically related to the corresponding amount of activity before sleeping. The use of imaging modalities like PET and fMRI, combined with EEG recordings, gives a clue to which brain regions participate in creating the characteristic wave signals and what their functions might be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499038",
"title": "Falling (sensation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The vestibular apparatus also detects spatial orientation with respect to visual input. A similar sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid apparent motion with respect to the environment. This system enables people to keep their balance by signalling when a physical correction is necessary. Some medical conditions, known as balance disorders, also induce the sensation of falling. In the early stages of sleep, a falling sensation may be perceived in connection with a hypnic jerk, sometimes awaking the sleeper abruptly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rtjk5
|
why is the "peace sign/victory sign" with two fingers used with positive connotation, if it was first used by winston churchill, a british man, and the "v-sign" is an offensive hand gesture there?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sorry I only have time for a small part of an answer, but take a careful look at the position of the palms when people make these signs: v-sign with palm out means \"victory\" or \"peace\", v-sign with palm in means \"the finger\" in the UK and its relatives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The offensive V sign is \"The Longbowman's Salute.\" The story goes that since Britain had the best archers/bows, whenever the French would capture one they would cut off the two fingers used to pull back the bow. As a result, archers would taunt the French by waving their fingers at them. I'm not sure how much of that actually happened, but that's the story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "352265",
"title": "V sign",
"section": "Section::::Victory sign.:Second World War: V for Victory campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "By July 1941, the emblematic use of the letter V had spread through occupied Europe. On 19 July, Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred approvingly to the V for Victory campaign in a speech, from which point he started using the V hand sign. Early on he sometimes gestured palm in (sometimes with a cigar between the fingers). Later in the war, he used palm out. After aides explained to the aristocratic Churchill what the palm in gesture meant to other classes, he made sure to use the appropriate sign. Yet the \"double-entendre\" of the gesture might have contributed to its popularity, \"for a simple twist of hand would have presented the dorsal side in a mocking snub to the common enemy\". Other allied leaders used the sign as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352265",
"title": "V sign",
"section": "Section::::As an insult.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "For a time in the UK, \"a Harvey (Smith)\" became a way of describing the insulting version of the V sign, much as \"the word of Cambronne\" is used in France, or \"the Trudeau salute\" is used to describe the one-fingered salute in Canada. This happened because, in 1971, show-jumper Harvey Smith was disqualified for making a televised V sign to the judges after winning the British Show Jumping Derby at Hickstead. His win was reinstated two days later. Harvey Smith pleaded that he was using a Victory sign, a defence also used by other figures in the public eye. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352265",
"title": "V sign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "When displayed with the palm inward toward the signer, it has been an offensive gesture in some Commonwealth nations since at least 1900. The more widespread use as a victory sign (\"V for Victory\"), with the back of the hand toward the signer ( in Unicode), was introduced in January 1941 as part of a campaign by the Allies of World War II. During the Vietnam War, in the 1960s, the \"V sign\" was widely adopted by the counterculture as a symbol of peace. Shortly thereafter, it also became a non-symbolic gesture used in photographs, especially in East Asia. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6633641",
"title": "List of gestures",
"section": "Section::::Single handed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "BULLET::::- V sign or Victory hand is made by raising the index and middle fingers and separating them to form a V, usually with the palm facing outwards. This sign began to be used during World War II to indicate \"V for Victory\". In the 1960s, the hippie-movement began to use the V-sign to mean \"peace\", especially in the United States. It is also used in most coastal east Asian nations, in either orientation, as an indication of cuteness when being photographed. Examples are China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284008",
"title": "Peace symbols",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "In the 1950s the \"peace sign\", as it is known today, was designed by Gerald Holtom as the logo for the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), a group at the forefront of the peace movement in the UK, and adopted by anti-war and counterculture activists in the US and elsewhere. The symbol is a super-imposition of the semaphore signals for the letters \"N\" and \"D\", taken to stand for \"nuclear disarmament\", while simultaneously acting as a reference to Goya's \"The Third of May 1808\" (1814) (aka \"Peasant Before the Firing Squad\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10075907",
"title": "Victor de Laveleye",
"section": "Section::::V sign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "In a radio broadcast on 14 January 1941, de Laveleye asked all Belgians to use the letter \"V\" as a rallying sign, being the first letter of \"victoire\" (victory) in French and of \"vrijheid\" (freedom) in Dutch. This was the beginning of the \"V campaign\" which saw \"V\" graffities on the walls of Belgium and later all of Europe and introduced the use of the \"V sign\" for victory and freedom. Winston Churchill adopted the sign soon afterwards, though he sometimes got it the wrong way around by displaying the back of his hand, a gesture that is widely used in Great Britain as a lewd and vulgar insult (it means \"fuck off\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284008",
"title": "Peace symbols",
"section": "Section::::V sign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The V sign ( in Unicode) is a hand gesture, palm outwards, with the index and middle fingers open and all others closed. It had been used to represent victory during the Second World War. During the 1960s in the USA, activists against the Vietnam War and in subsequent anti-war protests adopted the gesture as a sign of peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10vygi
|
Why was the Ashanti "Sika 'dwa" translated as "Golden Stool", not called the "Golden Throne"?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think, you kinda answered the question yourself: it is a stool- not a throne (nor a chair).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Slightly unrelated: stools were also given as grave goods in some Bronze Age burial mounds and Iron Age graves in Denmark and Germany, also regarded as symbols of power but still called 'stool' in the literature. Similarly, in the Caribbean chiefs also had special stools.\n\nI am unaware of the semantics behind the distinction between a stool and a throne, and I guess that a throne could be either a chair or a stool, as your dictionary quotations show. Still, you must agree that these portable seats are quite different from, for example, [Charlemagne's throne](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Translation is a major locale where meanings get changed in sometimes unconscious ways. The reason it's translated as \"Stool\" and not \"Throne\" in English from the Twi original is the same reason that the Zulu & Xhosa \"iSizwe\" was translated by 19th-century traders and missionaries in English as \"tribe\" and not the far more (but not 100%) correct \"nation\": the choice was made by English-speakers who were concerned with using a word that conformed to their notions, not the sense necessarily intended by the term in its original language. It may help in both cases to know that the term entered popular use in the 19th century, when such societies' \"place\" in the hierarchy of civilizations was presumed to be at the bottom so the choice of a term that conveyed a sense of parity would have seemed utterly incorrect and even nonsensical.\n\nSo you are correct that the invocation of a mere stool was a product of its day. But it *did* serve to objectify and reduce the Sika'dwa as a mere symbolic fetish for the superstitious. This is part of why the British governor made the incredibly myopic demand to \"sit on the stool\" that provoked Yaa Asantewaa's rebellion in 1900; he had no idea what he was misunderstanding, or that he was even misunderstanding it. It was not a deliberate diminution, but the ethos of the era, that suggested \"stool\" was a fitting translation; that wasn't helped by the fact that there is no English term for \"a symbol and seat of governance that is in the form of a low, backless, armless seat\" and the Victorians weren't about to import a Twi term to accommodate it. A lot of words got that treatment because Europeans, Eurafricans, and heavily missionized Africans were in charge of making equivalencies in European languages official. (Languages in which Africans made key contributions to the rendering of English show a bit less of this, for example in the Yorúbà bibles of Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther.)\n\nYou'll find a lot of words that still seem to be frozen in some weird colonial-era translation vortex for precisely the reason that, as you point out at the beginning, the translation was set down in the colonial era. Those things tend to move slowly, and in the interim, sometimes the terms get appropriated and \"remade\" themselves. I would argue that the Golden Stool as a proper noun has become one of those; people within the Asanteman and the *Asantehenes* themselves after Prempe I's return have infused a great deal of meaning back into the term. It's been effective enough that the elevation of an *Asantehene* is referred to as \"enstoolment,\" in a back-formation that elevates the Golden Stool to the status of a different but representationally analogous kind of throne.\n\nAs to who actually made the coinage and why they personally did it, I think we'd have to look back a long way--possibly via Dutch *stoel* which isn't just for stools, as they were at Elmina well into the 19th C.--to find the very earliest mentions. After all Europeans were right on the coast from the 1480s on. It's also entirely possible that the importance of household stools wasn't properly recognized either, so the translation started at the bottom and got applied upward. But I honestly have no idea where it first appears in English or Dutch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38611569",
"title": "Flag of Ashanti",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The Golden Stool represents the Ashanti symbol of unity which is believed to possess the sunsum (soul) of the Ashanti people. In Ashanti legend, (the Golden Stool; Sika 'Dwa in the Ashanti language) of the Ashanti people—descended from heaven in a cloud of white dust and landed in the lap of the first Ashanti Emperor Asantehene Osei Tutu I in the late 1600s and was introduced onto the Ashanti flag by the Ashanti Emperor Asantehene Prempeh II of Ashanti in taking the oath of the Ashanti absolute monarchy office Manhyia Palace upon the restoration of the Ashanti kingdom nation on 1 January 1935. The national flag of Ashanti was created by emperor Asantehene Nana Prempeh II (r. 1931 – 1970).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4990770",
"title": "Golden Stool",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The Golden Stool (Ashanti-; full title, Sika Dwa Kofi \"the Golden Stool born on a Friday\") is the royal and divine throne of kings of the Ashanti people and the ultimate symbol of power in Asante. According to legend, Okomfo Anokye, High Priest and one of the two chief founders of the Asante Confederacy, caused the stool to descend from the sky and land on the lap of the first Asante king, Osei Tutu. HubSuch seats were traditionally symbolic of a chieftain's leadership, but the Golden Stool is believed to house the spirit of the Asante nation—living, dead and yet to be born.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15750096",
"title": "Prempeh I",
"section": "Section::::Throne and as King of the Kingdom of Ashanti.:Ashanti Kingdom and Britain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "In 1900, a request that the Ashanti people turn over the \"golden stool\" – the very symbol of Ashanti absolute monarchy governance to the Ashanti people. The Kingdom of Ashanti gave no resistance and became semi-autonomous members of the British Empire. The Ashanti did later rebel against the British to fight the War of the Golden Stool (also known as the Yaa Asantewaa War) in 1900-01. In the end, the British were victorious; they exiled Asantewaa and other Asante leaders to the Seychelles to join Asante King Prempeh I. In January 1902, Britain finally designated Asanteman as a protectorate. Asanteman was restored to independence on 31 January 1935.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4990770",
"title": "Golden Stool",
"section": "Section::::Appearance and craftsmanship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The Golden Stool is a curved seat 46 cm high with a platform 61 cm wide and 30 cm deep. Its entire surface is inlaid with gold, and hung with bells to warn the king of impending danger. It has not been seen by many and only the king, queen, true prince Ofosu Sefa Boakye, and trusted advisers know the hiding place. Replicas have been produced for the chiefs and at their funerals are ceremonially blackened with animal blood, a symbol of their power for generations. The stool is one of the main focal points of the Asante today because it still shows succession and power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12521667",
"title": "Ashanti Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "The introduction of the Golden Stool (\"Sika dwa\") was a means of centralization under Osei Tutu. According to legend, a meeting of all the clan heads of each of the Ashanti settlements was called just prior to declaring independence from Denkyira. In this meeting the Golden Stool was commanded down from the heavens by Okomfo Anokye, chief-priest or sage advisor to Asantehene Osei Tutu I and floated down from the heavens into the lap of Osei Tutu I. Okomfo Anokye declared the stool to be symbolic of the new Asante Union (\"the Ashanti Kingdom\"), and allegiance was sworn to the stool and to Osei Tutu as the Asantehene. The newly declared Ashanti union subsequently waged war against and defeated Denkyira. The stool remains sacred to the Ashanti as it is believed to contain the \"Sunsum\" — spirit or soul of the Ashanti people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262108",
"title": "Sandalwood",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Sandalwood is mentioned in various \"suttas\" of the Pāli Canon. In some Buddhist traditions, sandalwood is considered to be of the \"padma\" (lotus) group and attributed to Amitabha Buddha. Sandalwood scent is believed by some to transform one's desires and maintain a person's alertness while in meditation. It is also one of the most popular scents used when offering incense to the Buddha and the guru.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1702795",
"title": "Dang District, India",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The origin of the name of the Dang is uncertain. In common parlance the word 'dang' means a hilly village. There is another connotation of the word 'dang' which means bamboo (a place of bamboo). The name is also associated with Hindu mythology. It is related to the Dandakaranya of the Ramayana. It is said that during the exile, Rama passed through this area on his way to Nasik.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4a0nb7
|
when hearing a very loud noise, that blowing sound/feeling in your ears
|
[
{
"answer": "Sound is vibrations in the air. Loud sounds = stronger vibrations. If the sound is loud enough, you can feel the vibrations in your ear. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3096971",
"title": "Phonophobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Another example is watching someone blow up a balloon beyond its normal capacity. This is often an unsettling, even disturbing thing for a person with ligyrophobia to observe, as he or she anticipates a loud sound when the balloon pops. When balloons pop, two types of reactions are heavy breathing and panic attacks. The sufferer becomes anxious to get away from the source of the loud sound and may get headaches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4450529",
"title": "Health effects from noise",
"section": "Section::::Noise induced hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Exposure to loud noises, either in a single traumatic experience or over time, can damage the auditory system and result in hearing loss and sometimes tinnitus as well. Traumatic noise exposure can happen at work (e.g. loud machinery), at play (e.g. loud sporting events, concerts, recreational activities), and/or by accident (e.g. a backfiring engine.) Noise induced hearing loss is sometimes unilateral and typically causes patients to lose hearing around the frequency of the triggering sound trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is hearing impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound. People may have a loss of perception of a narrow range of frequencies or impaired perception of sound including sensitivity to sound or ringing in the ears. When exposure to hazards such as noise occur at work and is associated with hearing loss, it is referred to as occupational hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47655600",
"title": "Occupational hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Noise exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Exposure to noise can cause vibrations able to cause permanent damage to the ear. Both the volume of the noise and the duration of exposure can influence the likelihood of damage. Sound is measured in units called decibels, which is a logarithmic scale of sound levels that corresponds to the level of loudness that an individual's ear would perceive. Because it is a logarithmic scale, even small incremental increases in decibels correlate to large increases in loudness, and an increase in the risk of hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591527",
"title": "Saint-Paul Asylum, Saint-Rémy (Van Gogh series)",
"section": "Section::::In Saint-Paul Hospital.:The corridor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In a letter to Theo in May 1889 he explains the sounds that travel through the quiet-seeming halls, \"There is someone here who has been shouting and talking like me all the time for a fortnight. He thinks he hears voices and words in the echoes of the corridors, probably because the auditory nerve is diseased and over-sensitive, and in my case it was both sight and hearing at the same time, which is usual at the onset of epilepsy, according to what Dr. Félix Rey said one day.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14910292",
"title": "Seashell resonance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance to external sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Background activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Another cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g60bl
|
Did Libraries face the same issues as Digital Media currently experiences?
|
[
{
"answer": "Copyright law is quite recent. \n\nYou probably ought to ask u/caffarelli about this matter, as it is her specialism.\n\nI published a brief case note on this issue late 2011, however, translated roughly:\n\n\"It was not until 1837 that Prussia and the German Bund introduced copyright law. Prior to this, authors needed to ensure sufficient compensation with their first publication run because, as soon as the text was available 'in the wild', no legal remedies were available against (in today's parlance) so called 'pirates', i.e. other publishing houses. It was this - from today's perspective - ironic situation that Immanuel Kant drew attention to in 1785 in his essay, 'On the Illegality of Book Republishing' with the following remarks:\n\n'The volume which the publisher allowed to be printed is a work of the author (opus) and belongs to the publisher after it has been printed or acquired in the form of its manuscript entirely, in order to do anything with it, as he desires, and which can be done in his own name; since this is the requirement of having a complete right to an item, i.e. ownership. The use, however, which he makes of it in a way not different from another [...] is a transaction (opera)[...].' (Kant in Berlinische Monatszeitschrift 5 (1785), p. 403 et seq.)\n\nInsofar as this, Kant distinguishes between the item (res) and transaction (opera). Fichte concretizes this idea: 'We could make two differentiations with respect to a book: the bodily aspect thereof, the printed paper, and the intellectual content.' Fichte, however, does not see a violation of ownership in the perpetuation of use of intellectual property without a license but, rather, a transaction without assigned agency [in Common Law: agency of necessity]: 'And how is the book republisher to be treated? He is taking possession - not of the property of the publisher, not of his intellectual content, not of his thoughts - but rather of the usufruct of the property. He is acting in the name of the publisher without having been given agency to this effect, without having reached a consensual transaction with him, and is seizing the benefits which arise from this representative position[...].' (Fichte in Berlinische Monatszeitschrift 5 (1793), p. 443 et seq.)\n\nIt is indeed the case that in ius commune as in today's valid German law the transfer of ownership of an item requires its physical transfer (ius commune: traditio), and for this reason Kant and Fichte consider it to be physically impossible to transfer ownership of the intellectual contents of an item. For this reason they speak exclusively of an usufruct and not - as in today's common and incorrect parlance - of 'theft' or 'piracy', but rather of agency of necessity. Viewed historically the polemicisation of the 'copyright' debate is clearly evident.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "During the middle ages, unauthorized copying or stealing of books, which were considered then extremely valuable, was identified as a big problem. This led to a number of interesting solutions to fight such actions in libraries. \n\nFor example they used \"chained books\" or \"chained libraries\", where each book was chained to the bookshelf (see _URL_0_ ). \n\nHenry Petroski's book \"The book on the bookshelf\", gives interesting details on such issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As /u/peripatos said, this is sort of My Bag! So here's an uncomfortably large infodump.\n\nFirst, a disclaimer: I am an American librarian, educated in an American graduate library school, and working in the American academic library system, so what I know and am able to comment on will be about America libraries and American copyright. I am also writing this from a class I took 2 years ago, and a textbook I have long since sold back, so this might be a little hazy.\n\nAlso, as my husband is a proto-lawyer, I will add: none of this constitutes legal advice, and is provided just for your interest and reddit's general edification.\n\nYou should first consider that copyright deposit, that is, the now defunct requirement that you send a copy of your book to the Library of Congress to establish a record of copyright, was the major way the LoC and a few state libraries built their collection for many years. [Here's a short free article on how that worked.](_URL_2_) So that's one way copyright actually helped libraries!\n\nHowever, some publishers and authors have more or less been against public libraries from their \"beginning\" in America, and [some of them are still real buttholes about it.](_URL_0_) The classic argument is that libraries steal revenue from authors. Prior to the establishment of First Sale Doctrine in 1908, libraries were on pretty shaky legal ground. \n\nThe beginning of the American public library system is more or less pegged to the start of the Andrew Carnegie library building grants at the end of the 19th century, prior to that there were mostly subscription libraries with a few public libraries here and there. (There is also very much the effect of Dewey on the growth of libraries and the \"scientification\" of libraries at the same time period, and also the very elitist, conservative, classist aims of early public libraries in America, but I'm going to leave that stuff out as its not strictly speaking relevant to your question.)\n\nFor the past 100 years or so libraries in America have been functioning largely on a combination of two doctrines: First Sale Doctrine mentioned earlier, and Fair Use. Use of both these legal concepts are not always clear, and the public misunderstands them frequently, but they are most of what kept libraries running. First Sale dictates that once you buy a book (or CD, or DVD, or whatever physical thing) you can largely do what you want with it -- you can loan it to people for free, you can rent it for money, you can give it away, you can re-sell it. This means libraries can buy books and loan them as much as they want. However, this does not mean we can re-copy them, that is considered copyright infringement. Some recopying is considered legal under fair use, but its very complicated.\n\nTypically, e-books and other digital media are not technically speaking purchased, they are *licensed,* so First Sale does *not* apply to them. [Stanford Law Review has a good overview of this](_URL_1_). This means publishers can and will put whatever restrictions they want on e-books. Some restrictions I've seen: limits on the number of times an e-book can circulate (be checked-out), expiration dates on the file no matter how many times it has circulated, and charging way more for a library to buy the book than for a standard consumer. (Talking $70 a pop versus your $9.99, on top of these BS restrictions.) This is a lot of the reason your garden variety public librarian is not investing in e-books; other than the very start of the industry with Michael S. Hart, the inventor of the e-book in 1971 and founder of Project Gutenberg, which has always been very good to libraries, e-books have not been a smart use of limited book-buying funds.\n\nSo e-books are a new way to get around First Sale Doctrine. Old problem, new wrapping! Frankly, I think the days of weasel publishers \"licensing\" e-books are numbered, but the number is still pretty high. \n\nHappy to expand on anything or do follow-ups, as per usual. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17727",
"title": "Library",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Shift to digital libraries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 178,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "In the 21st century, there has been increasing use of the Internet to gather and retrieve data. The shift to digital libraries has greatly impacted the way people use physical libraries. Between 2002 and 2004, the average American academic library saw the overall number of transactions decline approximately 2.2%. Libraries are trying to keep up with the digital world and the new generation of students that are used to having information just one click away. For example, the University of California Library System saw a 54% decline in circulation between 1991 and 2001 of 8,377,000 books to 3,832,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25445630",
"title": "Trends in library usage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1211,
"text": "As of 2004, U.S. library usage was experiencing growth in spite of predictions to the contrary at that time. Instead, the impact of technology on libraries has been mixed. While usage of some library services, such as reference assistance, has declined, there has been a well-documented increase in the usage of public libraries in the U.S. and Canada over the last decade. Most libraries have added services such as public computers, free Wi-Fi, and digital materials such as web sites and e-books, leading to higher overall usage of the library. Counties and cities also continue to invest in library infrastructure. , library construction and renovation has remained steady. According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Internet and American Life Project, 54 percent of Americans ages 16 and older have used a public library in some way in the past 12 months. A similar poll of Britons, conducted in 2010, stated that 67 percent had visited a library within the last year. Public libraries remain very popular among all users, and , younger patrons read and use the library at the same rate as older ones. Over 94 percent of Americans say that \"having a public library improves the quality of life in a community.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17226975",
"title": "Electronic resource management",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "Following the advent of the Digital Revolution, libraries began incorporating electronic information resources into their collections and services. The inclusion of these resources was driven by the core values of library science, as expressed by Raganathan's five laws of library science, especially the belief that electronic technologies made access to information more direct, convenient, and timely. By the end of 1990s, however, it became clear that the techniques used by librarians to manage physical resources did not transfer well to the electronic medium. In January 2000, the Digital Library Federation (DLF) conducted an informal survey aimed at identifying the major challenges facing research libraries regarding their use of information technologies. The survey revealed that digital collection development was considered the greatest source of anxiety and uncertainty among librarians, and that knowledge regarding the handling of electronic resources was rarely shared outside individual libraries. As a result, the Digital Library Federation created the Collection Practices Initiative and commissioned three reports with the goal of documenting effective practices in electronic resource management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130905",
"title": "Hybrid library",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The emergence of the hybrid library has put a new emphasis on copyright issues for many libraries. The complicated and changing copyright laws in both the United States and the European Union have made it a challenge for many libraries to make sure their patrons are using the digital items lawfully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5730687",
"title": "National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The preservation of digital content has become a major challenge for libraries and archives whose mission is to preserve the intellectual and cultural heritage of the nation. In 1998 the Library of Congress began to develop a digital strategy with a group of senior managers who were charged with assessing the roles and responsibilities of the Library in the digital age. This oversight group was headed by the Associate Librarian for Strategic Initiatives, the Associate Librarian for Library Services, and the Register of Copyrights. This group held several planning meetings to assess the current state of digital archiving and preservation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29020046",
"title": "Ralph Munn",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.:Expansion and unification of library services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "In future writings, however, Munn seemed to look beyond the historical limitations of the library system into a present and future rapidly changing due to technological innovations. In a 1954 essay, he acknowledged that \"the large library must have some staff members whose expertness in personnel management, public relations, audio-visual materials and equipment, adult education, and the public school curriculum is far more important than absorption in purely cultural interests.\" In addition to his revised views on the training and role of librarians, the essay brought into question the role of books and libraries themselves in the lives of the changing public. Indeed, if the following passage were altered to reflect 21st century technology terminology, Munn would seem to be speaking directly to today's librarians:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16757040",
"title": "Democratization of knowledge",
"section": "Section::::Role of libraries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1977,
"text": "An article written in 2005 by the editors of \"Reference & User Services Quarterly\" calls the library the greatest force for the democratization of knowledge or information. It continues to say that public libraries in particular are inextricably linked with the history and evolution of the United States, but school library media centers, college and university libraries, and special libraries have all also been influential in their support for democracy. Libraries play an essential role in the democratization of knowledge and information by providing communities with the resources and tools to find information free of charge. Democratic access to knowledge has also been co-opted to mean providing information in a variety of formats, which essentially means electronic and digital formats for use by library patrons. Public libraries help further the democratization of information by guaranteeing freedom of access to information, by providing an unbiased variety of information sources and access to government services, as well as the promotion of democracy and an active citizenship. Dan Cohen, the founding executive director of the Digital Public Library of America, writes that the democratic access to knowledge is a profound idea that requires constant tending and revitalization. In 2004, a World Social Forum and International workshop was held entitled \"Democratization of Information: Focus on Libraries\". The focus of the forum was to bring awareness to the social, technological, and financial challenges facing libraries dealing with the democratization of information. Social challenges included globalization and the digital divide, technological challenges included information sources, and financial challenges constituted shrinking budgets and manpower. Longtime Free Library of Philadelphia director Elliot Shelkrot said that “Democracy depends on an informed population. And where can people get all the information they need? —At the Library.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dhcic
|
what and how are hot jupiters formed, and what does this mean about the creation of our own solar system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hot Jupiters are basically gas giants that orbit very close to it's star. Usually at half earth distance or closer (less than 0.5 AU), usually towards the closer end. As a result they get very hot, to the point of glowing from the heat.\n\nThe top theory about how they form is that they form at normal gas giant distance (Jupiter range, ~5 AU or more) and make their way inwards by slurping up the rocks and gasses closer to the star, causing it to gain mass and lose kinetic energy. Another theory is that the gravity of other planets or asteroids change it's orbit over time and bring it closer to the star.\n\nFor out solar system it doesn't mean anything special, only that we don't have a hot jupiter planet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "961349",
"title": "Hot Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "There are two general schools of thought regarding the origin of hot Jupiters: formation at a distance followed by inward migration and in-situ formation at the distances at which they're currently observed. The prevalent view is formation via orbital migration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Mass and size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter. Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun; the amount of heat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation it receives. This additional heat is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism through contraction. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm each year. When it was first formed, Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961349",
"title": "Hot Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Migration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "In the migration hypothesis, a hot Jupiter forms beyond the frost line, from rock, ice, and gases via the core accretion method of planetary formation. The planet then migrates inwards to the star where it eventually forms a stable orbit. The planet may have migrated inward smoothly via type II orbital migration. Or it may have migrated more suddenly due to gravitational scattering onto eccentric orbits during an encounter with another massive planet, followed by the circularization and shrinking of the orbits due to tidal interactions with the star. A hot Jupiter's orbit could also have been altered via the Kozai mechanism, causing an exchange of inclination for eccentricity resulting in a high eccentricity low perihelion orbit, in combination with tidal friction. This requires a massive body—another planet or a stellar companion—on a more distant and inclined orbit; approximately 50% of hot Jupiters have distant Jupiter-mass or larger companions, which can leave the hot Jupiter with an orbit inclined relative to the star's rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::General features.:Magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212374",
"title": "Nebular hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Formation of planets.:Exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1203,
"text": "The hot-Jupiters and warm-Jupiters are thought to have migrated to their current orbits during or following their formation. A number of possible mechanisms for this migration have been proposed. Type I or Type II migration could smoothly decrease the semimajor axis of the planet's orbit resulting in a warm- or hot-Jupiter. Gravitational scattering by other planets onto eccentric orbits with a perihelion near the star followed by the circularization of its orbit due to tidal interactions with the star can leave a planet on a close orbit. If a massive companion planet or star on an inclined orbit was present an exchange of inclination for eccentricity via the Kozai mechanism raising eccentricities and lowering perihelion followed by circularization can also result in a close orbit. Many of the Jupiter-sized planets have eccentric orbits which may indicate that gravitational encounters occurred between the planets, although migration while in resonance can also excite eccentricities. The in situ growth of hot Jupiters from closely orbiting super Earths has also been proposed. The cores in this hypothesis could have formed locally or at a greater distance and migrated close to the star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8482163",
"title": "Magnetosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Role of Io.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1275,
"text": "Although overall the shape of Jupiter's magnetosphere resembles that of the Earth's, closer to the planet its structure is very different. Jupiter's volcanically active moon Io is a strong source of plasma in its own right, and loads Jupiter's magnetosphere with as much as 1,000 kg of new material every second. Strong volcanic eruptions on Io emit huge amounts of sulfur dioxide, a major part of which is dissociated into atoms and ionized by electron impacts and, to a lesser extent, solar ultraviolet radiation, producing ions of sulfur and oxygen. Further electron impacts produce higher charge state, resulting in a plasma of S, O, S, O and S. These ions either escape from the satellite's atmosphere or are produced from neutral atoms and molecules which have escaped from the satellite. They form the \"Io plasma torus\": a thick and relatively cool ring of plasma encircling Jupiter, located near Io's orbit. The plasma temperature within the torus is 10–100 eV (100,000–1,000,000 K), which is much lower than that of the particles in the radiation belts—10 keV (100 million K). The plasma in the torus is forced into co-rotation with Jupiter, meaning both share the same period of rotation. The Io torus fundamentally alters the dynamics of the Jovian magnetosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961349",
"title": "Hot Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Puffy planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Even when taking surface heating from the star into account, many transiting hot Jupiters have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between atmospheric winds and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up, causing it to expand. The hotter the planet, the greater the atmospheric ionization, and thus the greater the magnitude of the interaction and the larger the electric current, leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that planetary temperature is correlated with inflated planetary radii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2crjck
|
the difference between a fee antivirus software like avg, and a paid antivirus software like norton 360?
|
[
{
"answer": "Computer science major here so I know a bit about this stuff, I could drag this out but to try to explain simply, a number like 98% of viruses are just evolutions if precious viruses. All antivirus softwares look for these base differences. Free antivirus software finds these and eliminates. When you start getting paid software, their goal is to now try to up sell you from \"starter\" to premium. So paid programs like Nortan are notoriously hated for trying to be over protective blocking programs even trying to access the internet. Go for s free program like AVG, windows security essentials, or malware bytes I promise that if your computer ever gets Fubared to the point these can't fix it, not even Nortan can. \n\nTldr Why pay when free programs will do it without pissing you off",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends from case to case the only way to give you a good answer would be checking what they offer and how often they upgrade. Which you can usually find on their product page.\n\n\n- some include firewalls, email checks, proxys, ... \n\n- some are only free for private use\n\n- some are just horrible\n\n- paid software may have the better support\n\n- free software may not include proxys, email check (which you may not even need) and are pay to upgrade\n\n\n\nbut \"good\" free antivirus software works just as good as a \"good\" paid software.\n\n\nEdit:\nThe most important thing is probably the update frequency. If your software only upgrades once a week you could already have the virus.\n\nBut everything else that got mentioned here (speed, efficiency, ...) depends on the software itself paying money for it doesn't have to make it better. But the nice thing with software is that even freeware can be awesome, because there are so many very talented programmers out there and the tools you need are mostly free.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I once read an article on this, and the following statement stuck with me:\n\n > One difference is that the paid AV software might protect you against a certain Virus, that the free one does not. The issue with this is that the Virus is so rare, it's like paying extra for your house insurance to protect you against a herd of Rhinos breaking down your walls. You just wouldn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had a virus a few years ago that decided to use AVG as a vessel to reap havoc on my computer. This was not a typical virus and the person that made it was much smarter than the average bear, but it still left a bad taste in my mouth for freeware. I used the free trial of McAfee to get rid of it, but I ended up buying McAfee because it did the job credibly. I've had problems with AVG letting things slip before, and with paying a little extra, I think these companies get some extra funding to beef up their programs and increase their customer support.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For what its worth, from an Enterprise level, a commercial application adds administration functions. Distribution of updates can be controlled, then you have reporting alerting you to server / pc's requiring updates / not reporting, through to virus notifications. Also servers running Exchange (mail) will have different needs for AV scanning. Further to this, you also get support from the AV software vendor. Companies like McAfee also offer firewall and encryption products. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1060945",
"title": "AVG AntiVirus",
"section": "Section::::Platform support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "AVG provides \"AVG AntiVirus Free\" for Windows, \"AVG AntiVirus for Mac\" for macOS, and \"AVG AntiVirus for Android\" for Android devices. All are freemium products: They are free to download, install, update and use, but for technical support, a premium plan must be purchased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20287616",
"title": "Microsoft Security Essentials",
"section": "Section::::Market share.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "John Dunn of \"PCWorld\", who analyzed the report, noted that the tendency to use free AV software is something new: \"After all, free antivirus suites have been around for years but have tended to be seen as the poor relations to paid software.\" He named Microsoft Security Essentials as an influence on PC users to adopt free AV software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32696182",
"title": "Any Video Converter",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The free version of AVC is ad-supported. While it does not appear to contain malware, the Windows installer does default to include potentially unwanted programs (PUPs) such as virus scanners and/or toolbars. However, the user can avoid installing these PUPs by selecting the Customize Install option and not accepting installation of the optional, recommended software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35682554",
"title": "Anti-tamper software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Anti-tamper software is used in many types of software products including: embedded systems, financial applications, software for mobile devices, network-appliance systems, anti-cheating in games, military, license management software, and digital rights management (DRM) systems. Some general-purpose packages have been developed which can wrap existing code with minimal programing effort; for example the SecuROM and similar kits used in the gaming industry, though they have the downside that semi-generic attacking tools also exist to counter them. Malicious software itself can and has been observed using anti-tampering techniques, for example the Mariposa botnet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994196",
"title": "Computer virus",
"section": "Section::::Countermeasures.:Antivirus software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Examples of Microsoft Windows anti virus and anti-malware software include the optional Microsoft Security Essentials (for Windows XP, Vista and Windows 7) for real-time protection, the Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool (now included with Windows (Security) Updates on \"Patch Tuesday\", the second Tuesday of each month), and Windows Defender (an optional download in the case of Windows XP). Additionally, several capable antivirus software programs are available for free download from the Internet (usually restricted to non-commercial use). Some such free programs are almost as good as commercial\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20901",
"title": "Malware",
"section": "Section::::Anti-malware strategies.:Anti-virus and anti-malware software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Examples of Microsoft Windows antivirus and anti-malware software include the optional Microsoft Security Essentials (for Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7) for real-time protection, the Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool (now included with Windows (Security) Updates on \"Patch Tuesday\", the second Tuesday of each month), and Windows Defender (an optional download in the case of Windows XP, incorporating MSE functionality in the case of Windows 8 and later). Additionally, several capable antivirus software programs are available for free download from the Internet (usually restricted to non-commercial use). Tests found some free programs to be competitive with commercial ones. Microsoft's System File Checker can be used to check for and repair corrupted system files.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "891052",
"title": "Clam AntiVirus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Clam AntiVirus (ClamAV) is a free software, cross-platform and open-source antivirus software toolkit able to detect many types of malicious software, including viruses. One of its main uses is on mail servers as a server-side email virus scanner. The application was developed for Unix and has third party versions available for AIX, BSD, HP-UX, Linux, macOS, OpenVMS, OSF (Tru64) and Solaris. As of version 0.97.5, ClamAV builds and runs on Microsoft Windows. Both ClamAV and its updates are made available free of charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62sz94
|
why peanuts without shells are way cheaper than peanuts with shells if it takes labor to shell them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could be a matter of scale / volume. I would imagine nearly all of the peanuts consumed are shelled to be eaten or made into peanut butter. Shelled peanuts are sold in comparatively much smaller volume. When you produce something in very large quantities, you are able to take advantage of \"economies of scale\" that drive the price way down. This is in part because your fixed costs (e.g. Production equipment) are spread out over much more output. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ones you buy shelled are taken from peanuts unfit to be sold with the shell on. Think damaged, discolored or otherwise just not great looking peanut shells. Same idea with baby carrots. They're cut from larger carrots that are discolored, misshapen etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "3 things come to mind: economy of scale, where it's cheaper to process the nuts than it is to quality control the shells\n\n2- as said, shells may have a use elsewhere, and could make shelling them worthwhile\n3- container sizes: 200gm of unshelled peanuts probably takes up quite a lot less space than 200g of shelled peanuts, lowering the cost of logistics and storage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe the majority of the peanut usage goes to shelled peanuts and their products leaving a lesser amount to be sold unshelled, making them more expensive. Idk, just a guess.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "However, peanuts inside the shells are pure peanuts, and have not been handled, or licked by rats.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My fiance worked in a peanut shelling plant for years and it basically boils down to them wanting to get equal profits from shelled vs. unshelled.\n\nOnce the peanuts are shelled, they're graded and sold for different prices. There's splits, jumbos, mediums, #1s, etc. I forget all the names, but there's a few more. Even the hulls and 1416s (aka the smallest bits that fall through the sorting screens) can be sold for things like livestock feed and some other random things.\n\nSo basically, if they break the peanuts up and grade them, they can potentially make a lot more money sending them off to different places. If they get sold whole, then they have to set a price that will somewhat match up with what they would be worth sorted and graded.\n\nTo add, peanut shelling plants really aren't that different from the plants that sort whole peanuts. They all go through similar sorting machines to grade them by size/weight/color/etc. The main difference is that a shelling plant has to send the nuts through the sheller bars (which is what shells them). So there's really not that much more labor involved between the two.\n\nNOTE: This is a very rough transcript of how my fiance explained it to me, as I asked him about it before. Also a friendly note that if you ate anything from Mars that included peanuts in the past few years, he probably touched them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is unshelled the word that means \"has a shell\", and shelled the word for \"without a shell\" shouldn't it be the other way around? Or perhaps \"shelled\" and \"deshelled\"? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm really confused, in your example the shelled peanuts are almost half the price of unshelled ones, in direct contrast to the title...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1957492",
"title": "Red-bellied macaw",
"section": "Section::::Aviculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Because of lack of commercial availability of moriche palm nuts, shelled unsalted peanuts have been used as a staple in the diet of captive birds. They must not be fed commercial bird seed, especially fatty seed like Sunflower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202240",
"title": "Bivalvia",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Crushed shells are added as a calcareous supplement to the diet of laying poultry. Oyster shell and cockle shell are often used for this purpose and are obtained as a by-product from other industries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2500337",
"title": "Full Belly Project",
"section": "Section::::Universal Nut Sheller.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The major limiting factor for growing peanuts has always been the time- and labor-intensive process of hand-shelling peanuts, a job usually relegated to women and children. Overcoming this technical obstacle has been a goal of agricultural research for some years. When Dr. T. Williams, Senior Research Scientist at University of Georgia and an expert on all 15,000 cultivars of peanuts, was first approached by Jock Brandis, the project's engineer, he stated that an affordable peanut sheller is considered the \"holy grail of sustainable development\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5178037",
"title": "Mixed nuts",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Because they are relatively inexpensive, peanuts are typically a major ingredient in mixed nuts, although they are viewed as less fancy than other nuts; often \"deluxe mixed nuts\" are advertised as containing no peanuts. \"Alrifai\", a brand in the Middle East, Identifies the expensive nuts as kernels. In 2006, a batch of \"deluxe\" mixed nuts was recalled because peanuts had crept into the mix. The move was not to save face: peanuts are the ingredient of mixed nuts most commonly associated with life-threatening food allergies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2508572",
"title": "Universal nut sheller",
"section": "Section::::Problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The universal nut sheller has been less than successful in Ghana. First hand accounts relate almost universal breakage. Users can mitigate this breakage by pouring the nuts through initially at very broad settings and only later at finer settings, this practice does not eliminate the breakage and destroys the efficiency aspect. Groundnut shelling tends to be a social activity everyone engages in during their down time and there is rarely a need for a peanut sheller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Industrial use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in rayon and paper), and mucilage (glue).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Food.:Cuisine.:West Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Peanuts grow well in southern Mali and adjacent regions of the Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal; peanuts are similar in both agricultural and culinary qualities to the Bambara groundnut native to the region, and West Africans have adopted the crop as a staple. Peanut sauce, prepared with onions, garlic, peanut butter/paste, and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, and cauliflower, can be vegetarian (the peanuts supplying ample protein) or prepared with meat, usually chicken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14d419
|
Why is it that all macroscopic organisms (that I know of, anyway) are left-right symmetric?
|
[
{
"answer": "starfish have radial symmetry",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally, locomotion requires two equal sides to be most efficient. On land, feet come in pairs, so do wings in the air, and fins in the water, and most things that want to move right also want to go left. So when you find things that don't move, you start to see more variety like in trees and other plants.\n\nYes there are non symmetric animals. Starfish, sea anemone, and many other radially symmetric creatures are examples. I guess they are still right left symmetric, but they are radially symmetric first and bilaterally symmetric as a result. Also things like sponges don't really have a body plan the way you are thinking of yet are still animals.\n\nAnd there are fiddler crabs which have one arm way bigger than the other in males.\n\nOh and on the inside, we aren't very symmetric at all. Heart is on the left, liver on the right and so on. So we only have symmetry when we need it.\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe this is a classic reference: [Frequency-Dependent Natural Selection in the Handedness of Scale-Eating Cichlid Fish](_URL_0_). These cichlid fishes from Lake Tanganyika have either left- or right- facing mouths which they use to feed off of the scales of other fish.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fiddler Crabs are asymmetric.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nEDIT: _URL_0_\n\nNarwhals too, geez guys. How do you not know about the narwhals?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Trichordates were tri-radially symmetric, but went extent some 555 million years ago. Their reign was not very long. However, they were still unusual in their symmetry. Today's starfish are pentasymmetric, but it's thought that they evolved from what was originally a bilateral symmetrical organism.\n\nMore on trichordates [here](_URL_0_) (which I first learned of in SimLife so many years ago).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Flatfish like sole, flounder and halibut \"reject\" symmetry as they mature, and become decidedly asymmetric as a survival strategy. In fact, there are over 400 species of fish that do so. We've recently found fossils that indicate this drive to asymmetry has been going on for at least 50 million years. \n\nThen there are thousands and thousands of asymmetrical members of the family *plantae*. Many produce symmetrical sub-parts - radial flowers, bilateral leaves, pinnate lobes and so on, but their overall body plan is anything but symmetrical; think of a staghorn fern or oyster mushroom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56849025",
"title": "Left-right asymmetry (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Left-right asymmetry (LR asymmetry) refers to differences in structure (symmetry breaking) across the mediolateral (left and right) plane in animals. This plane is defined with respect to the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes and is perpendicular to both. Because the left-right plane is not strictly an axis (as it is not established through a morphogen gradient), to create asymmetry, the left and right sides need to be patterned separately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23490",
"title": "Political spectrum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Political scientists have frequently noted that a single left–right axis is too simplistic and insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs and included other axes. Though the descriptive words at polar opposites may vary, the axes of popular biaxial spectra are usually split between economic issues (on a left–right dimension) and socio-cultural issues (on a authority–liberty dimension).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27043983",
"title": "Paleoneurobiology",
"section": "Section::::Methods of research.:Asymmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1269,
"text": "The degree of asymmetry between right and left hemispheres is a point of interest to most paleoneurobiologists because it could be linked to handedness or language development of the specimen. Asymmetries occur due to hemispherical specialization and are observed in both a qualitative and quantitative manner. The unevenness of the hemispheres, known as a petalia, is characterized by a lobe that is wider and/or protruding beyond the contralateral lobe. For example, a right-handed person typically has larger left occipital lobe and right frontal lobes than the contralateral lobes. Petalias also occur due to specialization in the communication centers of the frontal cortex of the brain in modern humans. Petalias in the occipital lobe are easier to detect than those in the frontal lobe. Certain asymmetries have been documented on \"Homo erectus\" specimens such as the \"Homo redolfensis\" specimen from 1.8 million years ago that resemble the same asymmetries from modern humans. Some gorillas have shown strong petalias, but they are not found in combination with other petalias as is almost always the case in humans. Scientists use the presence of petalias to show sophistication, but they are not a definitive indicator of evolution toward a more human brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2806072",
"title": "Habenula",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Asymmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Various species exhibit left-right asymmetric differentiation of habenular neurons. In many fishes and amphibians, the habenula on one side is significantly larger and better organized into distinct nuclei in the dorsal diencephalon than its smaller pair. The sidedness of such differentiation (whether the left or the right is more developed) varies with the species. In humans, however, both habenulae are symmetrically small and poorly developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19349161",
"title": "Cambrian explosion",
"section": "Section::::Explanation of key scientific terms.:Bilaterian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "The bilaterians are animals that have right and left sides at some point in their life histories. This implies that they have top and bottom surfaces and, importantly, distinct front and back ends. All known bilaterian animals are triploblastic, and all known triploblastic animals are bilaterian. Living echinoderms (sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.) 'look' radially symmetrical (like wheels) rather than bilaterian, but their larvae exhibit bilateral symmetry and some of the earliest echinoderms may have been bilaterally symmetrical. Porifera and Cnidaria are radially symmetrical, not bilaterian, and not triploblastic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26381377",
"title": "Nodal signaling pathway",
"section": "Section::::Nodal signaling in development.:Left-Right Patterning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1144,
"text": "Human anatomy is asymmetric with the heart located on the left side and the liver on the right. Left-right asymmetry (biology) is a feature common to all vertebrates and even paired-symmetric organs such as lungs display asymmetries in the number of lobes. Evidence that nodal signaling is responsible for left-right specification comes from genetic analysis of organisms deficient in left-right specification. These genetic studies led to identification of mutations in components in the nodal signaling pathway such as ActRIIB, Criptic, and FoxH1 in mouse. These studies found that the left-right symmetry is created as a result of nodal antagonist expression on the right side of the embryo which is balanced by nodal upregulating itself on the other half of the embryo. The result is a nodal gradient that is high on the ventral side of the embryo and, through antagonist action, declines as a gradient to the midline. Studies on the nodal signaling pathway and its downstream targets such as PITX2 in other animals have shown it may also control left-right asymmetric patterning in sea squirt, amphioxus, sea urchin and mollusc lineages. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168041",
"title": "Anatomical terms of location",
"section": "Section::::Specific animals and other organisms.:Asymmetrical and spherical organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "In organisms with a changeable shape, such as amoeboid organisms, most directional terms are meaningless, since the shape of the organism is not constant and no distinct axes are fixed. Similarly, in spherically symmetrical organisms, there is nothing to distinguish one line through the centre of the organism from any other. An indefinite number of triads of mutually perpendicular axes could be defined, but any such choice of axes would be useless, as nothing would distinguish a chosen triad from any others. In such organisms, only terms such as \"superficial\" and \"deep\", or sometimes \"proximal\" and \"distal\", are usefully descriptive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2uoij1
|
what's going on with the fcc? six months ago all i saw were how corrupt the fcc is. over the past month though i've seen a lot of positive articles about the fcc shifting towards public opinion. what's really going on?
|
[
{
"answer": "The FCC has a long history of holding \"hearings\" and \"information sessions\" about decisions and then deciding based on what the incumbent telecoms want. Basically the process of public consultation was a farce to cover for a decision that already been made.\n\nWhen they announced the stuff about net neutrality and that there would be public consultations almost everyone who knew about this stuff rolled their eyes so far back that they passed out.\n\nThen something strange happened. After the elections in November, Obama waded in and went against what the telecoms wanted. This shocked basically everyone. Most people thought that the FCC chairman would just do what he wanted anyway. (While the FCC chairman is appointed by the president he does not work \"for\" the president as the FCC is designed to be independent).\n\nSo after Obama's proclamation most people were still skeptical. however, over the past few months each bit of information points to the FCC ruling against the telecoms. This shocks people because it so rarely happens. \n\nNow, I stop shot of saying that this is all happening because of Obama. Wheeler (the FCC chairman) is a former telecom lobbyist and everyone basically assumed he was in the pocket of the telecoms. It's possible that everything would have happened this way regardless of what Obama said. It's possible that Wheeler is a stand up guy who's actually going to do his job... possible. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A year ago the courts voided the old net neutrality rules. \n\nThe first attempts of the FCC to replace these rules were very bad ideas. I made a comic explaining why [here](_URL_0_). Basically, they were way too friendly to ISPs like Comcast.\n\nFor a while the FCC was getting a world-historical amount of comments from citizens, all saying basically the same thing (give us real net neutrality and fuck Comcast), and it wasn't doing anything. So it *was* easy to think that this was just another case where the corrupt government was going to screw us over in the interest of big business.\n\nThen, finally, the FCC came out and said it was going to go for real net neutrality. This was good news, and many people who'd thought that the FCC was hopeless and/or corrupt changed their view. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "555200",
"title": "Reed Hundt",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Congress gave the FCC vast powers to regulate and de-regulate all digital markets when it passed the Telecommunications Act of 1996, signed by digital signature of President Clinton in the Library of Congress in February 1996. The FCC then essentially re-wrote the regulatory landscape for wireless and wireline communication. Not everything predicted actually occurred, in Hundt's view, but all knew that somehow the communications sector was responsible in large part for the great boom in the American economy and stock market that marked the Clinton Administration's two terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31418598",
"title": "Direct lobbying in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Corporate media lobby.:Contemporary corporate media lobby.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "Throughout most of its history, the FCC has been a relatively invisible part of the U.S. government, known mostly to industry stakeholders, lobbyists, and officials. With the general public not knowing its practices and responsibilities, this has given a tremendous advantage to those knowledgeable of the FCC's practices and organized enough to influence them. Jeff Chester, the executive director of Center for Digital Democracy, \"The FCC has long been the second home to a legion of (lawyers and lobbyists) ... whose occupation is convincing the staff and commissioners to approve policies that benefit a particular company or industry.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35508695",
"title": "Minority ownership of media outlets in the United States",
"section": "Section::::FCC Policies Adapt to Market Forces: Changes in Media Ownership Policies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "Over many years the traditional limitations on cross media ownership controlled by the FCC started to weaken. More media outlets grew in number and major companies, started to consolidate newspaper and television ownership. In the 1980s and early 1990s there was general pressure to reduce government regulation and increase market forces.There was also growing pressure to have the FCC use bandwidth and the licensing of radio, television and other devices as a source of revenue for the people of the United States. In 1993, the U.S. Congress authorized the FCC to grant licenses to auction bandwidth. The potential monetization of this limited resource by large corporations made it extremely valuable. To be able to compete for bandwidth brought even more pressure for large corporations to try to consolidate. It was obvious that both technology and market forces were changing rapidly. Subsequently, the U.S. Congress passed the Telecommunications Act of 1996. This required the FCC to review their ownership rules every four years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35508695",
"title": "Minority ownership of media outlets in the United States",
"section": "Section::::FCC Major Policy Revisions: Telecommunications Act of 1996.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 2090,
"text": "The FCC issued sweeping changes through the Telecommunications Act of 1996. This included major changes to the guidelines that determined who would be eligible for ownership of media outlets. The restrictions of cross ownership were greatly relaxed, which made it even more difficult for minorities to financially compete with the growing conglomerates who were amassing media outlets. The FCC determined \"that the existing rules were no longer in the public interest, repealed them, and replaced them with a single set of Cross-Media Limits using a methodological tool called the 'Diversity Index'.\" This decision was based on treating media ownership like many business entities in a market situation where the government only has an interest to keep a competitive and free market. This would be presuming that all voices represented an equal possible strength, as in a business situation where each producer of a similar commodity has an equal chance of success and all will serve the market equally. Therefore, the FCC evaluated market concentration using a highly modified Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, which is used by the U.S. Department of Justice to evaluate proposed mergers and acquisitions to prevent monopolies. However, the FCC added their \"\" to allow for the obvious inability of the Herfindahl-Hirschman to truly measure market concentration. This ruling was challenged in court, and the resulting judgement, \"Prometheus Radio Project v. Federal Communication Commission: United States of America\", found that the FCC was in violation of Congressional mandate and had failed to \"consider proposals to promote minority broadcast ownership that the Minority Media and Telecommunications Council had submitted.\" Overall, the court found that the FCC had failed to justify their changes in cross-media ownership and the new rules were not implemented. The court stated that, \" we must hold unlawful and set aside agency findings, and conclusions that are arbitrary, capricious, or an abuse of discretion, or not in accordance with law...[or] unsupported by substantial evidence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8426122",
"title": "Net neutrality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Regulatory history.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Upon becoming FCC chairman in April 2017, Ajit Pai proposed to repeal the policies and issued a NPRM soliciting comments from the public on the issue. The FCC received over 20 million comments this time around. While this process was underway, New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman made public that his office was investigating a substantial amount of fraudulent activity relating to the comments on this rulemaking and that the FCC has been resistant to assisting him in his investigation. The FCC wishes to restore order to the internet because they think the internet needs to stay safe. According to the FCC, they have three parts to they wish to use as a framework for they need Consumer Protection, Transparency and Removal of Unneeded regulations. They believe that internet providers were unfair and deceiving customers in this practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31418598",
"title": "Direct lobbying in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Corporate media lobby.:Contemporary corporate media lobby.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "There is evidence that the FCC continues to be influenced by the corporate media lobby. The strong, direct relationships that have developed over the years between regulators and corporate media lobbyists, is essential to greater influence. It goes much deeper than the idea that the lobby has simply been around for a while. Members of the FCC have traditionally had strong connections to industry. As the job of an FCC commissioner or staffer is often highly technical, and specific knowledge of the dynamics of the telecommunications and media industries must be known, commissioners are often plucked out of high-paying jobs in the industry. History has shown, due to the fact that FCC Commissioners are appointed only to five-year terms, that there is a revolving door between the Commission and industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55974",
"title": "Federal Communications Commission",
"section": "Section::::Wireline policy.:NSA wiretapping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "When it emerged in 2006 that AT&T, BellSouth and Verizon may have broken U.S. laws by aiding the National Security Agency in possible illegal wiretapping of its customers, Congressional representatives called for an FCC investigation into whether or not those companies broke the law. The FCC declined to investigate, however, claiming that it could not investigate due to the classified nature of the program– a move that provoked the criticism of members of Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ey3t3
|
why sms messages cannot come in bold/italic/underlined, etc
|
[
{
"answer": "Technically, they can. \nBut the support for such formatting has to be widespread and unified between phone hardware manufacturers for it to be useful, which is obviously not the case now.\nAlso, the SMS protocol has been designed with a limited message length in mind, adding the formatting would make the message even shorter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6127880",
"title": "Motorola Fone",
"section": "Section::::F3.:Display technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The characteristics of the display were fairly restrictive. The text display contained only two lines of six characters each, making the use of text messaging (SMS) and data services less practical than on standard LCD displays. The display used a fixed 'digital clock' style font, with no functionality for changing between upper case and lower case text. All SMSs sent by the F3 were received entirely in lower case, and each character of any SMS received by the F3 is displayed in whichever case made the most sense using the font. Also, the non-alphabetic characters were severely limited due to this display, as the phone could only provide support for the following characters:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34776038",
"title": "Messages (Apple)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The mobile version of Messages on iOS used on iPhone and iPad also supports SMS and MMS due to replacing the older text messaging Text app since iOS 3. Users can tell the difference between a message via SMS and one sent over iMessage as the bubbles will appear either green (SMS) or blue (iMessage).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5426470",
"title": "SMS gateway",
"section": "Section::::Email clients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Text messages can be sent from a personal computer to mobile devices via an SMS gateway or Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) gateway, using most popular email client programs, such as Outlook, Thunderbird, and so on. The messages must be sent in ASCII \"text-only\" mode. If they are sent in HTML mode, or using non-ASCII characters, they will most likely appear as nonsense on the recipient's mobile telephone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18619244",
"title": "SMS language",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic properties and style.:Paralinguistic and prosodic features.:Capitalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Most SMS messages have done away with capitalization. Use of capitalizations on the first word of a message may in fact, not be intentional, and may likely be due to the default capitalization setting of devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18619244",
"title": "SMS language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Features of early mobile phone messaging encouraged users to use abbreviations. Text entry was difficult, requiring multiple key presses on a small keypad to generate each letter, and messages were generally limited to 160 characters. Additionally, SMS language made text messages quicker to compose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1227007",
"title": "Nokia 5210",
"section": "Section::::Bugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Some versions of the Nokia 5210 firmware, particularly the Arabic models, contains a bug with the Arabic language text, that occurs when user tries to type SMS, the space between words in Arabic becomes a small rectangular symbol instead of a space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33369891",
"title": "IMessage",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "In Messages, the user's sent communication is aligned to the right, with replies from other people on the left. A user can see if the other iMessage user is typing a message. A pale gray ellipsis appears in the text bubble of the other user when a reply is started. It is also possible to start a conversation on one iOS device and continue it on another. On iPhones, green buttons and text bubbles indicate SMS-based communication; on all iOS devices, blue buttons and text bubbles indicate iMessage communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31gjfu
|
How did illiterate conquistadors transact business with the Spanish crown?
|
[
{
"answer": "Illiteracy is a spectrum, not an absolute. More importantly, conquistadors were usually members of the 'middling' class, including artisans, craftsmen, and professionals (like lawyers and scribes). Most conquistadors probably could read some and at least write their names. Even if they couldn't there would have been a scribe on the expedition in their professional capacity or as just another member. Conquest expeditions were business ventures as much as they were military ones. The members of the company had shares in the enterprise and had contributed varying amounts. Bookkeepers and scribes were essential to the basic running of the expedition.\n\nAs to the general question of accommodating an illiterate population, yes, there were professional scribes and official notaries that were paid to write for others. When it came to petitioning the crown, Spanish law recognized the importance of protecting the poor and destitute. Consequently, the legal system had its own bureaucrats tasked with representing the poor and any legal matters they might have or petitions to the bureaucracy/crown (sometimes called the abogado de pobres, procurador de pobres, defensor de pobres). In the Americas, a special position was created just for indigenous petitioners/litigants (procurador de indios). If one qualified for the service, the fees for producing and submitting documents were waived as were the legal/notarial fees. \n\nFor some more on these issues see\n\n*Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest*\n\n*The First Letter From New Spain*\n\n*The Men of Cajamarca*\n\n*Justice by Insurance: The General Indian Court of Colonial Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-real*\n\n*Law and the Transformation of Aztec Culture, 1500-1700*\n\n*Empire of Law and Indian Justice in Colonial Mexico*\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21110575",
"title": "Spanish conquest of the Maya",
"section": "Section::::Conquest of the Chiapas Highlands, 1527–1547.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "By 1528, Spanish colonial power had been established in the Chiapas Highlands, and \"encomienda\" rights were being issued to individual \"conquistadores\". Spanish dominion extended from the upper drainage of the Grijalva, across Comitán and Teopisca to the Ocosingo valley. The north and northwest were incorporated into the Villa de Espíritu Santo district, that included Chʼol Maya territory around Tila. In the early years of conquest, \"encomienda\" rights effectively meant rights to pillage and round up slaves, usually in the form of a group of mounted \"conquistadores\" launching a lightning slave raid upon an unsuspecting population centre. Prisoners would be branded as slaves, and were sold in exchange for weapons, supplies, and horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57439157",
"title": "Diego Pérez de la Torre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "licenciado Diego Pérez de la Torre, born in Almendralejo, Spain (c. 14821538), was a Spanish conquistador, colonial administrator, royal attorney for the Court of Castile, and second Governor of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, following the removal of Nuño de Guzmán.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23990395",
"title": "History of Bolivia to 1809",
"section": "Section::::Colonial state, church, and society.:Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The Spanish crown at first controlled the local governments indirectly, but centralized procedures as the time went on. At first, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo confirmed the rights of local nobles and guaranteed them local autonomy. But the crown eventually came to employ Spanish officials, \"corregidores de indios\", to collect tribute and taxes from the Indians. \"Corregidores de indios\" also imported goods and forced the Indians to buy them, a widely abused practice that proved to be an enormous source of wealth for these officials but caused much resentment among the Indian population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130346",
"title": "Asiento",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "The asiento was the license issued by the Spanish crown, by which a set of merchants received the monopoly on a trade route or product. They were included in some peace treaties. An example of it was the payment of a fee, granting legal permission to sell a fixed number of enslaved Africans in the Spanish colonies. They were usually sold to foreigners, mainly Portuguese. They were also considered a tangible asset, comparable to tax farming, and a source of profit for the Spanish crown. The original impetus to import enslaved Africans was to relieve the indigenous inhabitants of the colonies from the labor demands of the Spanish colonists. Dutch merchants became involved in the slave trade. In 1713, the British were awarded the right to the asiento in the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession. The British government passed its rights to the South Sea Company. The British \"asiento\" ended with the 1750 Treaty of Madrid between Great Britain and Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18839068",
"title": "History of Basilan",
"section": "Section::::Spanish era.:Conquest of Lamitan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "After having consolidated his power over the flourishing Yakan enclave, Don Pedro Cuevas, sent emissaries to the Spanish authorities in Isabela and Zamboanga. For his services as the Last Conquistador of the Spanish Empire, he was eventually pardoned by Gov. Gen. Fernando Primo de Rivera in 1884, and, having formalized his position as leader of the Lamitan District of Basilan island, was finally and officially installed as such in 1886.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3211921",
"title": "Spanish East Indies",
"section": "Section::::Colonial government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a governor-captain general, and an audiencia. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, located in Mexico. Because the eastward route was more widely used for military purposes, in addition to commerce that included the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, most government correspondence went through Mexico, rather than directly to Spain (with the exception of a short period at the end of the 18th century).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303062",
"title": "Spanish Empire",
"section": "Section::::The Indies: Spanish America and the Philippines.:Organization and administration of empire.:Cabildos or town councils.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Most Spanish settlers came to the Indies as permanent residents, established families and businesses, and sought advancement in the colonial system, such as membership of cabildos, so that they were in the hands of local, American-born (\"crillo\") elites. During the Bourbon era, even when the crown systematically appointed peninsular-born Spaniards to royal posts rather than American-born, the cabildos remained in the hands of local elites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1syb9v
|
why does nasa go to such extreme measures to remove bacteria before traveling in space?
|
[
{
"answer": " > wouldn't we want to allow life to form on planets where we have found none?\n\nNot if we're trying to study them as they are! In particular, if we're looking for life on Mars, we don't want to contaminate the surface with Earth's bacteria.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine that NASA comes out and announce that they have found bacterial life on Mars and launches the world into a religious hysteria... Only to find out months later that \"oops, it was actually just Earth bacteria that hitchhiked over there!\"...\n\nOr... imagine that we send a rover to Mars without sterilizing it. And there happens to be bacterial life on Mars... or at least, there used to be... before our stowaways killed it all off.\n\nWe want to discover life on other planets, not take it there accidentally and either a) think we found it new life b) destroy what life was actually there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12987773",
"title": "Astronautical hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Microbial hazards.:Microbes and microgravity in space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "There are over one hundred strains of bacteria and fungi that have been identified from manned space missions. These microorganisms survive and propagate in space. Much effort is being made to ensure that the risks from exposure to the microbes are significantly reduced. Spacecraft are sterilized as good control practice by flushing with antimicrobial agents such as ethylene oxide and methyl chloride, and astronauts are quarantined for several days prior to a mission. However, these measures only reduce the microbe populations rather than eliminate them. Microgravity may increase the virulence of specific microbes. It is therefore important that the mechanisms responsible for this problem are studied and the appropriate controls are implemented to ensure that astronauts, in particular, those that are immunocompromised, are not affected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12987773",
"title": "Astronautical hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Microbial hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "Because of the potential for microbes to cause infection in the astronauts and to be able to degrade various components that may be vital for the functioning of the spacecraft, it is important that the risks are assessed and, where appropriate, manage the levels of microbial growth controlled by the use of good astronautical hygiene. For example, by frequently sampling the space-cabin air and surfaces to detect early signs of a rise in microbial contamination, keeping surfaces clean by the use of disinfected clothes, by ensuring that all equipment is well maintained in particular the life support systems and by regular vacuuming of the spacecraft to remove dust etc. It is likely that during the first manned missions to Mars that the risks from microbial contamination could be underestimated unless the principles of good astronautical hygiene practice are applied. Further research in this field is therefore needed so that the risks of exposure can be evaluated and the necessary measures to mitigate microbial growth are developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9619",
"title": "Extremophile",
"section": "Section::::In astrobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "On 19 May 2014, scientists announced that numerous microbes, like \"Tersicoccus phoenicis\", may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms. It's not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the \"Curiosity\" rover now on the planet Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36665815",
"title": "Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::2014 events.:Other 2014 events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "On May 19, 2014, scientists announced that numerous microbes, like \"Tersicoccus phoenicis\", may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms. It's not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the \"Curiosity\" rover now on Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25016044",
"title": "March 1960",
"section": "Section::::March 1, 1960 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- NASA established an Office of Life Sciences to work on exobiology, based on Dr. Joshua Lederberg's ideas that space vehicles should be sterilized before and after their missions in order to prevent the possibility of contamination of outer space or of the Earth by microbes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38767094",
"title": "2014 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "BULLET::::- Scientists announce that numerous microbes, like \"Tersicoccus phoenicis\", may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms, and as a consequence, may have unintentionally contaminated spacecraft. However, it's not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the \"Curiosity\" rover now on the planet Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16598780",
"title": "EXPOSE",
"section": "Section::::EXPOSE-E.:EXPOSE-E results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "Spore-forming bacteria are of particular concern in the context of planetary protection because their tough endospores may withstand certain sterilization procedures as well as the harsh environments of outer space or planetary surfaces. To test their hardiness on a hypothetical mission to Mars, spores of \"Bacillus subtilis\" 168 and \"Bacillus pumilus\" SAFR-032 were exposed for 1.5 years to selected parameters of space. It was clearly shown that solar extraterrestrial UV radiation (λ ≥110 nm) as well as the Martian UV spectrum (λ ≥200 nm) was the most deleterious factor applied; in some samples only a few survivors were recovered from spores exposed in monolayers. Spores in multilayers survived better by several orders of magnitude. All other environmental parameters encountered did little harm to the spores, which showed about 50% survival or more. The data demonstrate the high chance of survival of spores on a Mars mission, if protected against solar irradiation. These results will have implications for planetary protection considerations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18co7q
|
How did societies without any "currency" survive and do business?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Aztecs had a barter system with a strict court in place to judge disputes between traders. There was no 'currency' but there were widely accepted consistent values attached to specific items--in the capitol city of Tenochtitlan, it was generally stated that 20 feather cloaks was about one year's salary for a member of the common class. A necklace of fine jade stones was worth about 300 feather cloaks, and would only be available for purchase by a very rich merchant or a member of the nobility/ruling class. Cocoa beans were valuable, for what they were, and a single bean could usually be traded for smaller items, essentially functioning as coins. Another extremely common item was the obsidian blade, an extremely sharp prism of volcanic glass, about 1/2\"-1\" wide and a few inches long, used in the household for food preparation, among other things. They were pretty fragile but extremely easy to make, so they were cheap and generally sold in packs of 20 or so, for about 1 cocoa bean.\n\nThe largest Aztec market was in the city of Tlatelolco. About 20,000 people visited every weekday, and about 50,000 people visited on the weekend or 'market day' (the Aztecs had a 5-day week, with every 5th day being the weekend/market day; it kind of amazes me that even the Aztecs went shopping/to the \"mall\" on the weekends). When the conquistadors were shown this market, they were amazed, and shocked by the variance of items that one could purchase. You could even get ice cream--snow was run down from the mountains by special runners, and then mixed with vanilla, honey, cocoa, nectar, fruit, and so on.\n\nAnyway, this market had a very strict set of courts in place, and the courts constantly heard cases between buyers and sellers all day. The dispute was usually over the quality of the goods that had been bartered, but sometimes the hearings were for cases of fraud or \"cutting\" of merchandise. There were tons of ways to make bad merchandise look good, or to undersell one another, but if you were caught doing so, you were basically fucked and could even receive the death sentence, depending on the extent of your crimes (for reference, some other crimes that got the death sentence: getting drunk before age 50, adultery). The harsh punishments for fraud, sharp market officers and inspectors, and strict court system kept people fairly honest in a society without official currency. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* [Has any society in the last 1000 years ever successfully operated as a \"cashless\" society?](_URL_1_)\n* [\"The Inca as a nonmarket economy: Supply on command versus supply and demand\" by Darrell La Lone](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33745805",
"title": "Debt: The First 5000 Years",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "When the great empires in Rome and India collapsed, the resulting checkerboard of small kingdoms and republics saw the gradual decline in standing armies and cities. This included the creation of hierarchical caste systems, the retreat of gold and silver to the temples and the abolition of slavery. Although hard currency was no longer used in everyday life, its use as a unit of account and credit continued in medieval Europe. Graeber insists that people in the Middle Ages in Europe continued to use the concept of money, even though they no longer had the physical symbols. This contradicts the popular claims of economists that the Middle Ages saw the economy \"revert to barter\". During the Middle Ages more sophisticated financial instruments appeared. These included promissory notes and paper money (in China, where the empire managed to survive the collapse observed elsewhere), letters of credit, and cheques (in the Islamic world).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8882496",
"title": "Japanese currency",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bakumatsu currency (1854–1868).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Meanwhile, local governments issued their own currency chaotically, so that the nation's money supply expanded by 2.5 times between 1859 and 1869, leading to crumbling money values and soaring prices. The system was replaced by a new one after the conclusion of the Boshin War, and with the onset of the Meiji government in 1868.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5666",
"title": "Central bank",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spread around the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Although central banks today are generally associated with fiat money, the 19th and early 20th centuries central banks in most of Europe and Japan developed under the international gold standard. Free banking or currency boards were common at this time. Problems with collapses of banks during downturns, however, led to wider support for central banks in those nations which did not as yet possess them, most notably in Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22937795",
"title": "Value-form",
"section": "Section::::Genesis of the forms of value.:Money-form of value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "But for most of the history of human civilization, money was not actually universally used, partly because the prevailing systems of property rights and cultural custom did not allow many goods to be sold for money, and partly because many products were distributed and traded without using money. Also, several different \"currencies\" were often used side by side. Marx himself believed that nomadic peoples were the first to develop the money-form of value (in the sense of a universal equivalent in trade) because all their possessions were mobile, and because they were regularly in contact with different communities, which encouraged the exchange of products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9755473",
"title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Imperial (770–220 BCE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "\"With the opening of exchange between farmers, artisans, and merchants, there came into use money of tortoise shells, cowrie shells, gold, coins (), knives (), spades () This has been so from remote antiquity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "648277",
"title": "Foreign exchange market",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Currency trading and exchange first occurred in ancient times. Money-changers (people helping others to change money and also taking a commission or charging a fee) were living in the Holy Land in the times of the Talmudic writings (\"Biblical times\"). These people (sometimes called \"kollybistẻs\") used city stalls, and at feast times the Temple's Court of the Gentiles instead. Money-changers were also the silversmiths and/or goldsmiths of more recent ancient times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153149",
"title": "Regulation",
"section": "Section::::Social.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Regulation of businesses existed in the ancient early Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Standardized weights and measures existed to an extent in the ancient world, and gold may have operated to some degree as an international currency. In China, a national currency system existed and paper currency was invented. Sophisticated law existed in Ancient Rome. In the European Early Middle Ages, law and standardization declined with the Roman Empire, but regulation existed in the form of norms, customs, and privileges; this regulation was aided by the unified Christian identity and a sense of honor in regard to contracts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7aoke6
|
why are interest rates so low for me if i deposit money, but so high for students who lend it?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you mean high for students to borrow...\n\nHere's the deal - generally, banks make money by holding on to some people's money and then lending it out to other people. Their profit is based on the difference in the interest rates. They incentivize people depositing money by giving them interest, but they make the money they give out (and then some)by charging interest for loans.\n\nNow, the interest rate they charge for a loan is not the same for all people borrowing money. Some people will borrow money and then not pay it all back. Part of what the bank will do is assess risk, and charge higher interest rates for riskier loans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you're a very small fry and the bank makes almost no money on your deposit. And you want *services*, like ATM fee forgiveness, customer service, cash back credit cards, and just putting up with your smell is going to cost you half a percent!\n\nPeople with very large accounts can get 'OK' interest rates on a deposit - up to 4% for multi-millionaires who decide to keep millions in cash on hand. Because multi-millions makes a lot more for the bank than small fry's do and they don't require much more in the way of *services*.\n\nAnd students get juicy bank anal lovin' because they are risks. The *real* risk is just about zero because the government buys the loans, but they like to pretend students are a big risk to lend money to. So they jack up the rate to pay for the students who can't ever find good jobs, sell the loans off to the government to eliminate the risk, and laugh all the way to the bank, only they are the bank, so they are just enjoying a hearty laugh at how they forced you to work through the motherhood years and now you're a haggard old crone and can't afford a 3rd mortgage to coax one of your rotten eggs into becoming a baby.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38286",
"title": "Inflation",
"section": "Section::::Controlling inflation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Higher interest rates reduce the economy’s money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply. Therefore, when a person pays back a loan and no other loans are made to replace it, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the federal funds rate exceeded 15 percent, the quantity of Federal Reserve dollars fell 8.1 percent, from US$8.6 trillion down to $7.9 trillion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22099091",
"title": "Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate",
"section": "Section::::Liquidity.:Lower interest rates.:Arguments for lower interest rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Lower interest rates may also help banks \"earn their way out\" of financial difficulties, because banks can borrow at very low interest rates from depositors and lend at higher rates for mortgages or credit cards. In other words, the \"spread\" between bank borrowing costs and revenues from lending increases. For example, a large U.S. bank reported in February 2009 that its average cost to borrow from depositors was 0.91%, with a net interest margin (spread) of 4.83%. Profits help banks build back equity or capital lost during the crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2679986",
"title": "Hard money loan",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The interest rates on hard money loans are typically higher than the rates charged for traditional business loans. The interest rates could range from 10% to 18%. Despite this, such loan options are popular among real estate investors for their fast approvals, higher flexibility, less tedious documentation procedures and, at times, the only option for securing funds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5191572",
"title": "Credit rationing",
"section": "Section::::Equilibrium credit rationing – Stiglitz and Weiss.:Pure credit rationing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "This situation should show that the interest rate has two effects on banks' expected return. On the one hand, higher interest rates imply that, for a given loan, the repayment (if it does take place) will be higher, and this increases bank profits; this is the direct effect. On the other hand, and crucially for credit rationing, a higher interest rate might mean that the safe types are not anymore willing to accept the loans, and drop out of the market; this is the adverse selection effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464990",
"title": "Student loan",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Repayment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Federal student loan interest rates are established by Congress and listed in § 20 U.S.C. § 1087E(b). Because the interest rates are established by Congress, interest rates are a political decision. In 2010, the federal student loan program ran a multibillion-dollar \"negative subsidy\", or profit, for the federal government. Loans to graduate and professional students are especially profitable because of high interest rates and low default rates. Usually, the net flow of the default rate on student loans are strongly related to the nontraditional issuer and the flowing price of the tangible assets, unlike buildings or land. However, in contrast to the positive correlation with the borrower, a change in the price normally leads to negative influence on default rate. These two aspects have been used to explain the Great Recession of student loan default, which had grown to nearly thirty percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10905128",
"title": "Student loans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federal loans.:Loans to students.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Unsubsidized federal student loans are also guaranteed by the U.S. Government, but the government, while controlling (setting) the interest rate, does not pay interest for the student; rather, the interest accrues during college. Nearly all students are eligible for these loans regardless of financial need (on need, see Expected Family Contribution). Those who borrow $10,000 during college owe $10,000 plus interest upon graduation. For example, those who borrowed $10,000 and had $2,000 accrue in interest owe $12,000. Interest begins accruing on the $12,000, i.e., there is interest on the interest. The accrued interest is \"capitalized\" into the loan amount, and the borrower begins making payments on the accumulated total. Students can pay the interest while still in college, but few do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146738",
"title": "Interest",
"section": "Section::::Market interest rates.:Opportunity cost and deferred consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Charging interest equal to inflation preserves the lender's purchasing power, but does not compensate for the time value of money in real terms. The lender may prefer to invest in another product rather than consume. The return they might obtain from competing investments is a factor in determining the interest rate they demand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
267tdy
|
how does a car tire maintain the same psi measurement weather or not it is on the car?
|
[
{
"answer": "Disregarding changes due to temperature for the moment:\n\nWhile you're right that the weight of the car influences the pressure, it only causes an increase in pressure in proportion to how much the weight of the car deforms the tire and causes a reduction in the volume of the tire. \n\nThink about it like it's a balloon. A balloon that's just sitting there, with no weight on it, has whatever the static pressure is. Placing a book on that balloon will cause it to first get flat, and then burst because the pressure inside the balloon grows too high.\n\nIt really has to do with how much the tire's volume is reduced. \n\nSee [Boyle's Law](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10689228",
"title": "Tire maintenance",
"section": "Section::::Rotation.:Inflation (adding air).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "There are simple hand-held tire-pressure gauges which can be temporarily attached to the valve stem to check a tire's interior air pressure. This measurement of tire inflation pressure should be made at least once a month. Accurate readings can only be obtained when the tires are 'cold' - that is at least three hours after the vehicle has been driven or driven less than 1/2 mile since cold - tire pressures will not then be higher because of operating heat. The recommended inflation pressure is found in the owner's manual and on the vehicle's tire placard. Because of slow air leaks, changes in the weather and ambient temperature or other conditions, tire pressure will occasionally have to be corrected via the valve stem with compressed air which is often available at service stations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1723078",
"title": "Tire-pressure gauge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Since tires are rated for specific loads at certain pressure, it is important to keep the pressure of the tire at the optimal amount. Tires are rated for their optimal pressure when cold, meaning before the tire has been driven on for the day and allowed to heat up, which ultimately changes the internal pressure of the tire due to the expansion of gases. The precision of a typical mechanical gauge as shown is ±. Higher precision gauges with ± uncertainty can also be obtained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9557604",
"title": "Tire uniformity",
"section": "Section::::Force variation background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "The circumference of the tire can be modeled as a series of very small spring elements whose spring constants vary according to manufacturing conditions. These spring elements are compressed as they enter the road contact area, and recover as they exit the footprint. Variation in the spring constants in both radial and lateral directions cause variations in the compressive and restorative forces as the tire rotates. Given a perfect tire, running on a perfectly smooth roadway, the force exerted between the car and the tire will be constant. However, a normally manufactured tire running on a perfectly smooth roadway will exert a varying force into the vehicle that will repeat every rotation of the tire. This variation is the source of various ride disturbances. Both tire and car makers seek to reduce such disturbances in order to improve the dynamic performance of the vehicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428558",
"title": "Bicycle pump",
"section": "Section::::Tire pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The pressure rating of tires is usually stamped somewhere on the sidewall. This may be in psi (pounds per square inch) or bar. The pressure rating could be indicated as \"Maximum Pressure,\" or \"Inflate to . . . \" and will usually give a range (for example, 90-120 psi, or 35-60 psi). Inflating to the lower number in the pressure range will increase traction and make the ride more comfortable. Inflating to the higher number will make the ride more efficient and will decrease the chances of getting a flat tire but a firmer ride must be expected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4065602",
"title": "Tire load sensitivity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Production car tires typically develop this maximum lateral force, or cornering force, at a slip angle of 6-10 degrees, although this angle increases as the vertical load on the tire increases. Formula 1 car tires may reach a peak sideforce at 3 degrees \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6256842",
"title": "NASCAR Racing",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Tires are modeled in much detail. The game keeps track of 3 temperatures for each tire, reflecting temperatures at the center, inner, and outer edges. Numerous variables can influence tire temperatures. For example, an underinflated tire will tend to heat more at the edges rather than the center. An incorrect camber setting can cause one edge to heat more than the other. Temperatures are also influenced by many other factors such as weight distribution, toe-in, driver behavior, and the cornering characteristics of the race track. Tires in the game perform optimally at elevated temperatures, but if they heat excessively this effect is lost. The player can view current tire temperatures using an in-game keyboard command.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3684992",
"title": "Tire-pressure monitoring system",
"section": "Section::::Direct vs. indirect.:Direct TPMS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1448,
"text": "Direct TPMS employ pressure sensors on each wheel, either internal or external. The sensors physically measure the tire pressure in each tire and report it to the vehicle's instrument cluster or a corresponding monitor. Some units also measure and alert temperatures of the tire as well. These systems can identify under-inflation in any combination, be it one tire or all, simultaneously. Although the systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and aftermarket) can display real time tire pressures at each location monitored whether the vehicle is moving or parked. There are many different solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile environments. The majority are powered by batteries which limit their useful life. Some sensors utilise a wireless power system similar to that used in RFID tag reading which solves the problem of limited battery life by electromagnetic induction. This also increases the frequency of data transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight which can be important in motorsport applications. If the sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems, they are subject to mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted on the inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery change and the RF link must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which increases the energy need.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
do278g
|
South Africa
|
[
{
"answer": "Following the Second Anglo-Boer War, the Transvaal and Orange Free State were barren. Scorched earth tactics from the British had left farmland ruined, and the concentration of the Boer population in camps had lead to a huge depopulation, with around half of the Boer children in these camps dying from disease and malnutrition. The Afrikaner population of the Free State and the Transvaal, the 'Boers' (Dutch for farmer) were a conservative agrarian people. They toiled on the land, and most had little formal education outside of learning to read the Bible. Afrikaners from the Cape Colony were distinct, they tended to have a better education and were more 'cosmopolitan'. Prior to the Witwatersrand Gold Rush which lead to the foundation of Johannesburg, neither the Transvaal or Orange Free State had any sizeable cities outside of their capitals which were also rather small. They were both very rural states, with most of their citizenship economically engaged in agriculture. Ruined farms following the war lead many families to migrate to cities, the so called ''die trek na die stad''. This lead to cities growing in size, and Johannesburg which was effectively run by English speaking business owners, was the main draw to these internal migrants. This wave of migration was later exacerbated by the modernisation of farming forcing more to move on to the cities. When moving to these cities the Afrikaners were left on the fringes, often in the worse areas, sometimes close to the informal settlements of the native bantus who were used as a pool of cheap labour primarily in the mining sector. The language of business, commerce, the civil service and in some cases even education was primarily conducted in English. The Afrikaners were mostly looked down upon as a simple people, and there was much prejudice against Afrikaans which many considered a ''kitchen language'', only suitable for communication with your black workers. With poor command of the English language and little formal education these poor Afrikaners had to resort to manual labour, working for little. So you had the Afrikaners living in an alien place, looked down upon by established English speakers, at a disadvantage socially and in many cases competing with blacks for jobs.\n\nThe animosity the Afrikaners had towards the British was considerable from the memory of the Second Anglo-Boer War, and following South Africa's entry into the First World War, a small minority attempted an uprising on behalf of leaving the Empire and joining the Germans, the 'Maritz Rebellion'. This was crushed, and politically the consensus was still on the whole for reconciliation and Afrikaners and English working together in South Africa as a part of the British Empire. However a group of Afrikaners, recognising the need for their people to expand their political power formed the Afrikanerbond, a secret society which was the main driving force behind the Afrikaner nationalist movement. \n\nThe close proximity of blacks and Afrikaners, and their competition in the labour market led to a series of labour disputes. The most notable of these was the Rand Rebellion in 1922. Upset at the use of black labour being exploited by business owners thereby depressing the wages of white workers and leading to unemployment for whites, along with blacks being promoted to positions of authority, white workers backed by the South African Labour Party and communists held a strike which almost became an uprising. Their slogan was ''Workers of the world unite, and fight for a white South Africa'', which is ironic given the role socialist movements had in the eventual democratisation of South Africa and the downfall of Apartheid and the non-racial aspect of socialism in general. The government put down the rebellion with brutal force. They attempted to meet some of the demands, passing legislating allowing for trade unions and also banning black membership of trade unions. But the memory of the Army and Air Force using deadly force against citizens, bombing them with tanks, planes and artillery was too fresh, and the policy change too weak and too late. The nominally pro-British party, the South African Party, lost to a coalition of the Afrikaner nationalist National Party and Labour party which sought to promote the interests of Afrikaners and white workers respectively. The National Party grew out of dissatisfaction with the direction of the South African Party, and the desire to promote the interest of Afrikaners and ensure that ties with Britain were kept to a minimum with the eventual goal of a republic. This government introduced a number of populist measures which restricted blacks participation in the workforce to menial roles and legally favoured the hiring of white workers. On top of this they ensured that white workers were paid a minimum wage, introduced improved working conditions and expanded social welfare. Dutch and English had both been official languages of the Union, however in practice very few people spoke 'proper' Dutch, with Afrikaans by this point being rather distinct. Also in practice English had a far more prominent role as an official language. In an effort towards equality, they introduced an act ensuring that Afrikaans had equal standing with English and Dutch, and promoted the use of Afrikaans in the civil service. \n\nYears later following the impact of the Great Depression, the National Party and South African Party merged into the United Party. This would steer South Africa through the Great Depression, which further exacerbated the problem of white poverty. There was an uneasy peace between the Afrikaner nationalists and the South African Party faction, both based on a belief in white supremacy although differing in their eventual vision for the country uniting to help mitigate the effects of the depression. Following the start of the Second World War, there was considerable arguments within the party with those wanting South Africa to remain neutral lead by J.B.M Hertzog, and those wanting to join the British being lead by Jan Smuts. Following a vote the parliament decided to declare war on Germany, Hertzog resigned and Jan Smuts took leadership of the United Party and became Prime Minister. Hertzog started a breakaway nationalist party, and in his absence the United Party rather than being a coalition of white interests, increasingly became more liberal and representative of the views of those who supported relations with the Empire. \n\nThe backdrop to the 1948 election was interesting. Smuts was incredibly popular for his role as an elder statesman and his leadership of the country, and arguably even the Allies, during the war. However despite having been a general for the Boers during the Second Anglo-Boer War, and being a considerable military and political leader through both world wars, his efforts toward reconciliation with the British and his support of the British Empire made him despised by a considerable number of his kin. On the issue of race, the United Party was nominally in favour of the limited existing political representation that existed for coloureds, blacks and Indians, while vaguely acknowledging and paying lip service to an eventual racial political integration, even if not acceptable for the foreseeable future. In contrast the nationalists promised to introduce laws permanently separating whites and blacks, and enshrine white supremacy de jure. The 1940s lead to a huge moral panic over black violence and crime against whites, a part of the ''swart gevaar''. Blacks were now starting to organise more, and protest against injustices which further fed the fear of a black uprising. The nationalist used this in order to attract poorer whites voters who were scared of black crime and black political power and racial equality harming their livelihoods. Despite the United Party winning more votes, the United Party lost it's majority with a coalition of Afrikaner Nationalist parties taking power lead by D.F. Malan. By carefully targeting and playing on the concerns of urban Afrikaners and relying on the support of rural Afrikaners they were able to get a majority under first past the post. Malan would introduce harsher laws enshrining segregation against blacks, coloureds and Indians into law which is what we now know as Apartheid. The country was run by the National Party from 1948 until the first universal democratic elections in 1994.\n\nSo in summary, yes Afrikaners were at a disadvantage to English speaking South Africans following the union of South Africa, and discriminated against, even if not legally. A large bloc of poor urban Afrikaners were competing with blacks for jobs and resources, although I must insist on saying that they were still always considerably better off than the black population. This, coupled with tensions between Afrikaners and English speaking South Africans led to the rise of Afrikaner nationalism, which helped improve overall conditions for white workers but at the expense of black workers. Backlash to Jan Smuts and his pro-British stance, coupled with fears of the black population contributed to the nationalists victory in 1948, with the rise of Apartheid. \n\nsources: \n\nSouth Africa: The First Man, the Last Nation - R.W. Johnson\n\nDiamonds, Gold and War: The Making of South Africa - Martin Meredith \n\nChurchill and Smuts: The Friendship - Richard Steyn \n\nA History of South Africa - Leonard Thompson \n\nCry, the beloved country - Alan Paton \n(it's fiction, but I feel it helps a lot in understanding the general feeling of South Africa during the 1940s)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42812995",
"title": "Eric A. Walker (historian)",
"section": "Section::::Career.:South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "In 1930 Walker gave an influential lecture in Oxford, printed as \"The frontier tradition in South African history\" (Oxford University Press, London, 1930), in which Walker outlined his theory that the origins of the apartheid system in South Africa lay in conflict between blacks and whites on the frontier regions in the nineteenth century which was then imported into the interior where it was institutionalised in the constitutions of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic. Walker's theory owed much to Frederick Jackson Turner and \"The Oxford History of Historical Writing\" described him as \"in some respects the George Stanley of South Africa\". His ideas in this area have since been largely rebutted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32072658",
"title": "South Africa (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "South Africa is a single by Ian Gillan and former Whitesnake guitarist Bernie Marsden. It was released in 1988 in UK by Virgin Records to coincide with the Nelson Mandela 70th birthday concert at Wembley Stadium. The single was mixed by Jimbo Barton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7888526",
"title": "Military history of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Military history of Africa by regions.:Military history of Southern Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Modern conflicts involving South Africa's predominantly Afrikaner government raged as a result of its controversial \"apartheid\" policy, led by \"Umkhonto we Sizwe\", military wing of the African National Congress, and the Azanian People's Liberation Army, which received training and armament from communist states such as the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The related South African Border War broke out when the South West African People's Organization (SWAPO) began its struggle to free Namibia from South African rule. South Africa fought a long and bitter campaign against SWAPO and its Angolan allies from 1966 to 1989. The conflict escalated into major conventional warfare in 1984; between 1987 and 1988 South African, Cuban, and Angolan armies fought the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale: Africa's largest single engagement since World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17416221",
"title": "South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Politics and government.:Foreign relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "South Africa has played a key role as a mediator in African conflicts over the last decade, such as in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Comoros, and Zimbabwe. After apartheid ended, South Africa was readmitted to the Commonwealth of Nations. The country is a member of the Group of 77 and chaired the organisation in 2006. South Africa is also a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, Southern African Customs Union (SACU), Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), G20, G8+5, and the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7170806",
"title": "Geography of the African Union",
"section": "Section::::Countries bordering the African Union.:Previous borders.:October 31, 1966 – July 13, 1964.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "BULLET::::- South Africa – While independent, South Africa was ruled under the system of apartheid, and was ineligible and uninterested in membership. Following a democratic revolution in 1994, it joined the OAU that June 6; becoming the most recent member. It bordered Botswana to the south and is perforated by Lesotho.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47992207",
"title": "John Matisonn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Matisonn released a book \"God, Spies and Lies, Finding South Africa's future through its past\" in November 2015. The book contains many revelations about how South Africa finds itself in its current political predicament based on never before documented discussions with important role players, in the fight against white minority rule. The book names Tertius Myburgh a former editor of The Sunday Times for the first time as an apartheid agent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60532929",
"title": "Compatriots of South Africa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Compatriots of South Africa (CSA) is a South African political party that focuses its efforts on Coloured South Africans, titling its manifesto \"The Manifesto for the Forgotten People of South Africa\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1aiwaf
|
what is the purpose of using gpa instead of a percent average?
|
[
{
"answer": "GPA is an easier way for people to tell at a glance, what grades you got more often at school:\n\n4 is A\n\n3 is B\n\n2 is C\n\n1 is D\n\nand anything lower than that, you fail at life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could someone possibly explain this to someone unfamiliar with the US grading system? i.e. me",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "972079",
"title": "Genuine progress indicator",
"section": "Section::::Calculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The GPI indicator is based on the concept of sustainable income, presented by economist John Hicks (1948). The sustainable income is the amount a person or an economy can consume during one period without decreasing his or her consumption during the next period. In the same manner, GPI depicts the state of welfare in the society by taking into account the ability to maintain welfare on at least the same level in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41966024",
"title": "Valuation of Nonmarket Housework",
"section": "Section::::Economic Valuation.:\"Tracking Measures\".:Genuine progress indicator (GPI).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The GPI is an alternative to GDP as a measure of economic growth that is generally designed to incorporate environmental and social factors that are not traditionally included. While much of the focus is typically placed on environmental costs, most GPI measurements explicitly include additions for the value of household work and parenting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247805",
"title": "Grading in education",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "In some countries, all grades from all current classes are averaged to create a grade point average (GPA) for the marking period. The GPA is calculated by taking the number of grade points a student earned in a given period of time of middle school through high school. GPAs are also calculated for undergraduate and graduate students in most universities. The GPA can be used by potential employers or educational institutions to assess and compare applicants. A cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is a calculation of a student's total earned points divided by the possible number of points. This grading system calculates the average for all of his or her complete education career. Grade point averages can be unweighted (where all classes with the same number of credits have equal influence on the GPA) or weighted (where some classes are given more influence than others)..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "972079",
"title": "Genuine progress indicator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Genuine progress indicator (GPI) is a metric that has been suggested to replace, or supplement, gross domestic product (GDP) . The GPI is designed to take fuller account of the well-being of a nation, only a part of which pertains to the size of the nation's economy, by incorporating environmental and social factors which are not measured by GDP. For instance, some models of GPI decrease in value when the poverty rate increases. The GPI separates the concept of societal progress from economic growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "972079",
"title": "Genuine progress indicator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "GPI is an attempt to measure whether the environmental impact and social costs of economic production and consumption in a country are negative or positive factors in overall health and well-being. By accounting for the costs borne by the society as a whole to repair or control pollution and poverty, GPI balances GDP spending against external costs. GPI advocates claim that it can more reliably measure economic progress, as it distinguishes between the overall \"shift in the 'value basis' of a product, adding its ecological impacts into the equation\". Comparatively speaking, the relationship between GDP and GPI is analogous to the relationship between the gross profit of a company and the net profit; the net profit is the gross profit minus the costs incurred, while the GPI is the GDP (value of all goods and services produced) minus the environmental and social costs. Accordingly, the GPI will be zero if the financial costs of poverty and pollution equal the financial gains in production of goods and services, all other factors being constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42873203",
"title": "Grading systems by country",
"section": "Section::::South America.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 482,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 482,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "During college, the GPA is calculated as a weighted average of grade and course hours and have a bigger importance than in the high school as it determines priority in receiving scholarships, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42873203",
"title": "Grading systems by country",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:Malaysia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The 10-point GPA is categorized as follows: 10–9.1 (O ( out of standing ) or A+) – Best, 9–8.1 (A) – Excellent, 8–7.1 (B+) – exceptionally good, 7–6.1 (B) – very good, 6–5.1 (C+) – good, 5–4.1 (C) – average, 4–3.1 (D+) – fair, 3.1–2 (D) – Pass, 2–0 (E+–E) – fail. A GPA of over 7 is generally considered to be an indication of a strong grasp of all subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bakrge
|
how can clouds can get in the way of the sun, but don't block out the light?
|
[
{
"answer": "Clouds do not block the sun, they change the speed of the light and defuse the light coming though them from the sun. This is why the tops of thunderclouds look like they are glowing while the bottom are dark, the light has slowed so far down it is no longer defuses. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "212101",
"title": "Diffuse sky radiation",
"section": "Section::::Under an overcast sky.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "There is essentially no direct sunlight under an overcast sky, so all light is then diffuse sky radiation. The flux of light is not very wavelength-dependent because the cloud droplets are larger than the light's wavelength and scatter all colors approximately equally. The light passes through the translucent clouds in a manner similar to frosted glass. The intensity ranges (roughly) from of direct sunlight for relatively thin clouds down to of direct sunlight under the extreme of thickest storm clouds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077335",
"title": "Polar stratospheric cloud",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Forward-scattering of sunlight within the clouds produces a pearly-white appearance. Particles within the optically thin clouds cause colored interference fringes by diffraction. The visibility of the colors may be enhanced with a polarising filter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28779877",
"title": "Atmospheric optics",
"section": "Section::::Cloud coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "As a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets, which may combine to form droplets large enough to fall as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, it may be that a percentage of the light which enters the cloud is not reflected back out before it is absorbed. A simple example of this is being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174823",
"title": "Dark nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Dark clouds appear so because of sub-micrometre-sized dust particles, coated with frozen carbon monoxide and nitrogen, which effectively block the passage of light at visible wavelengths. Also present are molecular hydrogen, atomic helium, CO (CO with oxygen as the O isotope), CS, NH (ammonia), HCO (formaldehyde), c-CH (cyclopropenylidene) and a molecular ion NH (diazenylium), all of which are relatively transparent. These clouds are the spawning grounds of stars and planets, and understanding their development is essential to understanding star formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47515",
"title": "Cloud",
"section": "Section::::Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 1203,
"text": "The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows. In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced grey shading because of its greater reflectivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17599355",
"title": "White",
"section": "Section::::Scientific understanding (Color science).:Why snow, clouds and beaches are white.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1077335",
"title": "Polar stratospheric cloud",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Due to their high altitude and the curvature of the surface of the Earth, these clouds will receive sunlight from below the horizon and reflect it to the ground, shining brightly well before dawn or after dusk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dx076
|
what is fiber-optics? how does it differ from traditional sources of internet?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's basically a laser fired down a hair-thin glass cable. It travels at the speed of light, has very little signal degradation due to interference, and by using different freq of light multiple signals can be sent at the same time.\n\nIf you have fiber internet there will be a special modem installed where it connects to your home network.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fiber-op line is what runs from your ISP to your home. Some regions may have fiber-op lines across a state or province, and many international routes have been fiber-op for years. All trans-atlantic cables are fiber-op.\n\nFiber-optics is a fiberglass cable that sends light beams down the line, instead of old fashioned copper line that sends electrons down the line.\n\nHaving fiber op from your ISP to your home is the fastest domestic internet available. The fiber-op runs to a box just inside your home with a power supply and some status lights. Then that outputs a signal on CAT5e to a fairly ordinary router and you're all set.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The big part u are missing in this conversation is that the fiber is providing your homes router with a high speed input output for alot of devices.\n\nSo lets say at your house all you have is 1 laptop running....there is little/almost no need for fiber. Even if u use that laptop for streaming or downloading files or whatever....its not enuf of a draw to see 1 laptop constantly buffering for a good coax connection.\n\nBut if you have a lot of devices.....smart tv, 2 laptops, 2 ipads, ps4, xbox and all these are streaming data and watching youtube and hulu and netflix....your traditional coax router may not be able to keep up. All your devices would slow down and lots of buffering alerts.\n\nBut with fiber your upload download speed is so fast your rarely see any buffering even with lots of devices pulling data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56776732",
"title": "Fiber optic display",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "A fiber optic display is a light-emitting display that uses fiber optics to display images or text. Fiber-optic displays can either be static or dynamic, with the typical lighting source being halogen light bulbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3372377",
"title": "Optical fiber",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Optical fiber is used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with much lower attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8774050",
"title": "Telecommunications engineering",
"section": "Section::::History.:Optical fiber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled into cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8774050",
"title": "Telecommunications engineering",
"section": "Section::::History.:Optical fiber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works, with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about 20dB/km), and at the same time GaAs (Gallium arsenide) semiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7309377",
"title": "Fiber-optic communication",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works, with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about 20 dB/km) and at the same time GaAs semiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4122592",
"title": "Computer network",
"section": "Section::::Network links.:Wired technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "BULLET::::- An \"optical fiber\" is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple streams of data on different wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect continents. There are two basic types of fiber optics, single-mode optical fiber (SMF) and multi-mode optical fiber (MMF). Single-mode fiber has the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the data rate and cable grade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10113809",
"title": "Optical Fiber Technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Optical Fiber Technology is a scientific journal that is published by Elsevier (formerly by Academic Press). Established in 1994, it covers various topics in fiber-optic engineering, optical communications and fiber lasers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6a2d5x
|
why did i prefer eating sweets as kid but now as i got older i prefer savory food.
|
[
{
"answer": "Children prefer sweet foods because, as a general rule, sweet foods contain more energy and children need more calories in relation to their body weight. Children also have more tastebuds and dislike bitter tastes because they experience them more intensely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\nSo, the first commenter had a somewhat close answer but I am going to break this down a little more and correct a few things. \n\nSo, as a child you most likely received sugary things a rewards or for doing something good and of course Halloween. Because these treats are associated with good behaviour or a happy moment, and think about the amount of sugar in a birthday cake! With that being said, as we move into adulthood, our tastes change. We don't fully understand why this happens, as to whether it is a psychological response or just a simple change of mind. In addition, as you grow up you began to explore taste and textures of different foods. You can I'm sure you can think of two restaurants that serve the same kind of food, but you prefer one over the other. That is just a simple choice, but it is inspired by your previous experience at the good one and the bad one. \n\nSo I hate to sound harsh here, but first, children do not have more taste buds than adults. We are born with the same amount, and the cells are constantly regenerating, but the amount stays the same. Sweet foods do contain high amounts of calories, but they are empty calories that only provide a fraction of the caloric intake needed for growth and development. Balanced diet is key in growth. \n\nI hope that helps, and think of the fun quip \"It's an acquired taste\". You might try something you would never have thought to try and you might like it, while everyone else says ew that's gross!\n\nQualifier: I am a Medical Doctor",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12465661",
"title": "Acquired taste",
"section": "Section::::Acquiring the taste.:General acquisition of tastes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The process of acquiring a taste can involve developmental maturation, genetics (of both taste sensitivity and personality), family example, and biochemical reward properties of foods. Infants are born preferring sweet foods and rejecting sour and bitter tastes, and they develop a preference for salt at approximately 4 months. Neophobia (fear of novelty) tends to vary with age in predictable, but not linear, ways. Babies just beginning to eat solid foods generally accept a wide variety of foods, toddlers and young children are relatively neophobic towards food, and older children, adults, and the elderly are often adventurous eaters with wide-ranging tastes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28949931",
"title": "Birgitte Thott",
"section": "Section::::Unpublished achievements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "On young girls not being encouraged to have an education: No one whets their appetite to the sweetness found there. No one tells them what delicious food there is for the soul, what effective remedy against all their frailties it is to have a little understanding of bad and good. There are many, and this I have heard often, who would rather impress upon young maidens that poring over books will make them objects of derision.On education for young boys:But young male children are treated completely differently. They are enticed into study by the reward and honour they are told they can thereby attain; [...] they are impelled to attend school by their parents or guardians whether they like it or not. There are so many learned men who sweat and toil to educate and teach them [...] neither exertion nor expense is spared at the institutions of education [...] in order to lead the students onwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892333",
"title": "Schultüte",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The only custom that changed in the latter half of the 20th century is that fewer sweets seem to appear in the \"Schultüte\", with more practical gifts such as crayons and pencils, small toys, CDs, books and even articles of clothing replacing the traditional chocolates and candies/sweets. These are traditionally given by grandparents who also take the child out to dinner the evening before school begins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39164260",
"title": "Sweetened beverage",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.:Influence of the household and media/advertisement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Taste preferences and eating behaviors in children are molded at a young age by factors, such as parents' habits and advertisements. One study compared what adults and children considered when choosing beverages. For the most part, adults considered whether beverages had sugar, caffeine, and additives. Some of the 7- to 10-year-old children in the study also mentioned \"additives\" and \"caffeine\", which may be unfamiliar terms to them. This showed the possibility of the parents' influence on their children's decision-making on food choice and eating behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240221",
"title": "Yōkan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "One of the most popular Japanese sweets, it evolved further during the Edo period as sugar became more available. It can be stored for long periods of time without refrigeration unless opened, and is a staple gift item.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19793706",
"title": "Kandmool",
"section": "Section::::Indian context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The vegetables like potatoes and sweet potatoes are considered rich energy source while being light to digest. This is the reason that many people consume them during fast. In the ancient times sages who used to live in forests or ashram in the search of divine truth or salvation used to survive only on kandmool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6541938",
"title": "Lexical-gustatory synesthesia",
"section": "Section::::Experimental studies.:Case studies.:JIW.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "JIW’s tastes are largely correlated to foods that he would have eaten as a child. He is around ten times more likely to associate a word to the taste of chocolate than he would to the taste of something he experienced as an adult, such as beer or coffee. For example, when JIW hears a common word such as \"this\", he experiences the tastes of ‘bread soaked in tomato soup’. Bread and tomato soup would have been common flavors JIW experienced in his childhood. It is hypothesized that some or all forms of lexical-gustatory synesthesia may trigger during early childhood development and lead to the over-representation of the flavors of childhood foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ow5ji
|
I know probiotics have been discussed before, but on the question of "recolonizing the gut" with good bacteria- is this even possible without a fecal transplant?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best data I can find on this concerns using probiotics as a theraputic treatment for diseases such as inflammatory bowl disease. These types of diseases are caused and/or worsened by gut flora. Its suggested that probiotics can be used instead of drugs with some success. \n\nThe research im talking about came out of Cork (Ireland) which is world renound for its gastrointestinal medecine. \n\nI have been unable/unwilling to continue looking to find anything about a regular diet of probiotics being good for you. From what I know gut flora is tightly linked to diet, healthy diet, healthy flora. Can you have a bad diet and counteract it with probiotics? Perhaps, but it doesn't really seem like the best option.\n\nI don't know what a fecal swap is, but you could kill all your gut flora with antibiotics and then eat a ton of probiotics to try and install them in your gut. Maybe try it and let us know how it goes?\n\nSource: O'Sullivan et al. Probiotics: An Emerging Therapy Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2005, 11, 3-10 ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From what I've read in journal articles probiotics only cause a transient change in the gut microflora. There is now good data to suggest they can have an effect improving many conditions, such as lactose maldigestion and antibiotic associated diarrhea (particular attention must be paid to the specific strain of micro-organism used, however). Whereas prebiotics may have a lasting effect. Prebiotics are defined as \"a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host well being and health\". A combination of prebiotic and probiotic is a synbiotic. Today, only bifidogenic, non-digestible oligosaccharides fulfill all the criteria for prebiotic classification.\n\nOne very good article I found which sums up the current field nicely is - Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics (2008) De Vrese, M. , Schrezenmeir, J.\n\nGoogle that and you should be able to read the abstract. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. You can take a pill with the bacteria in it. You can eat yoghurt.\n\nAlso, the appendix is thought to be a reservoir of bacteria for recolonization of the gut.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "407814",
"title": "Hygiene hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Current research suggests that manipulating the intestinal microbiota may be able to treat or prevent allergies and other immune-related conditions. Various approaches are under investigation. Probiotics (drinks or foods) have never been shown to reintroduce microbes to the gut. As yet, therapeutically relevant microbes have not been specifically identified. However, probiotic bacteria have been found to reduce allergic symptoms in some studies. Other approaches being researched include prebiotics, which promote the growth of gut flora, and synbiotics, the use of prebiotics and probiotics at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41403522",
"title": "Bacteriotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Fecal Matter Transplant (FMT).:Medical Uses.:\"C. diff\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Replacing typical antibiotic treatments with novel FMT treatment restores healthy microbiota and resolves symptoms. FMT restores a healthy balance of bacteria within a gut previously disrupted by \"C. diff\" colonization and antibiotic usage. FMT colonizes the gut with microbiota that suppress \"C. diff\", rebuilds a stable microbiome, and restores function. The microbiota of treated patients typically resembles that of the donor after transplantation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12739077",
"title": "Healing of periapical lesions",
"section": "Section::::Focusing on proper procedure.:Antibiotic coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The use of adjunctive antibiotics is usually uncalled for when proper debridement procedures can be executed in a conventional periapical lesion of endodontic origin; however, they can be centrally important to the treatment of a progressive or persistent infection. It has been proposed, however, that disinfection of the root canal by means of an antibacterial agent, such as propolis or otosporin, can lead to improved healing by reducing and controlling pulpal and periapical inflammatory reactions. This would, in turn, promote the healing process as well as provide for better control, prevention and reduction of post-treatment pain and discomfort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14177167",
"title": "Lactobacillus fermentum",
"section": "Section::::Probiotic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The use of gut microbes as probiotics in food is aimed towards preventing and treating various health problems. Among these health problems allergies, neoplastic growth, and inflammatory bowel disease are included. Recent areas of study have focused on the influence of probiotics on metabolic functions of their host. One area has been the metabolism of cholesterol by LABs acting as probiotics. Research has shown that \"Lactobacillus\" species have been proven to remove cholesterol in vitro through various ways such as assimilation, binding to the surface cells, and incorporation into cellular membranes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Antibiotics may be given as a preventive measure and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a weakened immune system (particularly in HIV cases to prevent pneumonia), those taking immunosuppressive drugs, cancer patients, and those having surgery. Their use in surgical procedures is to help prevent infection of incisions. They have an important role in dental antibiotic prophylaxis where their use may prevent bacteremia and consequent infective endocarditis. Antibiotics are also used to prevent infection in cases of neutropenia particularly cancer-related.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6396743",
"title": "Dysbiosis",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Because of the complex interactions in the microbiome, not much data exists on the efficacy of using antibiotics to treat dysbiosis. However, a broad-spectrum antibiotic that has low impact on the intestinal gut microbiome called rifaximin, has been shown to be effective in improving several of the ailments associated with dysbiosis, including Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Ulcerative Coilitis and Crohn's Disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29297150",
"title": "Probiotics in children",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Probiotics are defined to be non-pathogenic strains of organism that are incorporated into the diet to modify gut microbial ecology, leading to beneficial structural and functional changes in the gut. Some probiotics may serve as a barrier for the colonization of pathogens to prevent disease and enhance the immune system. In addition, some may carry out metabolic functions such as helping the fermentation of nondigestible fibres, and storing energy in the form of short-chain fatty acids. Of all the types of gut microbiota, \"Bifidobacteria\" and \"Lactobacilli\" are considered the two most essential bacteria beneficial to human health while \"Staphylococci\" and \"Clostridia\" are considered pathogenic to human health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65xz0c
|
why does sex, for most people, feel good. i understand the release of hormones but why are they released.
|
[
{
"answer": "Evolution reinforces the genetic traits that cause an animal to reproduce more often. If there was no incentive or reward for a species to mate, it would quickly die out. It'd be outbred and starved of resources by species that mate more frequently.\n\nOrgasm is nature's reward for propagating the species.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of questions about biology can be answered this way:\n\n\"Is there a good evolutionary reason why people who had that trait would be more successful than those who didn't?\"\n\nIn the case of sex feeling good, yes.\n\nImagine at some point a bunch of human ancestors had a certain amount of sex. Then one was born with a mutation that released extra endorphins during sex, making it extra pleasurable. That leads to that individual having more sex and having more offspring, passing on that gene.\n\nOver time, that gene is *selected for*, meaning that eventually most individuals have that gene.\n\nSo why does sex feel good?\n\nBecause if it didn't, your ancestors wouldn't have had as much sex, and then you wouldn't be here today to ask that question.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39230876",
"title": "Death during consensual sex",
"section": "Section::::Health and physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Sexual intimacy, as well as orgasms, increases levels of the hormone oxytocin, also known as \"the love hormone\", which helps people bond and build trust. Sexual activity is also known as one of many mood repair strategies, which means it can be used to help dissipate feelings of sadness or depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15179951",
"title": "Human sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Psychological aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Other than the need to procreate, there are many other reasons people have sex. According to one study conducted on college students (Meston & Buss, 2007), the four main reasons for sexual activities are; physical attraction, as a means to an end, to increase emotional connection, and to alleviate insecurity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9022677",
"title": "Sexual obsessions",
"section": "Section::::Obsessive-compulsive disorder.:Sexual focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Because sex carries significant emotional, moral, and religious importance, it often becomes a magnet for obsessions in people predisposed to OCD. Common themes include unfaithfulness, deviant behaviors, pedophilia, the unfaithfulness or suitability of one's partner, and thoughts combining religion and sex. People with sexual obsessions may have legitimate concerns about their attractiveness, potency, or partner, which can serve as an unconscious catalyst for the obsessions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9064442",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Psychological effects.:Effects on relationships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "When engaging in sexual acts the body produces oxytocin, a chemical produced in the brain to promote feelings of connection and love. Production of oxytocin increases during the adolescent years. It has a larger effect on girls, suggesting it may make them care more about relationships and feel connections with others more intensely than boys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11545",
"title": "Feedback",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In psychology, the body receives a stimulus from the environment or internally that causes the release of hormones. Release of hormones then may cause more of those hormones to be released, causing a positive feedback loop. This cycle is also found in certain behaviour. For example, \"shame loops\" occur in people who blush easily. When they realize that they are blushing, they become even more embarrassed, which leads to further blushing, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35215336",
"title": "Mood repair strategies",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Sex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1005,
"text": "Sex is a form of direct tension reduction, which puts it in the same category as things like the consumption of drugs and alcohol. Generally engaging in sexual intercourse is a much safer and less destructive alternative to the other direct tension reducing measures. To those in a healthy, committed relationship it can prove to be a very beneficial mood repair strategy. Sexual intercourse’s main purpose in mood repair is the releasing of tension. It activates the release of oxytocin in the brain that serves to calm nerves, relax muscles, and induce brief euphoria. These results each have a positive effect on unwanted moods and in combination they present a powerful reaction. The second major reason that sex constitutes as a mood repair strategy is because of the feelings of closeness it creates between the two people engaging in the action. The intimacy involved in sex serves as an important counter to the feelings of loneliness and isolation that often contribute to sadness or depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54301172",
"title": "Well-being contributing factors",
"section": "Section::::Biological factors.:Neurology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "It is generally accepted that happiness is at least in part mediated through dopaminergic, adrenergic and serotonergic metabolism. A correlation has been found between hormone levels and happiness. SSRIs, such as Prozac, are used to adjust the levels of serotonin in the clinically unhappy. Researchers, such as Alexander, have indicated that many peoples usage of narcotics may be the unwitting result of attempts to readjust hormone levels to cope with situations that make them unhappy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bsv8il
|
What did Roman provincial aristocracy and wealthy citizens do for fun?
|
[
{
"answer": "Believe it or not, they engaged in the same types of leisure as their counterparts back at Rome: they went to the horse races in the circus, they saw animal hunts, they watched gladiators, they went to the theater, and they went to their country villas to get away from the hubbub and relax. At Colchester, for instance, there was a Roman circus and a theater, and an amphitheater (for animal hunts and gladiators) at London. Britain is also littered with Roman-style elite villas (just do a quick search). There are numerous examples of such structures in Spain as well. Check out Merida, or Toledo, or [Italica](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Games and recreation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 183,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 183,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing. In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting. The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling handball. Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popular pastimes. Women did not take part in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings. Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns. Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1470578",
"title": "Hospitium",
"section": "Section::::Public.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Public hospitium seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the republic. The public \"hospes\" had a right to entertainment at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187381",
"title": "Toga",
"section": "Section::::Patronage and \"salutationes\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Patronage was a cornerstone of Roman politics, business and social relationships. A good patron offered advancement, security, honour, wealth, government contracts and other business opportunities to his client, who might be further down in the social or economic scale, or more rarely, his equal or superior. A good client canvassed political support for his patron, or his patron's nominee; he advanced his patron's interests using his own business, family and personal connections. Freedmen with an aptitude for business could become extremely wealthy; but to negotiate citizenship for themselves, or more likely their sons, they must find a patron prepared to commend them. Clients seeking patronage had to attend the patron's early-morning formal \"salutatio\" (\"greeting session\"), held in the semi-public, grand reception room (\"atrium\") of his family house (\"domus\"). Citizen-clients were expected to wear the toga appropriate to their status, and to wear it correctly and smartly or risk affront to their host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "991382",
"title": "Jacques Courtois",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "During the early and mid-1640s he started to attract the patronage of prominent noble Roman families, among them the Sacchetti, Chigi Family and Pamphili. It was Pietro da Cortona who had introduced him to these noble families. He also worked for patrons outside Rome and abroad in Spain and Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1832050",
"title": "Roman funerary practices",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Roman funerary practices include the Ancient Romans' religious rituals concerning funerals, cremations, and burials. They were part of the Tradition (), the unwritten code from which Romans derived their social norms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71691",
"title": "Dinner",
"section": "Section::::Dinner parties.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "During the times of Ancient Rome, a dinner party was referred to as a \"convivia\", and was a significant event for Roman emperors and senators to congregate and discuss their relations. The Romans often ate and were also very fond of fish sauce called liquamen (also known as Garum) during said parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52685",
"title": "Ancient Roman architecture",
"section": "Section::::Building types.:Thermae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "All Roman cities had at least one thermae, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies which was then scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9wg2kt
|
First King or Queen of England
|
[
{
"answer": "We have no particular idea who the first person to call himself a king in what's now England; the word in various forms (*cyning, kyningas, cyningas, cyninges, king*) goes back to Old English. But if you're asking about the first person to be king of \"England\" as a political entity, the answer is fairly straightforward. The first king of \"the English\" as he was styled was Alfred the Great, of the house of Wessex, whose descendants ruled England until the time of Queen Anne; Alfred's grandson Æthelstan (son of Edward the Elder and his first wife Ecgwynn) is generally considered the first king of \"England.\" There were multiple small kingdoms in what's now England in Alfred's day, and as king of Wessex he made it a political priority to unite the other \"English\" kingdoms (roughly, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria) into a political entity that could stand against the Danish invasions. \n\nHere are some older threads on the topic: _URL_0_\n\nand \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "160904",
"title": "List of English monarchs",
"section": "Section::::Titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "In 1604 James I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin) \"King of Great Britain\". The English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707 under Queen Anne (who was \"Queen of Great Britain\" rather than king).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46684",
"title": "Anne, Queen of Great Britain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714) was the Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland between 8 March 1702 and 1 May 1707. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, the kingdoms of England and Scotland united as a single sovereign state known as Great Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death in 1714.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253174",
"title": "House of Stuart",
"section": "Section::::List of monarchs.:Monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "These monarchs used the title \"King/Queen of Great Britain\", although England and Scotland were not united as the single kingdom of Great Britain until the Acts of Union 1707 came into effect on 1 May 1707.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56041249",
"title": "Coronation of George V and Mary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The coronation of George V and his wife Mary of Teck as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the British Empire took place at Westminster Abbey, London, on 22 June 1911. This was second of four such events held during the 20th century and the last to be attended by royal representatives of the great continental European empires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14909875",
"title": "List of English royal consorts",
"section": "Section::::House of Stuart, 1603–1707.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "With the death of Elizabeth I, the crown of England passed to her cousin and nearest heir, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. His dynasty would rule - interrupted by the Interregnum between 1649 and 1660 - until 1714. The Kingdom of England, however, was merged with the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707, to form a new Kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain, after which there ceased to be monarchs and consorts of England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21580",
"title": "November 25",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1487 – Elizabeth of York is crowned Queen of England. The new consort of King Henry VII travelled by barge from Greenwich to the Tower of London, whence she processed the day before the ceremony to the royal palace, and on to Westminster Abbey for her coronation, which was conducted by John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181254",
"title": "Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood",
"section": "Section::::Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Six British monarchs reigned during Princess Mary's lifetime: Victoria (her great-grandmother), Edward VII (her grandfather), George V (her father), Edward VIII and George VI (her brothers) and Elizabeth II (her niece). She is usually remembered as an uncontroversial figure of the royal family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s0e0z
|
the difference between a turtle and a tortoise.
|
[
{
"answer": "Turtles are aquatic. They mostly live in water and have webbed front feet. Tortoises are land animals; they have regular feet. I think that's the main difference. Besides that, I am sure they in live different parts of the world, have different diets, and have different shells and other anatomy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "140618",
"title": "Tortoise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Tortoises () are reptile species of the family Testudinidae of the order Testudines (the turtles). They are particularly distinguished from turtles by being land-dwelling, while many (though not all) turtle species are at least partly aquatic. However, like turtles, tortoises have a shell to protect from predation and other threats. The shell in tortoises is generally hard, and like other members of the suborder Cryptodira, they retract their necks and heads directly backwards into the shell to protect them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751",
"title": "Turtle",
"section": "Section::::Naming and etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "\"Turtle\" may either refer to the order as a whole, or to particular turtles that make up a form taxon that is not monophyletic, or may be limited to only aquatic species. \"Tortoise\" usually refers to any land-dwelling, non-swimming chelonian. \"Terrapin\" is used to describe several species of small, edible, hard-shell turtles, typically those found in brackish waters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140618",
"title": "Tortoise",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "The American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists uses \"turtle\" to describe all species of the order Testudines, regardless of whether they are land-dwelling or sea-dwelling, and uses \"tortoise\" as a more specific term for slow-moving terrestrial species. General American usage agrees; turtle is often a general term (although some restrict it to aquatic turtles); tortoise is used only in reference to terrestrial turtles or, more narrowly, only those members of Testudinidae, the family of modern land tortoises; and terrapin may refer to turtles that are small and live in fresh and brackish water, in particular the diamondback terrapin (\"Malaclemys terrapin\"). In America, for example, the members of the genus \"Terrapene\" dwell on land, yet are referred to as box turtles rather than tortoises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751",
"title": "Turtle",
"section": "Section::::Naming and etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Differences exist in usage of the common terms \"turtle\", \"tortoise\", and \"terrapin\", depending on the variety of English being used. These terms are common names and do not reflect precise biological or taxonomic distinctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37751",
"title": "Turtle",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and morphology.:Shell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The shape of the shell gives helpful clues about how a turtle lives. Most tortoises have a large, dome-shaped shell that makes it difficult for predators to crush the shell between their jaws. One of the few exceptions is the African pancake tortoise, which has a flat, flexible shell that allows it to hide in rock crevices. Most aquatic turtles have flat, streamlined shells, which aid in swimming and diving. American snapping turtles and musk turtles have small, cross-shaped plastrons that give them more efficient leg movement for walking along the bottom of ponds and streams. Another exception is the Belawan Turtle (Cirebon, West Java), which has sunken-back soft-shell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25409",
"title": "Reptile",
"section": "Section::::Relations with humans.:In cultures and religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The turtle has a prominent position as a symbol of steadfastness and tranquility in religion, mythology, and folklore from around the world. A tortoise's longevity is suggested by its long lifespan and its shell, which was thought to protect it from any foe. In the cosmological myths of several cultures a \"World Turtle\" carries the world upon its back or supports the heavens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140618",
"title": "Tortoise",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Differences exist in usage of the common terms turtle, tortoise, and terrapin, depending on the variety of English being used; usage is inconsistent and contradictory. These terms are common names and do not reflect precise biological or taxonomic distinctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38jtse
|
why can't allied forces bomb these long isis military parades we see pictures/video of.
|
[
{
"answer": "They just keep forgetting to apply for the permits, so there is no way of knowing where the next parade will be held, whether it will be large enough to warrant bombing or just strafing. Damn terrorists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You would have to know when one of these is going to occur, as it takes longer than you'd think to have an on-call bomber air plane to fly by and bomb the target. It is also harder than you'd think to drop a bomb on such a small target. And since every one seems to be to scared to actually send ground troops over to fight them, there really isn't much of a way to stop them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38212231",
"title": "Drone strike",
"section": "Section::::Drone strikes by the Islamic State.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Small drones and quadcopters have been used for strikes by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria. A group of twelve or more have been piloted by specially trained pilots to drop munitions onto enemy forces. They have been able to evade ground defense forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3525336",
"title": "Battlefield UAV",
"section": "Section::::Non state actors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "During the Battle of Mosul it was reported that commercially available quadcopters and drones were being used by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as surveillance and weapons delivery platforms using improvised cradles to drop grenades and other explosives. The ISIL drone facility became a target of Royal Air Force strike aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4428365",
"title": "Quadcopter",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Military and law enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "During the Battle of Mosul it was reported that commercially available quadcopters and drones were being used by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as surveillance and weapons delivery platforms using improvised cradles to drop grenades and other explosives. The ISIL drone facility became a target of Royal Air Force strike aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40520631",
"title": "Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::2012.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "According to rebel soldiers speaking in October 2012, Iranian Unmanned aerial vehicles had been used to guide Syrian military planes and gunners to bombard rebel positions. CNN reported that the UAV or drones—which the rebels refer to as \"wizwayzi\" were \"easily visible from the ground and seen in video shot by rebel fighters\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9087364",
"title": "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant",
"section": "Section::::Organisation.:Military.:Non-conventional weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "During the Battle of Mosul it was reported that commercially available quadcopters and drones were being used by ISIL as surveillance and weapons delivery platforms using extemporised cradles to drop grenades and other explosives. The ISIL drone facility became a target of Royal Air Force strike aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43694501",
"title": "Camp Speicher massacre",
"section": "Section::::Attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Peter Bouckaert, the emergencies director for Human Rights Watch (HRW), stated \"The photos and satellite images from Tikrit provide strong evidence of a horrible war crime that needs further investigation. [ISIS] and other abusive forces should know that the eyes of Iraqis and the world are watching\". HRW also said that ISIL posted on its websites many videos and photographs showing how they beheaded and shot their victims while they celebrated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43694501",
"title": "Camp Speicher massacre",
"section": "Section::::Attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "ISIL released the videos of the massacre as part of their propaganda video \"Upon the Prophetic Methodology\". The cadets are seen being crammed into trucks, some of them wearing civilian clothes to hide their military uniforms. Most of them are lying on the ground, with their jeans stripped to reveal camouflage uniforms underneath. Some of the prisoners were forced to defame Iraq's prime minister Nuri al-Maliki, while others were forced to shout \"long live the Islamic State\". Some of them lined up as a cadet was beaten to death with a rifle. The killing methods varied, from shooting the cadets one by one to shooting them while lying down many times to ensure death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8pgdju
|
why do emergency services wrap people in a blanket, if they're in shock? what does this do?
|
[
{
"answer": "Preventing hypothermia, and psychological comfort. Avast ye! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5:Why is it after a person is saved from a fire, they are wrapped in a blanket afterwards? ](_URL_0_) ^(_66 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: Why is it that people are given the grey 'safety blankets' after traumatic events? ](_URL_1_) ^(_14 comments_)\n1. [[ELI5] How do shock blankets work? ](_URL_2_) ^(_4 comments_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "943964",
"title": "Casualty lifting",
"section": "Section::::Preparation of the stretcher.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "A blanket is often used since hypothermia is a major risk for a casualty. The blanket must be wrapped around the casualty to avoid the heat leak from below (this is not necessary when the stretcher has a mattress, e.g. a vacuum mattress, or in case of an ambulance stretcher). For this purpose, the blanket is put before the lifting, and folded in a specific way:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9627207",
"title": "Blanket party",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "A blanket party is a form of corporal punishment or hazing conducted within a peer group, most frequently within the military or military academies. The victim (usually asleep in bed) is restrained by having a blanket flung over him and held down, while other members of the group strike the victim repeatedly with improvised flails, most often a sock or bath towel containing something solid, such as a bar of soap, or another rolled up sock. Other weapons which could be used were entrenching tools or a bunk adapter (a piece of pipe used to connect a bunk bed to another). Blows to the head were avoided, as these would likely be both fatal and leave injuries visible to authorities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1510939",
"title": "Comfort object",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "A comfort object, transitional object, or security blanket is an item used to provide psychological comfort, especially in unusual or unique situations, or at bedtime for children. Among toddlers, comfort objects may take the form of a blanket, a stuffed animal, or a favorite toy, and may be referred to by nicknames.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45466549",
"title": "Rescue toboggan",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "After first aid or other initial medical treatment, the patient is placed in the toboggan wrapped in a vacuum mattress or insulating pads, and wrapped with a windproof blanket. Heat reflective emergency blankets reflect thermal radiation and heating packs, hot water bottles, or electric blankets might be used to warm the patient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45366516",
"title": "School Safety Preparedness Drill",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "During the SSPD the schools prepare for a earthquake scenario and when the shaking starts the children along with staff perform a Drop Cover Hold on under sturdy tables and desks preparing to save themselves from falling objects. When the shaking stops everybody evacuates to a pre-designated assembly area followed by a debriefing. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50536497",
"title": "Safety drill",
"section": "Section::::Earthquake drill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "During the SSPD the schools prepare for a earthquake scenario and when the shaking starts the children along with staff perform a Drop Cover Hold on under sturdy tables and desks preparing to save themselves from falling objects. When the shaking stops everybody evacuates to a pre-designated assembly area followed by a debriefing. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56241227",
"title": "Poncho tent",
"section": "Section::::Use cases.:Emergency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "An emergency shelter is one that would be used in an emergency situation. That generally means that the situation wasn't specifically planned for. It may have been prepared for \"just in case\". For example, if a person was planning on sleeping outside in the wilderness, they should bring either a fold-able tent or a tarp as these will be more effective. If someone was not specifically planning on sleeping outside, they may carry an emergency blanket or poncho \"just in case\" knowing that they could be used as a shelter if they were stuck in an emergency situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35kjox
|
How do bacterial vaccines (like whooping cough vaccination) work? I was always told growing up only viruses could be vaccinated against.
|
[
{
"answer": "So yep, they work based on the same principle. \n\nProteins specific to the bacteria you are vaccinating against are contained within the vaccine. Your body reacts to these proteins to create protective antibodies against them.\n\nIf the actual bacteria is later encountered, antibodies directed against the specific proteins are already hanging around and can improve your body's ability to clear the bacteria from your system.\n\nThere are a variety of bacterial vaccines commercially available and some which only specific personel get. Other examples could be the pneumococcal vaccine (targets bacterial pneumonia) or the anthrax vaccine (targets anthrax bacterial spores...not available to general public).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Originally, bacterial vaccines were made from killed bacteria. These vaccines generally have more side effects because of the presence of parts of the bacterial membrane called endotoxins that trigger fever and inflammation even in very small quantities. In addition, many times vaccinating with the whole bacteria wasn't protective. The immune system would still target the bacteria, but the only part that usually matters is the toxins it makes or the molecules it uses to stick to your cells.\n\nMost modern bacterial vaccines have only a few components. Tetanus vaccine for instance only has the tetanus toxin, not the whole bacteria. Whooping cough also make specific toxins and adhesion molecules that are targeted. These vaccines have fewer side effects and are chosen so they are just as effective as the older vaccines, but are rarely as long lasting as actual infection. But many infections don't lead to life long immunity either, like whooping cough which even if you are infected as a child you can still get the same strain as an adult.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49197",
"title": "Antiviral drug",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Vaccinations.:Population health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "While most antivirals treat viral infection, vaccines are a preemptive first line of defense against pathogens. Vaccination involves the introduction (i.e. via injection) of a small amount of typically inactivated or attenuated antigenic material to stimulate an individual's immune system. The immune system responds by developing white blood cells to specifically combat the introduced pathogen, resulting in adaptive immunity. Vaccination in a population results in herd immunity and greatly improved population health, with significant reductions in viral infection and disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32473",
"title": "Vaccination",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Most vaccines are given by injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the intestines. Live attenuated polio, rotavirus, some typhoid, and some cholera vaccines are given orally to produce immunity in the bowel. While vaccination provides a lasting effect, it usually takes several weeks to develop. This differs from passive immunity (the transfer of antibodies, such as in breastfeeding) has immediate effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Role in human disease.:Prevention and treatment.:Vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1384,
"text": "Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Smallpox infections have been eradicated. Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans, and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines can consist of live-attenuated or killed viruses, or viral proteins (antigens). Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as immunocompromised), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. Subunit vaccines are safe for immunocompromised patients because they cannot cause the disease. The yellow fever virus vaccine, a live-attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192198",
"title": "Polio vaccine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "In a generic sense, vaccination works by priming the immune system with an 'immunogen'. Stimulating immune response, by use of an infectious agent, is known as immunization. The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298547",
"title": "Immunity (medical)",
"section": "Section::::Active.:Artificially acquired active immunity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Most vaccines are given by hypodermic or intramuscular injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the gut. Live attenuated polio and some typhoid and cholera vaccines are given orally in order to produce immunity based in the bowel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1873971",
"title": "Virotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Viral immunotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Unlike traditional vaccines, in which attenuated or killed virus/bacteria is used to generate an immune response, viral immunotherapy uses genetically engineered viruses to present a specific antigen to the immune system. That antigen could be from any species of virus/bacteria or even human disease antigens, for example cancer antigens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45661991",
"title": "Rachel Schneerson",
"section": "Section::::Notable Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Schneerson and Robbins believed that they could induce immunity by injecting a single antigen—the polysaccharide (sugar) from the surface of the bacteria—into children. Few others believed this process could work because the accepted belief at the time was that proteins, not sugars, were immunogens. Vaccine research at the time focused on using whole bacteria that had been killed, or of weakened bacteria, that could sometimes cause severe side effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rerob
|
with the japanese being very strong in the automotive industry - why are most passenger jets made by airbus (french) and boeing (american)?
|
[
{
"answer": "From _URL_0_\n\n > Now, to the two nations you specifically mentioned in your question. First, Japan provides significant airframe components used in the production of Boeing airliners -- Mitsubishi Heavy builds 787 wings in Nagoya, and Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd will be building \"wing boxes\" for the coming 777X fleet. The Japanese aerospace industry is quite capable of designing and building its own aircraft, but there's a huge capital investment associated with doing so, and it seems to me that, over time, they've made a conscious decision to position themselves to buy and improve on end products (like fighters) rather than creating them themselves.\n\nAlso, being good at making cars does not automatically mean a country will excel at making airplanes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since they lost World War II, Japan has been committed to having only very modest armed forces. A lot of what it takes to build up a strong civilian aircraft industry comes from military contracts -- even though the planes are different, they share many technologies. This puts Japan at a disadvantage with respect to airplane development.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Airbus is the Commercial part of a European Defense firm that makes the Eurofighter, the A400M and Drone systems\n\nBoeing is the commercial part of an American defense contractor who makes the Apache, the B-52 Bomber, F/A 18 Hornet and Air Force One. \n\nJapan isn't allowed to have that type of military since World War 2, so a lot of the spending in that area which would fuel R & D isn't put into the system, so their development lags behind. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38119723",
"title": "2013 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:October.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 279,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 279,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "BULLET::::- Japan Airlines announces that it will purchase 31 A350 airliners from Airbus for $9,500,000,000 to replace its fleet of Boeing 777s. The announcement ends Boeings decades-long dominance of the Japanese market; before the Japan Airlines deal with Airbus, Boeing and Airbus had competed head-to-head in almost every market worldwide except for Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32055415",
"title": "Hiro Type 14",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Japan's military leaders discovered the value of aircraft while participating in World War I. It was necessary to import all of its military aircraft and engines as there was no aviation manufacturing industry in Japan at that time. The Imperial Japanese did not want to rely on foreign products, yet that was all that was available. To remedy this, Japan began importing state-of-the-art aircraft from around the world, and after close examination and study they incorporated the best features of each into their own design, thereby creating a uniquely superior Japanese designed and built product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60218144",
"title": "History of Boeing",
"section": "Section::::History.:1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "In 1958, Boeing began delivery of its 707, the United States' first commercial jet airliner, in response to the British De Havilland Comet, French Sud Aviation Caravelle and Soviet Tupolev Tu-104, which were the world's first generation of commercial jet aircraft. With the 707, a four-engine, 156-passenger airliner, the U.S. became a leader in commercial jet manufacturing. A few years later, Boeing added a second version of this aircraft, the Boeing 720, which was slightly faster and had a shorter range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12147985",
"title": "Competition between Airbus and Boeing",
"section": "Section::::Modes of competition.:Outsourcing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Partly because of its origins as a consortium of European companies, Airbus has had fewer opportunities to outsource significant parts of its production beyond its own European plants. However, in 2009 Airbus opened an assembly plant in Tianjin, China for production of its A320 series airliners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1800070",
"title": "German–Japanese industrial co-operation before World War II",
"section": "Section::::Other military technology collaborations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "To put this in perspective, the Japanese also bought licences and acquired aircraft (sometimes singly and sometimes in large quantities) from most of the western countries. These included the United Kingdom (with which it had a close relationship up until shortly after the end of World War I) and whose De Havilland aircraft were extensively used, France, who supplied a huge variety of aircraft of all types from 1917 through to the 1930s, and whose Nieuport-Delage NiD 29 fighter provided the Japanese Army Air Force with its first modern fighter aircraft, as well as the bias toward extremely manoeuvrable aircraft. The United States of America supplied the Douglas DC-4E and Douglas DC-5, the North American NA-16 (precursor to the T-6/SNJ) as well as others too many to list. This resulted in many Japanese aircraft being discounted as being copies of Western designs - which from 1935 onwards was rarely the case except for trainers and light transports where development could be accelerated, the Nakajima Ki-201 and Mitsubishi J8M being rare exceptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2922572",
"title": "Kurogane Type 95",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "In the 1930s, Japan's manufacturing infrastructure was less advanced than those of the US and Europe, and military manufacturing focused on ships and aircraft by Japan's premiere industrial manufacturer Mitsubishi, and armament and tank production by Mitsubishi's \"zaibatsu\" partners. Aircraft were largely built by Mitsubishi, Tachikawa Aircraft Company, and the Nakajima Aircraft Company which built most of the aircraft. Limited raw materials were also devoted to higher priorities. The goal was to build 5,000 Type 95 in a supporting role, largely by hand and without an assembly line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51215",
"title": "Airliner",
"section": "Section::::History.:The postwar era.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The United States was dominant in this industry for several reasons, including a large domestic market for these planes. The market also worked in the United States' favor as the American companies began to build pressurized airliners. During the postwar years, engines became much larger and more powerful, and safety features such as deicing, navigation, and weather information were added to the planes. Lastly, the planes produced in the United States were more comfortable and had superior flight decks than those produced in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
extuhx
|
how can geese be so intimidating to bigger animals? would a human be able to do the same?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm no animal behavior expert, but no animal wants to get injured. If you have nothing to gain from a fight, probably best to not get in a fight with something that is aggressive. If you can come up with a convincing display or sound, many animals aren't gonna fuck with you. Note that I said *many*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, in the video you linked to, its not really because the cattle is scared. Its more like a little brother nagging the older brother, but the older brothers knows hes gonna get in trouble if he hits the little brother, so he kinda fucks off.\n\nBut, the way geese usually scare other animals, is by making themselves larger, usually by spreading their wings out. With those wings, they have a pretty mean slap, and along with their teeth (they have pretty sharp teeth) they can bite themselves out of many situations.\n\nYou as a human could do the same to scare away bigger things, just think of how dudes puff their chests when fronting other dudes. Its to become bigger and scarier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you look like you know how to handle yourself in a fight and approach someone accordingly the average person will back down. It also helps to understand tone of voice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think cows dont really care about humans because they've been around them for so long. However most wild cats, you are not supposed to turn your back on them. You are supposed to make yourself appear big and throw rocks if you can to appear as a threat",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know if you've ever been attacked by a goose. But they are mean motherfuckers and they can hurt you. Plus zero fear, a 5' wingspan, and usually hang out in gangs. That strategy also tends to work for humans wanting to intimidate others.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Geese bite hard and their beaks have serrated edges so they can bite off chunks of flesh if they get really mad. Also they have strong wings and have been known to break a person's arm just by flapping into them. They can be herded by waving arms, flapping clothing, clapping and loud noises. Waving a stick at them also works but hitting them with a stick can make them furious. Hot tip, when herding geese with a stick, point the stick where you don't want the geese to go; otherwise just hold it vertically in front of you with your hands at chest height and let it swing from side to side.\n\nYou definitely can herd cows (and sheep, horses, goats etc) by waving your arms at them and making a lot of noise. ***DO NOT TRY THIS WITH A BULL OR A STALLION especially if you are between bull/stallion and a female of the species.*** Bulls and stallions generally have massively developed shoulders and necks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a group somewhere in Africa that \"hunts\" by walking up to Lions and stealing their kills. They carry themselves with so much confidence that even lions don't fuck with them. I could probably find the video but I'm sure it's easy enough to find using Google.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most animals, especially those that don't hunt, generally really can not be bothered with conflict. So if you make loud enough noises, act that you are bigger than you are, and act aggressive, they'll back off. Why? Because... They'd rather be somewhere else doing something else than dealing with you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most animals even predators are scared of humans. They would rather retreat. Geese arnt scared. They will attack they dont retreat. This is true for several animals. Emus and moose off the top of my head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Without medicine, any injury you take is a risk of you either diying or be injured enough that you cannot Hunt anymore and you still die, but of starving.\n\nSo Animals, even big scary ones, have a Natural instinct to run from confrontation if it Is not necessary.\n\nSome other animal exploit this instinct by showing themselves as aggressive. What they are saying is \"look dude, you Will probably eat me, but I Will not go down without seriously hurting you\".\n\nMany animals waching this will back off because it's not worth it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54023742",
"title": "Guard goose",
"section": "Section::::Goose behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The same aggressive, territorial behavior can be utilized in the guard capacity. Geese are intelligent enough to discern unusual people or sounds from usual stimuli. Their loud honking will alert humans when the geese are alarmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2736310",
"title": "Domestic goose",
"section": "Section::::Origins and characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Like their wild ancestors, domestic geese are very protective of their offspring and other members of the flock. The gander will normally place himself between any perceived threat and his family. Owing to their highly aggressive nature, loud call and sensitivity to unusual movements, geese can contribute towards the security of a property. In late 1950s South Vietnam, the VNAF used flocks of geese to guard their parked aircraft at night due to the noise they would make at intruders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218972",
"title": "Canada goose",
"section": "Section::::Survival.:Predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1617,
"text": "Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators. Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes and grey wolves (\"Canis lupus\"). Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls (\"Bubo scandiacus\"), golden eagles (\"Aquila chrysaetos\") and bald eagles (\"Haliaeetus leucocephalus\") and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls (\"Bubo virginianus\"), peregrine falcons (\"Falco peregrinus\"), and gyrfalcons (\"Falco rusticolus\"). Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair. Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior. Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness towards humans, especially where they are fed by them. This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive towards humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent issues to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218972",
"title": "Canada goose",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then bite or attack with their wings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218972",
"title": "Canada goose",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Extremely successful at living in human-altered areas, Canada geese have proven able to establish breeding colonies in urban and cultivated areas, which provide food and few natural predators. The success of this common park species has led to its often being considered a pest species because of its depredation of crops and its noise, droppings, aggressive territorial behavior towards both humans and other animals, and its habit of begging for food (caused by human hand feeding).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10536491",
"title": "Nuisance wildlife management",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics of nuisance species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Typically, species that are most likely to be considered a nuisance by humans have the following characteristics. First, they are adaptable to fragmented habitat. Animals such as Canada geese (\"Branta canadensis\") love ponds with low sloping banks leading to lush green grass. Humans love this sort of landscaping too, so it is not surprising that Canada geese have thrived (not to mention the decline in hunting).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28363272",
"title": "Bird trapping",
"section": "Section::::Restraint and handling of trapped birds.:Waterfowl and long billed birds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Ducks, geese and other water birds can use their wings and bills to batter handlers and inflict potentially significant injuries. Loons, grebes and herons have long, sharp beaks, which they will stab at the face of a handler. These could inflict serious injury. To restrain a captured waterfowl, the handlers can grasp the base of the neck and hold the wings back and immobile, much like they would a domestic waterfowl. ()\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
99dgqt
|
Who are the mysterious invaders who ended the Bronze Age? Why have I never heard this before.
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to forestall further (in-depth comprehensive) answers, but you are likely thinking of the 'Sea Peoples', and there's been a bunch of discussion of that topic in this subreddit! There's [a section of our Frequently Asked Questions page about the Sea People](_URL_3_) featuring not only a great explanation of [where the term 'Sea Peoples' comes from, and why it isn't that mysterious by /u/bentresh with regards to the Philistines](_URL_4_) and [with regards to other groups in a separate reply](_URL_2_). Additionally there's not only [a good summary of what we know about the phenomenon by /u/kookingpot](_URL_1_), but even [an AMA with the author of *1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed*](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26284176",
"title": "Nuragic civilization",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nuragic era.:Sea Peoples connection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The late Bronze Age (14th–13th–12th centuries BCE) saw a vast migration of the so-called Sea Peoples, described in ancient Egyptian sources. They destroyed Mycenaean and Hittite sites and also attacked Egypt. According to Giovanni Ugas, the Sherden, one of the most important tribes of the sea peoples, are to be identified with the Nuragic Sardinians. Another hypothesis is that they arrived to the island around the 13th or 12th century after the failed invasion of Egypt. However, these theories remain controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19375990",
"title": "History of Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Legendary period.:Dorian invasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north marched into Peloponnese, where they were called Dorians and subjugating the local tribes, settled there. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "451998",
"title": "Elder Thing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The Elder Things are known to have warred against the star-spawn of Cthulhu, the Great Race of Yith, and the Mi-go. Despite these conflicts, it was the gradual cooling of the planet during the last ice age that spelled their doom. Retreating to their undersea cities deep in the ocean, they would thereafter have no further dealings with the outer world. Their last surface city, located on a high plateau in the Antarctic, remains frozen in ice. The ruins of this city were discovered in 1931 by two members of an Antarctic expedition from Miskatonic University.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15595141",
"title": "Battle of the Delta",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The Sea People invasions are often listed among the causes or symptoms of the Bronze Age collapse. Ramesses had fought the Sea Peoples in southern Lebanon, at the Battle of Djahy. Ramesses III describes a great movement of peoples in the East from the Mediterranean, which caused a massive destruction of the former great powers of the Levant, Cyprus and Anatolia:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1689486",
"title": "Prehistoric Europe",
"section": "Section::::Bronze Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Derivations of this sudden expansion are the Sea Peoples that attacked Egypt unsuccessfully for some time, including the Philistines (Pelasgians?) and the Dorians, most likely hellenized members of this group that ended invading Greek itself and destroying the might of Mycene and, later, Troy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30211722",
"title": "Prehistory of the Armenians",
"section": "Section::::Nairi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Prior to the Bronze Age collapse, the Nairi tribes were considered a force strong enough to contend with both Assyria and Hatti. The Battle of Nihriya, the culminating point of the hostilities between Hittites and Assyrians for control over the remnants of the former kingdom of Indo-European Mitanni, took place there, c. 1230 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5476196",
"title": "Nairi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Prior to the Bronze Age collapse, the Nairi tribes were considered a force strong enough to contend with both Assyria and Hatti. The Battle of Nihriya, the culminating point of the hostilities between Hittites and Assyrians for control over the remnants of the former kingdom of Indo-European Mitanni, took place there, c. 1230 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b3q8m5
|
why does stropping a blade with leather make it sharper?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you look at a metal blade under strong magnification you'll see \"burrs\" that look like saw teeth. They alternate in direction. After repeated use they get out of line and mangled. Using a leather strop realigns them and makes for a smoother cut or shave. It's pretty much the same as using a whetstone for a knife or sword.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, when you use a blade, the edge gets tiny imperfections which bring the edge out of alignment. Stropping realigns the edge of the blade without removing any material like a stone would.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) website is great for visualising what is actually happening, as it has pictures of blade edges using a scanning electron microscope so you can really see what is going on at each stage of sharpening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A blade get dull because the edge get uneven. Part of the material get bend and part get dislodges.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nA strop can bend back some part back. It can also push around material in a process called burnishing. You can also have abrasion removing of material like you do with a file but a lott less that happen primary if you add som abrasive compound to the strap.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nYou can see images with microscopes that show damages an and the fix with by stropping at [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it does two things.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nFirst it will align the edge. Imagine your blade has a microscopic ding in the edge so if you look at it straight on the edge, the edge is it shaped like an \"S\" instead of an \"l\". Imagine this \"S\" shape and you apply a sanding block to the side of the \"S\" to remove the material.\n\nS < --\\[block\\]\n\nWhat happens? The sanding block will grind away the high spots and you have something left over that looks like this instead.\n\n;\n\nInstead of a straight edge now you've made small serrations in the edge. To fix this you have to grind away all of the old edge until you form a new straight edge.\n\nWhat the strop does is instead of grinding away the material, because it is softer than the steel, it pushes on the material It works like a rolling pin where high spots in the edge get more pressure and you eventually \"push\" the material back straight without grinding away material. Now your edge is shaped like an \"l\" again and will be razor sharp again without grinding away material.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe second use for a strop is to de-burr and hone the edge. When you sharpen a blade you rub a harder material against the steel to remove microscopic bits of metal. It's like when you rub a spot on your favorite sweater and all those little pills of material show up. The same thing is happening on the edge of the blade, little pills of steels are forming on the edge where you are sharpening it. People will put a very fine polishing compound on the strop so after sharpening on a stone the now rub it on the strop which will remove the pills of steel off the edge and the polishing compound polishes the edge to a mirror finish.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "635183",
"title": "Grind",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "A sharp object works by concentrating forces which creates a high pressure due to the very small area of the edge, but high pressures can nick a thin blade or even cause it to roll over into a rounded tube when it is used against hard materials. An irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply much more torque to hollow-ground blades due to the \"lip\" formed on either side of the edge. More blade material can be included directly behind the cutting edge to reinforce it, but during sharpening some proportion of this material must be removed to reshape the edge, making the process more time-consuming. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the pressure applied at the edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2254028",
"title": "Leather carving",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Swivel knife cuts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "When the leather has been properly cased, the swivel knife is used to make the bold cuts that form the backbone of the carved image. These cuts are made to a depth of up to approximately half the thickness of the leather being used, depending on the effect desired by the leather worker. Care must be taken during this step to keep the swivel knife vertical at all times, as any tilt is detrimental to the ability of the leather to be properly stamped later in the carving process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5587478",
"title": "Knife sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Stropping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Stropping a knife is a finishing step. This is often done with a leather strap, either clean or impregnated with abrasive compounds (e.g. chromium(III) oxide or diamond), but can be done on paper, cardstock, cloth, or even bare skin in a pinch. It removes little or no metal material, but produces a very sharp edge by either straightening or very slightly reshaping the edge. Stropping may bring a somewhat sharp blade to \"like new\" condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1076403",
"title": "Woodturning",
"section": "Section::::Tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "Woodturning tools must be sharpened more frequently than other edged woodworking tools to maintain a clean cut because the wood passes at great speed. Sharpening is usually accomplished with the aid of mechanical devices such as powered sharpening wheels and abrasives. This sharpening process requires either skill of the craftsman, or one of the many available sharpening jigs, which facilitate maintaining a specific bevel on the tool. As with any mechanical sharpening method, overheating or blueing is a danger to be avoided as it will ruin the steel's temper, rendering the steel too soft to maintain a sharp edge. When this happens, the blued area must then be ground away to expose fresh steel and the tool must then have the bevel reestablished and the edge re-honed. High speed steel is not prone to blueing (overheating) whereas carbon steel blues easily, requiring frequent quenching in water or oil to avoid losing temper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37872117",
"title": "Honing oil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "In the context of hand blade sharpening, honing oil is used on a sharpening stone to protect the stone, carry away the debris (swarf), and to more efficiently produce a keen edge on a metal blade such as a knife. In a machine shop it also carries away excess heat and depending on composition, may prevent unintentional tearing and welding of the metal. Or when used with materials such as soft copper, it may have extra additives to prevent stone loading, or metal deactivators to prevent staining of copper containing alloys. To achieve maximum cutting rates and abrasive life with petroleum (mineral) based machining oils when honing difficult materials like stainless steel, a higher level of surface active lubricity agents are combined with sulfur extreme pressure additives. Industrial honing oil is typically available in: 5 gal pails, 55 gal drums, 275 gal and 330 gal totes, while home knife honing oils are typically available in 1 oz, 4 oz, and 12 oz. bottles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2685821",
"title": "Sharpening",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Sharpening is the process of creating or refining a sharp edge of appropriate shape on a tool or implement designed for cutting. Sharpening is done by grinding away material on the implement with an abrasive substance harder than the material of the implement, followed sometimes by processes to polish the sharp surface to increase smoothness and to correct small mechanical deformations without regrinding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47129698",
"title": "Splitting band knife",
"section": "Section::::Sectors and use.:Tannery sector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "The blades which are mostly used in this sector are rectified on both edge and surfaces in order to guarantee the best splitting, that means a constance in the thickness of the leather that is produced/split (rectification of surfaces), and also to guarantee the maximum linearity during the splitting process ( back edge); the blade must run as stable as possible without oscillations at all, which could create defects on the leather. Moreover, blades are used to be provided pre-bevelled in order to save time to start the blade running up once it is fitted on the splitting machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3st6pk
|
why did/do the mafia get involved in industries such as waste management and construction?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's easier to launder money through a legitimate business, especially one with extremely variable costs",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Waste management is a good way to dump some bodies....\n\nConstruction is where the big money is at. Put in a million, get 10million back. Tenant doesn't pay? Break some kneecaps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the idea that those businesses are territorial is also significant. The mafia is almost \"needed\" to protect their assets and territory. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Waste management because contracts are given by the local govermnent, hence easy to manipulate through bribes/intimidation. Construction because it is heavily unionised, and mob controlled unions is a cliche at this point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "893141",
"title": "Sicilian Mafia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Sack of Palermo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The 1950s saw the Mafia heavily penetrate the construction and cement industries. The cement business was appealing to the Mafia because it allows high levels of local economic involvement and is a good front for illegitimate operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35891118",
"title": "Corruption in Italy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The Mafia plays a key role in both public and private corruption. Arising “out of business deals,” as \"Forbes\" put it, the Mafia historically “acted as a guarantor for contracts, when the judiciary was viewed as weak. Until relatively recent history, almost every deal in the country was enforced by a ‘man of honor.’”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295665",
"title": "Crime in Estonia",
"section": "Section::::Crime by type.:Organised crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Organized crime is characterized by a loose alliance of mobster groups, principally of Russian origins, with a wide range of different rackets: prostitution, motor vehicle theft, drug trafficking, and previously also \"providing\" workers to building contracts in Finland, where the criminal organizations were confiscating a share of workers' wages. Although small, the mafia is hierarchical and well-organized, which has enabled its survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "801547",
"title": "Loan shark",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Mafia links.:Post-criminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Organized crime began to enter the cash advance business in the 1930s, after high-rate lending was criminalized by the Uniform Small Loan Law. The first reports of mob loansharking surfaced in New York City in 1935, and for 15 years, underworld money lending was apparently restricted to that city. There is no record of syndicate \"juice\" operations in Chicago, for instance, until the 1950s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8663477",
"title": "Giuseppe Farinella",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "An old fashioned mafia boss, Don Peppino, did not allow his men to extort local shopkeepers, which was common among mafiosi from the countryside. Revenues were not considered worthwhile compared to the money that could be extorted from companies that won public tenders in construction. Moreover, not extorting local shopkeepers Mafia bosses increased their legitimacy among the locals. \"\"Don Peppino did not want his men to extort a \"pizzo\" from the shopkeepers,\" according to a victim, \"because the latter, in contrast to entrepreneurs, did not carry out any speculative activity and the because he … thought that asking shopkeepers for a \"tangente\" seemed like begging for alms\".\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16515857",
"title": "Alphonse Malangone",
"section": "Section::::Early days.:Garbage hauling industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The New York Mafia has controlled the city's garbage hauling industry since the 1940s from the days of Anastasia crime family, operated by Albert Anastasia and James Squillante. In 1957 Anastasia was murdered and in 1960 Squillante disappeared, but the Gambino crime family continued to control their portion of the city's garbage rackets through their control of the Association of Trade Waste Removers of Greater New York, overseen by James Failla. Through their co-operation and the creation of various \"garbage hauling cartels\", the Genovese and Gambino crime families wielded near absolute power within New York City's garbage hauling industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35891118",
"title": "Corruption in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Perceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "A 2013 report in \"The Guardian\" identified “Organised crime and corruption” as one of six problems currently facing Italy. The Mafia, once confined largely to the south, now operated nationwide, and had spread beyond drug trafficking and prostitution to transport, public health, and other industries.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wwxp8
|
why is fresh food considered better than packaged food?
|
[
{
"answer": "Packaged food is usually filled with preservatives that allow it to be packaged and stored for a while. These preservatives aren't particularly tasty or good for you, so fresh food is valued more. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1551036",
"title": "Food bank",
"section": "Section::::Operational models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Many food banks don't accept fresh produce, preferring canned or packaged food due to health and safety concerns, though some have tried to change this as part of a growing worldwide awareness of the importance of nutrition. As an example, in 2012, London Food Bank (Canada) started accepting perishable food, reporting that as well as the obvious health benefits, there were noticeable emotional benefits to recipients when they were given fresh food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7757190",
"title": "Food waste",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Retail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Packaging protects food from damage during its transportation from farms and factories via warehouses to retailing, as well as preserving its freshness upon arrival. Although it avoids considerable food waste, packaging can compromise efforts to reduce food waste in other ways, such as by contaminating waste that could be used for animal feedstocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239196",
"title": "Grocery store",
"section": "Section::::Food waste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Packaging protects food from damage during its transportation from farms and factories via warehouses to retailing, as well as preserving its freshness upon arrival. Although it avoids considerable food waste, packaging can compromise efforts to reduce food waste in other ways, such as by contaminating waste that could be used for animal feedstocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32269642",
"title": "Bulk foods",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Bulk foods are food items offered in large quantities, which can be purchased in large, bulk lots or transferred from a bulk container into a smaller container for purchase. Bulk foods may be priced less compared to packaged foods because they're typically packaged in large generic bulk containers and packaging for grocery outlets, which utilizes lesser natural resources. Additionally, less packaging is congruent with the environmental conservation of natural resources and sustainability. One study found a 96% reduction in packaging used for bulk foods compared to packaged foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9677389",
"title": "Food desert",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Processed foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1501,
"text": "The original motivation for processing foods was to preserve them so there would be less food waste and there would be enough food to feed the population. By canning or drying fruits and vegetables to try and preserve them, some of the nutrients are lost and oftentimes sugar is added, making the produce less healthy than when it was fresh. Similarly, with meats that are dried, there is salt added to help preserve it but results in the consumer having a higher sodium intake. The ultra-processed foods were not made to be nutrient rich, but rather to satisfy cravings with high amounts of salts or sugars, so they result in people eating more than they should of food that has no nutritional value. Processed foods may also be made rich with nutrients that many people are lacking in their diets, making up for the lack of fresh food. Some nutritionists may recommend eliminating processed foods from diets, while others see it as a way to reduce food scarcity and malnutrition. In 1990 the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act required nutrition labels on food, making it so people could see what and how much of something they were consuming. With that labeling what some companies did was list things that weren't added on the front, but rarely did they add information about nutrients they added. There are scientists and nutritionists looking into ways to create affordable, processed food high in essential nutrients and vitamins that also taste good so the consumer is inclined to buy them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Fresh food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Fresh food is food which has not been preserved and has not spoiled yet. For vegetables and fruits, this means that they have been recently harvested and treated properly postharvest; for meat, it has recently been slaughtered and butchered; for fish, it has been recently caught or harvested and kept cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56686863",
"title": "Fresh food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Fresh food is food which has not been preserved and has not spoiled yet. For vegetables and fruits, this means that they have been recently harvested and treated properly postharvest; for meat, it has recently been slaughtered and butchered; for fish, it has been recently caught or harvested and kept cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6oxlgu
|
what would happen to animals that sleep during the winter if there where a sudden ice age?
|
[
{
"answer": "They'd quite possibly die from the unusual weather conditions, as would many animals that don't hibernate. A 'sudden ice age' would be a very traumatic event for any and all ecosystems. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wait, aren't we still technically in an ice age? \n\nAs hard as our species is trying, there is still ice at the poles etc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ice ages are never quite that sudden. You'd never have a situation where an animal enters hibernation, and then it is winter for a hundred years.\n\nIncrease, winters gradually get longer and harsher over hundreds, sometimes thousands of years. In that time, the animals either adapt, migrate, or go extinct.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19151199",
"title": "Winter rest",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3126927",
"title": "Chionophile",
"section": "Section::::Polar regions.:Polar adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1818,
"text": "Normally when colder conditions arrive, animals go into a state of suspended animation called hibernation, when they go into a state of inactivity for long periods of time, which they do not come out of until more suitable conditions for them to survive in arrive. However, when animals live in an environment that is inhospitable for much of the year, then hibernation is not necessary. One of the few animals that does so are lemmings, which have a mass migration after they come out of dormancy. However, most animals living in the arctic would still be active, even during the most brutal times of winter. Aquatic animals such as Greenland shark, wolf fish, Atlantic cod, Atlantic halibut and Arctic char must cope with the sub-zero temperatures in their waters. Some aquatic mammals, such as walrus, seal, sea lion, narwhals, beluga whales and killer whales, can store fat called blubber that they use to help keep warm in the icy waters. Some ungulates that live in frigid conditions often have pads under their hooves to help have a stronger tension on the icy ground or to help in climbing up on rocky terrain. But mammals that already have a pad under their foot such as polar bears, wolverines, Arctic wolves and Arctic foxes will have fur under their pads to help keep their flesh concealed from the cold. Other mammals such as the musk oxen can keep warm by growing long, shaggy fur to help insulate heat. And this can be quickly shed off when warmer temperatures arrive. But with the snowshoe hare it will change the color of its fur from white to brown or with patches of brown when it sheds off its winter coat. This is to help camouflage itself in its new environment to match with the dirt during the summer or back again when it regrows its longer white fur to match with the snow during the winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9278157",
"title": "In the Grip of Winter",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "As winter approaches Toad, Adder, and the hedgehogs go into hibernation, while the rest of the animals prepare for winter. However the winter is harsh and kills most of the field mice and voles, while making it difficult for the rest of the other animals to find food. Whistler and his mate help Fox, Vixen, Weasel, and Badger by bringing them fish; while the Great White Stag brings hay for the rabbits, hares, field mice, and voles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34061",
"title": "Winter",
"section": "Section::::Ecological reckoning and activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hibernation is a state of reduced metabolic activity during the winter. Some animals \"sleep\" during winter and only come out when the warm weather returns; e.g., gophers, frogs, snakes, and bats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3213407",
"title": "Archaic Southwest",
"section": "Section::::Archaic era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "As the climate warmed at the end of the Ice Age, mammoths and large animals such as horses and camels began to disappear. Hunter/gatherers gradually adapted to these changes, supplementing their diet with a variety of plant foods and smaller game. The Archaic people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Hunting was especially important in winter and spring months when plant foods were scarce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19151199",
"title": "Winter rest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Winter rest (from the German term \"Winterruhe\") is a state of reduced activity of plants and warm-blooded animals living in extratropical regions of the world during the more hostile environmental conditions of winter. In this state, they save energy during cold weather while they have limited access to food sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66811",
"title": "Seasonal affective disorder",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "In many species, activity is diminished during the winter months in response to the reduction in available food, the reduction of sunlight (especially for diurnal animals) and the difficulties of surviving in cold weather. Hibernation is an extreme example, but even species that do not hibernate often exhibit changes in behavior during the winter. Presumably, food was scarce during most of human prehistory, and a tendency toward low mood during the winter months would have been adaptive by reducing the need for calorie intake. The preponderance of women with SAD suggests that the response may also somehow regulate reproduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7i6343
|
How did scientists discover that mars had a magnetic field?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Mars Global Surveyor was a probe sent to Mars with the purpose of detecting its magnetic field. It had a magnetometer on board that mapped the entire magnetic field of Mars from orbit. \nAnother way is by observing the effects of the magnetic anomalies on particles. Basically magnetic fields will deflect charged particles. If there is a small region on Mars with a stronger magnetic field the particles will be deflected more strongly there. This was seen by the electron spectrometer on Mars Express. \nSome sources: \n_URL_2_ \n_URL_3_ \n_URL_0_ \n_URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Magnetic fields get \"fossilized\" in rocks. If a rock has some magnetic component (like, say, iron) then magnetic fields can be imprinted on it, especially as it cools from magma to solid rock. Those magnetic fields can then be detected as bluescr33n mentions. So if you see fossil magnetic fields produced by old rocks, you can know that Mars had a field when those rocks were formed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24944",
"title": "Plate tectonics",
"section": "Section::::Other celestial bodies (planets, moons).:Mars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the \"Mars Global Surveyor\" spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a \"magnetic reversal test\", which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14640471",
"title": "Mars",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Aurora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In 1994, the European Space Agency's Mars Express found an ultraviolet glow coming from \"magnetic umbrellas\" in the southern hemisphere. Mars does not have a global magnetic field which guides charged particles entering the atmosphere. Mars has multiple umbrella-shaped magnetic fields mainly in the southern hemisphere, which are remnants of a global field that decayed billions of years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14640471",
"title": "Mars",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Although Mars has no evidence of a structured global magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized, suggesting that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals is similar to the alternating bands found on Earth's ocean floors. One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the \"Mars Global Surveyor\"), is that these bands suggest plate tectonic activity on Mars four billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and the planet's magnetic field faded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54798835",
"title": "Crustal magnetism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1160,
"text": "On Mars the crustal magnetic fields have been noted as effecting its ionosphere. (See also Atmosphere of Mars) The magnetic fields on Mars from its rocks and crust are thought to come from Ferromagnetism and if the material is heated above its curie temperature the magnetic imprint is un-done. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics. Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. Only roughly half of Mars seems have a crustal magnetic field, which has been explained that an internal dynamo only effected part of planet or that a body struck Mars in the past destroying the magnetism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11603215",
"title": "Geological history of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Precambrian.:Archean Eon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The Earth's magnetic field was established 3.5 billion years ago. The solar wind flux was about 100 times the value of the modern Sun, so the presence of the magnetic field helped prevent the planet's atmosphere from being stripped away, which is what probably happened to the atmosphere of Mars. However, the field strength was lower than at present and the magnetosphere was about half the modern radius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426143",
"title": "Exploration of Mars",
"section": "Section::::Past and current missions.:Overview of missions.:Mars Global Surveyor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Magnetometer readings showed that the planet's magnetic field is not globally generated in the planet's core, but is localized in particular areas of the crust. New temperature data and closeup images of the Martian moon Phobos showed that its surface is composed of powdery material at least 1 metre (3 feet) thick, caused by millions of years of meteoroid impacts. Data from the spacecraft's laser altimeter gave scientists their first 3-D views of Mars' north polar ice cap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "463835",
"title": "Life on Mars",
"section": "Section::::Habitability.:Present.:Cosmic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars' atmosphere over the course of several billion years. As a result, the planet has been vulnerable to radiation from space for about 4 billion years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10xqrn
|
how do capacitors work? why do they explode?
|
[
{
"answer": "The simplest capacitor is two metal plates separated from each other by something that doesn't conduct electricity (a dielectric). They store charge because when a voltage is put across them, this causes some of the electrons on the positive plate to move to the negative one. If you then disconnect the capacitor, the electrons stay where they are in the capacitor, because there's no path. Reconnecting the capacitor into a circuit causes the charge stored on the plates to go to zero - the extra electrons on the negative plate move through the circuit until there are as many on the positive plate as the negative.\n\nFor capacitors that need to store a lot of charge for a given voltage across them (I.e.high capacitance), someone realised all you have to do is have a couple of bits of aluminium, one of which is coated in oxide. You then put both of these in a solution of ions that conducts electricity (an electrolyte, hence the name electrolytic capacitor) and wrap the two bits of aluminium up really tight and pot them in a metal can so it doesn't take up to much space. \n\nThe reason these guys blow up is if the external voltage to charge up the capacitor is the wrong way round, the voltage makes the oxide layer break down (the same way you can make hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysing water). When that happens, not only are you releasing oxygen un a sealed vessel, but the two bits of aluminium are no longer insulated from each other, so you get a short circuit, which heats up the electrolyte and makes it boil. It is this which eventually leads to a rather loud bang. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4932111",
"title": "Capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Hazards and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 219,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 219,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21152701",
"title": "Applications of capacitors",
"section": "Section::::Power conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Capacitors are connected in parallel with the DC power circuits of most electronic devices to smooth current fluctuations for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4932111",
"title": "Capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Power conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a \"clean\" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1780823",
"title": "AC power",
"section": "Section::::Active, reactive, and apparent power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Conventionally, capacitors are treated as if they generate reactive power and inductors as if they consume it. If a capacitor and an inductor are placed in parallel, then the currents flowing through the capacitor and the inductor tend to cancel rather than add. This is the fundamental mechanism for controlling the power factor in electric power transmission; capacitors (or inductors) are inserted in a circuit to partially compensate for reactive power 'consumed' ('generated') by the load. Purely capacitive circuits supply reactive power with the current waveform leading the voltage waveform by 90 degrees, while purely inductive circuits absorb reactive power with the current waveform lagging the voltage waveform by 90 degrees. The result of this is that capacitive and inductive circuit elements tend to cancel each other out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21152701",
"title": "Applications of capacitors",
"section": "Section::::Hazards and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19455228",
"title": "Motor capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Failure modes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "A faulty run capacitor often becomes swollen, with the sides or ends bowed or bulged out further than usual: it can be clear to see that the capacitor has failed because it is swollen or even blown apart causing the capacitor's electrolyte to leak out. Some capacitors are built with a \"Pressure Sensitive Interrupter\" design that causes them to fail before internal pressures can cause serious injury. One design causes the top of the capacitor to expand and break internal wiring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28874369",
"title": "Delco ignition system",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Capacitor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "There is a capacitor (sometimes called a condenser) connected across the points. If the capacitor were missing or defective, the primary current would arc across the opening points allowing the current and therefore the magnetic field to collapse slowly causing a weak or no spark. When the points begin to open the primary current is diverted to charge the capacitor, checking the rate at which the primary voltage rises and limiting the arcing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7q1m47
|
How did taking ships as prizes actually work?
|
[
{
"answer": "(1/2)\n\nThe procedures surrounding this varied a lot by country and time and place but typically in the 17th-18th centuries there wasn't much of a rigid legal procedure that was followed. \n\nThe mid-17th century Caribbean was famous for the totally corrupt English and French governors who unscrupulously sold privateering commissions/letters of marque to anyone who could pay, often whether or not there was actually a war going on. Even when buccaneers didn't have ostensibly valid commissions at all, they would commonly just continue using outdated ones or lie and claim they had them when attacking a ship, and they could easily get away with this by paying off the same local governors who sold them their phony or semi-legal commissions in the first place and profited off their plunder. The line between privateer and pirate was often very fuzzy and that's what the term \"buccaneer\" mainly describes. Famous \"pirate havens\" like Tortuga and Port Royal were based on this type of corrupt relationship between buccaneers and local authorities which essentially gave the buccaneers or \"privateers\" free reign in the Caribbean to plunder what they liked even in times of peace as long as they stayed away from ships of their own nation. I made [another post](_URL_0_) that talks more about this. \n\nAs for how plunder was divided up, buccaneers had a system for that but the government was usually cut out of it. They also didn't have any standard pay. Nearly all privateers famously operated according to the expression \"No prey, no pay\" meaning that the only payment they could expect was plunder from what they captured. And they wouldn't return to port to divide up their loot either because they didn't have to. Instead they would almost always either do it at sea or go to some isolated beach or cay or island where they didn't have to be under the watchful eye of any government officials. The former French buccaneer Alexandre Exquemelin in his book *The Buccaneers of America* published in 1678 describes the custom for buccaneering voyages like this:\n\n > When the provisions are on board and the ship is ready to sail, the buccaneers resolve by common vote where they shall cruise. They also draw up an agreement or *chasse partie,* in which is specified what the captain shall have for himself and for the use of his vessel. Usually they agree on the following terms. Providing they capture a prize, first of all these amounts would be deducted from the whole capital. The hunter's pay would generally be 200 pieces of eight. The carpenter, for his work in repairing and fitting out the ship, would be paid 100 or 150 pieces of eight. The surgeon would receive 200 or 250 pieces of eight for his medical supplies, according to the size of the ship. \n\n > Then came the agreed rewards for the wounded, who might have lost a limb or suffered other injuries. They would be compensated as follows: for the loss of a right arm, 600 pieces of eight or six slaves; for a left arm, 500 pieces of eight or five slaves. The loss of a right leg also brought 500 pieces of eight or five slaves in compensation; a left leg, 400 or four slaves; an eye, 100 or one slave, and the same award was made for the loss of a finger. If a man lost the use of an arm, he would get as much as if it had been cut off, and a severe internal injury which meant the victim had to have a pipe inserted in his body would earn 500 pieces of eight or five slaves in recompense. \n\n > **These amounts having first been withdrawn from the capital, the rest of the prize would be divided into as many portions as men on the ship. The captain draws four or five men's portions for the use of his ship, perhaps even more, and two portions for himself. The rest of the men share uniformly, and the boys get half a man's share.**\n\n > **When a ship has been captured, the men decide whether the captain should keep it or not: if the prize is better than their own vessel, they take it and set fire to the other.** When a ship is robbed, nobody must plunder and keep his loot to himself. Everything taken -- money, jewels, precious stones and goods -- must be shared among them all, without any man enjoying a penny more than his fair share. To prevent deceit, before the booty is distributed everyone has to swear an oath on the Bible that he has not kept for himself so much as the value of a sixpence, whether in silk, linen, wool, gold, silver, jewels, clothes or shot, from all the capture. And should any man be found to have made a false oath, he would be banished from the rovers, and never more be allowed in their company. \n\nFrom that last part, you can see how ships themselves were not always the main prize and they wouldn't always be brought back to port (the main prize was usually the money and cargo and slaves that a ship carried). Exquemelin says that buccaneers would either burn the captured ship or switch their ship for that before burning it, but when they were feeling friendlier buccaneers would sometimes simply give the ship back to the captured crew after looting it and send them on their way -- there are many examples of this. Other times, if the buccaneers had an excess of crew or they wanted to keep both ships, they might split into two companies with each taking command of one ship. \n\nWhen buccaneers eventually did return to ports such as Tortuga or Petit-Goâve or Port Royal to spend their plunder, all they would pretty much have to do is *say* they captured it legitimately and no one would bring them to trial, least of all the governor who they were most likely paying off with a cut of their plunder. The Spanish, who were by far the most common targets of both English and French buccaneers, often bitterly complained at being attacked liked this even when there wasn't a war going on, but prior to 1670 their complaints pretty much got laughed off and ignored by local governors and the English and French governments. Even after 1670, Charles II of England tacitly condoned many buccaneers like Henry Morgan, who sacked the Spanish city of Panama in 1671 in clear violation of the 1670 Treaty of Madrid, and actually knighted him in 1674 before making him the new governor of Jamaica where he served until his death in 1688. Charles II also granted a royal pardon to the buccaneer Bartholomew Sharp and others in 1682 after they had spent several years plundering Spanish possessions along the Pacific coasts of America, again despite there being no war. Probably one reason Charles II did this in the latter case was because Bartholomew Sharp along with his compatriots (Basil Ringrose, William Dampier and others) were among the first Englishmen to penetrate and explore the Pacific Ocean since Sir Francis Drake and Thomas Cavendish had a century earlier, and they all published extensive and valuable descriptions of their voyages soon after returning to England. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5219762",
"title": "Prize (law)",
"section": "Section::::Capturing a prize.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Taking the prize before a prize court might be impractical for any number of reasons like bad weather, shortage of prize crew, dwindling water and provisions, or the proximity of an overpowering enemy force — in which case a vessel might be ransomed. That is, instead of destroying her on the spot as was their prerogative, the privateer or naval officer would accept a scrip in form of an IOU for an agreed sum as ransom from the ship's master. On land this would be extortion and the promise to pay unenforceable in court, but at sea it was accepted practice and the IOUs negotiable instruments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1041587",
"title": "Prize court",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "A prize court is a court (or even a single individual, such as an ambassador or consul) authorized to consider whether prizes have been lawfully captured, typically whether a ship has been lawfully captured or seized in time of war or under the terms of the seizing ship's letters of marque and reprisal. A prize court may order the sale or destruction of the seized ship, and the distribution of any proceeds to the captain and crew of the seizing ship. A prize court may also order the return of a seized ship to its owners if the seizure was unlawful, such as if seized from a country which had proclaimed its neutrality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5219762",
"title": "Prize (law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Prize is a term used in admiralty law to refer to equipment, vehicles, vessels, and cargo captured during armed conflict. The most common use of prize in this sense is the capture of an enemy ship and her cargo as a prize of war. In the past, the capturing force would commonly be allotted a share of the worth of the captured prize. Nations often granted letters of marque that would entitle private parties to capture enemy property, usually ships. Once the ship was secured on friendly territory, she would be made the subject of a prize case, an \"in rem\" proceeding in which the court determined the status of the condemned property and the manner in which the property was to be disposed of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "981021",
"title": "Prize money",
"section": "Section::::Royal Navy.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "If the prize were an enemy merchantman, the prize money came from the sale of both ship and cargo. If it were a warship, and repairable, usually the Crown bought it at a fair price; additionally, the Crown added \"head money\" of 5 pounds per enemy sailor aboard the captured warship. Prizes were keenly sought, for the value of a captured ship was often such that a crew could make a year's pay for a few hours' fighting. Hence boarding and hand-to-hand fighting remained common long after naval cannons developed the ability to sink the enemy from afar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5219762",
"title": "Prize (law)",
"section": "Section::::Admiralty Court process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "The prize that made it back to the capturing vessel's country or that of an ally which had authorized prize proceedings would be sued in Admiralty Court \"in rem\" meaning \"against the thing\", against the vessel itself. For this reason decisions in prize cases bear the name of the vessel, such as \"The Rapid\" (a U.S. Supreme Court case holding goods bought before hostilities commenced nonetheless become contraband after war is declared) or \"The Elsebe\" (Lord Stowell holding that Prize Courts enforce rights under the Law of Nations rather than merely the law of their home country). A proper prize court condemnation was absolutely requisite to convey clear title to a vessel and its cargo to the new owners and settle the matter. According to Upton's treatise, \"Even after four years' possession, and the performance of several voyages, the title to the property is not changed without sentence of condemnation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1431983",
"title": "Pirates Constructible Strategy Game",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Players take turns moving their ships around the play area, landing on islands and exploring them, which reveals the value of the gold and treasure tokens on that island. Ships then collect treasure and attempt to return it to their home islands before their opponents. Since the game's victory conditions include both gold collection and the destruction of all enemy fleets, there are several different strategies that can lead to victory: trying to destroy an opponent before he or she can gather gold; building a fast and strong enough fleet to avoid being destroyed; or, most common, a mix of both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33584865",
"title": "List of ships captured in the 19th century",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "Throughout naval history during times of war battles, blockades, and other patrol missions would often result in the capture of enemy ships or those of a neutral country. If a ship proved to be a valuable prize efforts would sometimes be made to capture the vessel while inflicting the least amount of damage as was practically possible. Both military and merchant ships were captured, often renamed, and then used in the service of the capturing country's navy, or in many cases sold to private individuals who would break them up for salvage, or use them as merchant vessels, whaling ships, slave ships, or the like. As an incentive to search far and wide for enemy ships, the proceeds of the sale of the vessels and their cargoes were divided up as prize money among the officers and crew of capturing crew members with the distribution governed by regulations the captor vessel's government had established. Throughout the 1800s war prize laws were established to help opposing countries settle claims amicably. Private ships were also authorized by various countries at war through a Letter of marque, legally allowing a ship and commander to engage and capture vessels belonging to enemy countries. In these cases contracts between the owners of the vessels on the one hand, and the captains and the crews on the other, established the distribution of the proceeds from captures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
91gjet
|
Did France ever consider intervening in the English Civil War? If not, why not?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This answer](_URL_0_) from /u/ETFox explains the limited involvement of the continent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5390191",
"title": "Treaty of Tours",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The English at this point were unable to prosecute the war any further: the English territories in France could not withstand more taxation, whereas the English state was nearing bankruptcy, especially after the costly but failed expedition of the Duke of Somerset in 1443. A truce would provide the English a much needed break from hostilities. For the French, it would give them time to strengthen their armies in preparation for a possible resumption of the war, and prevent any hypothetical renewal of the Anglo-Burgundian alliance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1090966",
"title": "Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)",
"section": "Section::::War.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1096,
"text": "The French civil war turned increasingly against the hardliners of the French Catholic League. With the signing of the Triple Alliance in 1596 between France, England and the Dutch, Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops to France after the Spanish took Calais. In September 1597 Anglo-French forces under Henry retook Amiens, just six months after the Spanish took the city, bringing to a halt a string of Spanish victories. The first tentative talks on peace had already begun before the battle. The League hardliners started to lose ground and popular support throughout France to a resurgent Henry. In addition, Spanish finances were at breaking point because of fighting wars in France, the Netherlands and against England. Therefore, a deeply ill Philip decided to end his support for the League and to finally recognize the legitimacy of Henry's accession to the French throne. Without Spanish support, the last League hardliners were quickly defeated. In May 1598, the two kings signed the Peace of Vervins ending the last of the religious civil wars and the Spanish intervention with it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20419901",
"title": "Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630)",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "With the advent of the War of the Mantuan Succession Spain sought peace with England in 1629 and so arranged a suspension of arms and an exchange of ambassadors. On November 15 the Treaty of Madrid was signed which ended the war and thus restored the 'Status quo'. It had proven a costly fiasco for England and Scotland, but merely a minor distraction for the Spanish and French, who were occupied by the wars engulfing Europe. In England, the war costs and mismanagement fuelled the fire of disputes between the Monarchy and Parliament that began before the English Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5986369",
"title": "Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)",
"section": "Section::::Later War (1648–1659).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Since England was already at war with Spain, an Anglo-French alliance against Spain was established when the Treaty of Paris was signed in March 1657. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful and is only memorable because 3,000 civil war hardened English infantry, sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance with Mazarin, took part. The presence of the English contingent and its very definite purpose of making Dunkirk a new Calais, to be held perpetually by England, gave the next campaign a character of certainty and decision that had been entirely wanting in the latter stages of the war.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951616",
"title": "Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford",
"section": "Section::::Opposition to Edward I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Neither party showed any inclination to back down, and the nation seemed on the brink of another civil war. Just as the conflict was coming to a head, however, external events intervened to settle it. In September 1297, the English suffered a heavy defeat to the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Scottish victory exposed the north of England to Scottish raids led by William Wallace. The war with Scotland received wider support from the English magnates, now that their own homeland was threatened, than did the war in France to protect the king's continental possessions. Edward abandoned his campaign in France and negotiated a truce with the French king. He agreed to confirm Magna Carta in the so-called \"Confirmatio Cartarum\" (Confirmation of the Charters). The earls consequently consented to serve with the king in Scotland, and Hereford was in the army that won a decisive victory over the Scots in the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Hereford, not satisfied that the king had upheld the charter, withdrew after the battle, forcing Edward to abandon the campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22994877",
"title": "Proto-globalization",
"section": "Section::::Hostilities, war, and imperialism.:English Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1637,
"text": "The English Civil War was a battle over not only religious and political beliefs, but also economic and social as well. This war was between Parliamentarians and Royalists and took place from 1642 to 1651, but was broken into several separate engagements. Charles I and his supporters experienced the first two periods of the war, which resulted in King Charles I dissolving Parliament, which would not be called into session again for over ten years. Reasons for this dismissal were because supporters of Long Parliament tried to install two resolutions into English law. One called for consequences against individuals that taxed without the consent of Parliament and labeled them as enemies of England, while the other stated that innovations in religion would result in the same tag. Each of these policies was aimed at Charles I, in that he was inferior leader as well as a supporter of Catholicism. This prompted the Puritan Revolt and eventually led to the trial and execution of Charles I for treason. The final stage of the English Civil War came in 1649, and lasted until 1651. This time, King Charles II, the son of Charles I led supporters against Parliament. The Battle of Worcester, which took place in 1651, marked the end of the English Civil War. Charles II and other royalist forces were defeated by Parliamentarians and their leader Oliver Cromwell. This war began to take England in different directions regarding religious and political beliefs as well as economic and social. Also, the war constitutionally established that no British monarch was permitted to rule without first having been approved by Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "550684",
"title": "Siege of La Rochelle",
"section": "Section::::English intervention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The Anglo-French conflict followed the failure of the Anglo-French alliance of 1624, in which England had tried to find an ally in France against the power of the Habsburgs. In 1626, France under Richelieu actually concluded a secret peace with Spain, and disputes arose around Henrietta Maria's household. Furthermore, France was building the power of its Navy, leading the English to be convinced that France must be opposed \"for reasons of state\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vijov
|
how does the human body/mind know to growing when your young? and when to stop?
|
[
{
"answer": "**Hormones** and **DNA** regulate when and how our bodies grow and age.\n\nDNA encodes all of the information on the physical structure of our bodies, from the overarching human form to the microscopic insides of our cells. This information is translated into physical structures, like proteins, which then make up successively more complicated parts of our bodies. Each part that is made helps regulate how other parts attach to it, but this information was all originally contained within DNA.\n\nOne of the most important parts of growth patterns comes from hormones, especially testosterone, estrogen, and human growth hormone. These are chemicals which are released into the bloodstream to send general signals to all parts of the body. Whenever some cells receive these signals, they 'know' to grow. However, all of this growth is regulated at the most basic level by the information encoded in our DNA.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Obviously genetics play a major role in this.\n\nAside from that, you reach a point at which your DNA \"tells\" your body to stop growing by ceasing the production of growth hormones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54176",
"title": "Human body",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Development of the human body is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins with fertilisation, where an egg released from the ovary of a female is penetrated by sperm. The egg then lodges in the uterus, where an embryo and later fetus develop until birth. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both physical and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. Development and growth continue throughout life, through childhood, adolescence, and through adulthood to senility, and are referred to as the process of ageing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29798108",
"title": "Malleability of intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Neuroscience basis.:Importance of critical period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The brain grows rapidly for the first five years of human development. At age five, the human brain is 90% of its total size. Then the brain finishes growing gradually until age twenty. From start to finish, the brain increases in size by over 300% from birth. The critical period, defined as the beginning years of brain development, is essential to intellectual development, as the brain optimizes the overproduction of synapses present at birth. During the critical period, the neuronal pathways are refined based on which synapses are active and receiving transmission. It is a \"use it or lose it\" phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36302573",
"title": "Gesell’s Maturational Theory",
"section": "Section::::Principles of maturation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "According to Gesell, the rate at which children develop primarily depends on the growth of their nervous system, consisting of the complicated web of nerve fibers, spinal cord, and brain. As the nervous system grows, their minds develop and their behaviors change accordingly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26077339",
"title": "Seemantham",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "From the day of formation in its mother's womb, a child grows in different stages, each with a stipulated time frame. Accordingly, although brain formation takes place much earlier, memory cells are said to start activating upon the completion of seven months of pregnancy. Thereafter, the unborn child can record sounds and vibrations from its surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24768694",
"title": "WAVE Trust",
"section": "Section::::Strategies to reduce violence and child abuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "WAVE cites the research finding that between birth and age 3 the synapses (or connections) in the infant brain multiply 20 fold, and develop 85% of the human brain (and that 95% of the brain is developed by age 4). This speed of development causes the brain to be acutely sensitive to environmental experience during the first 3 years of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95250",
"title": "Development of the human body",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Human development is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins with fertilization, where an egg released from the ovary of a female is penetrated by a sperm cell from a male. The resulting zygote develops through mitosis and cell differentiation, and the resulting embryo then implants in the uterus, where the embryo continues development through a fetal stage until birth. Further growth and development continues after birth, and includes both physical and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. This continues throughout life: through childhood and adolescence into adulthood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83859",
"title": "Adolescence",
"section": "Section::::Biological development.:Changes in the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The human brain is not fully developed by the time a person reaches puberty. Between the ages of 10 and 25, the brain undergoes changes that have important implications for behavior (see Cognitive development below). The brain reaches 90% of its adult size by the time a person is six years of age. Thus, the brain does not grow in size much during adolescence. However, the creases in the brain continue to become more complex until the late teens. The biggest changes in the folds of the brain during this time occur in the parts of the cortex that process cognitive and emotional information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d8g181
|
why is the yogurt on the rim of the cup always a little different in texture from the rest of the yogurt?
|
[
{
"answer": "You mean the stuff that's seperate from the rest right? It's a smaller quantity and is exposed to the bit of air inside the container so it dries out.\n\nIt's a little thicker because of a lower moisture content.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1353595",
"title": "Yoplait",
"section": "Section::::Community involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The American franchise of Yoplait added a rim on the bottom of the yogurt containers to keep animals such as skunks from accidentally getting their heads caught. A label was added to the container stating: \"Protect Wildlife: Crush Cup Before Disposal.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956351",
"title": "Calpis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The beverage has a light, somewhat milky, and slightly acidic flavor, similar to plain or vanilla flavored yogurt or Yakult. Its ingredients include water, nonfat dry milk and lactic acid, and is produced by lactic acid fermentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6339151",
"title": "Clabber (food)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Clabber is a type of soured milk. It is produced by allowing unpasteurized milk to turn sour (ferment) at a specific humidity and temperature. Over time, the milk thickens or curdles into a yogurt-like substance with a strong, sour flavor. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5785864",
"title": "Müller (company)",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "BULLET::::- Müller Corner (German: \"Joghurt mit der Ecke\", lit. \"Yogurt with the Corner\"), launched in the 1980s, is a range of yogurts. There are three main varieties: \"Fruit\", \"Healthy Balance\" and \"Crunch!\". Within each of these divisions, a number of flavours are produced, for instance Fruit Corners are available in Blackberry & Raspberry, Blueberry, Cherry, Peach & Apricot, Raspberry and Strawberry flavours. The name \"corner\" is in reference to the design of the product. In many of the varieties, the yogurt is plain and unflavoured. It comes with an attached portion of 'flavour', fruit compote for example, to add to the plain yogurt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8236448",
"title": "Strained yogurt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Strained yogurt, Greek yogurt, yogurt cheese, or sack yoghurt is yogurt that has been strained to remove most of its whey, resulting in a thicker consistency than unstrained yogurt, while preserving yogurt's distinctive sour taste. Like many types of yogurt, strained yogurt is often made from milk that has been enriched by boiling off some of its water content, or by adding extra butterfat and powdered milk. In Europe and North America, it is often made from low-fat or fat-free milk. In Iceland, a similar product named skyr is made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47863662",
"title": "Gram flour",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In the form of a paste with water or dahi (yogurt), it is also popular as a facial exfoliant in the Indian Subcontinent. When mixed with an equal proportion of water, it can be used as an egg replacement in vegan cooking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8236448",
"title": "Strained yogurt",
"section": "Section::::Variations by area.:Asia.:Indian subcontinent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In the Indian subcontinent, regular unstrained yogurt (\"curd\"), made from cow or water buffalo milk, is often sold in disposable clay bowls called kulhar. Kept for a couple of hours in its clay pot, some of the water evaporates through the unglazed clay's pores. It also cools the curd due to evaporation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bnjew
|
Can children eat rare or med rare steak?
|
[
{
"answer": "None that I can think of. The inside of a piece of uncut meat(beef) is sterile. Make sure that the meat isn't mechanically tenderized or injected with a brine solution. \n\nThe problem arises when meat is ground because then the potentially contaminated outside becomes the same as the previously sterile inside.\n\nOther meats are different. As long as pork isn't injected, you can probably serve it slightly pink but do so with care. Don't do it with chicken.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292181",
"title": "Chicken fried steak",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Alternatively, the tenderized steak may be cut into strips, breaded, deep fried, and served for breakfast with eggs and toast or for other meals in a basket with fries and cream gravy. Either is then known as \"finger steaks\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "318891",
"title": "List of foods named after people",
"section": "Section::::S.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 264,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 264,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- Salisbury steak – Dr. James H. Salisbury (1823–1905), early U.S. health food advocate, created this dish and advised his patients to eat it three times a day, while limiting their intake of \"poisonous\" vegetables and starches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34931824",
"title": "Steak",
"section": "Section::::Cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Fish steaks are generally cooked for a short time, as the flesh cooks quickly, especially when grilled. Fish steaks, such as tuna, can also be cooked to various temperatures, such as rare and medium rare. The different cuts of steak are - rib eye, sirloin, tenderloin, rump, porterhouse, and t-bone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21470795",
"title": "Lidl",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 2011, minced meat steaks sold under Lidl's private label Steak Country contained E. coli bacteria. 18 persons in France, predominantly children, fell seriously ill from the steaks. Many of the children require lifetime treatment. One child was left profoundly and permanently disabled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "528261",
"title": "Lunch meat",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Most pre-sliced lunch meats are higher in fat, nitrates, and sodium than those that are sliced to order, as a larger exposed surface requires stronger preservatives. As a result, processed meats significantly contribute to incidence of heart disease and diabetes, even more so than red meat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7990472",
"title": "LongHorn Steakhouse",
"section": "Section::::Menu.:Doneness preference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "According to research conducted between May 2016 - May 2017, 37.5 percent of diners preferred their steak done medium, 25.8 percent medium-well, 22.5 percent medium-rare, 11.7 percent well done, and only 2.5 percent preferred their steak to be rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18020517",
"title": "Steak frites",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Historically, the rump steak was commonly used for this dish. More typically at the present time, the steak is an entrecôte also called rib eye, or scotch fillet (in Australia), pan-fried rare (\"\"saignant\"\"—literally \"bloody\"), in a pan reduction sauce, although hollandaise or béarnaise sauce are not uncommon, served with deep-fried potatoes (French fries).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
874awz
|
why summer night air has that discinct "peaceful" smell?
|
[
{
"answer": "**TL;DR:** *Dust mostly is gone because the wind dies, air is moister and cooler and so conducts smells better, there's not as many \"bad smells\" that you get from a hot sun, and a lot of plants that bloom at night smell awesome.*\n\nSo, lots of reasons. Let's get started.\n\nThe first reason is that evening air during the summer usually comes with a reduction in wind. If you're living in a dusty area, such as a city with lots of concrete or a rural place that's off a dirt road, all the wind dying means the dust or grit settle out, and the air \"feels\" cleaner and no longer carries the smell of all that dirt.\n\nSecond, sun bakes asphalt surfaces and makes any spilled gas, tar or rubber on them smell stronger. At night, this heating effect goes away and so does its acrid smell (as does a lot of car exhaust). You might not notice it being there during the day, but you will likely notice it not being there as much at night.\n\nNext, the air's moisture content goes up and its temperature goes down. We smell things much better when the air is moist. You can see this yourself by going out of a room where someone had a shower with scented soap and then going back into it - the wave of moist air smells a lot stronger - or going into a room with an indoor chlorinated pool. This can be amplified a LOT if there's a late-day shower that passed through.\n\nAnd a lot of night-flowering plants like jasmine have really nice smells because they rely on scent rather than visible light to attract the types of creatures that pollinate them. A summer's evening near a jasmine hedge is wonderful.\n\nProbably other reasons too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is probably due to you associating the peaceful/relaxed summer atmosphere to specific smells that arise from plants etc during the season.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something like smell is quite objective really. Likely, it’s connected to memory and the whole nostalgia. I read somewhere that olfactory sensory perception (smelly sense) is connected to memory somewhere. So it’s probably the smell reminding you of pleasant memories in which you reminisce in the nostalgia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey this is a great question! I live in Kerala, India and it’s known as “God’s own country” and constantly has this peaceful feeling which seems to be atmospheric- it is present in the daytime as well as the night. I don’t know why it is like this, maybe all of the greenery and trees. It isnt any particular scent like jasmine, just the air FEEL PEACEFUL. I dont have any answers just hoping some genius might be able to answer this question for both of us. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "194181",
"title": "San Cristóbal de las Casas",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Due to its high altitude the city temperatures can reach temperatures below 0 °C. Many homes burn firewood for warmth in cold weather. This can give the city a slightly smoky smell although the number of homes burning firewood for warmth has dropped in the last two decades as more homes are integrating climate-control systems under city recommendations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2175599",
"title": "Gebel el-Silsila",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Winters are short, brief, and extremely warm. Wintertime is very pleasant and enjoyable while summertime is unbearably hot with blazing sunshine, made only more bearable because the desert air is dry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288090",
"title": "Hyderabad, Sindh",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 379,
"text": ". During this time, winds that blow usually bring along clouds of dust, and people prefer staying indoors in the daytime, while the breeze that flows at night is more pleasant. Winters are warm, with highs around , though lows can often drop below at night. The highest temperature of was recorded on 25 May 2018, while the lowest temperature of was recorded on 8 February 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22797583",
"title": "Dubai International City",
"section": "Section::::Past Issues from 2008 to till date.:Sewage plant proximity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Due to its proximity to the Sewage Treatment Plant, and constant overflow, certain clusters like Morocco, Emirates & China are subjected to the odor of sewage when the wind direction changes at night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24242341",
"title": "Urban thermal plume",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas. Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island (UHI), but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air, or ‘thermal plumes’ that they produce. We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside on a warm day, and off-shore breezes at night. These are caused by the land heating up faster on a sunny day and cooling faster after sunset, respectively. Our personal experience of on-shore breezes shows us that the thermals, or warm airs, that rise from the land and sea respectively have a sensible effect on the local microscale meteorology; and perhaps at times on the mesometeorology. Urban thermal plumes have as powerful although less localized an effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55972902",
"title": "Thomas Fire",
"section": "Section::::Impacts.:Fire effects.:Physical Damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Air quality warnings were issued for many areas due to the fire, because of dangerous levels of smoke and particulates. During the alerts, authorities have recommended that people stay indoors, avoid driving in affected areas and drink plenty of fluids. The east winds that have powered the fire have pushed much of the smoke out to sea or into areas somewhat distant from the fire. When the winds ease, the smoke has hung in the air in many communities. The typical moist, cool daily onshore winds in the evening have also been bringing smoke inland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349628",
"title": "Mediterranean climate",
"section": "Section::::Precipitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "During summer, regions of Mediterranean climate are strongly influenced by the subtropical ridge which keeps atmospheric conditions very dry with minimal cloud coverage. In some areas, such as coastal California, the cold current has a stabilizing effect on the surrounding air, further reducing the chances for rain, but often causing thick layers of marine fog that usually evaporates by mid-day. Similar to desert climates, in many Mediterranean climates there is a strong diurnal character to daily temperatures in the warm summer months due to strong heating during the day from sunlight and rapid cooling at night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36i14i
|
Birds such as pigeons and sea gulls are extremely successful in urban environments, why don't we see proportional numbers of predatory birds in cities as well?
|
[
{
"answer": "Peregrine falcons were actually quite common in cities [for at least two centuries.](_URL_1_) What happened was that people started spraying DDT and the falcons saw their populations collapse as it moves up the food chain.\n\nNot that DDT is banned, they're [coming back to the cities](_URL_0_). One problem they face though is that they're not nestbuilders, they naturally prefer to lay their eggs on cliffs, in a small indentation. Human buildings tend not to have such indentations so there is a problem with the eggs starting to roll around. An unintended consequence of modern architecture it seems. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42967",
"title": "Ornithology",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Large flocks of pigeons and starlings in cities are often considered as a nuisance, and techniques to reduce their populations or their impacts are constantly innovated. Birds are also of medical importance, and their role as carriers of human diseases such as Japanese encephalitis, West Nile virus, and influenza H5N1 have been widely recognised. Bird strikes and the damage they cause in aviation are of particularly great importance, due to the fatal consequences and the level of economic losses caused. The airline industry incurs worldwide damages of an estimated US$1.2 billion each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17404279",
"title": "Urban wildlife",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Different types of urban areas support different kinds of wildlife. One general feature of bird species that adapt well to urban environments is they tend to be the species with bigger brains, perhaps allowing them to be more adaptable to the changeable urban environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157626",
"title": "Peregrine falcon",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Current status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "From an ecological perspective, raptor populations in urban areas are highly beneficial. Compared with Europe, where pigeon populations have exploded to the point they are both a tourist attraction and a public nuisance. Pigeons' faeces are highly acidic, corroding historic buildings and stone statues and rusting bridge ironwork. In the United States, falcon and other raptors are in numbers high enough to ward off pigeon nest building in major highrises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2110969",
"title": "Flight zone",
"section": "Section::::Wildlife management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "The FID in multiple species differs from rural to urban areas. A study by Møller et al. examined 811 FIDs from 37 species of birds and determined that the FID of birds in urban areas is reduced, compared to the FID of birds in rural areas. Urbanization of birds has also been shown to correlate with changes in stress physiology and anti predator behaviour. This may be due to a number of factors differing in rural vs urban areas, such as; difference in predator communities, length of exposure time to humans, relative abundance of humans, and the presence/abundance of food (bird-feeders in winter for example). Wildlife managers must adjust buffer zones depending on urban/rural environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197191",
"title": "Rock dove",
"section": "Section::::Predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "With only their flying abilities protecting them from predation, rock pigeons are a favourite almost around the world for a wide range of raptors. In fact, with feral pigeons existing in almost every city in the world, they may form the majority of prey for several raptor species that live in urban areas. Peregrine falcons and Eurasian sparrowhawks are natural predators of pigeons that are quite adept at catching and feeding upon this species. Up to 80% of the diet of peregrine falcons in several cities that have breeding falcons is composed of feral pigeons. Some common predators of feral pigeons in North America are opossums, raccoons, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, eastern screech owls, and accipiters. The birds that prey on pigeons in North America can range in size from American kestrels to golden eagles and can even include gulls, crows, and ravens. On the ground, the adults, their young, and their eggs are at risk from feral and domestic cats. Doves and pigeons are considered to be game birds, as many species have been hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173575",
"title": "Birdwatching",
"section": "Section::::Activities.:Environmental education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Due to their accessibility and ubiquity, birds are a useful tool for environmental education and awareness on environmental issues. Birds easily transmit values on respect to nature and the fragility of ecosystems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229962",
"title": "Feral pigeon",
"section": "Section::::Population control.:Predators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Larger birds of prey occasionally take advantage of this population as well. In New York City, the abundance of pigeons (and other small animals) has created such a conducive environment for predators that the red-tailed hawk has begun to return in very small numbers, including the notable Pale Male.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
oxuaz
|
caffeine jitters
|
[
{
"answer": "Caffeine like all chemicals, can change the way your body functions. Caffeine stimulates the adrenal glads, producing adrenalin. Your body literally is chemically tricked into thinking it's a in a fight or flight situation. \n\nThis can eventually lead to things like heart palpitations, sweaty palms, and all sorts of adrenaline produced symptoms. \n\nLarge amount of caffeine is essentially what a panic attack can physically feel like, without the mental components. \n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2709917",
"title": "Neurohacking",
"section": "Section::::Modern applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "Caffeine, alcohol, modafinil, over the counter medicine, and other drugs are all forms of neurohacking. Every one of these substances alters or \"tricks\" the brain into desirable conditions. When ingesting caffeine, the brain is fooled into thinking the body has energy and keeps the consumer awake. The brain's neurons naturally produce adenosine as a byproduct which is monitored by the nervous system. Once the level of adenosine is at a certain point, the body will feel tired. Caffeine acts as fake adenosine and binds to the body's receptors. However, instead of disappearing, it blocks the adenosine receptors so the brain's stimulants, dopamine and glutamate, can work more freely. Since neurohacking is the interference with the structure and function of neurons, caffeine consumption is in fact a neurohack. Similarly, other substances that affect the brain and functions of neurons are also neurohacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282399",
"title": "Caffeinism",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "In moderate doses, caffeine is used to reduce physical fatigue, to prevent drowsiness and sleep, and to maintain and restore mental alertness and wakefulness. However, at higher doses, these stimulatory effects can become excessive and lead to a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including a dysphoric physical and mental state that is labeled caffeinism and is also known colloquially as ‘‘coffee nerves’’ or ‘‘caffeine jitters.’’ This symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57092035",
"title": "Pre-workout",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients/ Supplements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- Caffeine is the most common type of ingredient/supplement. It has a neural effect that goes to the central nervous system and activates beta-endorphins and hormones that increase alertness, mental concentration, and energy. Caffeine can cause anxiety, insomnia, dizziness, and arrhythmia's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Off-target effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Caffeine antagonizes adenosine A2A receptors in the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO), thereby reducing inhibitory GABA neurotransmission to the tuberomammillary nucleus, a histaminergic projection nucleus that activation-dependently promotes arousal. Disinhibition of the tuberomammillary nucleus is the chief mechanism by which caffeine produces wakefulness-promoting effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Effects on striatal dopamine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A–A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of 1 adenosine A receptor and 1 adenosine A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons. During chronic caffeine use, caffeine-induced dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens core is markedly reduced due to drug tolerance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66391",
"title": "Stimulant",
"section": "Section::::Notable stimulants.:Caffeine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Caffeine is a stimulant compound belonging to the xanthine class of chemicals naturally found in coffee, tea, and (to a lesser degree) cocoa or chocolate. It is included in many soft drinks, as well as a larger amount in energy drinks. Caffeine is the world's most widely used psychoactive drug and by far the most common stimulant. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily. A few jurisdictions restrict its sale and use. Caffeine is also included in some medications, usually for the purpose of enhancing the effect of the primary ingredient, or reducing one of its side-effects (especially drowsiness). Tablets containing standardized doses of caffeine are also widely available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1987383",
"title": "Caffeine dependence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Caffeine is a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature as part of the coffee, tea, yerba mate and other plants. It is also an additive in many consumer products, most notably beverages advertised as energy drinks and colas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3y0k28
|
If space is expanding, why has the Big Crunch been discredited?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because we have an accelerating expansion, meaning that there must be a dark energy or similar component. \n\nDark energy accelerates the expansion while matter slows it down. Moreover, the expansion itself dilutes matter and makes its density smaller while dark energy stays the same.\n\nTherefore the expansion certainly never stops accelerating, therefore it never slows down.\n\nIn the simplest model of dark energy the Universe will approach a de Sitter situation where it expands perfectly exponentially with time, and all non dark energy components get diluted away.\n\nAll of this wouldn't be true if the Universe had a significant positive spatial curvature, but that's kind of a messy bussiness. It looks like we're not allowed to be able to measure the sign of the curvature (it's compatible with zero), and if inflation is correct then we really aren't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Given what we know about general relativity as applied to the Friedmann equations, and given what we have observed regarding the energy density of the universe and the cosmological constant, taking those two together rules out a big crunch and just predicts a continuously expanding universe. However, if general relativity is modified in some way that we're not yet aware of, bouncing cosmology comes back into the mix. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "206122",
"title": "Big Crunch",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The Big Crunch scenario hypothesized that the density of matter throughout the universe is sufficiently high that gravitational attraction will overcome the expansion which began with the Big Bang. The FLRW cosmology can predict whether the expansion will eventually stop based on the average energy density, Hubble parameter, and cosmological constant. If the metric expansion stopped, then contraction will inevitably follow, accelerating as time passes and finishing the universe in a kind of gravitational collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206122",
"title": "Big Crunch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The Big Crunch is a theoretical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentially followed by a reformation of the universe starting with another Big Bang. The vast majority of evidence indicates that this theory is not correct. Instead, astronomical observations show that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather than being slowed down by gravity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192904",
"title": "Ultimate fate of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Theories about the end of the universe.:Big Crunch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "The Big Crunch hypothesis is a symmetric view of the ultimate fate of the universe. Just as the Big Bang started as a cosmological expansion, this theory assumes that the average density of the universe will be enough to stop its expansion and begin contracting. The end result is unknown; a simple estimation would have all the matter and space-time in the universe collapse into a dimensionless singularity back into how the universe started with the Big Bang, but at these scales unknown quantum effects need to be considered (see Quantum gravity). Recent evidence suggests that this scenario is not likely but it has not been ruled out as measurements are only available over a short period of time and could reverse in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382",
"title": "Inflation (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Effects of expansion on small scales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The expansion of space is sometimes described as a force which acts to push objects apart. Though this is an accurate description of the effect of the cosmological constant, it is not an accurate picture of the phenomenon of expansion in general. For much of the universe's history the expansion has been due mainly to inertia. The matter in the very early universe was flying apart for unknown reasons (most likely as a result of cosmic inflation) and has simply continued to do so, though at an ever-decreasing rate due to the attractive effect of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Features of the model.:Expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion \"in space\", but rather an expansion \"of space\". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810098",
"title": "Structure formation",
"section": "Section::::Very early universe.:The horizon problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "The horizon problem of big bang cosmology says that, without inflation, perturbations were never in causal contact before they entered the horizon and thus the homogeneity and isotropy of, for example, the large scale galaxy distributions cannot be explained. This is because, in an ordinary Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker cosmology, the Hubble radius increases more rapidly than space expands, so perturbations only enter the Hubble radius, and are not pushed out by the expansion. This paradox is resolved by cosmic inflation, which suggests that during a phase of rapid expansion in the early universe the Hubble radius was nearly constant. Thus, large scale isotropy is due to quantum fluctuations produced during cosmic inflation that are pushed outside the horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
582s4y
|
Are new archaeological discoveries still being made in Egyptology?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Egyptian civilization lasted for thousands of years from the pre-dynastic period (5500 B.C.E) to The Roman Period (30 B.C.E-~300 C.E). (1) There is a wealth of information still to be discovered. There are archaeologists in the deserts now still making discoveries. There are several academic journals on the subject of Egyptian Archaeology and if you have access to JSTOR, I'd recommend you check them out. If you would like to keep up with archaeological discoveries, I'd suggest checking out this site (_URL_0_) With any type of archaeology, there is always more to find even when those findings are simply more pottery sherds. \n(1):Wilkinson, Toby A. H. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House, 2010.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305828",
"title": "British Museum Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Active support by the museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in important acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported, although divisions still continue in Sudan. The British Museum conducted its own excavations in Egypt where it received divisions of finds, including Asyut (1907), Mostagedda and Matmar (1920s), Ashmunein (1980s) and sites in Sudan such as Soba, Kawa and the Northern Dongola Reach (1990s). The size of the Egyptian collections now stand at over 110,000 objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4675",
"title": "British Museum",
"section": "Section::::Departments.:Department of Egypt and Sudan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Active support by the museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in important acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported, although divisions still continue in Sudan. The British Museum conducted its own excavations in Egypt where it received divisions of finds, including Asyut (1907), Mostagedda and Matmar (1920s), Ashmunein (1980s) and sites in Sudan such as Soba, Kawa and the Northern Dongola Reach (1990s). The size of the Egyptian collections now stand at over 110,000 objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5143861",
"title": "Treasure hunting",
"section": "Section::::Actors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The early stages of the development of archaeology included a significant aspect of treasure hunting; Heinrich Schliemann's excavations at Troy, and later at Mycenae, both turned up significant finds of golden artifacts. Early work in Egyptology also included a similar motive. Modern amateur treasure hunters use relatively inexpensive metal detectors to locate finds at terrestrial sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28476808",
"title": "Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva)",
"section": "Section::::The museum.:Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The archaeology section displays findings from European prehistory, ancient Egypt (with a mummy from the 9th century BC), the Kerma culture of Sudan, the Near East, ancient Greece, and Roman and pre-Roman Italy, as well as a numismatic cabinet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14641785",
"title": "Tomb of Aline",
"section": "Section::::Find conditions, finds, date.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "In the second half of the 19th century, the increasing interest in Egyptian history, culture and art led to a veritable contest between various European nations, all aiming to secure ancient finds of the best possible quality (and quantity) for their national museums. In this general context, the German archaeologist Richard von Kaufmann undertook a short campaign of excavations at Hawara in March 1892; his most important find was the so-called \"Tomb of Aline\". A shaft led to a simple mud-brick-lined pit of 2.8 by 3.5 m which contained eight mummies. Three were undecorated, two had paper masks and three were adorned with mummy portraits. The grave had no superstructure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "96603",
"title": "Memphis, Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Historical accounts and exploration.:Early exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "In 1652, Jean de Thévenot, during his trip to Egypt, identified the location of the site and its ruins, confirming the accounts of the old Arab authors for Europe. His description is brief, but represents the first step towards the exploration that will emerge after the development of archaeology. The starting point of archaeological exploration in Memphis was Napoléon Bonaparte's great foray into Egypt in 1798. Research and surveys of the site confirmed the identification of Thévenot, and the first studies of its remains are carried out by scientists accompanying French soldiers. The results of the first scientific studies were published in the monumental \"Description de l'Égypte\", a map of the region, the first to give the location of Memphis with precision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51218",
"title": "Culture of Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Modern Egypt.:Egyptology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "In modern times, archaeology and the study of Egypt's ancient heritage as the field of Egyptology has become a major scientific pursuit in the country itself. The field began during the Middle Ages, and has been led by Europeans and Westerners in modern times. The study of Egyptology, however, has in recent decades been taken up by Egyptian archæologists such as Zahi Hawass and the Supreme Council of Antiquities he leads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1stape
|
how a company changes when it is acquired by another company
|
[
{
"answer": "Every merger or acquisition is different. There is no single answer here ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "None of these really have a fixed answer, except possibly the question about owning shares of stock.\n\nIf company A buys company B, they can do whatever they want, within the limits of the law. They could leave the company exactly they way it was before the buyout, or they could totally dissolve the company, fire everyone, and make it disappear. Usually it's something in between these two extremes. They may keep the same leadership, or get rid of it. The old brands and marketing may still exist, or they may eliminate them. They might keep some parts, eliminate or sell off other parts, etc.\n\nAs far as stock is concerned, you have to realize that the owners of the stock ARE the owners of the company. Probably the most common method is the shareholders get some stock in Company A in exchange for their old shares of company B. Less commonly, Company A could just buy all of Company B's stock in cash. Once Company A owns all the stock in Company B, they own the company and legally it becomes part of Company A. At that point Company B shares cease to exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It seems like every company I've worked for has been acquired by another company at some point. So I have 3 examples of things that could happen for you. \n\nMy first real job I worked in IT for a publicly traded Insurance company. After working there 5 years they were bought out by a bigger Insurance company. \n\n-Redundant employees were eliminated, not just from IT by all throughout the company I had worked for. For us in IT, you knew if you were getting canned depending on which room they called you to. I got the good room, they didn't let me sit down but told me I'd stay at the company. Then pretty much told me to get out, no questions. \n-Benefits were completely changed. Our stock options were bought out. I made around 30K because of that....which was pretty nice for being 25. \n-Corperate structure was changed. Basically, groups were assimilated into their existing structure. I got a new manager and would have to start taking calls from other locations around the country. Would've had to move to a different office if I had stayed on. \n-Marketing was one area that was completely let go. It would now be handled by the corporate office a few states away. I believe they kept the original name of the office for a while but tacked on the parent company. \n-Lowly IT folks have no insight into this. Our CEO got a golden parachute of millions of dollars though. And for some reason they still paid for his internet for a while?\n\nThe company I work for now had actually been acquired by another company 9 years before I started working there. They let my company run independently for 9 and a half years and are just now starting the assimilation process. We just re-branded the building a few months back. They did outsource a lot of IT, but I was spared again at least for now. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28168",
"title": "Stock exchange",
"section": "Section::::Role of stock exchanges.:Facilitating acquisitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Companies view acquisitions as an opportunity to expand product lines, increase distribution channels, hedge against volatility, increase their market share, or acquire other necessary business assets. A takeover bid or mergers and acquisitions through the stock market is one of the simplest and most common ways for a company to grow by acquisition or fusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197321",
"title": "Stock swap",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The acquiring company may also need to add a little extra incentive in the form of shares to make sure that the board of directors of the acquired company approve the takeover. After all the valuation is complete, the parties will agree upon a swap ratio. The ratio will determine the number of shares each person will receive from the company that is taking over. When this swap is realised, the shareholders receive the new stock and own a share in the new company. Sometimes, a part of the agreement will not allow the new shareholders to sell for a certain time period to avoid a sudden drop in share price. This is a form of a shareholder rights plan or poison pill strategy that is used to combat hostile takeovers. When all things come together and are fair, then the takeover will proceed without incident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20769",
"title": "Mergers and acquisitions",
"section": "Section::::Acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "An acquisition/takeover is the purchase of one business or company by another company or other business entity. Specific acquisition targets can be identified through myriad avenues including market research, trade expos, sent up from internal business units, or supply chain analysis. Such purchase may be of 100%, or nearly 100%, of the assets or ownership equity of the acquired entity. Consolidation/amalgamation occurs when two companies combine to form a new enterprise altogether, and neither of the previous companies remains independently. Acquisitions are divided into \"private\" and \"public\" acquisitions, depending on whether the acquiree or merging company (also termed a \"target\") is or is not listed on a public stock market. Some public companies rely on acquisitions as an important value creation strategy. An additional dimension or categorization consists of whether an acquisition is \"friendly\" or \"hostile\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13747774",
"title": "Material adverse change",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "In the fields of mergers and acquisitions and corporate finance, a material adverse change (abbreviated MAC), material adverse event (MAE), or material adverse effect (also MAE) is a change in circumstances that significantly reduces the value of a company. A contract to acquire, invest in, or lend money to a company often contains a term that allows the acquirer, investor, or lender to cancel the transaction if a material adverse change occurs. Where an acquiring company uses its own stock as part of the consideration paid to acquire another company, or in a merger of two companies, the contract may provide that either party to the transaction can cancel it if a material adverse change significantly reduces the value of the other party. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197321",
"title": "Stock swap",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The acquiring company essentially uses its own stock as cash to purchase the business. Each shareholder of the acquired company will receive a pre-determined number of shares from the acquiring company. Before the swap occurs each party must accurately value their company so that a fair swap ratio can be calculated. Valuation of a company is quite complicated. Not only does fair market value have to be determined, but the investment and intrinsic value needs to be determined as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2007225",
"title": "Consolidation (business)",
"section": "Section::::Accounting treatment (US GAAP).:Purchase of Net Assets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The acquired company records in its books the elimination of its net assets and the receipt of cash, receivables or investment in the acquiring company (if what was received from the transfer included common stock from the purchasing company). If the acquired company is liquidated then the company needs an additional entry to distribute the remaining assets to its shareholders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20769",
"title": "Mergers and acquisitions",
"section": "Section::::Acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "\"Acquisition\" usually refers to a purchase of a smaller firm by a larger one. Sometimes, however, a smaller firm will acquire management control of a larger and/or longer-established company and retain the name of the latter for the post-acquisition combined entity. This is known as a reverse takeover. Another type of acquisition is the reverse merger, a form of transaction that enables a private company to be publicly listed in a relatively short time frame. A reverse merger occurs when a privately held company (often one that has strong prospects and is eager to raise financing) buys a publicly listed shell company, usually one with no business and limited assets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25n6mr
|
Does Jupiter's "spot" move around like a hurricane, or is it a stationary storm?
|
[
{
"answer": "The spot stays almost stationary in latitude (North/South) but it moves longitudinally (is that even a word? > . > ). Because Jupiter is so large, the distance and speed it travels East/West varies quite a bit with even a few degree latitude shift.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to [wikipedia](_URL_2_):\nBecause Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. Jupiter's official rotation corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; 0ᵈ 9ʰ 55ᵐ 29.37s. Between latitudes 10° N to 10° S the rotation of atmospheric features is about 5 minutes shorter. \n\nThere videos from NASA show cloud movement but are time lapses over many days and don't show the planets rotation.\n[Jupiter Animated Video Gallery](_URL_1_)\n\n[Atmospheric Evolution- Flat](_URL_0_)\n\n[Voyager 1's approach to Jupiter during a period of over 60 Jupiter days.](_URL_3_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "UC Berkley was tracking the size of the Greate Rod Spot, and found it to be shrinking. The [literature](_URL_1_) says they tracked its movement which leads me to believe it moves longitudinally just like all of the other spots and storms on [the surface](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question is really: does it move relative to *what*. \n\nThere's no solid surface on Jupiter, so tracking longitude is tricky. In fact, there are three systems of longitude:\n\n- **System I longitude**: tracks longitude relative to the equator. The equatorial clouds move a bit quicker than the rest of the planet, making a full 360° rotation in 9 hours 50 minutes.\n\n- **System II longitude**: tracks longitude relative to the mid-latitudes. These clouds are a bit slower, taking about 5 more minutes to make a full 360° rotation.\n\n- **System III longitude**: tracks longitude relative to the magnetic field. Since we believe the magnetic field is generated in the deep interior of Jupiter, this should track the interior rotation, as well.\n\nIt turns out the Great Red Spot (GRS) tracks most closely with System II longitude, but even then it drifts in the east-west direction a bit. That drift tends to be quite steady, allowing one to forecast its position many months in advance...although it speeds up and then slows down a bit when it passes a nearby vortex in an adjoining belt, such as Oval BA.\n\nThe GRS is essentially confined in north-south motion by the jet streams on either side of it. If it moves a little northwards, it gets pushed south by the jet stream to the north; if it moves a little southwards, it gets pushed northwards by the jet stream to the south.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873277",
"title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Discrete features.:Storms and lightning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Every 15–17 years Jupiter is marked by especially powerful storms. They appear at 23°N latitude, where the strongest eastward jet, that can reach 150 m/s, is located. The last time such an event was observed was in March–June 2007. Two storms appeared in the northern temperate belt 55° apart in longitude. They significantly disturbed the belt. The dark material that was shed by the storms mixed with clouds and changed the belt's color. The storms moved with a speed as high as 170 m/s, slightly faster than the jet itself, hinting at the existence of strong winds deep in the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Cloud layers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued \"zones\" and darker \"belts\". The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 m/s (360 km/h) are common in zonal jets. The zones have been observed to vary in width, color and intensity from year to year, but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to give them identifying designations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38368334",
"title": "1928 Fort Pierce hurricane",
"section": "Section::::Preparations and impact.:Florida.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 2477,
"text": "Approaching the Floridian coast as an intensifying hurricane, the storm initially turned away from the peninsula for a short period of time on August 7, after nearly making landfall on West Palm Beach. Strong gusts of at least 30 mph (50 km/h) and squally weather impacted the city, but did not cause any damage. However, telecommunications in the city were temporarily disrupted due to the storm. In Jupiter, stronger gusts reaching 60 mph (100 km/h) were reported, but did not cause any damage as well. However, the hurricane's recurvature offshore was short lived, and the system eventually made its landfall near Fort Pierce, Florida early on August 8. Offshore, the \"USAHS Algonquin\", a cruise ship belonging to the Clyde-Mallory cruise line, was caught in the storm, but managed to reach its destination of New York, New York without any major problems. The Honduran freighter \"Lempira\", which had also recorded the lowest barometric pressure associated with the hurricane, experienced considerable damage due to the strong seas. The ship lost all of its lifeboats, and as a result the United Fruit Company line was sent to accompany the damaged ship. Inland, damage was concentrated in an area extending from Jupiter to the border between Florida and Georgia. The hurricane's landfall on the peninsula was attended by torrential rainfall, which damaged crops, particularly citrus. Rainfall peaked at in St. Cloud over a five-day period from August 7–12. There, the nearby East Lake Tohopekaliga began to overflow, threatening property and crops. Losses to the citrus crop were estimated by the Florida Citrus Exchange to be equivalent to 1 million boxes of citrus. However, damage to citrus in the Kissimmee area was comparatively less, and was limited to unripe fruit. Lake Okeechobee's water level rose by as a result of floodwater rushing into the lake. Damage along the lake's shores mostly occurred to the north. To the south, in Clewiston, minor damage was confined to trees and windows. Two deaths occurred in the vicinity of the Indian River; these were the only deaths associated with the hurricane in the state. Numerous highways were also washed out by the rains, especially on Florida's south-central east coast. Portions of State Road 4 were covered in debris strewn by strong winds. Damage to the state's road systems was estimated at $100,000 by the former Florida State Highway Commission. Bridges were also badly damaged, with some needing replacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873277",
"title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Discrete features.:Storms and lightning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth. They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about 1000 km in size, which appear from time to time in the belts' cyclonic regions, especially within the strong westward (retrograde) jets. In contrast to vortices, storms are short-lived phenomena; the strongest of them may exist for several months, while the average lifetime is only 3–4 days. They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter's troposphere. Storms are actually tall convective columns (plumes), which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere, where it condenses in clouds. A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5–7 bar, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as 0.2–0.5 bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873277",
"title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Jupiter has powerful storms, often accompanied by lightning strikes. The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water. They are sites of strong upward motion of the air, which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds. The storms form mainly in belt regions. The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth, and are assumed to be associated with the water clouds. This storm near the red spot is called Red Spot Junior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16473883",
"title": "1903 Florida hurricane",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In southeast Florida, no wind or pressure observations were available within of the location where the eye of the cyclone struck the coast. However, the cyclone did produce a storm surge up to at Jupiter, which was near the radius of maximum wind, then estimated to be about , and reported peak sustained winds of . Winds of damaging force extended north of Jupiter, and the preponderance of the damage was limited to areas south of that settlement. Only pineapple sheds were damaged at Jupiter. About south, the schooner \"Martha T. Thomas\" blown ashore, without loss of crew members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20886418",
"title": "1933 Treasure Coast hurricane",
"section": "Section::::Preparations and impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "When the storm moved ashore in Florida, winds reached an estimated in Jupiter; these occurred after the eye passed. In West Palm Beach, anemometers measured at least winds with gusts to ; barometers ranged from . The storm produced the strongest winds in the city since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane. Winds were not as strong farther from the center; winds were observed in Miami to the south, Titusville to the north, and Tampa on the west coast. Fort Pierce estimated peak winds of , and pressures dipped to . Inland, winds near Lake Okeechobee peaked at only . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path, peaking at in Clermont.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2w2h8o
|
Is the Earth orbiting the sun in a straight line?
|
[
{
"answer": "Kinda. Freely-falling objects follow [geodesics in spacetime](_URL_1_). Whether or not these are straight lines is probably a matter of semantics. \n\nAs a simpler example, consider whether you might call [geodesics on the surface of a sphere](_URL_0_) \"straight lines\" or not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that the illustration of a simple freefall in a uniform field is as close as you'll get to an appropriate illustration of this. At least it provides an intuitive illustration of the role of curvature and geodesics.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe largest problem with that example is how the line doesn't make it back to the point where it started. I *think* that you could reframe the example for a circular orbit by matching the slope to the orbit, such that you have a closed loop which makes it back to itself, while not curving relative to the 2D surface that it lies on. If I'm correct about that, this all matches your intuitions just fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "gravity is a simplified model. mass bending spacetime is the more accurate model that includes a lot of the things that newtonian-gravity models, and more. \n\nyes, all orbits are straight-forward movements through curved space.\n\nbut where the simplified model of gravity models the very same thing and the model is acurate enough for a lot of predictions for 5 to 100 years into the future and even models that take relativistic effects into account have trouble predicting > 50 years into the future of a solar system when it comes to faster things like comets with less regular orbits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1210",
"title": "Astronomical unit",
"section": "Section::::Development of unit definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1315,
"text": "Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The semi-major axis of this elliptic orbit is defined to be half of the straight line segment that joins the perihelion and aphelion. The centre of the Sun lies on this straight line segment, but not at its midpoint. Because ellipses are well-understood shapes, measuring the points of its extremes defined the exact shape mathematically, and made possible calculations for the entire orbit as well as predictions based on observation. In addition, it mapped out exactly the largest straight-line distance that Earth traverses over the course of a year, defining times and places for observing the largest parallax (apparent shifts of position) in nearby stars. Knowing Earth's shift and a star's shift enabled the star's distance to be calculated. But all measurements are subject to some degree of error or uncertainty, and the uncertainties in the length of the astronomical unit only increased uncertainties in the stellar distances. Improvements in precision have always been a key to improving astronomical understanding. Throughout the twentieth century, measurements became increasingly precise and sophisticated, and ever more dependent on accurate observation of the effects described by Einstein's theory of relativity and upon the mathematical tools it used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18285",
"title": "Lagrangian point",
"section": "Section::::Lagrange points.:point.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "BULLET::::- Explanation : Within the Sun–Earth system, the point exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little outside Earth's orbit and slightly further from the Sun than Earth is. This placement occurs because the Sun is also affected by Earth's gravity and so orbits around the two bodies' barycenter, which is well inside the body of the Sun. At the point, the combined pull of Earth and Sun cause the object to orbit with the same period as Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50822522",
"title": "469219 Kamoʻoalewa",
"section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.:Quasi-satellite of Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "As it orbits the Sun, \"Kamoʻoalewa\" appears to circle (highly elliptically) around Earth as well. The object is beyond the Hill sphere of Earth and the Sun exerts a much stronger pull on it than Earth does. Although it is too distant to be considered a true natural satellite of Earth, it is the best and most stable example to date of a near-Earth companion, or quasi-satellite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438948",
"title": "Equation of time",
"section": "Section::::Major components of the equation.:Eccentricity of the Earth's orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would culminate every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at perihelion (currently around 3 January) and slower at aphelion a half year later. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30806162",
"title": "(343158) 2009 HC82",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 268,
"text": " has a retrograde orbit and thus orbits the Sun in the opposite direction of other objects. Therefore, close approaches to this object can have very high relative velocities. , it had the highest relative velocity to Earth of objects that come within 0.5 AU of Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672031",
"title": "Orbit of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Path of Earth and Moon around Sun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "In representations of the Solar System, it is common to draw the trajectory of Earth from the point of view of the Sun, and the trajectory of the Moon from the point of view of Earth. This could give the impression that the Moon orbits Earth in such a way that sometimes it goes backwards when viewed from the Sun's perspective. However, because the orbital velocity of the Moon around Earth (1 km/s) is small compared to the orbital velocity of Earth about the Sun (30 km/s), this never happens. There are no rearward loops in the Moon's solar orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355155",
"title": "Polar orbit",
"section": "Section::::Sun orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "To retain the Sun-synchronous orbit as Earth revolves around the Sun during the year, the orbit of the satellite must precess at the same rate, which is not possible if the satellite were to pass directly over the pole. Because of Earth's equatorial bulge, an orbit inclined at a slight angle is subject to a torque, which causes precession. An angle of about 8° from the pole produces the desired precession in a 100-minute orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7y3d9v
|
how do criminals crack 3-4-5 digit codes on safes,locks etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not a criminal, average joe.\n\nI really don't know on physical safes, but on PC, normally a Brute Forcing software will do the trick. What a Brute forcing Software does is try a TONNE of different combinations really fast. Every possible one until it gets a match. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answers vary hugely between electronic and mechanical locks.\n\nMechanical locks are cracked by trying numerous combinations and listening for (or feeling for) the parts inside the lock to bump into each other. It helps a lot that tolerances are sloppy, so for example if you've tried 32 and 34 you probably don't need to try 33.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They generally don't crack such codes. For safes and locks, they drill them open, or otherwise use physical force. For phones and computers, they tend to trick users into entering their passwords into fake sites, or just try every single password until one works (if the software will allow it).\n\nMost \"hacking\" is just brute force or social engineering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "they are listening to the tumblers in a mechanical safe.\n\na safe's mechanical parts make noise as they move and you can hear the catch fall into place for each correct number if you listen carefully (on very old safes anyway.)\n\nMechanical locks are the same except you generally \"feel\" it more than you hear it.\n\nfor anything digital you're either guessing (brute force) or you're working around the problem (i.e. by tricking somebody into providing the combo.)\n\nkey locks are also codes. the opening combo is encoded on the teeth of the key. you can figure out the code by pressing each wafer in the lock until it sticks to it's slot.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "377018",
"title": "Combination lock",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Other designs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Electronic combination locks, while generally safe from the attacks on their mechanical counterparts, suffer from their own set of flaws. If the arrangement of numbers is fixed, it is easy to determine the lock sequence by viewing several successful accesses. Similarly, the numbers in the combination (but not the actual sequence) may be determined by which keys show signs of recent use. More advanced electronic locks may scramble the numbers' locations randomly to prevent these attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262761",
"title": "Self-bondage",
"section": "Section::::Release mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Unknown combination\": The idea is that the lock is reset to an unknown combination, then used to lock the bondage in place. The person must find the correct combination by trial and error. A three digit combination lock contains a thousand possibilities. At a second per attempt, this could take up to 16 minutes and 40 seconds, usually less assuming the combination starts with lower numbers. For a four-digit lock, it is nearer two hours. Disadvantages include the fact that it may be distracting to actively \"crack\" the lock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1975362",
"title": "Bit (key)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Many lock companies use their own proprietary code system. Depending on the maker, the bitting sequence can be from bow-to-tip (the bow being the larger, handle portion of the key), or can be from tip-to-bow. A smaller number is typically a shallower cut on the key, but not always. Assa bitting codes are reversed, where the higher the digit, the shallower the cut. One American manufacturer, Eagle Lock Company, used letters exclusively for bitting codes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244593",
"title": "Lock (computer science)",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Generally, locks are \"advisory locks\", where each thread cooperates by acquiring the lock before accessing the corresponding data. Some systems also implement \"mandatory locks\", where attempting unauthorized access to a locked resource will force an exception in the entity attempting to make the access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3034286",
"title": "Electronic lock",
"section": "Section::::Authentication methods.:Numerical codes, passwords, and passphrases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Perhaps the most common form of electronic lock uses a keypad to enter a numerical code or password for authentication. Some feature an audible response to each press. Combination lengths are usually between four and six digits long.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1565267",
"title": "De Bruijn sequence",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The sequence can be used to shorten a brute-force attack on a PIN-like code lock that does not have an \"enter\" key and accepts the last \"n\" digits entered. For example, a digital door lock with a 4-digit code would have \"B\" (10, 4) solutions, with length . Therefore, only at most (as the solutions are cyclic) presses are needed to open the lock. Trying all codes separately would require presses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12859098",
"title": "Gun safe",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Electronic locks as well as mechanical locks are available on many models of safes. The highest reliability exists for mechanical locks, although they are often more time consuming to open than electronic locks. Some mechanical combination locks have key locks, too, that lock the combination lock dial from turning, thereby precluding casual attempts by anyone with physical access to the safe from trying multiple combinations in the hopes of unlocking the safe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9ocpzk
|
inside the brain, how do a bunch of neurons translate to a piece of information?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is an interesting question. The answer is I don't know, no one knows, and if you figure it out, can I get an invite to your Nobel acceptance.\n\nCertain neurons are activated when we do certain things. Let's use vision as an example. When we see something, our primary visual cortex activates. Soon after, other areas in our visual streams activate somewhat sequentially. Through experiments, we know some of these experiments are sensitive to color, others are sensitive to motion, others are sensitive to faces. Somehow, all of these brain areas activating leads to our understanding of an object as an object. How? We don't know. If you're more specific about your question, I can give you more specific answers. But your question is just too general to get a very specific answer, since we don't know that much about the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20510214",
"title": "Activity-dependent plasticity",
"section": "Section::::Structure of neurons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "Neurons are the basic functional unit of the brain and process and transmit information through signals. Many different types of neurons can be identified based on their function, such as sensory neurons or motor neurons. Each responds to specific stimuli and sends respective and appropriate chemical signals to other neurons. The basic structure of a neuron is shown here on the right and consists of a nucleus that contains genetic information; the cell body, or the soma, which is equipped with dendritic branches that mostly receive the incoming inputs from other neurons; a long, thin axon that bears axon terminals which carry the output information to other neurons. The dendrites and axons are interfaced through a small connection called a synapse. This component of the neuron contains a variety of chemical messengers and proteins that allow for the transmission of information. It is the variety of proteins and effect of the signal that fundamentally lead to the plasticity feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2208074",
"title": "Neurophilosophy",
"section": "Section::::The indirectness of studies of mind and brain.:Single unit recordings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "It is commonly understood in neuroscience that information is encoded in the brain by the firing patterns of neurons. Many of the philosophical questions surrounding the neural code are related to questions about representation and computation that are discussed below. There are other methodological questions including whether neurons represent information through an average firing rate or whether there is information represented by the temporal dynamics. There are similar questions about whether neurons represent information individually or as a population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162435",
"title": "Mind uploading",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The human brain contains, on average, about 86 billion nerve cells called neurons, each individually linked to other neurons by way of connectors called axons and dendrites. Signals at the junctures (synapses) of these connections are transmitted by the release and detection of chemicals known as neurotransmitters. The established neuroscientific consensus is that the human mind is largely an emergent property of the information processing of this neural network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797527",
"title": "Homomorphic filtering",
"section": "Section::::Neural decoding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "How individual neurons or networks encode information is the subject of numerous studies and research. In central nervous system it mainly happens by altering the spike firing rate (frequency encoding) or relative spike timing (time encoding) .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38156432",
"title": "CoDi",
"section": "Section::::Cell interaction during signaling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "information by accepting information from any neighbor. They give their output, (e.g. a Boolean OR operation on the binary inputs) only to the neighbor specified by their own gate. In this way, dendritic cells collect and \"sum\" neural signals, until the final sum of collected neural signals reaches the neuron cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21120",
"title": "Neuron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9210345",
"title": "Gaussian adaptation",
"section": "Section::::The evolution in the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "In the figure below the brain stem is supposed to deliver Gaussian distributed signal patterns. This may be possible since certain neurons fire at random (Kandel et al.). The stem also constitutes a disordered structure surrounded by more ordered shells (Bergström, 1969), and according to the central limit theorem the sum of signals from many neurons may be Gaussian distributed. The triangular boxes represent synapses and the boxes with the + sign are cell kernels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9kxesk
|
why are jet engines so much faster and powerful than propeller engines
|
[
{
"answer": "Propeller engines have a limit to how fast they can spin because at high rotation speeds, the tips of the propeller blades can reach supersonic speeds, and this is extremely loud, and can damage the propeller. \n\nJet engines can spin at much higher speeds since the rotating components are smaller, and force more air through them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A propeller is able to grab the air with the curved blade and push it back on the air behind the plane. \n\nIt's exactly like how you paddle in water. You aren't \"pulling\" water towards you, you push it away. Both water and air are fluids and work the same way. You just need a lot more speed force to get air to care.\n\nA jet engine will pull in a bunch of air in front of it (how the engine pulls isn't 5YOF) and squeeze it really tight inside a box. Think a pump nerf gun. Now light gas on fire (think water into mist, you get more \"volume\" because it's hot) with the high pressure air and you are blowing a massive fart behind you. \n\nA propeller is limited to the air it can collect by moving forward. A jet engine increase the amount of air it pulls in, adds lighter fluid to the volume, and farts that. \n\nTL;DR it's just blowing really hard like a fart you held in too long. \n\n5YOF = 5 year old friendly ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difference is that propeller engines just blow air back and can only push so much air back. With a jet engine it sucks air in, compresses that air inside and then creates a bang with igniters inside the engine creating a much more powerful blow out the back of the engine. Suck, Squeeze, Bang, Blow. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very simplified:\n\nSo at the core of what we think of as jet engines (turbofans and turbojets) is the fact that we have a turbine which has blades (think its own propellers) that is spun by the exhaust from compressed air, compressed by a compressor, which is ignited. In fact, this [NASA explanation](_URL_0_) sums it up easiest:\n\n > All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same principle. The engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor raises the pressure of the air. The compressor is made with many blades attached to a shaft. The blades spin at high speed and compress or squeeze the air. The compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric spark lights the mixture. The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the back of the engine. As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the aircraft are thrust forward. As the hot air is going to the nozzle, it passes through another group of blades called the turbine. The turbine is attached to the same shaft as the compressor. Spinning the turbine causes the compressor to spin.\n\nMeanwhile, a propeller based engine has to use the external propeller to \"lift\" the aircraft. If you look at a propeller, you will see that each blade actually like a mini wing in that it creates 'lift' - but in the forward direction, which we call thrust.\n\nPropeller-driven plane have some significant limits though: as the aircraft moves faster in speed, the blades - spinning super fast- can see the tips reach supersonic speeds which creates a lot of other issues (drag, material limits, noise, etc.). So propeller driven planes can't reach the speeds or climb rates that jet planes can.\n\nThere is actually a thing that a lot of modern higher-end prop planes use: the turboprop. It uses a turbine engine setup like a jet but at the front it is connected to propellers which can generate much larger amounts of thrust. \n\nOf course, none of this comes free: jet engines can burn a ridiculous amount of fuel, and so they are fit on aircraft that need it for performance reasons.\n\nFor instance, in the T-6B Texan II, an 1100 horsepower turboprop trainer plane the Navy uses, to cruise at 240 knots, we might be at 80% power and burn 400-600 pounds of gas per hour.\n\nHowever, in the F/A-18E Super Hornet, flying at 240 knots - which is roughly where max endurance is (most fuel efficient in terms of time you can stay aloft), we're talking about roughly 2600-3000 pounds of gas per hour... per engine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's worth noting that jet engines aren't *inherently* faster and more powerful than propeller engines (also, as pointed out elsewhere, most propeller driven planes use turbines these days). Rather, the jet engine as a concept has the *potential* to be much faster and more powerful. \n\nPiston-driven propeller engines pretty much maxed out their potential in late WWII. They just had *so* many moving parts, weren't all that efficient, and required sophisticated turbo or super-chargers to climb to a useful altitude. Turbine engines can spin far faster, have far fewer moving parts, and can adapt to changes of altitude far better. Even so, the British flew a jet aircraft years *before* the famous German Messerschmidt 262 was terrorizing Allied bombers towards the end of the war. \n\nBut even though the Brits flew a jet in 1941, it took several more years before they could refine the design enough to even compete with the piston-driven fighters out in the field. It's weird today to imagine a jet that can't keep up with a piston+propeller plane, but that was where Allied (1941) and Axis (1939) powers were from for most of the war. They *had* jets in development, but they couldn't keep up with the far more refined existing technology, though that technology was reaching its limits, while jets were just starting to show what they could do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some bits of these are right but some are not. Both types of engine pull air towards them (~half the speed change in air due to the presence of a propellor happens before the air reaches the propellor itself).\n\nBecause it has walls and lots of blades, the jet engine can sustain high pressures through much more of the engine. With a prop, the pressure differences can only be sustained over part of the blade and slowly fades towards zero at the tip because air spills over to the lower pressure areas.\n\nThis large pressure helps drive a faster speed of air out the back of the engine which gives more thrust and also gives thrust up to a higher speed (you cant fly faster forward than the air comes out the back of the engine because you need the momentum to balance.\n\nThere is also a trade off between how much air you put through the engine and how fast you push it out, one with give higher max speeds but the other will give more thrust and efficiency at low speeds which is why you get turboprops with huge propellor blades, much bigger than any jet engine ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of these comments are spot-on. Here is a little longer explanation. \n\nOne thing that is missing is the pressure change mechanism. Propeller has 2-4 cambered blades. The camber, similar to the wing of an airplane, changes the air pressure between the front and the back of the blade. This pressure change “pulls/pushes” the air as it passes the propeller blades. Same principles as the lift vector of a wing. The pressure differences between the top and bottom of the wing provide a changing lift vector. (Many aspects affect the changes to the vector). On smaller and slower prop aircraft, the blades are “fixed”, so you can only achieve so much thrust from that blade. Adjustable pitch blades move to change the aspect of the blade optimizing the efficiency of the blades at different speeds. Most turbo-prop aircraft utilize a smaller jet engine to spin the prop. The prop will typically be a “fixed speed” prop (roughly 2000 RPM for the prop) and utilizing the adjustable pitch to accelerate or cruise at higher speeds and even act as a spoiler to slow the aircraft. \n\nThe pressure change of the prop is not contained in any manner. The prop spins in free space. This causes a negative aerodynamic effects to the aircraft called P-factor (longer explanation for another time)\n\nThe jet engine, whether commercial airliner or fighter aircraft, have a contained compressor. All the stages of fans in the jet engine have blades that are shaped to achieve the pressure change designed for the specific engine. Depending on the design of the engine and the compressor, engineers can achieve more powerful thrust output or more efficient output. \n\nAirliners we see today, run a high-bypass engine. This simply means a high volume of air is sucked into the engine and by-passed around the compressor. A smaller amount of air is compressed, fueled, and ignited. This does a couple: the by-passed air is minimally compressed. However it is a contained compression (thing of blowing through a straw verses blowing with no straw). The ignited air is highly compressed and to achieve that it will pass through many sets of blades (typically called stages). The compressed and ignited air also drives the entire fan blade system; both compressor blades and by-pass system. The end result is the by-pass air accounts for about 60% of total thrust, while the compressed and ignited air accounts for the remaining 40%. So the Stage 1 blades (front of the engine) act as a very fast propeller, forcing air through a straw, and ejecting it at a fast rate than the air entering the engine. The by-passed air also provides a sound dampening effect for the combustion nozzle. Think of the business-end of the engine as a donut. \n\nContaining the pressure change of the blades cutting the air vastly improves the efficiency and power output of a jet engine compared to a propeller. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Prop airplanes are limited by the speed of the propellor. The Soviet Bear bomber used counter rotating propellers, and is considered one of the loudest airplanes in the world as the prop tips break the sound barrier.\n\nYou can make the propellers larger or have lots of blades (like the Bear) but I don't see any way that a prop plane could exceed Mach 1 in level flight.\n\nAny aviation engineers? I could be way off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One big piece of it is how complex the piston engines are compared to jets.\n\nI'm going to go back to 1950s examples because that was the pinnacle of aircraft piston engines and beginning of good jet engines\n\nThe American B-36 bomber was originally designed in WW2, but on the back burner for a bit and flies in in August 1946, just a giant plane\n\nSix Pratt & Whitney R-4360-53 \"Wasp Major\" radial engines to power it originally, each engine required a dedicated 100 gal (380 l) oil tank\n\n28 cylinders, a super charger and a turbo charger, and 56 spark plugs - it weighed 3,870 pounds (1,760 kg)\n\nIn 1947 we have first flight of a US jet bomber, the B-47. Now it wasn't designed to fly as far as B-36, it was a medium range bomber for it's time. While the B-36 would fly from Texas to the Soviet Union, the B-47 would fly from Morocco, Alaska, Greenland or the UK to the Soviet Union.\n\nB-47 is powered by six General Electric J47-GE-25 turbojets\n\nIt weighed 2,554 pounds (1,158 kg) \n\nThe Wasp Major engines were known for their complexity and failure rates - \"Normal maintenance consisted of tedious measures, such as changing the 56 spark plugs on each of the six engines; the plugs were often fouled by the lead in the 145 octane anti-knock fuel required by the R-4360 engines. Thus, each service required changing 336 spark plugs.\" and the unofficial motto of the type was \"two turning, two burning, two smoking, two choking, and two more unaccounted for...\" because eventually the B-36 had four J47 jet engines added for extra power...10 total engines\n\nJets were much more reliable - the J47-GE-23 was rated to run 225 hours time between overhauls. As installed on the F-86F, it experienced one in-flight shutdown every 33,000 hours in 1955 and 1956",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "192453",
"title": "Motorjet",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Motorjet engines provide greater thrust than a propeller alone mounted on a piston engine; this has been successfully demonstrated in a number of different aircraft. A jet engine also can provide thrust at higher speeds where a propeller becomes less efficient or even ineffective; in fact, a jet engine gains efficiency as speed rises, while a propeller loses it (outside of a certain design range). This gives better efficiency in either operating range than an aircraft powered by just a propeller or a jet. The same is true of the dual-powerplant aircraft experimented with after the turbojet became practicable, which were equipped with both a piston-driven propeller and a turbojet engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849",
"title": "Aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Propulsion.:Powered aircraft.:Jet aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Compared to propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about , greater efficiency. They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets. As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32420169",
"title": "Powered aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Methods of propulsion.:Jet propulsion.:Jet aircraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Jet engines can provide much higher thrust than propellers, and are naturally efficient at higher altitudes, being able to operate above . They are also much more fuel-efficient at normal flight speeds than rockets. Consequently, nearly all high-speed and high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15944",
"title": "Jet engine",
"section": "Section::::General physical principles.:Comparison of types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Propeller engines handle larger air mass flows, and give them smaller acceleration, than jet engines. Since the increase in air speed is small, at high flight speeds the thrust available to propeller-driven aeroplanes is small. However, at low speeds, these engines benefit from relatively high propulsive efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103077",
"title": "Turbofan",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Since the efficiency of propulsion is a function of the relative airspeed of the exhaust to the surrounding air, propellers are most efficient for low speed, pure jets for high speeds, and ducted fans in the middle. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about , the speed at which most commercial aircraft operate. Turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4866437",
"title": "Propulsive efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical efficiency.:Jet engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "A corollary of this is that, particularly in air breathing engines, it is more energy efficient to accelerate a large amount of air by a small amount, than it is to accelerate a small amount of air by a large amount, even though the thrust is the same. This is why turbofan engines are more efficient than simple jet engines at subsonic speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568760",
"title": "Propfan",
"section": "Section::::Limitations and solutions.:Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 861,
"text": "Jet aircraft fly faster than conventional propeller-driven aircraft. However, they use more fuel, so that for the same fuel consumption a propeller installation produces more thrust. As fuel costs become an increasingly important aspect of commercial aviation, engine designers continue to seek ways to improve aero engine efficiency. The propfan concept was developed to deliver 35% better fuel efficiency than contemporary turbofans. In static and air tests on a modified Douglas DC-9, propfans reached a 30% improvement over the OEM turbofans. This efficiency came at a price, as one of the major problems with the propfan is noise, particularly in an era where aircraft are required to comply with increasingly strict aircraft noise regulations. The propfan research in the 1980s discovered ways to reduce noise, but at the cost of reduced fuel efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2km778
|
how do laser rangefinders work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The rangefinder measures how long it takes for a laser beam to travel there and back, and then uses that data to calculate distance.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A LASER rangefinder consists of a LASER, and a receiver tuned to the LASER's frequency. The device shoots the LASER, and measures how long it takes for the reflection to arrive. \n\nIf the device and your target are a distance of D away, the light has to travel a distance of 2*D; D meters there, as well as D meters back. \n\nAs distance equals speed * time...\n2*D (the total distance travelled) = speed of light * Time \n\nIf the target is too close, the device might not be able to measure it.\nIf the target is too far away, the reflection might not return enough energy to the receiver in order to be measured. Or, if you shoot a specular reflector, like glass or water, energy won't likely reflect back to your device.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1461372",
"title": "Laser rangefinder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "A laser rangefinder is a rangefinder that uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object. The most common form of laser rangefinder operates on the time of flight principle by sending a laser pulse in a narrow beam towards the object and measuring the time taken by the pulse to be reflected off the target and returned to the sender. Due to the high speed of light, this technique is not appropriate for high precision sub-millimeter measurements, where triangulation and other techniques are often used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1461372",
"title": "Laser rangefinder",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:3-D modeling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Laser rangefinders are used extensively in 3-D object recognition, 3-D object modelling, and a wide variety of computer vision-related fields. This technology constitutes the heart of the so-called \"time-of-flight\" 3D scanners. In contrast to the military instruments described above, laser rangefinders offer high-precision scanning abilities, with either single-face or 360-degree scanning modes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164212",
"title": "Rangefinder",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Ballistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Rangefinders may be used by users of firearms over long distances, to measure the distance to a target to allow for projectile drop. The laser rangefinder displays a luminous dot that may alert a target. Until the development of electronic means of measuring range during the Second World War, warships used very large optical rangefinders—with a baseline of many meters—to measure range for naval gunnery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1461372",
"title": "Laser rangefinder",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Laser rangefinders may be effectively used in various sports that require precision distance measurement, such as golf, hunting, and archery. Some of the more popular manufacturers are Caddytalk, Opti-logic Corporation, Bushnell, Leupold, LaserTechnology, Trimble, Leica, Newcon Optik, Op. Electronics, Nikon, Swarovski Optik and Zeiss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2714255",
"title": "3D scanning",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Non-contact active.:Time-of-flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The laser range finder only detects the distance of one point in its direction of view. Thus, the scanner scans its entire field of view one point at a time by changing the range finder's direction of view to scan different points. The view direction of the laser range finder can be changed either by rotating the range finder itself, or by using a system of rotating mirrors. The latter method is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and can thus be rotated much faster and with greater accuracy. Typical time-of-flight 3D laser scanners can measure the distance of 10,000~100,000 points every second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164212",
"title": "Rangefinder",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Golf.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Laser rangefinders are used for many things today, including golf. People can use this technology not only to measure the yardage of a particular shot but to gauge slope and wind as well. The technology makes it very simple to obtain yardage. In a typical rangefinder, one aims the reticle at the flagstick and presses a button to get the yardage. There has been debate over whether they should be allowed in tournaments. While their use is banned on the professional level, they are becoming widely used on the amateur level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1461372",
"title": "Laser rangefinder",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:3-D modeling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Laser rangefinders used in computer vision applications often have depth resolutions of tenths of millimeters or less. This can be achieved by using triangulation or refraction measurement techniques as opposed to the time of flight techniques used in LIDAR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1u9rdn
|
How did family members find out if a relative died during WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "As with most countries, by telegram. Typically they would inform the family that the relative was missing, e.g.: _URL_3_\n\nAs noted, a letter (usually from the CO) would follow.\n\nOf course, some of the missing turned up, I believe the Red Cross would get lists of POWs and inform the armed forces, who would then inform the families. This is a poor picture, but you can just make out the message: _URL_1_\nIf the person was found to have survived and not in enemy hands the good news would be shared: _URL_2_\n\nIn some cases the individual themselves would send a telegram basically saying \"I'm still alive!\".\n\nSadly, all too often a telegram was received, confirming the relative as dead. \n\nOf course for those confirmed dead the telegram was rather final : _URL_0_\n\nIf you search for \"ww2 telegram\" on google images you will find may scans/pictures of similar telegrams from all over the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59268596",
"title": "Gertrud Lutz",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "The only family member who would still be alive at the end of the war was the baby. The authorities sent Wilfriede to a children's home run by the National Socialist People's Welfare [organisation] (\"\"Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt\"\") in nearby Waiblingen. Fairly early on she understood that her mother was not coming back. In the children's home she received a visit from Klärle Keller, the daughter of the family with whom she had stayed with her mother in Grabenstetten. It seems more than likely that the visit was undertaken at the request of Gertrud Lutz, still at this stage alive, but held in state detention. During the visit one of the care assistants at the children's home urged Klärle to \"take the child [away] with her\". In the children's home she would, likely as not, die of starvation or thirst. Wilfriede remained with the Kellers till after the end of the war. In 1946 Uncle Friedrich returned from Switzerland and collected her. When, in 1948, Friedrich moved to Dresden in the Soviet Zone Wilfriede went with him: she grew up calling him \"Dad\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274559",
"title": "Jankowski",
"section": "Section::::Jankowski h. Jastrzebiec.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "In World War II, the members of this family suffered many military and ethnic-based casualties in the following incidents; the Polish Defensive War September – October 1939, Katyn massacre and the related Smolensk region massacres, Nazi concentration camps, Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles, Soviet Gulags and military deaths in resistance movements or as anti-Axis members of the British, Soviet or French armies. This led to a collapse of the kinship by 20–50% in several branches of the family while some became extinct altogether. Furthermore, the loss of the heart of the Jankowski h. Jastrzebiec lands in the Polish Eastern borderlands (Kresy), to the Soviet Union, led to a large proportion of the surviving Jankowski descendants relocating west into new Poland. However, a second wave of political emigration overseas also followed. This time, a sizable proportion went to the UK and its commonwealth, as many Poles including the Jankowski diaspora had fought with distinction in the II Corps (Poland) of the British Army and the Polish Air Force as part of the Royal Air Force during the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9074724",
"title": "Baron Hill, Anglesey",
"section": "Section::::Baron Hill House.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "During World War I, death duties soaked up the family fortune and made it impossible for the family (by then called Williams-Bulkeley) to continue to maintain the house. During the war, Royal Engineers were stationed at the house. It was later damaged by fire, but the shell of the house survives. Sir Richard Williams-Bulkeley lives at neighbouring Red Hill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1777777",
"title": "Schriesheim",
"section": "Section::::History.:Population Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Only about 12-15% of the populace survived the Thirty Years War. Only 24 family names from the pre-war period resurfaced after the war ended. From the wealthy milling family Mack (see also Alexander Mack), two grown males survived the war. From all other families, only one other adult male family member survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15772020",
"title": "Whitechapel Church, Cleckheaton",
"section": "Section::::The present church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "During the First World War many young men of the parish lost their lives, including two sons of the then vicar, Rev. T.D. Hyde. A beautiful stained glass window was installed in their memory, and a porch was built as a war memorial to all those who lost their lives during the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1914610",
"title": "Allmenrod",
"section": "Section::::History.:After 1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "In the year 1946 Allmenrod took in more than 100 displaced persons. These were rehoused in many households. In 1950 the names of the fallen soldiers of World War II were transcribed on a war memorial of the cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38072714",
"title": "September 1915",
"section": "Section::::September 27, 1915 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "BULLET::::- The British Royal Family lost one of their own during World War One when Fergus Bowes-Lyon, older brother of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. was killed during fighting on the Hohenzollern Redoubt. The same day, author Rudyard Kipling's only son John was killed during the Battle of Loos, just weeks after his 18th birthday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s2716
|
why if i slowly submerge an oreo in milk will it completely sink in less than a minute but if i simply drop it in, it seems to float forever?
|
[
{
"answer": "The surface tension of the milk holds it up. \n\nIf you look at water, you will see that the surface is like a thin rubber skin. This keeps the cookie afloat. Also, since most of it is above the liquid, it does not soak up as much. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the slow submerging is letting milk seep into every air pocket.\nwhen you drop it, the oreo naturally rises, and since only one side is exposed to the milk, the air pockets hod it up",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.:Spoilage and fermented milk products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 219,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 219,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns \"sour\". This is the result of fermentation, where lactic acid bacteria ferment the lactose in the milk into lactic acid. Prolonged fermentation may render the milk unpleasant to consume. This fermentation process is exploited by the introduction of bacterial cultures (e.g. \"Lactobacilli sp., Streptococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp.\", etc.) to produce a variety of fermented milk products. The reduced pH from lactic acid accumulation denatures proteins and causes the milk to undergo a variety of different transformations in appearance and texture, ranging from an aggregate to smooth consistency. Some of these products include sour cream, yogurt, cheese, buttermilk, viili, kefir, and kumis. \"See Dairy product\" for more information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210560",
"title": "Whey",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production and contains everything that is soluble from milk after the pH is dropped to 4.6 during the coagulation process. It is a 5% solution of lactose in water, with some minerals and lactalbumin. The fat is removed and then processed for human foods. Processing can be done by simple drying, or the relative protein content can be increased by removing lipids and other non-protein materials. For example, spray drying after membrane filtration separates the proteins from whey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525498",
"title": "Whey protein",
"section": "Section::::Production of whey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production, and contains everything that is soluble from milk after the pH is dropped to 4.6 during the coagulation process. It is a 5% solution of lactose in water with lactalbumin and some lipid content. Processing can be done by simple drying, or the relative protein content can be increased by removing the lactose, lipids and other non-protein materials. For example, spray drying after membrane filtration separates the proteins from whey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1837721",
"title": "Short-beaked echidna",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "They have been observed ingesting large amounts during each feeding period, and mothers may leave them unattended in the burrow for between five and ten days to find food. Studies of captives have shown they can ingest milk once every two or three days and then increase their mass by 20% in one milk-drinking session lasting between one and two hours. Around 40% of the milk weight is converted into body mass, and as such, a high proportion of milk is converted into growth; a correlation with the growth of the puggle and its mother's size has been observed. By the time the puggle is around , it is left in the burrow while the mother forages for food, and it reaches around after around two months. Juveniles are eventually ejected from the pouch at around two to three months of age, because of the continuing growth in the length of their spines. During this period, the young are left in covered burrows while the mothers forage, and the young are often preyed upon. Suckling gradually decreases until juveniles are weaned at about six months of age. The duration of lactation is about 200 days, and the young leave the burrow after 180 to 205 days, usually in January or February, at which time they weigh around . There is no contact between the mother and young after this point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30759067",
"title": "Mallorca cheese",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The milk is coagulated by animal rennet when the milk is 30-35°C (86-95°F) and for a period not less than 30 minutes. The curd is cut mechanically with horizontal and vertical lyres until the curd is reduced to pieces of less than 20mm (inches) to facilitate drainage of the whey. The curd is then placed in moulds inside a linen or cotton lining, within the mould it is subjected to a pressure of between 2 and 6 kg/sq cm. for at least 3 hours. The pressed cheeses are then salted in a brine bath for at least 18 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21020361",
"title": "Square milk jug",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Consumers have criticized the square milk jug for being difficult to pour, especially for children. When tilted shallowly, the larger opening (larger than a traditional milk jug), combined with its small lip, generates a wide stream of milk. This causes spills and leaks onto the sides of the container.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
59a90j
|
Did the Soviet Union have competitive entrance examinations for Universities? If yes, how did they differ from the ones in Europe and US?
|
[
{
"answer": "As a follow up question to OP's question, how common was it for Soviet universities to increase the difficulty of the entrance exams for, so-called, \"undesirables\"?\n\n[This article](_URL_0_) highlights the unfairness of entrance exams given to prospective Jewish students at the mathematics department of Moscow State University. Was this the norm?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer is going to be extremely dependent on period. University entrance in the Soviet Union in the 1920s versus the 1980s is going to be considerably different. Far more different than if you made the same comparison in the West. Is there a particular time frame that interests you?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up did soviet citizens choose their studies or was it chosen for them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8224177",
"title": "History of European universities",
"section": "Section::::European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries.:Modern universities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The German university model was also used in Russian universities, which hired lecturers trained in Germany and which dedicated themselves to science. At the same time, Russian universities were meant to train the bureaucracy in the same way as the French grandes écoles. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, Russian universities underwent much variation in their degrees of strictness and control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "363338",
"title": "Bologna Process",
"section": "Section::::Effects by state.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The Russian higher education framework was basically incompatible with the process. The generic, lowest degree in all universities since the Soviet era is the \"Specialist\", which can be obtained after five to six years of study. Since the mid-1990s, many universities have introduced limited programmes allowing students to graduate with a bachelor's degree in four years and a master's degree in an additional one to two years while preserving the old system. In October 2007, Russia moved to two-tier education in line with the Bologna Process. Universities inserted a BSc diploma in the middle of their standard specialist programmes, but the transition to MS qualification has not been completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23063986",
"title": "Higher education in Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::Access and affordability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "As with most communist Soviet and Eastern European states access to education for the masses was deemed a high priority, this was largely due to the fact that during imperial times mostly only the nobles and the wealthy had access to post secondary institutions. Citizens of the Soviet Union had free access to secondary education and were required to complete at least a junior specialist degree, equivalent to an associate degree in the US. Moreover, the Soviet Union exercised mandatory conscription of its male population, however those studying for a degree were exempt from the draft until the completion of their studies, therefore men would often stay enrolled to reach master's degrees to delay their entry into the military.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "811205",
"title": "Education in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Classification and terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The Soviet educational system was organized into three levels. The names of these levels were and are still used to rate the education standards of persons or particular schools, despite differences in the exact terminology used by each profession or school. Military, \"militsiya\", KGB and Party schools were also graded according to these levels. This distinguishes Soviet system from the rest of the world, where educational levels of schools may differ, despite their similar names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6622014",
"title": "Specialized school",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union and post-Soviet states.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Of the specialized school in the Soviet Union (, \"Shkola s uklonom\") there were three typical types: physical/mathematical schools, with enhanced education in physics and mathematics, sports school, and schools with advanced study of a foreign language of choice. This tradition continued in a number of post-Soviet states, notably Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Belarus, with many schools renamed into liceums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2739671",
"title": "Candidate of Sciences",
"section": "Section::::Local characteristics.:Former Czechoslovakia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "In Czechoslovakia, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences (, ) degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the Communist Putsch in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences and universities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524959",
"title": "University and college admission",
"section": "Section::::Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "University heads, notably Moscow State University rector Viktor Sadovnichiy, resisted the novelty, arguing that their schools cannot survive without charging the applicants with their own entrance hurdles. Nevertheless, the legislators enacted USE in February 2007. In 2008 it was mandatory for the students and optional for the universities; it is fully mandatory since 2009. A few higher education establishments are still allowed to introduce their own entrance tests in addition to USE scoring; such tests must be publicized in advance.(\"see also Education in Russia\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7wwrph
|
How good were the Confederacy's other generals in regards to Robert E Lee? Or the Northern generals for that matter? Were they second-rate, or just as good as Lee himself?
|
[
{
"answer": "It might be best to start on a discussion of Lee just to clear up what we're looking at in terms of a measuring stick. OP's question presupposes that Robert E. Lee was one of, if not THE best general of the American Civil War. By \"best\" I assume this is a combination of factors including (1) scoreboard, or win/loss ratio, and (2) post-war tactical evaluation. For both categories, while we can get into a discussion about them, one has to understand that there are few contemporaries with whom we can compare Lee. From the Battle of the 7 Days onward, Lee wasn't commanding just a division or a corps, but an entire Army. In this way, on the southern side, we can really only compare him to Beauregard, Bragg, Albert Sydney Johnston, Joseph E. Johnston, and maybe Hood. No one else on that side commanded at the same level as Lee, really, so comparisons further down the line are somewhat moot. On the northern side, there are more comparisons, and we will get to those in a moment. \n\nBut for starters: was Lee a good general, nay, the best the Confederacy had? Most modern scholarship is still in agreement that Lee was indeed a very good general, and probably the very best the Confederacy had to offer, yes. While he wasn't perfect, and certainly made his fair share of mistakes, Lee did pretty well for himself through a combination of skill, intuition, attitude, and luck. When he had to run a defensive campaign (think Fredericksburg or the Wilderness Campaign), Lee was outstanding, and when we was on the offensive, he could also be superb (2nd Bull Run & Chancellorsville being wonderful examples). The man did have his faults, however, including a reluctance to commit his resources and energies to the western theater campaign, and his insistence on seeing a battle through despite evolving circumstances (Antietam and Gettysburg, though in the former instance, luck was on his side and it worked out for him). Lee also ran hot and cold when it came to communicating to his subordinates, and while some of them seemed to intuitively understand the vagueness of his orders and their intention (Jackson), others had difficulty (Ewell), and disastrous results followed. Except for Longstreet, though, Lee's win/loss record when comparing similar circumstances of battle is tops among the Confederate generals. \n\nAll that being said, it is hard for one to think of another General in the Confederacy except, perhaps, for Longstreet, who could have done a better job in the role. Lee knew how to get the most out of his army (both in terms of numbers and resources), and how to use them effectively regardless of the situation. He understood the political calculus of the conflict (hence his insistence on invading the north twice despite the tactical disadvantage), and managed his generals well on most occasions. When in battle, he knew how to place his men effectively, and was even better at making adjustments in the heat of battle to address breakthroughs and openings. Again, except for Longstreet, no other Confederate general demonstrated effectiveness on these levels with such consistency. What's more, Lee knew how to carry himself like a general, and understood the drama of leadership, and how one's bearing can move and influence an army. Like McClellan (whose battlefield acumen didn't come anywhere near Lee's), Lee's men truly loved him, and would do anything for him. This isn't something that can be discounted when discussing good generalship in the Civil War. \n\nSo, except perhaps for Longstreet, who seemed to be as good of a general on paper as Lee, and was just as sharp, pragmatic, and disciplined, I think it could be said that Lee was the best general the Confederacy had on their side. Joe Johnston was too timid and cautious, A.S. Johnston lost the one big battle he did fight (and died doing it), Beauregard was unrealistic, and Hood and Bragg were pretty much disasters from the word \"go\" in a commanding army role. As mentioned earlier, it is difficult to compare Lee with any other Confederate generals because the resumes just don't line up. \n\nAs for a comparison of Lee against northern generals, again, it is hard to compare. Lee was fighting a completely different campaign under circumstances lightyears removed from his Union counterparts (transportation and supply networks alone make this an apples v. oranges discussion). Tactically, one could make the argument that Grant, fighting a very cagey, experienced, motivated, and disciplined foe, displayed generalship on the same level as Lee during their head-to-heads of '64 and '65. Grant made several dynamic moves with his army that nearly flanked Lee on two occasions before successfully doing just that on route to Petersburg, where Grant bottled Lee up. Earlier, in 1863, Grant pulled off something just short of a miracle when he abandoned his supply lines, marched south of Vicksburg, crossed the Mississippi River, then fought to a siege that would eventually force the surrender of a massive Confederate garrison (and open the river back up to the Union). This was maybe the most impressive military feat of the entire war. Sherman's march to the sea and eventual dismantling of Hood's forces was nearly as impressive, as was the initiative showed by a young Major named Emory Upton who developed tactics during the Spotsylvania Courthouse campaign that leap-frogged military theory to where it would be in World War I. \n\nTD:LR - In the south, yes, we can reasonably argue that Robert E. Lee was one of, if not THE best general that the Confederacy had. When comparing Lee to generals in the north, it is more difficult, but an argument can be made that Union generals accomplished feats that were on the same level as Lee. \n\n[Sources: Bruce Catton: Army of the Potomac trilogy & 'Grant Moves South'; James McPherson, 'Battle Cry of Freedom'; Doris Kearns Goodwin, 'Team of Rivals'; Ronald C. White, 'American Ulysses']",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50502333",
"title": "Armies in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:The armies in the Overland Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Although plagued by an overall shortage in numbers, Lee had fewer worries about the organization and quality of his manpower. Most of his soldiers had enlisted for the duration of the war, thus his army lost few regiments due to expired terms of service. Also, thanks to its better replacement system, Confederate regiments were usually closer to a consistent strength of 350 to 600 men instead of the wild disparity of their Union counterparts (as low as 150 soldiers in the decimated veteran regiments and as much as 1,200 in the heavy artillery regiments). Overall, Lee could count on the quality and consistency of his units, and he did not have to endure the turmoil of troop turnover and organizational changes that hindered Grant's forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "915493",
"title": "Robert",
"section": "Section::::People with the name.:Wartime Figures and Military Leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- Robert E. Lee, American and Confederate general, commander of the Confederate States Army during American Civil War, one of the moust famous military commanders of his time, considered one of the greatest generals of all time;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49588",
"title": "James Longstreet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1638,
"text": "Longstreet's talents as a general made significant contributions to several important Confederate victories, mostly in the Eastern Theater as one of Robert E. Lee's chief subordinates in the Army of Northern Virginia. He performed poorly at Seven Pines by accidentally marching his men down the wrong road, causing them to be late in arrival. He played an important role in the success of the Seven Days Battles in the summer of 1862. Longstreet led a devastating counterattack that routed the Union army at Second Bull Run in August. His men held their ground in defensive roles at Antietam and Fredericksburg. Longstreet's most controversial service was at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, where he openly disagreed with General Lee on the tactics to be employed and reluctantly supervised several attacks on Union forces, including the disastrous Pickett's Charge. Afterwards, Longstreet was, at his own request, sent to the Western Theater to fight under Braxton Bragg, where his troops launched a ferocious assault on the Union lines at Chickamauga, which carried the day. Afterwards, his performance in semiautonomous command during the Knoxville Campaign resulted in a Confederate defeat. Longstreet's tenure in the Western Theater was marred by his central role in numerous conflicts amongst important Confederate generals. Unhappy serving under Bragg, Longstreet and his men were sent back to Lee. He ably commanded troops during the Battle of the Wilderness in 1864, where he was seriously wounded by friendly fire. He later returned to the field, serving under Lee in the Siege of Petersburg and the Appomattox Campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293722",
"title": "Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Armies and prominent leaders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included Thomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson, James Longstreet, J. E. B. Stuart, Gideon Pillow, and A. P. Hill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1115525",
"title": "Stephen D. Lee",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Based on Lee's familiarity with the three major arms of a Civil War-era army, military historian Ezra J. Warner summarized him as an able and versatile corps commander, saying \"Despite his youth and comparative lack of experience, Lee's prior close acquaintanceship with all three branches of the service —artillery, cavalry, and infantry— rendered him one of the most capable corps commanders in the army.\" He was entered into the Mississippi Hall of Fame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48882208",
"title": "The Britannia's Fist Trilogy",
"section": "Section::::Major characters.:Confederate-Anglo-French aligned.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 207,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 207,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "BULLET::::- James Longstreet: Lieutenant General, Confederate States Army. Perhaps the finest corps commander in the Confederate Army, Longstreet under-performed during his tenure in the Western Theater but made up for it by successfully winning the Second Battle of Big Bethel. Besieged Fort Monroe before rushing back to relieve Lee's position, but held back by Sheridan and Hancock. Surrendered his corps after finding Richmond occupied and Lee surrendered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17867087",
"title": "General officers in the Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::Major general.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "These generals were most commonly infantry division commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals, and War Department staff officers. They also led the districts that made up military departments, and had command over the troops in their districts. By war's end, the Confederacy had at least 88 different men who had held this rank, all in the PACS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
74q2kq
|
what led to the creation of the knights templar and what was their mo?
|
[
{
"answer": "During the Crusades, the Church controlled Jerusalem for a time, and this attracted pilgrimages to go see the holy land. The trip from Western Europe to the Levant was rough and dangerous. The Knights Templar were formed as a monastic order charged with securing the safety of pilgrims.\n\nBesides safety, they also served as a basic form of banking for pilgrims. Before you left, you'd deposit your valuables at a local Templar place, get a certificate of deposit, and afterwards you could either withdraw once you returned, or get an equivalent in treasure when you were in Jerusalem. This financial dealing made them relatively powerful.\n\nDespite the myths around them, their utility and purpose waned as the Muslims recaptured Jerusalem and the surroundings. Due to their power and ongoing feuds with the Knights Hospitaller, the French king eventually ordered them all arrested, and pressured the Pope to do the same. Some were killed, but most were given pensions and allowed to leave, or became absorbed into other monastic orders.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "so I don't know much about their start.\n\nBut their MO was that you were already an extremely skilled knight before you joined. They didn't take green knights that hadn't fought a battle yet.\n\nSo you take the cream of the crop. Then they spend all day (when they aren't escorting pilgrims to holy sites) praying/other godly stuff, training, chores.\n\nSo the shear amount of time they spent training alongside other skilled knights made them even better. Couple this with the surplus funds that their banking system made (one of the reasons the french turned on them) giving them what for that time was a huge budget and they could afford to keep their men equipped with the best gear possible.\n\nOn the field they worked mainly as cavalry in chain mail (due to it being too hot for plate armor) and used a V formation in cavalry charges. They also trained closely with auxiliaries, non knights fighting on foot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16728651",
"title": "Knights Templar in popular culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "The original historic Knights Templar were a Christian military order, the Order of the Poor Fellow Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, that existed from the 12th to 14th centuries to provide warriors in the Crusades. These men were famous in the high and late Middle Ages, but the Order was disbanded very suddenly by King Philip IV of France, who took action against the Templars in order to avoid repaying his own financial debts. He accused them of heresy, ordered the arrest of all Templars within his realm, and had many of them burned at the stake. The dramatic and rapid end of the organization led to many stories and legends developing about them over the following centuries. The Order and its members increasingly appear in modern fiction, though most of these references portray the medieval organization inaccurately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13550406",
"title": "Esotericism in Germany and Austria",
"section": "Section::::Influences from before 1880.:Knights Templar and occultism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "The original Knights Templar, founded around 1119, had been a crusading military order, that, at some time, had established financial networks across the whole of Christendom. In 1307, King Philip IV of France mounted a \"slanderous campaign\" to strip the Order of its economic and political influence. The Templars were accused of Satanic practices, perversions and blasphemy and ruthlessly suppressed; Its leaders were burned on March 18, 1314. The circumstances of their suppression gave rise to legends surrounding the Knights Templar. In Germany, \"where the growth of deviant Masonic rites was greatest,\" the Templar heritage was adopted for irregular Freemasonry. (Freemasonry had been officially founded in England in 1717.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "482605",
"title": "Council of Vienne",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The Knights Templar were founded after the First Crusade of 1096 to ensure the safety of European pilgrims to Jerusalem. In the following centuries the order grew in power and wealth. In the early 14th century, Philip IV of France needed money urgently to continue his war with England and so he accused the Grand Master of the Templars, Jacques De Molay, of corruption and heresy. In 1307 Philip had many French Templars arrested, charged with heresies, and tortured by the French authorities until they allegedly confessed. This action released Philip from his obligation to repay loans from the Templars and allowed him to confiscate the Templars' assets in France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56250",
"title": "York Rite",
"section": "Section::::York Rite bodies.:Knights Templar (Grand Encampment of Knights Templar of the U.S.A.).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The Knights Templar is the final order joined in the York Rite. Unlike other Masonic bodies which only require a belief in a Supreme Being regardless of religion, membership in the Knights Templar is open only to Christian Masons who have completed their Royal Arch and in some jurisdictions their Cryptic Degrees. This body is modeled on the historical Knights Templar to carry on the spirit of their organization. Throughout history it has been claimed that Freemasonry itself was founded by the Knights Templar or that the Knights Templar took refuge in Freemasonry after their persecution. The Grand Encampment of the United States acknowledges the existence of these theories but states that there is no proof to justify such claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4040841",
"title": "Knights Templar (Freemasonry)",
"section": "Section::::The Degrees or Orders.:The Degree of Knight of the Temple (Order of the Temple).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "The original medieval Order of Knights Templar was established after the First Crusade, and existed from approximately 1118 to 1312. There is no known historical evidence to link the medieval Knights Templar and Masonic Templarism, nor do the Masonic Knights Templar organizations claim any such direct link to the original medieval Templar organization. Though it has been said that its affiliation with Masonry is based on texts that indicate persecuted Templars found refuge within the safety of Freemasonry, the order itself states that \"there is no proof of direct connection between the ancient order and the modern order known today as the Knights Templar.\" The official motto of the Knights Templar is In Hoc Signo Vinces, the rendition in Latin of the Greek phrase \"εν τούτῳ νίκα\", en toutōi nika, meaning \"in this [sign] you will conquer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "503345",
"title": "High Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Crusades.:Military orders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The Knights Templar were a Christian military order founded after the First Crusade to help protect Christian pilgrims from hostile locals and highway bandits. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307 Philip the Fair (Philippine le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of heresy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16869",
"title": "Knights Templar",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Modern organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The Knights Templar were dismantled in the Rolls of the Catholic Church in 1309 with the death of Jacques de Molay; with the suppression of the Order, a number of Knights Templar joined the newly established Order of Christ, which effectively reabsorbed the Knights Templar and its properties in AD 1319, especially in Portugal. The story of the persecution and sudden dissolution of the secretive yet powerful medieval Templars has drawn many other groups to use alleged connections with them as a way of enhancing their own image and mystery. Apart from the Order of Christ, there is no clear historical connection between the Knights Templar and any other modern organization, the earliest of which emerged publicly in the 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b3tco
|
why we flinch
|
[
{
"answer": "Fight or flight instinct. When surprised, your body/brain makes itself ready to defend itself, or run for the hills...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, moving away from a collision when it happens dampens the overall effect or damage. Kind of like how you have to move your hands back to catch an egg. If you flinch back when someone punches you, it will hurt less. maybe?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22083",
"title": "Negotiation",
"section": "Section::::Strategies.:Types of negotiators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Flinching is showing a strong negative physical reaction to a proposal. Common examples of flinching are gasping for air, or a visible expression of surprise or shock. The flinch can be done consciously or unconsciously. The flinch signals to the opposite party that you think the offer or proposal is absurd in hopes the other party will lower their aspirations. Seeing a physical reaction is more believable than hearing someone saying, \"I'm shocked.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515983",
"title": "The Theory of Moral Sentiments",
"section": "Section::::\"The Theory of Moral Sentiments\": The Sixth Edition.:Part I: Of the propriety of action.:Part I, Section II: Of the degrees of which different passions are consistent with propriety.:Part I, Section II, Chapter III: Of the unsocial passions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 1156,
"text": "However, in general, any expression of anger is improper in the presence of others. This is because the \"immediate effects [of anger] are disagreeable\" just as the knives of surgery are disagreeable for art, as the immediate effect of surgery is unpleasant even though long-term effect is justified. Likewise, even when anger is justly provoked, it is disagreeable. According to Smith, this explains why we reserve sympathy until we know the cause of the anger or resentment, since, if the emotion is not justified by the action of another person, then the immediate disagreeableness and threat to the other person (and by sympathy to ourselves) overwhelm any sympathy that the spectator may have for the offended. In response to expressions of anger, hatred, or resentment, it is likely that the impartial spectator will not feel anger in sympathy with the offended but instead anger \"toward\" the offended for expressing such an aversive. Smith believes that there is some form of natural optimality to the aversiveness of these emotions, as it reduces the propagation of ill will among people, and thus increases the probability of functional societies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15311728",
"title": "Tenderness (medicine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "In medicine, tenderness is pain or discomfort when an affected area is touched. It should not be confused with the pain that a patient perceives without touching. Pain is patient's perception, while tenderness is a sign that a clinician elicits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12687955",
"title": "List of Di-Gata Defenders characters",
"section": "Section::::Antagonists.:Flinch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Flinch is a brilliant scientist and inventor. He prefers to work alone, but is often sent out on missions because no one else can work out how to use his machines and gizmos. He is a smart-alec with a sharp wit and a quick tongue. However, when it comes to physical confrontation you'll see a different side of him - his backside - as he runs away in terror! Flinch often teams up with his complete opposite Malco, to form a villainous but often bumbling evil duo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424302",
"title": "Itch",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Pain and itch have very different behavioral response patterns. Pain evokes a withdrawal reflex, which leads to retraction and therefore a reaction trying to protect an endangered part of the body. Itch in contrast creates a scratch reflex, which draws one to the affected skin site. Itch generates stimulus of a foreign object underneath or upon the skin and also the urge to remove it. For example, responding to a local itch sensation is an effective way to remove insects from one's skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10530049",
"title": "Flinch (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "\"Flinch\" is a song recorded by Canadian singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette for her fifth studio album, \"Under Rug Swept\" (2002). The song, written, arranged and produced by Morissette herself, is inspired by an old flame she previously dated when she was younger. Lyrically, \"Flinch\" is about feeling ashamed and embarrassed after seeing an ex-boyfriend, and how much he still affects her, with the protagonist claiming that she will eventually grow up and will not even flinch at his name. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1846413",
"title": "Stinger (medicine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "In medicine, a stinger, also called a \"burner\" or \"nerve pinch injury\", is a neurological injury suffered by athletes, mostly in high-contact sports such as ice hockey, rugby, American football, and wrestling. The spine injury is characterized by a shooting or stinging pain that travels down one arm, followed by numbness and weakness. Many athletes in contact sports have suffered stingers, but they are often unreported to medical professionals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
523jlk
|
what will happen if we try to land on a gas gaint, like jupiter? will we come out from the other end, never being able to land?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, as you enter the gas giant the pressure would increase and the interior gases would buoy your ship because their density would be increasingly higher as the molecules are squeezed closer together by gravity. You'd probably end up floating inside like being deep underwater rather than just passing straight through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From my understanding, most gas giants have a solid core of (I think) rock/metals. But Jupiter's high Gravity, and high atmospheric winds/pressure would be make it too dangerous for us to \"land\" on the core. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Galileo probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere. Due to the immense gravity of the gas giants probes enter them at a really high speeds (tens of kilometers per second), so they need huge heat shields to survive. Afterwards you just have atmosphere without any surface below - but if you go too deep, pressure and temperature rise so much that no probe will survive it. The probe gets crushed, its pieces slowly descend further (because metals have a larger density than the hydrogen/helium atmosphere).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I see most people stuck in the real-world on this. Y'all need to borrow NdGT's Ship of the Imagination, allowing you to participate in the universe as an outside observer. \n\nMany scientists actually think there is a solid rocky core on most gas giants. Drop your ship low enough and you eventually reach some solid material, whether it's metallic hydrogen, silicates, a lump of uranium.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it like a submarine going too deep into the ocean- you reach a point where the pressure is so immense you are crushed. The gas giants do not have \"air\" flowing over \"ground\" like a rocky planet, it's a dense atmosphere that gets so dense it's basically liquid, then so dense it's basically a gooey solid, much like the hot molten rock of the mantle layer on a rocky planet. While made of \"gas\" (Hydrogen) it's so hot, and so dense it's insane. \n\nThere may or may not be a solid core within but it's not going to be anything you can say you \"landed\" on considering the density on your way down. You would not say you \"landed\" on the core of Earth after drilling though super hot dense semi-liquid mantle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The interior of a gas giant is actually quite dense...Jupiter's core is believed to be about twice as dense as the earth's.\n\nWhat makes a gas giant different is there is no sudden transition from atmosphere to surface...it just slowly gets denser and denser as you approach the center.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48916027",
"title": "2016 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 217,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 217,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- 27 August – NASA's \"Juno\" probe makes a close pass of Jupiter, coming within of the cloud tops – the closest any spacecraft has ever approached the gas giant without entering its atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9074462",
"title": "Exploration of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Technical requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "A major problem in sending space probes to Jupiter is that the planet has no solid surface on which to land, as there is a smooth transition between the planet's atmosphere and its fluid interior. Any probes descending into the atmosphere are eventually crushed by the immense pressures within Jupiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50961258",
"title": "Lost in Space (2018 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Before they reach their destination, an alien robot breaches the \"Resolute\"s hull. Forced to evacuate the mothership in short-range \"Jupiter\" spacecraft, scores of colonists, among them the Robinsons, crash on a nearby habitable planet. There they must contend with a strange environment and battle their own personal demons as they search for a way back to the \"Resolute\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14733483",
"title": "The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In the present day, a rapidly moving object is detected beyond Jupiter's orbit and forecast to impact Manhattan. It is moving at 30,000 kilometers per second, enough to destroy all life on Earth. The United States government hastily assembles a group of scientists, including Dr. Helen Benson and her friend Dr. Michael Granier, to develop a survival plan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11271800",
"title": "Journey to Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The first manned expedition to Jupiter reaches speeds never experienced before; despite this it takes several months to reach its objective, leading to tensions among the crew, as well as serious vision problems caused by \"light slip\". A miscalculation in the gravity of Jupiter means that they will not be able to stop in time and will crash into the giant planet. A diversion to the jagged Io offers their only chance of survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28431",
"title": "Space exploration",
"section": "Section::::Targets of exploration.:Jupiter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2 km/s, which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39809463",
"title": "MV Jupiter (1961)",
"section": "Section::::Sinking of the \"Jupiter\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Just 15 minutes after leaving port, the \"Jupiter\" was struck by an Italian freight ship, the \"Adige\", that was entering port. The collision tore a by hole in \"Jupiter\"s port side. Within 40 minutes (at 6.55pm), the ship had sunk vertically and stern first in of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60wd7u
|
How long did soldiers have to stand in the landing crafts during D-Day?
|
[
{
"answer": "The convoys carrying troops departed from ports in southern England on the afternoon of June 5, 1944 and proceeded slowly across the channel with heavy air cover. They dropped anchor in their designated transport areas 23,000 yards offshore at roughly 0200 on June 6, at the same time that airborne forces were being landed. Boat teams were assembled, and loading and lowering of landing craft began at 0430, with H-Hour at 0630; so, roughly 2 hours. Elements of the 4th and 24th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadrons proceeded in their landing craft two hours before H-Hour to clear out a small German observation post on the St. Marcouf Islands off Utah Beach.\n\n**Sources:**\n\n* [*Omaha Beachhead (6 June-13 June 1944)*](_URL_1_), by the Historical Division, War Department\n\n* [*U.S. Army in World War II, European Theater of Operations: Cross-Channel Attack*](_URL_0_), by Gordon A. Harrison",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47704717",
"title": "Norman Poole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Norman Harry Poole MC (9 April 1920 – 26 June 2015) was a British soldier who was one of the first allied soldiers to land on occupied territory on D-Day in 1944. Poole won the Military Cross for his actions on that day and subsequently as he evaded capture by the enemy for six weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49932385",
"title": "Albro Castle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Barracks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "In World War II the building provided accommodation for the 111th Ordnance Company of the U.S. Army from January 1944. The 180 men and their vehicles, including trucks and tanks, left at night on 6 June 1944, D-day, bound for Normandy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53842713",
"title": "Call of Duty: WWII",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "On June 6, 1944, U.S. Army Private First Class Ronald \"Red\" Daniels (Brett Zimmerman) of the 1st Infantry Division takes part in the Normandy landings also known as D-Day with his platoon, consisting of Private First Class Robert Zussman (Jonathan Tucker), Private Drew Stiles (Kevin Coubal), Technician Fifth Grade Frank Aiello (Jeff Schine), Technical Sergeant William Pierson (Josh Duhamel) and First Lieutenant Joseph Turner (Jeffrey Pierce). Following the landings, Zussman is stabbed by a German soldier, resulting in his hospitalization for several weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7459717",
"title": "Buile Hill Visual Arts College",
"section": "Section::::Notable former pupils.:Salford Grammar School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Staff Sergeant Jim Wallwork (1919-2013), first Allied soldier on French soil on D-Day, after being catapulted through the windscreen of the Horsa glider, when taking part in Operation Deadstick on Pegasus Bridge\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54609503",
"title": "Mount Helena Tavern",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "During the First World War route marches were conducted by the Australian Army from Blackboy Hill training camp in Greenmount to the hotel and the hotel provided entertainments for returning wounded soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3862374",
"title": "Felix Bowness",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "At the outbreak of the Second World War, he joined the Royal Berkshire Regiment as a signalman. At the D-Day landings in Normandy, after his landing craft was hit and sunk, he only remembered waking in a French convent. During recovery he attended a Vera Lynn concert, after which she gave him a singing lesson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6278385",
"title": "Lanark Village, Florida",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Camp Gordon Johnston opened in 1942 for the sole purpose of training amphibious soldiers and their support groups, this camp trained a quarter of a million men. The trained soldiers were used in the attack on D-Day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bwp3h
|
What is the origin and historical context of so called, "honor killings?"
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! if you don't get responses here (or even if you do), it might be worth x-posting this question to /r/AskSocialScience and/or /r/AskAnthropology for their perspective",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "457803",
"title": "Yusuf al-Qaradawi",
"section": "Section::::Views and statements.:Women, gender and other issues.:Honor killing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Al-Qaradawi says that honor killing is a tradition that was carried out thousands of years ago by ancient civilization; the Romans, the Dark Ages, Chinese Emperors, etc. He says, it has nothing to do with Islam; neither Qur'an nor Sunnah (Prophetic Hadith). He calls on those who done it to be punishable with death for their crime; a life for a life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671343",
"title": "Criticism of religion",
"section": "Section::::Harm to individuals.:Honor killings and stoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Honor killings once well known in the Western countries are now extremely rare, however, they still occur in other parts of the world. An honor killing is when a person is killed by family for bringing dishonor or shame upon the family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43782525",
"title": "Nota roja",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "By the 19th century, the term “\"nota roja\"” came to refer to violent crimes, especially murders by the beginning of the 19th century. According to legend, one Guadalajara newspaper began printing headlines of these stories in red in 1889 in order to indicate that the story was about a murder and provoke horror in potential readers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58809",
"title": "Adultery",
"section": "Section::::Violence.:Honor killings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Honor killings are often connected to accusations of adultery. Honor killings continue to be practiced in some parts of the world, particularly (but not only) in parts of South Asia and the Middle East. Honor killings are treated leniently in some legal systems. Honor killings have also taken place in immigrant communities in Europe, Canada and the U.S. In some parts of the world, honor killings enjoy considerable public support: in one survey, 33.4% of teenagers in Jordan's capital city, Amman, approved of honor killings. A survey in Diyarbakir, Turkey, found that, when asked the appropriate punishment for a woman who has committed adultery, 37% of respondents said she should be killed, while 21% said her nose or ears should be cut off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9437868",
"title": "Honor killing",
"section": "Section::::In history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Honor killings have a long tradition in Mediterranean Europe. According to the \"Honour Related Violence – European Resource Book and Good Practice\" (page 234): \"Honor in the Mediterranean world is a code of conduct, a way of life and an ideal of the social order, which defines the lives, the customs and the values of many of the peoples in the Mediterranean moral\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3634424",
"title": "Violence against women",
"section": "Section::::Forms of violence.:Domestic violence.:Honor killings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Honor killings are common in countries such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen. Honor killings also occur in immigrant communities in Europe, the United States and Canada. Although honor killings are most often associated with the Middle East and South Asia, they occur in other parts of the world too. In India, honor killings occur in the northern regions of the country, especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. In Turkey, honor killings are a serious problem in Southeastern Anatolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9437868",
"title": "Honor killing",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The issue of honor killings has risen to prominence in Europe in recent years, prompting the need to address the occurrence of honor killings. The 2009 European Parliamentary Assembly noted this in their Resolution 1681 which noted the dire need to address honor crimes. The resolution stated that: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4keecy
|
Would the night sky have appeared much brighter in the time of the dinosaurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "The universe is expanding, but gravity keeps small-scale (relatively speaking!) structures like galaxies - and even groups of galaxies - together. The volume of space containing all the stars we can see is a vanishingly small part of our galaxy! So the number of stars visible doesn't really change as the Universe expands. It might fluctuate a bit as the solar system makes its long orbit around the galactic center.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Getting some kind of handle on deep time is a real challenge. 65 million years ago, when the asteroid killed off the big dinosaurs, stars would still be pinpoints of light - 65 million years is less than half a percent of the 13.5 billion year accepted age of our visible Universe (so far). So I don't see a big change over that \"short\" geologic time as the Universe expands). (That's of course If I didn't screw up the math) The moon wouldn't have been much larger either - moving away from earth by 1.5 inches a year, it would only be about 1,500 miles closer than it is now (roughly 230k miles now). So all in all, I don't think things would have looked much different. Go back a couple billion years, when only bacteria were around, and you might have a different story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others pointed out, the expansion of the universe doesn't effect the distance between the solar system and the visible stars, since all those stars lie in our local region of the Milky Way. However, the number of stars visible in the sky would have fluctuated up and down in the past. The reason is that spiral arms of galaxies are dynamic waves of high density that sweep through the stars, much like a sound wave traveling through air compresses the molecules. The wikipedia page on [density wave theory](_URL_2_) has some good animations explaining how this works. \n\nAs the sun moves around the center of the Milky Way, it moves in and out of the spiral arms, as seen [here](_URL_1_). It takes the sun about 225 million years to complete its orbit within the galaxy, and the dinosaurs were around from 230 to 66 million years ago. Our current location in the Milky Way puts us in the [Orion spur](_URL_0_), a small arm of the Milky Way. There are larger arms that the sun passes through with a higher density of stars, as well as gaps with a lower density of stars. So at different points when the dinosaurs roamed the earth, the sky had both more and fewer stars in it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "185083",
"title": "Huygens (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "\"Huygens\" found the brightness of the surface of Titan (at time of landing) to be about one thousand times dimmer than full solar illumination on Earth (or 500 times brighter than illumination by full moonlight)—that is, the illumination level experienced about ten minutes after sunset on Earth, approximately late civil twilight. The color of the sky and the scene on Titan is mainly orange due to the much greater attenuation of blue light by Titan's haze relative to red light. The Sun (which was comparatively high in the sky when \"Huygens\" landed) would be visible as a small, bright spot, one tenth the size of the solar disk seen from Earth, and comparable in size and brightness to a car headlight seen from about 150 meters. It casts sharp shadows, but of low contrast as 90% of the illumination comes from the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "296120",
"title": "Copernican period",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "The base of the Copernican period is defined based on the recognition that freshly excavated materials on the lunar surface are generally \"bright\" and that they become darker over time as a result of space weathering processes. Operationally, this period was originally defined as the time at which impact craters \"lost\" their bright ray systems. This definition, however, has recently been subjected to some criticism as some crater rays are bright for compositional reasons that are unrelated to the amount of space weathering they have incurred. In particular, if the ejecta from a crater formed in the highlands (which is composed of bright anorthositic materials) is deposited on the low albedo mare, it will remain bright even after being space weathered. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12260598",
"title": "Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Blue Sky decided to do \"more of a what-if adventure\" in the third \"Ice Age\" installment, titled \"Ice Age: A New Beginning\", \"like finding the giant ape in \"King Kong\" or a Shangri-la in the middle of snow,\" and added the dinosaurs to the story. Character designer Peter de Sève welcomed the new plot addition, since he could not think of any other giant mammal to put into the story. The \"lost world\" approach led to colorful dinosaurs, because \"the dinosaurs didn't have to be just brown, and you can take liberties because no one knows what color they were\", according to de Sève. Rudy's design was inspired by the \"Baryonyx\" because of his crocodile-like look, which de Sève considered even more menacing than the \"T. rex\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1156924",
"title": "South Polar region of the Cretaceous",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Dinosaurs.:Paleocene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "After an asteroid impact, the ensuing impact winter is thought to have killed off the dinosaurs along with much of Mesozoic life in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. However, the lack of an abrupt extinction horizon in Antarctic or Australian sediments for plant and bivalve fossils during this time period indicates a less powerful impact in the South Polar region. Given that the dinosaurs and other fauna of the polar regions of the Cretaceous were well adapted for living in long periods of dark and cold weather, it has been postulated that this community might have survived the event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "771190",
"title": "Alan Hale (astronomer)",
"section": "Section::::Discovery of Comet Hale–Bopp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "When the comet was at the peak of its brightness, Hale says he was giving talks about the comet in big cities with light-polluted night skies, so he did not get a chance \"to see it all that much when it was really bright.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1522674",
"title": "Beta Librae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The apparent visual magnitude of this star is 2.6. According to Eratosthenes Beta Librae was observed to be brighter than Antares. Ptolemy, 350 years later, said it was as bright as Antares. The discrepancy may be due to Antares becoming brighter, but this is not known for certain. It could simply be caused by Beta Librae being a variable star, showing a present-day variability of 0.03 of a magnitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16270701",
"title": "Climate of Uranus",
"section": "Section::::Banded structure, winds and clouds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1335,
"text": "In addition to large-scale banded structure, Voyager 2 observed ten small bright clouds, most lying several degrees to the north from the collar. In all other respects Uranus looked like a dynamically dead planet in 1986. However, in the 1990s the number of the observed bright cloud features grew considerably. The majority of them was found in the northern hemisphere as it started to become visible. The common though incorrect explanation of this fact was that bright clouds are easier to identify in its dark part, whereas in the southern hemisphere the bright collar masks them. Nevertheless, there are differences between the clouds of each hemisphere. The northern clouds are smaller, sharper and brighter. They appear to lie at a higher altitude, which is connected to fact that until 2004 (see below) no southern polar cloud had been observed at the wavelength 2.2 micrometres, which is sensitive to the methane absorption, whereas northern clouds have been regularly observed in this wavelength band. The lifetime of clouds spans several orders of magnitude. Some small clouds live for hours, whereas at least one southern cloud has persisted since the Voyager flyby. Recent observation also discovered that cloud-features on Uranus have a lot in common with those on Neptune, although the weather on Uranus is much calmer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ggsuw
|
why there are lions in india, but no tigers in africa?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Lions, leopards and tigers are all part of the Felidae family of cats, which originated in Africa and share a common ancestor. At some point, probably around 2 million years ago, one offshoot of Felidae migrated east toward Asia, and those cats evolved into the orange-, black-, and white-striped beasts we know today. Once established in Asia, however, tigers never returned to Africa.\n\nLike many species, their ancestors left Africa and evolved, and never returned.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8400927",
"title": "Panthera leo melanochaita",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "In Africa, lions are threatened by pre-emptive killing or in retaliation for preying on livestock. Prey base depletion, loss and conversion of habitat have led to a number of subpopulations becoming small and isolated. Trophy hunting has contributed to population declines in Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Although lions and their prey are officially protected in Tsavo National Parks, they are regularly killed by local people, with over 100 known lion killings between 2001 and 2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36896",
"title": "Lion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Typically, the lion inhabits grasslands and savannas but is absent in dense forests. It is usually more diurnal than other big cats, but when persecuted it adapts to being active at night and at twilight. In the Pleistocene, the lion ranged throughout Eurasia, Africa and North America but today it has been reduced to fragmented populations in Sub-Saharan Africa and one critically endangered population in western India. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1996 because populations in African countries have declined by about 43% since the early 1990s. Lion populations are untenable outside designated protected areas. Although the cause of the decline is not fully understood, habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes for concern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90016",
"title": "Big five game",
"section": "Section::::Species.:African lion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The lion (\"Panthera leo\") is a large feline of Africa and northwest India, having a short, tawny coat, a tufted tail, and in the male, a heavy mane around the neck and shoulders. Lions are desirable to hunters because of the very real danger involved in hunting them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17238590",
"title": "Eritrea",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Wildlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka Region. There is also a small population of African bush elephants that roam in some parts of the country. Dik-diks can also be found in many areas. The endangered African wild ass can be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, African leopards, oryx and crocodiles. The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, and they are thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001 a herd of about 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons, with the baboons using the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree-top baboons as an early warning system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44303",
"title": "Leopard",
"section": "Section::::Leopards and humans.:Hybrids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Although lions and leopards may come into contact in sub-Saharan Africa, they are generally not known to interbreed naturally. However, there have been anecdotal reports of felids larger than the cheetah but smaller than the lion, with a lion-like face, from the Central African Republic, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda. This animal, known as the marozi and by several other names, is covered with grayish spots or rosettes on the back, the flanks and the legs. However, there have been no confirmed sightings of the marozi since the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29228689",
"title": "Tiger versus lion",
"section": "Section::::Coexistence in the Eurasian wilderness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1380,
"text": "Reginald Innes Pocock (1939) mentioned that some people had the opinion that the tiger played a role in the near-extinction of the Indian lion, but he dismissed this view as 'fanciful'. According to him, there was evidence that tigers inhabited the Subcontinent, before lions. The tigers likely entered Northern India from the eastern end of the Himalayas, through Burma, and started spreading throughout the area, before the lions likely entered Northern India from Balochistan or Persia, and spread to places like the Bengal and the Nerbudda River. Because of that, before the presence of man could limit the spread of lions, tigers reached parts of India that lions did not reach. However, the presence of tigers throughout India did not stop the spread of lions there, in the first place, so Pocock said that it is unlikely that Bengal tigers played a role, significant or subordinate, in the near-extinction of the Indian lion, rather, that man was responsible for it, as was the case with the decline in tigers' numbers. As such, Pocock thought that it was unlikely that serious competition between them regularly occurred, and that even if Indian lions and tigers met, the chance that they would fight for survival was as good as the chance that they would choose to avoid each other, and that their chances of success, if they were to clash, were as good as each other's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1635424",
"title": "Asiatic lion",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.:Former range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Heavy hunting by British colonial officers and Indian rulers caused a steady and marked decline of lion numbers in the country. Lions were exterminated in Palamau by 1814, in Baroda, Hariana and Ahmedabad district in the 1830s, in Kot Diji and Damoh in the 1840s. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, a British officer shot 300 lions. The last lions of Gwalior and Rewah were shot in the 1860s. One lion was killed near Allahabad in 1866. The last lion of Mount Abu in Rajasthan was spotted in 1872. By the late 1870s, lions were extinct in Rajastan. By 1880, no lion survived in Guna, Deesa and Palanpur districts, and only about a dozen lions were left in Junagadh district. By the turn of the century, the Gir Forest held the only Asiatic lion population in India, which was protected by the Nawab of Junagarh in his private hunting grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20tvap
|
Why do larger land animals seemingly tend to have fewer legs (among those that have them)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Interesting question, I think the distinction might not be between small animals and large ones, but rather between invertebrates and vertebrates. \n\nMy speculation is that there is a tradeoff between the number of appendages an organisms has, and the range of motor control it can have with those appendages. This would produce two alternative evolutionary strategies, one using fewer appendages with greater motor control, and one using more appendages with less motor control. \n\nIt's possible we fell down an evolutionary path in one direction while invertebrates fell down the other by complete chance. Or, there is some reason for the split such as fundamental differences in our nervous systems. Sorry I can't say for sure, these are just my about thoughts about it! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've never heard a definitive answer to that, but I'll share my thoughts thanks to a side interest of mine (robotics) in which I've explored some of these issues.\n\nMore legs means more body to maintain. If there isn't an advantage to that \"more body\" natural selection works against it. In the case of primitive creatures the advantage is *stability* and *mobility*. It's much harder for a creature with six legs to fall over than one with four or two. In robotics, you'll see this in the huge number of [hexapod robots](_URL_0_) available to hobbyists.\n\nThe downside to hexapod robots is that they need a lot of power-hungry, relatively heavy, pricey motors -- generally three per leg for EIGHTEEN in total. Ugh. In that regard, a two-legged robot would be awesome -- but creating a two-legged robot that can walk reliably is very, very hard. Still-in-laboratory-research-phase kind of hard. What that tells me is that more likely than not, more primitive animals just don't have the brainpower to balance on fewer legs. As you go up the evolutionary ladder, sufficient processing power exists for locomotion on fewer legs, and the number of legs then goes down.\n\nSorry it's a cross-over answer, but it's the best I can do!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a huge difference in the way invertebrates and vertebrates develop, the initial stage a single fertilize egg is the same, but already after a few divisions you start noticing differences. What is important is that our legs are vastly different structures than the leg of a grashopper. \n\nVertebrates all share a common body plan with four limbs, in some linages they have been lost (e.g. snakes) in others they might have evolved to have a new function (e.g. wings in bats and birds, flippers in whales, ...). Also if you see how our own limbs develop and the bones fit together, it is difficult to see how an extra pair would be attached.\n\nInsects, centipedes and arachnids have a segmented body structure where limbs can form from the fold between parts of the exo-skeleton. Here evolution also seems to favor less, but highly functional limbs. The most recent common ancestor of all these species probably was something similar to a centipede. With lots of segments all with fairly similar legs, the developmental program involved is fairly simple and this is repeated for each segment. Over time a reduction of limbs has occurred and you see the limbs becoming highly specialized for a specific niche. But still here 6-8 seems to be the current optimum.\n\nSo this vast difference in development of vertebrates vs invertebrates is why invertebrates can have any number of legs, while vertebrates are limited to 4. \n\nNow vertebrates have evolved a host of features that allows them to grow larger then insects in most environments. There are some physical limitations to the size of insects due to their exoskeleton and circulatory system.\n\nedit: I hope this summery is clear, I could write volumes more about this. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22403915",
"title": "Body size and species richness",
"section": "Section::::Possible mechanisms.:Energetic constraints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "A small bodied animal has a greater capacity to be more abundant than a large bodied one. Purely as a function of geometry many more small things can be packed into a given space than can large things into the same area. However, these limits are generally never reached in ecological systems as other resources become limiting long before the packing limits are reached. Additionally, smaller species may have many more ecological niches available to them and thus facilitating the diversification of life (Hutchinson and MacArthur, 1959).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12773567",
"title": "Arboreal locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Ecological consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Arboreal locomotion allows animals access to different resources, depending upon their abilities. Larger species may be restricted to larger-diameter branches that can support their weight, while smaller species may avoid competition by moving in the narrower branches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4037035",
"title": "Terrestrial locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Legged locomotion.:Number of legs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "With the exception of the birds, terrestrial vertebrate groups with legs are mostly quadrupedal – the mammals, reptiles, and the amphibians usually move on four legs. There are many quadrupedal gaits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913520",
"title": "Darwin IV",
"section": "Section::::List of species.:Animals (morphology).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "However, there is a great variety inside the landdweller family. While on Earth animals are classified by characteristics such as mode of reproduction and metabolism, the large Darwinian animals are classified by their number of limbs. There are four classes: quadrupedalians, tripedalians, bipedalians and monopedalians. However, sometimes it is difficult to say to which group an animal belongs. In fact many animals lose some of their limbs when they grow up, and thus \"change\" their classification. The forest slider, for instance, has four legs as a juvenile, but only two legs in its adult form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27653365",
"title": "Subfossil lemur",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.:Hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "Since all extinct lemurs were larger than the ones that currently survive, and the remaining large forests still support large populations of smaller lemurs, large size appears to have conveyed some distinct disadvantages. Large-bodied animals require larger habitats in order to maintain viable populations, and are most strongly impacted by habitat loss and fragmentation. Large folivores typically have slower reproductive rates, live in smaller groups, and have low dispersal rates (vagility), making them especially vulnerable to habitat loss, hunting pressure, and possibly disease. Large, slow-moving animals are often easier to hunt and provide a larger amount of food than smaller prey. Leaf-eating, large-bodied slow climbers, and semiterrestrial seed predators and omnivores disappeared completely, suggesting an extinction pattern based on habitat use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37841887",
"title": "Elastic mechanisms in animals",
"section": "Section::::Elastic mechanisms for metabolic energy conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "It is important to take under consideration that metabolic benefits of elastic structures are probably most apparent for larger animals, rather than small organisms such as insects. This results from a simple fact, that larger animals can exert much higher forces on their tendons and ligaments during movement, compared to small animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16280723",
"title": "Thalassocnus",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The decreasing width of the legs in later species and the reduction of the iliac crests of the pelvis indicate less reliance on them for support—relying more on buoyancy—and the animal probably preferred to sit semi-submerged in the water while resting. The legs also became more flexible, with later species able to, at maximum extension, have the femora reach a horizontal position parallel to the torso. The femur and kneecap are smaller in \"T. yuacensis\" than in \"T. natans\". Unlike other ground sloths which put a lot of stress on their hind limbs for locomotion—specifically from standing on two legs (bipedalism)—the leg bones of \"Thalassocnus\" are slender. Bipedalism also led to shorter tibiae in ground sloths; the opposite is seen in \"Thalassocnus\" where the tibiae and femora are about the same length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
apo0tx
|
From my understanding hundreds of years ago when a country would steal land to absorb into their empire, they’d invade and forcibly take the land they wanted. Now when countries want land they negotiate, buy and sell it, when did that change occur?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your understanding is pretty much incorrect. \n\n\nFirst off, the entire idea of land being firmly and incontrovertibly owned by a particular sovereignty, with concrete territorial boundaries marked off, is roughly speaking a modern idea associated with what is commonly called \"Westphalian sovereignty\", after the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648. \"Westphalian sovereignty\" is when a ruler of a territory argues they have comprehensive, exclusive control over a specific, marked-off territory; many people cite Max Weber's later definition that a national sovereign in this mode of authority has to have a \"monopoly on violence\" within the territory. \n\n\nPrior to this point, most existing states, empires and polities in world history held territories in shifting and flexible ways. Often their claims to territory were informal and negotiable. They might claim some tax revenues, assert some rights of movement and power, but not insist that they had comprehensive authority over the inhabitants. So territories all across the world passed in and out of direct control by rulers. In a premodern context, rulers who identified land they wanted, invaded it, and most crucially kept it, are pretty rare, no matter where we're talking about. An invader might claim territory or rewards, but keeping that new conquest as part of a coherent new polity was a much less common event, and arguably a decent number of invading or conquering leaders didn't expect anything except tribute, etc. \n\n\nEven in a pre-Westphalian context, the mechanisms by which sovereigns (of a great many kinds) could expect to increase their territorial authority on a permanent basis were extremely diverse. Marriage or kinship alliances were a fairly common mechanism all around the world. Treaties or agreements were another (certainly in some cases coercive). Migration--or emigration--that changed the linguistic and cultural balance in a particular territory, and its loyalties to various sovereign powers, could sometimes (usually over centuries) change who was considered to be in possession of it. And there are premodern examples of money changing hands, more or less, and allowing a sovereign in one place to command authority of another. \n\n\nThe OP might also take note that it's not clear that relatively contemporary modes of territorial acquisition are effective or permanent. Only 150 years ago, \"countries stole land to absorb into their empire\" in Africa and Asia; several centuries before that in North and South America. But only a relatively short time ago (the 1940s-1960s) many postcolonial states were created that involved some degree of forcible recombination of territories that didn't necessarily identify with one another--processes that are still very costly for us today in many respects. It does not seem that the idea of \"stealing land\" through invasion is totally absent today. Moreover, I'm actually pretty hard pressed to think of an actual example in recent years of a current nation buying substantial territory from another territory and having the transfer of territory happen in an amicable and accepted way. So in that sense I'm not even sure what the OP is thinking of. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "391190",
"title": "Right of conquest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The completion of colonial conquest of much of the world (see the Scramble for Africa), the devastation of World War I and World War II, and the alignment of both the United States and the Soviet Union with the principle of self-determination led to the abandonment of the right of conquest in formal international law. The 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact, the post-1945 Nuremberg Trials, the UN Charter, and the UN role in decolonization saw the progressive dismantling of this principle. Simultaneously, the UN Charter's guarantee of the \"territorial integrity\" of member states effectively froze out claims against prior conquests from this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37941870",
"title": "Conquest of Majorca",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The process of land occupation was slow. For 15 years after the conquest there were plots where only a quarter of the available land was cultivated, while most of the people settled in the capital city and its surrounding areas. In 1270, the indigenous Muslim population that had been conquered by the invaders was extinguished, expelled or replaced by continental settlers or slaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391190",
"title": "Right of conquest",
"section": "Section::::Conquest and military occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "After the attempted conquests of Napoleon and up to the attempted conquests of Hitler, the disposition of territory acquired under the principle of conquest had to, according to international law, be conducted according to the existing laws of war. This meant that there had to be military occupation followed by a peace settlement, and there was no reasonable chance of the defeated sovereign regaining the land. While a formal peace treaty \"makes good any defects in title\", it was not required. Recognition by the losing party was not a requirement: \"the right of acquisition vested by conquest did not depend on the consent of the dispossessed state\". However, the alternative was annexation (part or in whole) which if protested as unlawful, a peace treaty was the only means to legitimize conquest in a time of war. Essentially, conquest itself was a legal act of extinguishing the legal rights of other states without their consent. Under this new framework, it is notable that conquest and subsequent occupation outside of war was illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27617227",
"title": "Israeli Military Order",
"section": "Section::::Examples of Military Orders.:Land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Orders regarding the seizure of land has always been one of the most important means in the maintenance of the occupation. Initially, they were mainly issued for military reasons. Over the years, more and more land was seized for the establishment of settlements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24018935",
"title": "Dayr al-Shaykh",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ottoman period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "In 1834, when Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt led the Egyptian army into Palestine, he confiscated large areas of land once belonging to local leaders in the process. However, according to local tradition, when Ibrahim Pasha sent a regiment to confiscate the land of Dayr al-Shaykh, it was attacked by a swarm of bees. According to tradition, this was Shaykh Badr defending his abode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23498097",
"title": "Acquisition of sovereignty",
"section": "Section::::Conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "In the case of United States v. Huckabee (1872), the US Supreme Court, speaking through Mr. Justice Clifford, said: \"Power to acquire territory either by conquest or treaty is vested by the Constitution in the United States. Conquered territory, however, is usually held as a mere military occupation until the fate of the nation from which it is conquered is determined ... \" Such a legal rationale naturally applies to all sovereign governments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247874",
"title": "Terra nullius",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "These historians claim instead that territorial conquest was justified from natural law — that which has no owner can be taken by the first taker. Michael Connor in his book \"The Invention of Terra Nullius\" takes an even more extreme view and argues that no one in the 19th century thought of Australia as being \"terra nullius\". He calls the concept a legal fiction, a straw man developed in the late 20th century:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rttns
|
why do spinning objects seem to stay in the air longer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Spinning stabilizes the object so that it doesn't wobble or flip over. This enables it to continue moving through the air smoothly. By itself this doesn't make it stay up any longer, just travel farther. \n\nHowever, if the object is also shaped like a wing (a Frisbee is), staying in the right orientation allows it to generate more lift for a longer time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8212",
"title": "Disc golf",
"section": "Section::::Disc types.:Stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Spin (rotation) has little influence on lift and drag forces but impacts a disc's stability during flight. Imagine a spinning top. A gentle nudge will knock it off its axis of rotation for a second, but it will not topple over because spin adds gyroscopic stability. In the same way, a flying disc resists rolling (flipping over) because spin adds gyroscopic stability. A flying disc will maintain its spin rate even as it loses velocity. Toward the end of a disc's flight, when the spin and velocity lines cross, a flying disc will predictably begin to fade. The degree to which a disc will fade depends on its pitch angle and design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19774226",
"title": "Taylor column",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "An object moving parallel to the axis of rotation in a rotating fluid experiences more drag force than what it would experience in a non rotating fluid. For example, a strongly buoyant ball (such as a pingpong ball) will rise to the surface slower than it would in a non rotating fluid. This is because fluid in the path of the ball that is pushed out of the way tends to circulate back to the point it is shifted away from, due to the Coriolis effect. The faster the rotation rate, the smaller the radius of the inertial circle traveled by the fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393135",
"title": "Illusory motion",
"section": "Section::::Occurrences.:Stroboscopic images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Rotating objects can appear stationary under strobe light; also, they can appear to be counter-rotating. This second effect can occur in daylight, such as the apparent counter-rotation of wheels. Because of the illusion of counter-rotation in constant light, it is reasonable to assume that the eye views the world in a series of still images, and therefore the counter-rotation is a result of under-sampling (aliasing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42766221",
"title": "Rotor wing",
"section": "Section::::Magnus rotors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "When a spinning body passes through air at right angles to its axis of spin, it experiences a sideways force in the third dimension. This Magnus effect was first demonstrated on a spinning cylinder by Gustav Magnus in 1872. If the \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591",
"title": "Time travel",
"section": "Section::::Time travel in physics.:General relativity.:Other approaches based on general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Another approach involves a dense spinning cylinder usually referred to as a Tipler cylinder, a GR solution discovered by Willem Jacob van Stockum in 1936 and Kornel Lanczos in 1924, but not recognized as allowing closed timelike curves until an analysis by Frank Tipler in 1974. If a cylinder is infinitely long and spins fast enough about its long axis, then a spaceship flying around the cylinder on a spiral path could travel back in time (or forward, depending on the direction of its spiral). However, the density and speed required is so great that ordinary matter is not strong enough to construct it. A similar device might be built from a cosmic string, but none are known to exist, and it does not seem to be possible to create a new cosmic string. Physicist Ronald Mallett is attempting to recreate the conditions of a rotating black hole with ring lasers, in order to bend spacetime and allow for time travel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "Section::::Centripetal.:Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "BULLET::::- If parts of the structure are intentionally not spinning, friction and similar torques will cause the rates of spin to converge (as well as causing the otherwise stationary parts to spin), requiring motors and power to be used to compensate for the losses due to friction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10025116",
"title": "Tippe top",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Once the top is spinning on its stem, it does \"not\" spin in the opposite direction to which its spin was initiated. For example, if the top was spun clockwise, as soon as it is on its stem, it will be spinning clockwise viewed from above. This constant spin direction is due to conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.