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An elevator can be an uncomfortable environment when the riders do not observe the basic rules of common courtesy. Good elevator etiquette is mostly common sense, but being aware of it will make your elevator rides more comfortable, especially if you encourage others in the building to remember to be conscious of elevator etiquette. As always, the best rule of thumb when you are not sure about how to behave is to treat others as you would wish to be treated.
There are three separate components to elevator etiquette: boarding, riding the elevator, and disembarking. Before hopping on an elevator, you should also think about whether or not you should really be in the elevator. If you are only traveling one or two floors, taking the stairs is more polite, unless you are disabled or you are carrying heavy packages.
Boarding etiquette dictates that you should wait until everyone who is getting off has left the elevator before you step inside. You should not attempt to block the doors of the elevator to hold them open, because this is rude and potentially dangerous. If you are running to greet the elevator, you can politely ask that someone press the “door open” button, but be aware that the occupants of the elevator may decline.
If you are carrying heavy packages or traveling with a big group, you should wait for an empty elevator, or ask if the people in the elevator mind working around your packages or luggage. Likewise, if you are sick, you may want to wait for an empty elevator, and you should carry a handkerchief or tissues to cover your mouth and nose in case you need to sneeze or cough.
Once on the elevator, elevator etiquette experts strongly recommend standing as close to a wall or corner as possible to make room for other riders. You should move to the back of the elevator if you are going a long way, and stay in the front if you plan to get off soon. If you decide to stand in front of the elevator buttons, be prepared to be asked to push buttons for other elevator riders.
While in an elevator, you shouldn't eat, smoke, or talk on your cellphone. Many people prefer to ride an elevator in silence, so if you have to strike up a conversation with someone, keep the topic neutral, and your tone of voice low. If other people in the elevator seem irritated or upset by your conversation, you may want to change the topic or quiet down. Step aside for people getting off the elevator, and be sure not to block the door when the elevator stops.
If you are trapped in the back of a crowded elevator and you need to get off, call out “my floor” to alert other riders to the fact that you wish to get off, and move slowly but firmly through the crowd. If you see someone struggling to get off an elevator, you may want to step out to make room, and then step back in.
The primary focus of elevator etiquette is the goal of keeping everyone comfortable on an elevator, and usually as long as you make a good-faith effort to stay out of the way, you will not offend or upset anyone. If you aren't certain about whether or not a behavior is appropriate in an elevator, ask yourself how comfortable you would be if someone else in the elevator did it first.
Special Bug, right on! However, everything else in the article is "spot on". The only thing I would add to the article would be that, inappropriate conversation on an elevator is a definite violation of good etiquette.
Keep foul language and very personal information off the elevator. I personally do not want to be privy to what is going on in your love-life and by all means please avoid foul language. It used to be that people avoided cursing in front of women, the elderly and children. That ship, in our society, has unfortunately sailed. If you must use four letter words, please wait until I have ushered my kids from the elevator.
I do not agree with the article on the first point of elevator etiquette, which states; " If you are only traveling one or two floors, taking the stairs is more polite, unless you are disabled or you are carrying heavy packages". This is purely subjective. The elevator is in the building to allow people to avoid the stairs. If you wish to take the stairs for your health, then by all means, take the stairs. But, I disagree that it is impolite or inconvenient to the people on the elevator, for a passenger to board just to go up one or two flights. Besides, are the people on the elevator going to judge me for stopping the elevator to board
for just one or two flights? If so, they will certainly judge the person who boards because he/she has a health condition that prohibits them taking the stairs. The passengers in the elevator can not look at the person that is boarding and determine if he is healthy enough to take the stairs. Judging whether someone is worthy enough to take the elevator for a short trip, is in itself poor etiquette.
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Latin For Local And Family Historians : A Beginner's Guide
Latin is the language of a vast quantity of source material but despite the popularity of researching family and local history there has been no recent textbook to help the beginner understand it. This user-friendly book has been written by a former university teacher of Latin and local history with over twenty years experience.
It starts by dealing with basic grammar and goes on to deal with the structure and vocabulary of the records used in local and family research. These include parish registers, marriage licences and bonds, episcopal visitations, church court records, sepulchral inscriptions, wills, manorial court rolls, charters and deeds. A final chapter explains the abbreviations used in Medieval Latin. It contains all the necessary tables of declensions and conjugations plus a comprehensive glossary.
This product has not yet been reviewed.
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"Fragrances can include tens to hundreds of different chemicals, some of which are toxic, and many of which are known allergens, like limonene and linalool. All fragrance chemicals are usually kept secret from consumers. Dryer sheets can contain volatile organic compounds like acetaldehyde and butane, which can cause respiratory irritation. Quats, a fabric softener chemical, is often part of a family of chemicals called quaternary ammonium compounds, many of which are linked to asthma. Acetone, used in dryer sheets, can cause nervous system effects like headaches or dizziness.
Not surprisingly, when asked, survey respondents frequently report adverse health effects from exposure to dryer vents. One study found nearly 11 percent of the respondents reported irritation from exposure to emissions from dryer vents vented outside. Nearly 40 percent of respondents who indicated that they were “chemically sensitive” reported irritation from dryer vent emissions."
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| 0.962806 | 191 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto was the first European to see what Native Americans referred to as the Valley of the Vapors when he and his men reached the area in 1541. Members of many Native American tribes had been gathering in the valley for over 8,000 years to enjoy the healing properties of the thermal springs. Around the 18th century the Caddo settled in the area, followed by the Choctaw, Cherokee, and other tribes. There was agreement among the tribes that they would put aside their weapons and partake of the healing waters in peace while in the valley. The Quapaw lived in the Arkansas River delta area and visited the springs.
In 1673 Father Marquette and Jolliet explored the area and claimed it for France. The Treaty of Paris 1763 ceded the land back to Spain, however in 1800 control was returned to France until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.
In December 1804 Dr. George Hunter and William Dunbar made an expedition to the springs, finding a lone log cabin and a few rudimentary shelters used by people visiting the springs for their healing properties. In 1807 Jean Emmanual Prudhomme became the first settler of modern Hot Springs, although after he regained his health following two years of bathing in the hot water and eating local foods, he returned home to Louisiana. Not long afterward John Perciful and Isaac Cates arrived.
Having been placed in a reservation southeast of Hot Springs in the 19th century, on August 24, 1818, the Quapaw Indians ceded the land around the hot springs to the United States in a treaty. After Arkansas became its own territory in 1819, the Arkansas Territorial Legislature requested in 1820 that the springs and adjoining mountains be set aside as a federal reservation. Twelve years later, in 1832, the national reservation was formed by Congress, granting federal protection of the thermal waters and giving Hot Springs the honor of being the first “national park” to be designated for such government protection. The Hot Springs Reservation was set aside for public use as a park on June 16, 1880.
In 1921, by act of Congress, the site's name was changed from the Hot Springs Reservation to the Hot Springs National Park.
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Flu is here! If you watch the news, you know we are in the midst of the worst flu season in years. Emergency rooms are overflowing, kids and adults are missing school and work, and it’s only early January.
Why is it so bad? Influenza, the virus that causes the flu, has the ability to mutate every year. This is why everyone needs yearly flu shots. This year’s strain is particularly nasty, and is making everyone really sick. The flu can be spread as far as 6 feet away by coughing, and can live on surfaces for up to 8 hours.
People die of the flu each year. The more cases of flu, the more deaths there are. Who is most at risk from the flu? Children younger than 2, the elderly and anyone with compromised immune systems or chronic diseases. How can you protect yourself from the flu? Get your flu shot or flu mist! This year’s vaccine is a good match for the current flu strain. The other way to protect yourself and your family is frequent hand washing. You can help stop the spread of flu by staying home from work or school when sick.
Here are the top 5 ways to tell the difference between a cold and the flu:
- Kids are super sick and symptoms come on suddenly. The best description is that they suddenly feel like they were run over by a truck. They are in bed for days.
- High fevers from 100-105 degrees Fahrenheit that last for 4-5 days.
- Shaking chills, severe body aches and weakness.
- Bad sore throat, cough, congestion and headache.
- Dehydration caused by poor fluid intake.
- Kids are not that sick. They are crabby, but still play and act like themselves.
- Kids can run fevers for a few days, but generally not as long or as consistently high.
- Runny nose and cough are the main complaints.
- No muscle aches or body aches.
- Generally no problems with dehydration, although they may eat a little less.
What to do if you think your child has the flu
Viral antibiotics DO NOT help. Treatment includes:
- Fever-reducing medicines like acetaminophen and ibuprofen
- Lots of fluids with electrolytes, such as Pedialyte or Gatorade.
There is an antiviral medicine available that can be given if started within the first 48 hours; however, it does have some side effects and you should talk to your doctor before starting it.
You should see your doctor if your child is younger than 1 and has flu symptoms, or if a child of any age is taking a turn for the worse. Call your doctor if you are not sure whether to bring them in. Visit the emergency room only if your child has breathing problems, severe dehydration or is sent by their doctor.
Learn more about Kristin Bencik-Boudreau, DO, FAAP.
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Ontario schools should be a place where everyone – children, students, staff, parents and the community – feels welcome, safe and respected. A safe, inclusive and accepting school environment is essential for student well-being and achievement.
To foster and maintain an environment needed for children and students to succeed, the ministry's work related to Safe and Accepting Schools includes a number of resources and supports:
Find information about Ontario's approach to discipline, information on bullying prevention and healthy relationships.
Progressive Discipline – strategies to promote positive student behaviours and address inappropriate behaviours that occur at school, at a school-related activity or in any other circumstances where the student's behaviour has an impact on the school climate.
Suspensions and Expulsions – policies for schools boards and Ontario statistics on suspensions and expulsions Policy/Program Memorandum 141: School Board Programs for Students on Long-Term Suspensions
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The purpose of this book is to introduce radiography technicians and residents in radiology to the ever growing field of computed tomography i.e. using computer analysis of x-rays to produce cross-sectional images or "slices," both horizontal and vertical, of the body taken at different angles. Other titles on the science of CT go into too much detail for the average reader. This handy-to-use pocket book provides the information necessary to manage a CT scan, covering all the topics involved, and also suggests guidelines for the planning of advanced CT studies. In full colour throughout, and with a free CD Rom containing the 62 figures in the book, "Step by Step CT Scan" is an excellent pocket reference for technicians and radiology residents.
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Fever, 1793 Suffering Quotes
How we cite our quotes: Citations follow this format: (Chapter.Paragraph)
My eyes closed. It was never going to stop. We would suffer endlessly, with no time to rest, no time to sleep. (25.47)
Matilda's pain and suffering reaches its highest point here as she cares endlessly for the children. What is the extent of her sacrifice? How do others' suffering require our own sacrifice?
As word of the frost spread, hundreds of people swarmed into town. The returnees were all well-fed. They called to each other in annoying, bright voices. I wanted to tell them to hush. It felt like they were dancing on a grave with no thought to the suffering they had escaped. Those of us who had remained behind were gaunt and pale. People who were dosed with mercury spat frequently and covered their mouths to hide their blackened teeth.
Eliza reminded me not to be bitter, but it was hard. (27.2-27.3)
Matilda's experience with the fever is juxtaposed with the people who fled to the country. While they are well-fed and happy, she is gaunt, scarred, and forever changed by what she has experienced. Why is Matilda bitter? How would you feel if you had gone through the same ordeal?
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| 0.988303 | 285 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Antares Launch – Maximum Elevation Map
The Antares nighttime launch will be visible to millions of spectators across a wide area of the Eastern US -weather permitting. This map shows the maximum elevation (degrees above the horizon) that the Antares rocket will reach during the Dec 19, 2013 launch depending on your location along the US east coast. Credit: Orbital Sciences[/caption]
UPDATE: The launch of Cygnus has been delayed until no earlier than January 7, 2014 due to the coolant leak at the International Space Station and necessary spacewalks to fix the problem. You can read more about the issue here and here.
WALLOPS ISLAND, VA – Orbital Sciences Corp. is marching forward with plans for a spectacular night blastoff of the firms privately developed Antares rocket and Cygnus cargo spacecraft on Thursday, Dec. 19 from a seaside pad at Wallops Island, Virginia on a mission for NASA that’s bound for the International Space Station (ISS).
The nighttime Antares liftoff is currently scheduled for prime time – at 9:19 p.m. EST from Launch Pad 0A at the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) at NASA Wallops Island, Virginia. It should be easily visible to tens of millions of residents along a wide swath of the US East Coast spanning from South Carolina to southern Maine – weather permitting.
Here’s our guide on “How to See the Antares/Cygnus Dec. 19 Night Launch” – with your own eyes – complete with viewing maps and trajectory graphics from a variety of prime viewing locations; including Philadelphia, NYC, Baltimore and historic landmarks in Washington, DC.
Update: launch postponed to mid-January 2014 to allow NASA astronauts to conduct 3 EVA’s to swap out the ammonia pump module and restore full cooling capacity to the ISS
It will be visible to spectators inland as well, stretching possibly into portions of West Virginia and western Pennsylvania.
For example; Here’s the expected view from Rocky’s famous workout on the steps of the Philadelphia Art Museum.
The viewing maps are courtesy of Orbital Sciences, the private company that developed both the Antares rocket and Cygnus resupply vessel aimed at keeping the ISS fully stocked and operational for science research.
Up top is the map showing the maximum elevation the rocket will reach in the eastern United States.
The flight is designated the Orbital-1, or Orb-1 mission.
Orb-1 is the first of eight commercial cargo resupply missions to the ISS by Orbital according to its Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract with NASA.
Of course you can still view the launch live via the NASA TV webcast.
This marks the maiden night launch of the two stage Antares rocket following a pair of daytime test and demonstration launches earlier this year, in April and September.
It’s important to note that the Dec. 19 liftoff is still dependent on NASA engineers resolving the significant issue with the ammonia cooling system that popped up late last week when a critical flow control valve malfunctioned.
If the pump valve can’t be brought back online, two American astronauts may make two or three unscheduled spacewalks starting later this week.
So in the event spacewalks are required, Antares launch could still slip a few days to the end of the launch window around Dec. 21 or Dec. 22. Thereafter the launch would be postponed until January 2014.
Here’s your chance to witness a mighty rocket launch – from the comfort of your home and nearby locations along the east coast.
And its smack dab in the middle of the Christmas and holiday season resplendent with shining bright lights.
Weather outlook appears rather promising at this time – 95% favorable chance of lift off.
The rocket was rolled out to the Wallops launch pad this morning by Orbital’s technicians.
Cygnus is loaded with approximately 1465 kg (3,230 lbs.) of cargo for the ISS crew for NASA.
NASA Television coverage of the Antares launch will begin at 8:45 p.m. on Dec. 19 – www.nasa.gov/ntv
Stay tuned here for Ken’s Antares launch reports from NASA Wallops Flight Facility, VA.
ammonia cooling loops, Antares rocket, commercial resupply services (CRS), Commercial Space, Cygnus capsule, International Space Station (ISS), ISS, NASA, NASA Wallops, Orbital Sciences Corporation, private space
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Hand of Thief Trojan
Trojan malware developed to enable cyber criminals to compromise Linux systems and steal user information from the systems. The Hand of Thief Trojan (HoT Trojan) is one of the first strains of malware to specifically target desktop Linux systems, and it’s claimed that the HoT Trojan can currently compromise at least fifteen different variants of Linux.
The Hand of Thief Trojan is considered a work in progress, lacking some of the key features to be an effective attack tool, but it’s still being sold for $2,000 by its Russian-based developer. And while the code isn’t yet complete at this time, the Hand of Thief Trojan could eventually have full malware capabilities, including the ability to inject content into banking websites as well as better exfiltration and filtering features.
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The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven layers. Use this handy guide to compare... Read More »
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| 0.858497 | 378 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Google has today revealed that in mid-December, they, along with a number of other large companies in the Internet, finance, technology, media and chemical sectors, were targeted in a sophisticated cyber-attack. This attack on their infrastructure originated in China, and resulted in the theft of intellectual property.
Google's analysis of this attack suggests that the aim was to access Gmail accounts of a number of Chinese human rights activists, but they believe the attempt failed. Only two accounts were successfully accessed, and the only information viewed included the creation date of the accounts, and subject lines, not the contents, of messages.
As part of the investigation, Google has uncovered that dozens of US, European and Chinese human rights advocates have also had their accounts accessed routinely by third parties. These accounts appear to have been accessed through phishing scams, rather than a security breach at Google themselves. As always, up to date anti-virus and anti-malware software is the best solution to protect against this.
Google has already used information from this attack to make security enhancements to their infrastructure to better protect users in the future, and have taken the unusual step of sharing this information both due to the security and human rights aspects, but also as part of a wider debate on China and free speech.
Due to this attack, and the background behind it, Google is now taking a second look at their operations in China, particularly Google.cn, where they currently offer censored search results as part of an agreement with China's government. Google is now taking a big step by informing the government of China that it is no longer willing to provide censored results, and will be entering into discussions regarding how it can do this without breaking Chinese law. Should Google find themselves unable to reach an agreement, they may shut down Google.cn, and close their offices in China.
This move has been driven by key executives at Google in the United States, who have been monitoring the human rights and freedom of speech situation in China carefully since they launched Google.cn in 2006.
At the time of writing Google shares are down 1.9 percent at $579 while Chinese rival Baidu rose 6.8 percent to $413 on the news.
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| 0.970261 | 447 | 2.5625 | 3 |
With the dissolution of the Ottoman sultanate and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, artists and politicians alike called for a new kind of art to represent the fledgling nation. While there was a general agreement on the rejection of the last flowering of Ottoman art, no single, all-encompassing style emerged to replace it. The early years of the Republic saw the rise of dozens of new schools of art and the energetic organization of many young artists.
Representative of this period was the simultaneous existence of the Association of Independent Painters and Sculptors, founded in 1928, and the D Group, started in 1933. Members of the former preferred folkloric scenes, as reflected in the work of Cevat Dereli or Turgut Zaim, while the latter was a more heterogeneous collection of artists. Some members such as Nurullah Berk worked in a painterly mix of European and Turkish styles; others, like Çemal Tollu, took on the more abstract influences of Cubism and Constructivism, or worked in an abstract manner with a political bent, like Abidin Dino.
Alongside this work undertaken by the artists themselves was an official exploration of the nation’s arts. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, first president of the Republic (1923–38), sought to revise a number of aspects of Turkish culture and to stress the ancient heritage and village life of the country. Thus it was thought important to remove all Arabic and Persian cultural influences, including use of the Arabic alphabet and Easternized forms of dress. To revitalize the countryside, hundreds of “People’s Houses” were opened. These were in one way community centers, where theater productions were staged and films screened. They also functioned as preservation societies, where work by local artists was exhibited, and songs by local musicians recorded. Following in this vein, Atatürk’s successor Ismet Inönü (1938–50) instituted the Provincial Tours for Painters, which, between 1938 and 1944, sent ten artists each year to live and work in different parts of the country. During this period, large numbers of lifesize portraits and statues of Atatürk were commissioned, such as the portrait by Nazmi Ziya Güran. His image functioned as a symbol of modernity and thus was displayed publicly, a practice that continues today. Images of Atatürk are seen everywhere in Turkey and contemporary artists such as Nese Erdok continue to celebrate his legacy in a contemporary idiom.
Simultaneous to this Turkicizing movement, Europe continued to inform the education and aesthetics of Turkish artists. Government grants allowed students to study abroad, and foreign artists were hired to teach in the Turkish academies. Sculpture was introduced at this time, and Rudolf Belling of Germany came to head the department at the Academy of Fine Arts in 1937. Realizing the propagandizing potential of this medium, the government commissioned a number of public works to commemorate the War for Independence and the role Atatürk played in it.
Architecture also took a page from the European scene. The new capital of Ankara was to be a symbol of Turkey’s modern future and a strong contrast to the country’s ancient past, epitomized by Istanbul. Thus the city’s development represented a vastly different approach from later Ottoman works such the Dolmabahçe Palace. The German urban planner Hermann Jansen won the competition for the city’s master plan in 1927, and the new governmental center was deliberately located across town from the ancient citadel. This was designed by the Austrian Clemens Holzmeister as a triangular complex with the Grand National Assembly at its apex. While some feel that the Ankara architecture was not truly in the International Style it was meant to be, the difference from the Ottoman period was obvious; it sufficed that these stark concrete buildings with no ornament were clearly not of the old school.
Soon after the influx of European architects and their integration into the education system, Turkey began to produce its own modernist architects. Sevki Balmumcu designed the 1933–34 Ankara Exhibition Hall, and Aptullah Ziya constructed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Residence in the same year. Atatürk’s mausoleum (completed in 1955), designed by Emin Onat and Orhan Arda, is an austere building combining the Turkish tradition of the türbe and the Anatolian tradition of the mausoleum in a new, modern manner. The involved participation of Turkish architects is reflected in the writings of the journal Mimar (founded in 1931, later called Arkitekt).
In the realm of painting, the government arranged a number of important shows, including the Exhibition of Paintings of the Revolution, held on the tenth anniversary of the declaration of the Republic, and the State Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, which was held annually for a number of years. While showcasing the work of young artists, these exhibits also represented the first attempts at ordering, preserving, and classifying modern painting. Particularly notable in this regard was Fifty Years of Turkish Art, the show that opened the museum at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1937.
While in general Atatürk’s achievements were lauded, literature of the early Republican period also recorded the angst of the Turkish people who were caught between reform and tradition, and the sudden changes forced upon them. Reaction against the adoption of European modernism in architecture was allowed fuller expression after the death of Atatürk in 1938. Thus the building of the Turkish Historical Society by Turgut Cansever and Ertur Yener (Ankara, 1966), which won the Aga Khan Award for architecture, utilizes the basic form of the Turkish house with a plain facade and protected interior court together with modern building materials. The return to Turkish roots was reflected in the cinema of these years as well. Certain directors claimed that their aesthetics came from Turkish painting and their pacing from traditional storytelling styles.
Since the 1940s, Turkish art has followed Western trends while retaining a link to local idioms. Artists such as Adnan Turani and Burhan Dogançay, both members of the calligraphic movement, used the forms of Islamic calligraphy as a point of reference. Their work was a response to Atatürk’s abandonment of the Arabic in favor of the Latin script.
Sardar, Marika. “Art and Nationalism in Twentieth-Century Turkey.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/anrt/hd_anrt.htm (October 2004)
Bozdogan, Sibel. Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001.
Renda, Günsel, and C. Max Kortepeter, eds. The Transformation of Turkish Culture: The Atatürk Legacy. Princeton: Kingston Press, 1986.
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Another pet food recall has made national headlines. This time the manufacturer is Mars Petcare (the company also owns the brand that produces the Wisdom Panel genetic test to determine dog breeds). And this time the contaminant is Salmonella.
Salmonella is a bacteria that can infect humans and animals. It is spread through contamination of meat or vegetables with feces. It is a common cause of food recalls for both pets and people. Last year there was a recall of bagged spinach due to fears of Salmonella contamination. Salmonella has also been involved in recalls of peanut butter, beef and chocolate.
The current recall occurred after the dog food, manufactured at a plant in Pennsylvania, was linked to illness in two people.
The humans who were sickened may have failed to wash their hands after handling the food. Alternatively, their pets may have contracted subclinical (non-symptomatic) cases of Salmonella, which could have passed to the owners through the pets’ feces.
Although I have yet to see a report of an animal sickened by the food involved in this recall, please be aware that Salmonella can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and intestinal cramping in dogs and cats. Severe cases can be fatal.
And also please remember that it is a good idea to wash your hands after handling pet food–regardless of whether that food is on its way into your pet’s body, or on its way out!
For the official recall site containing a list of the affected brands, click here.
Our Most-Commented Stories
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Cat Skin Problems
If your cat's dignified poses have given way to constant scratching and licking, a skin problem may be to blame. Cats are susceptible to skin infections, parasites, allergies, and many other conditions commonly seen in people. WebMD has compiled images of some of the most common feline skin problems.
They may not have to worry about a prom night disaster, but cats get pimples, too. Feline acne typically appears on and around a cat's chin. Possible causes include stress, poor grooming, a reaction to medication, an underlying skin condition, or even the plastic bowl you put out with her food or water. Your veterinarian may recommend a specialized shampoo or gel to clear up the breakout, or antibiotics if a bacterial infection accompanies the acne.
In many cases, bacterial skin infections develop as a result of another skin problem. For example, feline acne can make a cat's hair follicles more vulnerable to infection, resulting in folliculitis. Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, but it's important to address any underlying skin conditions to prevent a recurrence.
Yeast infections are caused by a fungus and are also more likely in cats that have other medical problems. The ear is one of the most common spots for a yeast infection. Symptoms may include a black or yellow discharge, redness of the ear flap, and persistent scratching of the ear. Yeast infections respond well to treatment with antifungal medicine, but be sure to get a diagnosis from a veterinarian before using anything on your cat.
Ringworm is another type of fungus that affects cats, especially if they are under age 1. It may cause circular lesions on a cat’s head, ears, and forelimbs. The skin around these lesions is often flaky and bald. Ringworm is highly contagious and can spread to other pets in the home, as well as to people. Treatment depends on severity, but may include specialized shampoos, ointments, or oral medications.
Yet another fungus -- although rare -- sporotrichosis produces small, hard skin lesions that may leak fluid. Sporotrichosis is considered to be a public health concern, because the fungus is known to spread from cats to humans. People with a compromised immune system are especially vulnerable. For these reasons, cats with sporotrichosis should be treated promptly, and caregivers should be meticulous about hygiene.
Cats can have allergic reactions to grooming products, food, and environmental irritants, such as pollen or flea bites. Scratching the head or neck is a common sign of food allergies. Symptoms of other allergies include chewing on the paws or base of the tail, or scratching the ears. Allergies can also cause hair loss or skin lesions anywhere on the body, including the belly. There are a variety of treatments to soothe itching skin associated with allergies, but avoiding exposure to the irritants is the best strategy.
Shedding and Hair Loss (Alopecia)
If you live with cats, you learn to cope with cat hair on your favorite sweater. But if you notice your cat is losing more hair than usual or has bald patches, see your veterinarian as soon as possible. Abnormal hair loss can be a warning sign of several illnesses, as well as fleas, stress, allergies, or poor nutrition.
The idea of tiny insects feeding on the blood of your cat may make you shudder, but fleas are a very common problem. You can look for them or their droppings in a cat's coat, especially where the fur is pale. Other signs of a flea infestation are persistent scratching, crusty skin lesions, and thinning hair above the base of the tail. To eradicate fleas, you'll need to treat your cat, as well as your furniture, bedding, and rugs. A monthly flea prevention protocol is the gold standard for flea control. It not only kills fleas on your cat, but those in your home should eventually be eliminated as they fail to reproduce. Treat all pets in the home for this to be effective.
Ear mites are tiny parasites that are drawn to the wax and oils inside a cat's ear. As they feed, they cause inflammation that can lead to a serious skin or ear infection. Signs of ear mites include excessive scratching of the ears, head shaking, and a strong odor and a dark discharge from the ears. Suspect ear mites when both ears are affected. Mites can be treated with a topical product prescribed by your vet.
Lice are parasites that feed on dry skin. They are commonly found on young, neglected cats and often go unnoticed. Large infestations can lead to scratching, restlessness, unusual coat appearance, and hair loss. Like mites, lice can be treated with a topical solution. Because lice are species-specific, you do not need to worry about getting lice from your cat.
Also called tail gland hyperplasia, stud tail refers to overactive glands on the top of the tail. These glands produce waxy excretions that result in hair loss and crusty lesions. In severe cases, the condition can make the tail vulnerable to bacterial infections. Neutering may eliminate the problem in male cats. Other treatment options include diligent grooming of the tail and the use of specially formulated shampoos.
If your cat has raised ulcers or lesions on the nose or lips, she may be having a type of allergic reaction known as an eosinophilic granuloma. This reaction can occur anywhere on the body, but is most common on the face, pads of the feet, and thighs. Food allergies or fleas are sometimes to blame, but the lesions can also result from bacterial infections. Treatment depends on what is causing the reaction.
A lump in your cat's skin is not necessarily cancer, but should be checked by a veterinarian. Older cats and those with white ears and heads are especially susceptible to skin cancer. To confirm a diagnosis of cancer, a biopsy is necessary. If the lump is small enough, a vet may recommend removing it in its entirety. For tumors that have not spread, this may be the only treatment needed.
Dry, Flaky Skin
Like people, some cats get dry, flaky skin in the winter. It's usually nothing serious, but have your veterinarian take a look. Persistent dandruff may be a sign of poor nutrition, inadequate grooming, or an underlying medical problem. Special shampoos and supplements of omega-3 fatty acids can help treat feline dandruff.
Cats are known to be fastidious groomers, but sometimes they overdo it. Compulsive licking, chewing, or sucking on the skin may lead to irritation, infection, and thinning hair (a condition called psychogenic alopecia.) Cats may groom compulsively in response to stress, such as moving into a new home, but may also overgroom due to a medical problem such as osteoarthritis. If this describes your cat, talk to your vet about stress reduction and behavior modification strategies.
When to See the Vet
Check with your veterinarian as soon as possible if you find any oddities on your cat's skin -- flaking, scaling, redness, or bald patches. Even if the skin looks fine, your cat should be examined if she is scratching, licking, or biting herself excessively.
More Reading from WebMD Healthy Pets
Reviewed by Amy Flowers, DVM on Tuesday, March 18, 2014
Slideshow: Pet Health Pictures - Skin Problems in Cats
This tool does not provide medical advice. See additional information:
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Watch Out Guys, Birth Control May Be Causing Prostate Cancer — Health Check
Researchers discovered that countries with the highest numbers of women using oral contraceptives also have the highest rates of death from prostate cancer. What does this mean? They think estrogen from the urine of women who take birth control pills could be to blame.
While more research is needed to solidify the link, Dr. David Margel, a uro-oncology fellow at the University of Toronto, said, “Several studies now have found an association between estrogen exposure and prostate cancer… We think this is environmental — [estrogen] goes into the water, into our food chain.”
According to the study, which looked at prostate cancer mortality and contraceptive use in 88 countries, birth control pills often contain a type of estrogen called ethinyloestradiol. Women taking the pills excrete the hormone in their urine, thus sending the hormone into the water supply, where it can be taken up by plants or animals that use the water and then passed up the food chain.
Eric Jacobs, strategic director of pharmacoepidemiology at the American Cancer Society, is interpreting the results of the study cautiously. “Many lifestyle and medical care factors vary between countries, therefore differences in cancer rates between countries can be difficult to ascribe to particular factors,” he said.
Dr. Margel concurs, saying follow-up studies are planned to test the hypothesis. “We can’t establish a cause-and-effect relationship,” he said. “We definitely don’t think the take-home message is women should stop taking the pill.”
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Scores of gigantic wind turbines in the Adirondacks’ northeastern and southwestern foothills are a startling site amidst historically bucolic scenery. The landscape appears “citified,” with structures nearly 40 stories high where the largest buildings rarely top 3 stories. It is a dramatic change, and a far cry from simpler days when family farms were prevalent. Few realize that in those “simpler days” of dairy farms, windmills were actually quite common across the region.
Of course, the windmills once dotting the North Country’s landscape were nothing like today’s behemoths, which stand nearly 400 feet high from the ground to the tip of a skyward-pointing blade. And, the windmills of old weren’t always efficient machines.
Wind technology took a tremendous leap forward in the 1850s thanks to Daniel Halladay, a Connecticut machinist. Halladay’s windmill not only pumped water, but automatically turned to face into the wind as it changed directions. Almost as important, he devised a way to control the speed of the blades (windmills are prone to destruction from within when operating at high rpm levels). Halladay established the US Wind Engine & Pump Company, setting up shop in Illinois. From the start, the business flourished.
Though his sales were focused on the country’s expansion westward, New York State was also experiencing dramatic growth, particularly in the remote northern Adirondack foothills, where pioneers faced a harsh climate and difficult living conditions. Halladay’s invention eventually helped turn some of those weather negatives into positives by taking advantage of wind patterns across upper New York State.
In 1874, the railroad was expanding north from Whitehall towards Plattsburgh. Since steam engines require water, the line generally followed the shore of Lake Champlain. Tanks were constructed along the route where the rails approached the lakeshore. Steam pumps or windmills were used to fill the feeder tanks, which had a capacity of 33,000 gallons each.
As settlers moved north on both sides of the Adirondacks, windmill technology crept northward with them. Farming was necessary for survival, and the enormous workload was eased by mechanical devices like windmills. The description of one man’s operation about 18 miles south of Lowville was typical of the times: “… a beautiful farm of 280 acres, milks 35 cows, and is a model farm. House, barns, windmill pump, all systematically arranged.”
In situations like that, windmills often filled tanks placed on the upper floor of a barn. The water was then gravity-fed to the livestock below and piped to other locations as needed. The machine was also used to grind various grains. Early models were mounted on wooden frames, but many fell victim to the very power they were trying to harness, toppling before raging windstorms. Eventually, steel frames supported most windmills.
Wind power wasn’t just for individual homes and farms. In July 1879, H. H. Babcock & Sons of Watertown was hired to install a windmill at 1000 Islands State Park. Water was drawn from the St. Lawrence River to large tanks near the dining hall, and from there was conducted to the various cottages by galvanized iron pipe.
And at Hermon, a contract for $6,595 was signed with Daniel Halladay’s company to install a new waterworks system. Included were a wooden tank of 50,000-gallon capacity, a windmill with a wheel diameter of 20 feet, and more than a mile of piping. The frost-proof tank was 24 feet in diameter, 16 feet high, and 3 inches thick. It sat on a trestle 20 feet high, while the windmill stood on a trestle 80 feet high.
Many hotels, including the Whitney House in Norwood and the Turin House in Turin, used windmills to power their water systems. At Chazy, windmills pumped water from the quarries; at Port Henry, they filled water tanks for the trains; and at Saranac Lake, they fed the water supply of the Adirondack Sanitarium.
In 1889, George Baltz of Watertown handled the Halladay display at the Jefferson County Fair, demonstrating that windmills furnished cheaper power than steam engines and could run a feed mill, a circular saw for cutting wood, or pump water.
Though Halladay’s products were widely known, he did have competitors. Some added their own modifications, and some were “copycats.” And they weren’t all products from afar. In 1882, an advertisement touted a windmill “warranted to take care of itself in high winds, equal to the best western mills, and is sold for half the money. It is manufactured at Potsdam.” It featured a self-regulator, and appeared to be based on Halladay’s own successful model.
In the late 1890s, most of the windmills in the Ticonderoga and Lake George area were products of the Perkins Windmill Company, which had already installed more than 50 units across the lake in Vermont. Though windmills in the Midwest were primarily for irrigation, most of those in the North Country supplied water to homes, businesses, and farm animals.
Wind power did face competition from other sources. Gasoline engines became more and more common, offering a reliable alternative. However, they were expensive, noisy, and costly to run. An operator had to be present to start and stop a gas engine, while windmills employed a system of floats to start and stop filling the tanks automatically. A once-a-week oiling was the only required maintenance. The biggest problem at the time was that gas engines ran when you wanted them to, but windmills depended on the weather.
The giant turbines we see in northern New York today are not a new idea. In a peek at the future, Charles Brush of Cleveland, Ohio demonstrated in 1888 the first use of a large windmill to generate electricity. As early as 1895, observers noted that windmills were “destined to be much used for storing electricity. We predict an immense future for the windmill industry.”
In 1910, a farm in America’s Midwest employed windmills to charge a bank of batteries. Wind power provided electricity to light the farm and operate the equipment. When the wind didn’t blow, the farm ran on battery power for a few days.
By 1925, wind turbines had been used to run refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, and power tools. And in 1926, the NYS Fair urged farmers to purchase windmills, using a 12-foot-high model to show the benefits they might enjoy. It was an enticing glimpse at the potential of electricity. Ironically, the popularity of windmills soon became their undoing.
Though they were a wonderful source of cheap power, the main problem was intermittent operation. When the wind didn’t blow, the tools didn’t go. Battery storage systems were only good for brief periods, and people wanted power WHEN they wanted it. Soon, another overriding factor arose—the growing need for huge amounts of electricity.
By the late 1930s and 1940s, constantly flowing electricity was the goal, relegating wind power to the background of the energy battle. It was still used, and advancements were pursued, but success was limited. One notable effort was the huge Smith-Putnam windmill installed atop Grandpa’s Knob near Castleton and Rutland, Vermont, in 1941.
Though less than half the size of today’s models, it was still large, featuring a 16-ton, 175-foot steel rotor that turned at 28 RPM. Occasional use ended abruptly in 1945 when metal fatigue caused the blade to snap, hurling a huge section 1000 feet down the mountain.
In the North Country, windmills have returned after a long hiatus. They stand ten times taller than their predecessors (in 2012, the new ones will be 492 feet high), and now pump electricity instead of water. Where potato, hop, and dairy farms once dominated, the wind farms of today stand above all others.
Photos: Above, windmills 400 feet tall at Churubusco (and another under construction in the foreground). Middle Right: Typical use of windmill to fill railroad water tanks. Middle Left: Halladay windmills were offered by George Baltz of Watertown. Below, advertisement for Halladay’s company.
Lawrence Gooley has authored ten books and dozens of articles on the North Country’s past. He and his partner, Jill McKee, founded Bloated Toe Enterprises in 2004. Expanding their services in 2008, they have produced 19 titles to date, and are now offering web design. For information on book publishing, visit Bloated Toe Publishing.
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A recent AP-AOL poll suggests that parents and kids disagree about what the "right" amount of homework looks like.
"Parents polled said their children spend an average of 90 minutes a night on homework. The workload grows as the students do — 78 minutes of homework a night in elementary school, 99 minutes in middle school and 105 in high school." However, "most children aged 9, 13 and 17 years say they spend less than an hour a night on homework, according to a long-term federal study. That load has held steady, if not dropped, over the past 20 years. Plenty of students say they are not assigned any homework at all."
I wonder sometimes if parents, students, and teachers are in agreement about what homework "looks like." Does it have to involve a paper and pencil task? Could it be reviewing notes or reading in the text? Is homework something that is completed alone by the student or might it involve a study group or some parental help?
Several studies have aimed to find a relationship between homework and student achievement. Some of these point to the amount assigned. Others have been focused on the quality of the assignments. I do think that practice is important for any of us faced with learning new information. Different kinds of assignments can help make new neural connections and strengthen old ones.
I admit that I don't assign a lot of homework to my students. However, I do expect them to read and revise notes on an ongoing basis. I didn't have an opportunity to take an AP class in high school, so I really don't know how my expectations compare with the real experience. I remember spending about 45 minutes a day (on average) on homework in high school. I don't think 90 minutes is such a terrible expectation---that's about 15 minutes per class per day for a student. I'd bet that many students out there would disagree.
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Definition of Cerebellum
Cerebellum: The portion of the brain that is in the back of the head, between the cerebrum and the brain stem. It is involved in the control of voluntary and involuntary movement as well as balance.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary
Last Editorial Review: 5/13/2016
Drug Medical Dictionary of Terms by Letter
Medical Dictionary Term:
Get breaking medical news.
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Canada’s health care system faces some daunting challenges. One of the crucial inconsistencies is the variation of access to prescription medications across the country.
Like all other health-care services and products, prescription medications have a monetary value and are subject to inflation and the effects of Canada’s changing demographics. Let us begin with the demographics. Recent data from Statistics Canada reveals that baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1962) currently make up about
33 per cent of the Canadian population while seniors (those who are 65 years of age or older) account for 14 per cent of the population. However, as baby boomers continue to age, the number of seniors will increase by roughly
10 per cent and by 2036, about 25 per cent of all Canadians will be over the age of 65. But what will the shifting demographics mean for the high costs of prescription medication in Canada?
An aging population is likely to raise the costs of all health-care services and products for the following reasons. Canadians enjoying a longer old age will require more medical services and products. And, as a greater percentage of Canadians enter old age, the costs of those services and products (prescription medications included) will increase substantially because there will be a much smaller pool of working-age taxpayers to fund the Canadian health care system. In addition, prescription medications remain relatively expensive in Canada due to inflation.
Canadians are also saddled with inconsistent access to, and affordability of, prescription medications often because of simple geography. The price of the same prescription medication varies from one province to the next because each province is responsible for developing and implementing its own prescription medication program. What this means is that the price that the Canadian consumer pays out of pocket for a given prescription medication is not the same in any two provinces and the same medication can often cost a consumer substantially more money in one province than in another. Consumers in every province other than Quebec must pay for their prescription medication themselves or go through their private insurance provider. Quebec is the only province that currently offers blanket prescription drug coverage to all its citizens even if they do not have private health insurance.
Demographics come into the equation once again but this time to determine who gets access to prescription medication and at what cost. Low-income seniors and those depending on social assistance programs receive prescription medication regardless of their province of residence. However, at the other end of the spectrum, low-income individuals who do not rely on social assistance programs and who are not seniors can fall through the cracks. These individuals often must pay close to the full cost of prescription medication, unless they live in Quebec or their employer offers a private health insurance plan. In fact, there are also close to 3.5 million Canadians who lack any drug coverage at all.
Although the price of different prescription medications varies among the provinces and territories, it is important to remember that there are existing government mechanisms in place to monitor and compensate consumers for these price discrepancies. The most important of these is the Patent Medicine Prices Review Board (PMPRB) – a quasi-judicial body that “is responsible for regulating the prices that patentees charge – the factory-gate price – for prescription and non-prescription patented drugs sold in Canada, to wholesalers, hospitals or pharmacies, for human and veterinary use to ensure that they are not excessive.” And, if the PMPRB finds that “after a public hearing, a price is excessive in any market, it may order the patentee to reduce the price and take measures to offset any excess revenues it may have received.” However, it should be noted that the PMPRB cannot regulate the prices of generic drugs.
Nevertheless, the reasoning for the existing variable pricing of, and accessibility to, prescription medications in Canada stems from the Canada Health Act (CHA) which was signed into law in 1984. The CHA establishes the guidelines that the provinces and territories must follow to ensure that they receive their full allotment of federal money which they can then allocate within their own boundaries for the health care of their citizens. What this means is that the provinces and territories, and not the federal government, are responsible for the delivery of health-care services and products throughout the nation. But it is the lack of a national prescription drug coverage plan that plays a crucial role in the varying cost of prescription medications in Canada.
The high costs and inconsistencies of access to prescription medications should be at the top of the list when it comes to making the health-care system work better for all Canadians. However, since health-care delivery is constitutionally the prerogative of the provincial and territorial governments, any meaningful discussion or plan to correct these two deficiencies must occur at the provincial and territorial levels
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"On both sides of the Kansas River, above the Wakarusa, there are excellent forested bottomlands. On the south bank, the high prairie comes down to the water's edge : away as far as the eye can reach the prairies are high and rolling, like the waves of old ocean. A dark line of timber stretches along the Wakarusa Valley, with the great Prairie Mound [Blue Mound], fixed there as a landmark of perpetual beauty, and the meandering river with its dark skirting forests of timber on the north."
In 1854, from somewhere just east of present-day Lawrence, George S. Park, writing for the New England Emigrant Aid Society to encourage an abolitionist settlement here, offers a glimpse back in time when our local landscape was far different than what we find today.
It might be fun to just imagine saddling up with Park to gaze upon what had inspired him to write so flatteringly of Lawrence, and perhaps even pretend to keep a wary eye out for border ruffians. Today, however, we are considering how this information from our past can assist with a more practical matter: the protection of a small native prairie just north of Lawrence that belongs to KU. This special prairie is among several tracts of land comprising KU's Field Station and Ecological Reserves, and these are managed by the Kansas Biological Survey. We have been concerned for some time that this prairie's very existence is being seriously threatened by increasing development of the lands surrounding it. Recently, however, 160 acres adjacent to the prairie became available for purchase by the university, offering at once an effective solution and an exciting opportunity. KBS is currently raising funds to purchase and manage the new property to safeguard the prairie, devote some areas to research, teaching and public recreation, and restore the entire parcel to a more naturally functioning landscape. Why, one may ask, should we in Lawrence care about such things?
KBS has been using advanced computer technology to reveal how Lawrence likely appeared at the time of settlement, based in part on an 1856 U.S. Government Land Survey map of the area. One of these visualizations (shown at upper left) lets us imagine Mr. Park's "dark skirting forests" and rolling prairie "as far as the eye can reach," and from this we can begin to perceive how greatly our panoramic view of the land has changed in the last 150 years. What might it look like 150 years from now, or even 50?
Other research at KBS has shown that in 1856 a vast tallgrass prairie covered roughly 94 percent of Douglas County. What remains today is less than 1 percent of that, or perhaps about 2,000 scattered acres. Sadly, the "grassland sea" that in earlier times was a defining aspect of Douglas County has virtually disappeared. We can't recover the past and yet, surely, there is much value in preserving some small part of it before it is gone forever.
With this in mind, KBS is steering efforts to purchase the 160 acres to help protect this small yet priceless 10-acre prairie north of town. The prairie has never been plowed and was used solely as a hay meadow from the 1870s until 1956, when it was purchased through a donation to KU and later made part of the KSR. It is most unusual in that nearly 200 kinds of plants occur on this one site, including several that are quite rare. It is one of only four sites in the world where two federally protected species, the Western prairie fringed orchid and Mead's milkweed, occur together. Careful study of the many plants and animals that live here will be critical to understanding how best to conserve and manage our last prairie remnants and maintain their diversity. One important component of the new land will include a place for the propagation of locally adapted prairie plants (and their seeds) from our site for use in restoration projects at KSR and elsewhere in northeast Kansas.
Visit the Kansas Biological Survey Web site at www.kbs.ku.edu
In addition to protecting the prairie, which is vital, acquisition of this new land will open public access to more than two miles of new self-guided nature trails and a shelter. The trails will have signage and informational displays about our local heritage and wildlife, and take visitors on unique excursions to demonstration areas to learn about the science of prairie and wetland restoration, grassland management, ecological succession and other interesting research activities at KSR. Near the shelter there will be attractive gardens exhibiting native wildflowers and medicinal plants. Another area is being planned to showcase how Native Americans and early settlers made use of the land and the bounty of their environment as a way of preserving our locally rich human natural history as well.
Students from KU, area schools and the public will all be invited to participate whether their interest is academic in seeking specialized instruction through a class or workshop, for exercise, or simply a desire to commune with nature.
It is apparent a former grandeur that embodied our vast natural heritage is now just a distant memory. Hopefully this awareness will awaken a resolve that this little prairie, at least, is deserving of our concern and committed protection. As Lawrence grows, this land will provide important habitats for our diminishing wildlife, coveted open space for our residents and many natural benefits we will cherish in the years to come. We have a chance right now to protect it for future generations while creating a compatible area surrounding it for important research, education and outdoor recreation. Perhaps another value may rest very simply in preserving one of the few remaining chances for us to see the land as George Park did, and serve likewise to inspire our human imagination and intellect to the many wonders and beauty still present in the natural world.
- Scott W. Campbell is a research associate with the Kansas Biological Survey. He can be reached at 864-1502.
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|The American Presidency Project|
|• Ronald Reagan|
|Proclamation 5029 - Women's History Week, 1983|
|March 8, 1983|
Before the signing of the Declaration of Independence, Abigail Adams, wife of one President and mother of another, wrote a prophetic letter to a delegate to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Its recipient was her husband, whom she admonished: "... in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I desire you would remember the ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors . . . if particular care and attention is not paid to the ladies we are determined to foment a rebellion. . .
However, until well into the second century after that letter was written, barriers existed for women in educational, business, and professional opportunities as well as in the law.
Today, American women of every ethnic origin, creed, and race play a vital role in our cultural, military, economic, social and political life. A woman serves as a Supreme Court Justice; there are women serving as university presidents, members of Congress, doctors, lawyers, astronauts, coal miners, corporate executives, members of the President's Cabinet, ranking military officers and leaders in civil rights, the diplomatic corps, cultural endeavors, private sector initiatives, truck drivers, and, very importantly, mothers and homemakers who continually strengthen the foundation of our country's greatness, the family.
During the past two hundred years, women have fought for the causes of abolition, health reform, elimination of child labor, temperance, voting rights, and improvement of industrial labor conditions. Their energy, persistence, and dedication to these causes have enlightened our Nation as to the needs of our society and frequently quickened our country's effort to effect positive change.
This memorable role of women in our Nation's history has been recorded in the written word and has been told as well in music, on canvas, in stone, and through poetry, novels, and the dance. In recognizing the outstanding achievements of America's women, we pay homage to an essential part of our Nation's heritage.
By Senate Joint Resolution 37, the Congress of the United States has authorized and requested the President to proclaim the week which includes March 8, 1983, as "Women's History Week."
Now, Therefore, I, Ronald Reagan, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim the week beginning March 6, 1983, as "Women's History Week." Recognizing that the many contributions of American women have at times been overlooked in the annals of American history, I encourage all citizens to observe this important week by participating in appropriate ceremonies and activities planned by individuals, governmental agencies, and private institutions and associations throughout the country.
In Witness Whereof I have hereunto set my hand this 8th day of March, in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and eighty three, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and seventh.
|Citation: Ronald Reagan: "Proclamation 5029 - Women's History Week, 1983", March 8, 1983. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=41027.|
© 1999-2011 - Gerhard Peters - The American Presidency Project
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The Torah (the holy bible) uses the Hebrew terminology “yishuv haaretz”, settle the land. This is a command from G-d to the Jewish people, settle the land.
This leads to Jewish towns being called “yishuvim” (in Hebrew), literally settlements.
This is biblical terminology. In more modern terminology, Jewish towns are called villages, communities, towns and cities.
But the Jewish people were (and are) proud to have returned to the Holy Land, to the Land given by G-d to the Jewish people. The waves of returning Jewish people were called “the first (wave of) settlement, the second (wave of) settlement, etc.” And they “settled” in Tel Aviv, Petach Tikva, Netanya, etc, all at one time new yishuvim – settlements.
They DID NOT settle in Jerusalem, Haifa, Tiberious. There they moved to the cities and, as necessary and appropriate, built new neighborhoods, districts, areas. Today’s Jerusalem has 53 times the population and 32 times the land area of what it was 110 years ago.
Jerusalem population year 1900 - estimated at 15,000.
Jerusalem population year 2011 - 801,000.
Jerusalem land area year 1900 – guesstimate 4 sq. km.
Jerusalem land area year 2007 – 126 sq. km.
So when Jews, particularly religious Jews, say they’re going to develop an area, build a neighborhood or build a new community, they like to use the biblical terminology that they’re going to “settle”.
But if YOU were adding a neighborhood to a CITY, building a new suburb or a new suburban commute town, you’d say you’re BUILDING A NEIGHBORHOOD or DEVELOPING an OPEN AREA, or building a suburb or commuter town.
Even by Associated Press standards, “East Jerusalem Settlement” is a contradiction of terms. You can’t “settle a city”. You can expand it, develop it or build it up, but you can’t “settle” it.
Dear Associated Press, you can try to delegitimize the Jews all you want. But the bible commands us to settle the land…
And that means, Jews BUILD. Contrast that with our neighbors.
A few other factors worth mentioning…
Givat Hamatos is SOUTH of Jerusalem. How can something in the South be “East”??? (The answer is in diplo-speak, East Jerusalem means any area the Palestinians want, whether it’s north, south, east or west.)
Where exactly is Givat Hamatos? Far away? Distant eastern hill? OR IN THE MIDDLE OF EXISTING NEIGHBORHOODS?????
1.5 miles from Malcha mall.
1/2 mile from Talpiot.
INSIDE the Gilo and Har Homa neighborhoods of Jerusalem.
There is ZERO possibility of this empty block ever ending up as Palestinian territory. So what’s the kerfuffle about???? (That Jews should not build.)
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After the time of the apostles, churches continued to multiply everywhere. As the years passed, many churches began to depart from the teachings of Christ and the Holy Scriptures. Superstition and human traditions were propagated as truth. Wars were waged in the name of Christianity. Immorality, idolatry, and corruption were rampant in the so-called Christian world. The true Christians were a persecuted minority.
In the 16th century, God brought about a mighty stirring in Europe, causing many people to seek Him and hunger again after the truth. This is now called the Reformation. Despite the attempts of the older churches to counter this movement, new churches were founded right through the 17th century.
In England the particular Baptists churches arose in the first half of the 17th century. They were known as Baptists because, unlike the other reformed churches, they held to the baptism of believers by immersion. They were known as Particular Baptists because, unlike the General Baptists, they held to the doctrine of “particular redemption,” i.e. the belief that Christ died specifically for the elect.
The Particular Baptist churches grew in number quickly in Britain and America, until they were affected by hyper-Calvinism in the 18th century. Hyper Calvinism distorts the doctrine of the sovereignty of God by denying that it is right to call upon sinners to repent and believe in Christ.
From the 19th century, all evangelical churches were weakened by the rise of modernism. The Particular Baptists were not spared. Modernism (or liberalism) denies the supernatural and miraculous of the Bible in the name of proud scholarship. A man-centered emphasis settled upon the churches. The prevailing laxity and low view of the authority and sufficiency of Scripture allowed the charismatic movement to spread fast in the 20th century, with its humanistic practices of tongue-speaking, prophesying, healing, dancing, drama, and the use of high-powered music.
A revival of interest in reformed theology began in the 1960s, focused at first in Britain and America. It began to spread worldwide, so that today a reformed movement is in almost every part of the world. The Baptists and Presbyterians have benefited most from this recovery. The older Particular Baptist churches have been revived and newer Reformed Baptist churches have been founded, the two streams merging to form a worldwide Reformed Baptist movement.
The beliefs of the Reformed Baptists are summarized in the London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689. Reformed Baptists are confessional subscribing fully to this Confession of Faith as a subordinate standard and summary of those things most surely believed among us. In this document, the major doctrines of the Bible are stated clearly and concisely, yet with sufficient fullness so as to provide a useful reference manual in this age of shallowness and confusion.
Apart from referring to this document, how may we describe the Reformed Baptists? Reformed Baptists are characterized by the following emphases:
- The primacy of the Word of God: Holy Scripture, the Bible, is the inerrant, infallible, sole, and only authority in all matters of faith and practice. Preaching the Scriptures must occupy the central place in the worship of God. The Bible is to be preached in an expository, verse-by-verse, manner; giving the correct meaning and applications, and directed to the consciences of the hearers.
- The sovereignty of God: God is all-powerful and in absolute control of creation, history, and salvation. God has predestined certain individuals from before the creation of the world to be saved. These are known as “the elect.” Every person is born sinful and is unable to do anything good to make God accept him. God calls out the elect from the world by the proclamation of the gospel, and changes their nature by the power of the Holy Spirit so they willingly turn from sin to Christ to be saved. Christ died as a sacrifice in the place of the elect, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven to give them eternal life. Salvation is therefore a free gift of God, not gained by human merit, but received by faith alone in Christ alone. This understanding of salvation has been called “Calvinism,” after the major Protestant Reformer — John Calvin.
- The purity of worship: The worship of God must be carried out in “spirit and in truth,” (i.e. with sincerity and according to God’s Word). Whatever is commanded must be followed, while anything not commanded must be rejected. This is sometimes called “the regulative principle.” Worship is kept God-centered, instead of man-centered, at the same time that the worshippers maintain a spirit of reverence, joy, warmth, and love.
- The centrality of the church: The local church is central and unique in all the redemptive purposes of God. The New Testament knows nothing of a churchless Christianity. Baptized believers should voluntarily covenant together in a church to worship and serve God the Lord. A high level of commitment is required of the members, but no higher than what is taught in the Holy Bible. Through the exercise of pastoral oversight and church discipline, the membership is kept healthy and pure. No church is perfect in this world, but that does not mean a church should be allowed to lose its spirituality.
- A radical discipleship: Reformed Baptists take seriously the truth that they have been bought by the blood of Christ. They belong to God and wish to glorify Him by living in accordance to the teaching of Holy Scripture. They are not extremists who love violence, nor fanatics who disrupt the peace of the public. Conscious that they have been reconciled to a thrice-holy God, they actively seek to live holy lives before God and men. This holiness is not according to man-made rules, but according to the dictates of Scripture. The Law of God, the 10 Commandments, is an abiding rule of faith to aid in gospel holiness. They do not claim to be perfect but, in dependence upon God, attempt to live holy lives. Also, being mindful of their reconciliation to God, they actively seek to lead others to saving faith in Christ.
How Do Reformed Baptists Differ From Other Evangelicals?
There are evangelical churches that show great love for the Lord and have been mightily blessed by Him. Such churches often put us to shame and make us yearn to live better for Christ. Having said that, it remains true that there are evangelicals who are weak in precisely those five areas that Reformed Baptists are strong. Many evangelicals think that is enough to have faith in Christ, to pray, to attempt to win souls for Christ. They have a low view of the authority and sufficiency of Scripture and a defective view of the sovereignty of God. Many have succumbed to charismatic teaching and practice, and also compromised the truth by seeking to please men.
How Do Reformed Baptists Differ From Other Reformed Churches?
There are reformed Christians who hold to infant baptism, believing that the children of believers should be treated as church members and are therefore baptized. They baptize by sprinkling instead of immersion. The baptism of infants leads to a mixed church membership; one consisting of believers and unbelievers. Reformed Baptists are of the view that only believers should make up the membership of the church.
Some churches claim that they are “reformed” yet show little or no appreciation of the Reformation nor of the truths recovered at that time. We do not use the word “reformed” in these ways.
How Do Reformed Baptists Differ From Other Baptists?
Like the other evangelical churches, most of the non-reformed Baptists are either fully-fledged Arminians or hold to a modified Arminianism. This system teaches that Christ died for every individual in the world, and man has a free-will which must be exercised to “accept Christ” so as to be saved. Reformed Baptists strongly reject this.
How Do Reformed Baptists Relate To Other Evangelical Churches?
We recognize others churches as true churches of Christ when the cardinal doctrines of the faith are upheld by them. The limitations of time, ability, and opportunity means that we have to practice selective fellowship. Truth determines the degree of closeness with other churches: the more of truth we agree upon, the closer our fellowship. Consequently, our closest fellowship is with other Reformed Baptist churches, followed by other reformed churches, and then other evangelical churches.
by Dr. Poh Boon Sing and Rev. Earl M. Blackburn, “Who Are The Reformed Baptists?”
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University of Missouri
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Rebecca GantsSenior Information Specialist, West Central RegionUniversity of Missouri Cooperative Media GroupPhone: 816-812-2534Email: [email protected]
Photo available for this release:
Germinating seeds in a protected environment lowers seedling mortality and can boost seedling vigor.
Credit: University of Missouri Extension
Description: Germinating seeds in a protected environment lowers seedling mortality and can boost seedling vigor.
Published: Monday, March 9, 2009
Marlin Bates, 816-270-2141
BLUE SPRINGS, Mo. – If you are planning a large vegetable garden this year, growing your own transplants offers advantages over direct seeding. Germinating seeds in a greenhouse, hotbed or your home can reduce transplant mortality and improve seedling vigor, said a University of Missouri Extension horticulture specialist.
“You can hand-select transplants to set out in the garden, which will lead to more uniform production,” said Marlin Bates. “You won’t have to hope your favorite varieties will be available at the garden center or worry about pest issues that can carry over from commercial production facilities.”
The ideal place to start seedlings is in a greenhouse, which offers space to work and buffers temperature swings. The next-best option is a hotbed. These boxes have clear covers, are set outdoors and should have a source of supplemental heat.
For indoor production, you can still take advantage of natural light. South-facing windows are best for transplants, although they will still need supplemental light, Bates said. Hang fluorescent lights designed for plant growth 4 to 6 inches directly above the plants. Suspend the lights in a way that lets you adjust their height to maintain the proper distance as the seedlings grow.
Before transplanting seedlings to the garden, harden the plants by lowering the indoor temperature by 10 degrees for about 10 days or by placing them outside in a protected area.
Planting seedlings in the late afternoon or on a cloudy day will help transplants recover more quickly, Bates said.
The MU Extension guide “Starting Plants from Seeds” (G6570) is available online at extension.missouri.edu/explore/agguides/hort/g06570.htm.
"Building and Using Hotbeds and Cold Frames” (G6965) is available online at extension.missouri.edu/explore/agguides/hort/g06965.htm.
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to 2015 Curators of the University of Missouri, all rights reserved
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Independence Day fireworks started a little early on July 4, 2006, with the spectacular launch of Space Shuttle Discovery from NASA's Kennedy Space Center. The changeable Florida weather cooperated and clear skies prevailed. Thousands of spectators across the Space Coast could be heard cheering and applauding when the orbiter rumbled into the sky. |
Image left: Space Shuttle Discovery made U.S. history when it became the first space shuttle to launch on Independence Day. Photo credit: NASA/Regina Mitchell-Ryall/Tony Gray + High-res Image
Steve Lindsey commanded a crew of five American astronauts -- Pilot Mark Kelly and Mission Specialists Michael Fossum, Lisa Nowak, Stephanie Wilson and Piers Sellers -- and the European Space Agency's Thomas Reiter from Germany.
In the days before liftoff, the entire Discovery crew participated in flight training with T-38 jets at Kennedy. Lindsey and Kelly also practiced landing techniques in the Shuttle Training Aircraft.
Typical summer weather patterns in Florida forced launch officials to scrub launch attempts on July 1 and 2, but the launch countdown proceeded flawlessly on July 4.
On July 5, the first full day in orbit, Discovery's crew focused on inspecting the orbiter's thermal protection system. The inspection took several hours and the astronauts found no evidence of any damage from the flight.
Image right: As Discovery approached the space station for docking, the shuttle was positioned so a series of inspection photos could be taken of its underside. Photo credit: NASA + High-res Image
Early July 6, Lindsey piloted the orbiter into a backflip, called a "rendezvous pitch maneuver," within range of the International Space Station. This belly-up position gave the station's Expedition 13 crewmembers, Commander Pavel Vinogradov and NASA Science Officer Jeff Williams, a chance to photograph the thermal protection tiles on the bottom of Discovery.
After docking at 12:30 p.m. EDT, the hatches between the vehicles were opened and the Discovery team greeted the station crew. Reiter would remain onboard the station at the mission's end, and his arrival marked the first time in more than three years that the station had a three-person crew. The Expedition crew also became the first to include an American, a Russian and a European.
Image left: Wilson (center), works with the Mobile Service System and Canadarm2 controls to move the Italian-built Leonardo module to the station's Unity node. Williams (foreground), Fossum and Nowak assisted. Photo credit: NASA + High-res Image
The fourth day in space was a busy one. In order to unload the cargo from the multi-purpose logistics module Leonardo, the astronauts had to remove the module from Discovery's payload bay using the robotic arm and moor it to the space station's Unity module. After Leonardo was in place, they began unloading more than 7,000 pounds of equipment and supplies.
Fossum and Sellers made preparations for the next day's spacewalk and reviewed procedures to configure Quest, the U.S. airlock. Quest is made up of a pair of pressurized chambers attached end-to-end by a connecting bulkhead and hatch, which is the main exit and entry access for spacewalkers.
Image right: In the Quest airlock, Sellers (right) and Fossum outfitted in their spacesuits, prepare for a spacewalk. Photo Credit: NASA + High-res Image
On July 8, Sellers and Fossum had their work cut out for them. The first spacewalk of the mission, lasting seven hours and 31-minutes, included repairing the Interface Umbilical Assembly and preparing the station's rail car for restoration.
At the same time, the space station was a hub of activity as Lindsey, Vinogradov and Reiter unloaded supplies and equipment from Leonardo.
On July 9, crew members from both Discovery and the station were involved with the unloading, the primary activity for the day.
The saying "what goes up must come down" was true in space too. When the module was emptied out, it was refilled with almost 4,400 pounds of unneeded and broken equipment, scientific experiment results and trash for transport back to Earth.
Image left: The STS-121 and Expedition 13 crewmembers gather for a group photo. From the front row left are Reiter, Vinogradov and Williams. On the middle row left are Wilson, Lindsey and Nowak. On the top row left are Sellers, Fossum and Kelly. Photo Credit: NASA + High-res Image
Good news came late in the day when John Shannon, chairman of the Mission Management Team, announced that Discovery was cleared for its return to Earth. The orbiter's heat shield was found free of damage from ascent and void of any evidence of dents or dings caused by space debris.
During the second spacewalk on July 10, which lasted nearly seven hours, repairs went smoothly to restore the station's mobile transporter rail car to full operation.
All of the crew members participated in repacking the module on day eight of the mission in order to have Leonardo ready for its return to Discovery's payload bay.
In a private phone call, President George W. Bush offered his best wishes to the crews of Discovery and the International Space Station. The president told the astronauts they represent the best of service and exploration, and he thanked them for their hard work.
Image right: Sellers makes his way along a truss during the third spacewalk. Photo Credit: NASA + High-res Image
On their third and final spacewalk on July 12, Sellers and Fossum used a "space-certified" caulking gun and a variety of spatulas and tools to test materials on samples of pre-damaged reinforced carbon-carbon panels. "We're getting some good stuff done here, mate," Sellers told Fossum during the spacewalk.
On Thursday, the Discovery crew enjoyed a day of rest and relaxation. The astronauts spoke with the media by satellite and performed some basic housekeeping tasks, as well as their daily exercises.
Wilson and Nowak used the station's robotic arm to return the Leonardo module to Discovery's payload bay on July 14. Discovery undocked from the station at 6:08 a.m. the next day to begin the two-day trip back to Earth.
Image left: Discovery releases a drag chute to slow its speed as it gently touches down on Runway 15 at NASA's Shuttle Landing Facility. Photo credit: NASA/Regina Mitchell-Ryall + High-res Image
After a 13-day, five-million-mile journey, the Discovery crew landed safely at Kennedy's Shuttle Landing Facility at 9:14 a.m. July 17 to a cheering crowd of employees and media. Landing an orbiter is never a small feat; the vehicle descends through the atmosphere like a flying brick, using only its steering jets, and must be carefully guided to the ground like a high-tech glider.
The crew accomplished the main objectives of the mission: completing the return-to-flight objectives by flying an improved external tank and testing on-orbit shuttle repair procedures, and preparing the International Space Station for future assembly.
The astronauts made their customary inspection walk around the orbiter and lined up for photos. Lindsey spoke briefly to the media before the crew returned to their quarters for a family reunion and medical check-ups. "We had a long, but very successful mission," he said.
Image right: Following the traditional post-flight walk-around after landing, the STS-121 crewmembers pose for a photo in front of Discovery. Photo credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett
+ High-res Image
"I'd like to thank this crew standing here. They were absolutely superb the entire flight. I couldn't have asked more from them. It was a privilege for me to serve with them," Lindsey said proudly.
Elaine M. Marconi
NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center
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When you encourage your children to engage in playtime, you’re helping your child build essential learning skills. Some of these learning skills include:
Do you have to be involved in every minute your child is playing? Not exactly, according to Healthy Children, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) website for parents and caregivers. Independent playtime is essential for growth and can be a relaxing form of downtime for a child. But with busy family schedules, the AAP encourages parents to actively make time for playtime.
Children are curious and will initiate play no matter what the situation, but quality playtime includes a healthy mixture of structured activities, independent play, creative play and age-appropriate interaction.
Children often mimic their parents, peers and use their imaginations when dressing up or playing make believe. Children naturally explore this type of play, but here are some creative ways you can enhance make-believe playtime for your child.
Make a movie or music video
Puppet shows are a great way to problem solve with your child. Bring a real-life scenario into your story line to talk through problems and brainstorm solutions.
Playing outside is essential for growing children. Put together an obstacle course and cheer each other on or organize an activity that requires teamwork and socialization — like a relay race.
Arts and crafts
Craft time is a great opportunity for social playtime and for showing the importance of working together to achieve the same results. Instead of supplying each child with the supplies to create a project, provide the children with one or two materials (like a glue bottle or paintbrush) to encourage working together and show the importance of sharing.
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DC: Kindergarten Standards
(Note: In 2011, DC public schools began transitioning to the Common Core State Standards.)
K.1. Broad Concept: Students demonstrate an understanding of the concept of location.
- Identify words and phrases that indicate location and direction (e.g., up, down, near, far, left, right, straight, back, behind, and in front of ). (G)
- Demonstrate familiarity with what a map is and what a globe is. (G)
- Identify the student’s street address, city, and the United States as the country in which he or she lives. (G)
- Identify the name of the student’s school and the ward in which it is located. (G)
- Identify the location and features of places in the immediate neighborhood of the student’s home or school. (G)
- In small groups, students locate landmasses and bodies of water on a map. Students locate the same information on a globe. Students brainstorm the differences and similarities between maps and globes (K.1.2).
- On a simple map of the block on which the school is located, students take a “field trip” to note prominent features around the school (e.g., buildings, playground, parking lot, surrounding streets). With assistance from the teacher, students create a map on butcher paper with blocks to represent buildings, toy cars in the parking lot, and other common items. After building a three-dimensional map, students draw and label one of their own based on it (K.1.5).
- K.1. Broad Concept: Students demonstrate an understanding of the concept of location.
K.2. Broad Concept: Students describe the way people lived in earlier times and how their lives would be different today (e.g., getting water from a well, growing food, having fun). (S)
- Students view artwork and artifacts from times within the past century. Students then draw a series of pictures depicting three aspects of past life (e.g., chores/responsibilities, housing, food, transportation, or family) that tell the story of a child growing up in earlier times. Students compile the pictures into a class book (K.2).
K.3. Broad Concept: Students place familiar events in order of occurrence.
- Identify days of the week and months of the year.
- Locate events on a calendar, including birthdays, holidays, cultural events, and school events.
- Students create a class calendar, highlighting events and holidays that hold significance for them (K.3.2).
- K.2. Broad Concept: Students describe the way people lived in earlier times and how their lives would be different today (e.g., getting water from a well, growing food, having fun). (S)
K.4. Broad Concept: Students identify and describe the events or people celebrated during U.S. national holidays and why Americans celebrate them (e.g., DC Emancipation Day, Columbus Day, Independence Day, Martin Luther King Jr. Day, Presidents’ Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Flag Day). (P)
- After listening to Martin’s Big Words: The Life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., by Doreen Rappaport, students discuss why Dr. King championed civil rights. Students draw pictures of an important event from Dr. King’s life, and together they generate sentences about him. They create a class book from their work (K.4).
- Students listen to George Washington’s Breakfast, by Jean Fritz, and Just Like Abraham Lincoln, by Bernard Waber—books that tell the story of the president as it relates to a modern day child. As a class, they collect photographs of Presidents Washington and Lincoln, including those that appear on the nickel, quarter, and one and five dollar bills. Students brainstorm facts about each president while the teacher lists those specifics under each photograph (K.4).
- Students listen to Sarah Morton’s Day, by Kate Waters, and The Pilgrim’s First Thanksgiving, by Ann McGovern. Students then make a Venn diagram to compare life then to life today (K.4).
K.5. Broad Concept: Students identify important American symbols such as the American flag and its colors and shapes, the bald eagle, the Statue of Liberty, and the words of the Pledge of Allegiance. (P)
- After reviewing pictures on a Web site or in an encyclopedia of U.S. flags over the course of U.S. history, students compare the original thirteen-star Betsy Ross flag to today’s flag, pointing out that the stars represent the current states, while the stripes represent the original colonies. They discuss how the number of stars has grown as states have been added to the Union (www.usflag.org/history/historicflags.html) (K.5).
- Students listen to The Statue of Liberty, by Lucille Recht Penner and Jada Rowland. They talk about the importance of individual freedom in the United States and brainstorm ways in which we are free. They create a class poem based on these freedoms. Each student contributes one line beginning “We are free to ...” (K.5).
K.6. Broad Concept: Students retell stories that illustrate honesty, courage, friendship, respect, responsibility, and the wise or judicious exercise of authority, and they explain how the stories show these qualities.
- Distinguish between fictional characters and real people in the school, the community, the nation, or internationally who are or were good leaders and good citizens, and explain the qualities that made them admirable (e.g., honesty, dependability, modesty, trustworthiness, or courageousness). (P, S)
- Identify family or community members who promote the welfare and safety of children and adults. (P, S)
- With the help of the school librarian, students create a display of books, newspaper clippings, and pictures on heroes and people who made (or make) a difference in people’s lives (e.g., presidents, civil rights advocates, local activists). Students discuss what makes a hero, clarifying that there are many different ways to be heroic (K.6.1).
- Students bring in a photograph (or make a drawing) of a person who has made a difference in their own lives. As a class, each student presents his or her pictures and the reasons for their selections to their parents or another class. When appropriate, students come to school dressed as their hero (K.6.2).
- K.4. Broad Concept: Students identify and describe the events or people celebrated during U.S. national holidays and why Americans celebrate them (e.g., DC Emancipation Day, Columbus Day, Independence Day, Martin Luther King Jr. Day, Presidents’ Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Flag Day). (P)
Personal and Family Economics
K.7. Broad Concept: Students describe the way families produce, consume, and exchange goods and services in their community.
- Understand different kinds of jobs that people do, including the work they do at home. (E)
- Tell why people work. (E)
- Identify what people buy with the money they earn. (E)
- Understand how family members, friends, or acquaintances use money directly or indirectly (e.g., credit card or check) to buy things they want. (E)
- Identify words that relate to work (e.g., jobs, money, buying, and selling). (E)
- Students ask their parents or guardians about the work they do at home or at their jobs. Students choose something to bring to class that symbolizes that work (e.g., a pack of seeds for a gardener, a piece of mail for a letter carrier, a planner for an administrative assistant, a model plane for a pilot, a family calendar for a homemaker). Once the items are all collected, students discuss how each type of work contributes to the well-being of the community (K.7.1).
- Using circulars and advertisements for a variety of products, students work in small groups to choose items a family would need to buy for different rooms of their houses. For example, the kitchen might include food, appliances, china, and flatware. The family room might include furniture, electronics, and games (K.7.3).
- In a play store, students use mock money and checks to make purchases with a limited amount of money. They discuss their choices and the differences between using cash and a check (K.7.4).
- K.7. Broad Concept: Students describe the way families produce, consume, and exchange goods and services in their community.
In addition to the standards for kindergarten through grade 2, students demonstrate the following intellectual, reasoning, reflection, and research skills:
Chronology and Cause and Effect
- Students place key events and people of the historical era they are studying in a chronological sequence and within a spatial context.
- Students correctly apply terms related to time (e.g., past, present, future, years, decades, centuries, millennia, epochs, and generations).
- Students use map and globe skills to determine the locations of places.
- Students identify the human and physical characteristics of the places they are studying.
- Students develop spatial ability by drawing sketch maps of the local community, regions of the United States, and major regions of the world.
Historical Research, Evidence, and Point of View
- Students analyze societies in terms of the following themes: military, political, economic, social, religious, and intellectual.
- Students pose relevant questions about events they encounter in historical documents.
- Students distinguish fact from fiction.
- Students use nontext primary and secondary sources, such as maps, charts, graphs, photographs, works of art, and technical charts.
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* Contains practical information, supported by examples
* Provides an update on recent developments in the field
* Written by specialists working in fluorine chemistry, electrochemistry, polymer and solid state chemistry
Fluorinated materials for energy conversion offers advanced information on the application of fluorine chemistry to energy conversion materials for lithium batteries, fuel cells, solar cells and so on. Fluorine compounds and fluorination techniques have recently gained important roles in improving the electrochemical characteristics of such energy production devices. The book therefore focuses on new batteries with high performance, the improvements of cell performance and the improvement of electrode and cell characteristics. The authors present new information on the effect of fluorine and how to make use of fluorination techniques and fluorine compounds. With emphasis on recent developments, this book is suitable for students, researchers and engineers working in chemistry, materials science and electrical engineering.
Academic and industrial researchers, technicians and graduate students interested in fundamental and/or applied research in Chemistry, Materials science and Electrical engineering
Fluorinated Materials for Energy Conversion, 1st Edition
Chapter 1. Experimental and theoretical aspects of the fluorine evolution reaction on carbon anodes in molten KF-2HF (H. Groult et al
Chapter 2. Applications of fluorinated carbon materials to primary and secondary lithium batteries
Chapter 3. Synthesis and electrochemical properties of new carbon anodes prepared by chemical vapor infiltration (Yoshimi Ohzawa).
Chapter 4. Electrochemical properties of fluorinated carbon nanotubes (Hidekazu Touhara).
Chapter 5. Fluorine-doped tin oxide electrodes for lithium batteries (Chai-Won Kwon et al
Chapter 6. Synthesis of fluorinated cathodes and fluoride electrolytes for lithium ion battery
(Susumu Yonezawa, Masayuki Takashima).
Chapter 7. Physicochemical properties of fluorine-containing electrolytes for lithium batteries
(D. Lemordant et al
Chapter 8. Fluorinated anions and electrode/electrolyte stability in lithium batteries
Chapter 9. Electrochemical properties of lithium electrolytes based on bis(polyfluorodiolato)borate and tetrakis(polyfluoroalkoxy)aluminate superweak anions (B.G. Nolan et al
Chapter 10. Fluorinated electrolytes based on lithium salts of strong Bronsted acids
(O.E. Geiculescu et al
Chapter 11. Electrolytes for lithium batteries
Chapter 12. Thermally stable fluoro-organic solvents for lithium ion battery
Chapter 13. Physical and electrochemical properties and application to lithium batteries of fluorinated organic solvents (Yukio Sasaki).
Chapter 14. PVdF based polymers for lithium batteries (J.-Y. Sanchez et al
Chapter 15. Lithium-ion-conductive polymer electrolytes exhibit a high lithium-ion transference number with the incorporation of fluorine atoms (Takeshi Abe, Zempachi Ogumi).
Chapter 16. Room temperature molten salts as new electrolytes (Rika Hagiwara, Kazuhiko Matsumoto).
Chapter 17. Fluorine-intercalated graphite for lithium batteries (A. Hamwi et al
Chapter 18. Battery application of graphite intercalation compounds (Yoshiaki Matsuo).
Chapter 19. Fluoride-based electrolytes and their applications for intermediate temperature ceramic fuel cells (Bin Zhu, Bengt-Erik Mellander).
Chapter 20. The use of Nafion in fuel cells
Chapter 21. Functional fluoropolymers for fuel cell membranes (R. Souzy, B. Améduri).
Chapter 22. Films and powders of fluorine-doped tin dioxide (H. Cachet).
Chapter 23. Doped transparent conducting oxides suitable for the fabrication of high efficiency thin film solar cells (A. Bosio et al
Chapter 24. Fluoride technologies application within the Molten-Salt Reactors fuel (J. Uhlir).
Quotes and reviews
@qu: "The contributing authors to this monograph are drawn from the electrochemical, fluorine, polymer and solid state communities, in any cases combining more than one speciality within their expertise. Achieving a balance between describing research that is at the forefront of current knowledge and an adequate treatment of fundamental concepts so that the text can be understood readily by those from other disciplines, is a stringent test. This volume has made a very good attempt to meet the challenge. This book can be recommended for libraries where there are research groups active in energy research and also for libraries in general as an account of an important research area and one that is likely to be one of the drivers for fluorine chemistry for some time to come."
@source: J.M. Winfield, Dpt. of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, UK, JOURNAL OF FLUORINE CHEMISTRY, 2005
@qu: This book is about fluorine containing materials for energy conversion and storage. The contents are subdivided into 24 chapters. The better part of the book deals with fluorinated materials for lithium batteries. Furthermore, materials for solar cells, fuel cells, and molten-salt reactors are reviewed also. The book by Nakajima and Groult is a good compilation about the recent advances and findings of these materials in the above mentioned areas of application.
@source: Prof Sergio Trasatti - Department of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, University of Milan, Italy, ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA, 2005
@qu: "This very interesting book provides a good general overview about (potential) use of fluorinated materials for energy conversion and storage. Everybody who is interested in this topic will find a nice collection of information on this. The book was carefully revised and has a consistent layout"
@source: Jens Olschimke, ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA, 2005
@qu: "Undoubtedly, the book will be of great interest to researchers and engineers working in materials science and electrical engineering. The chapters are generally well written, with an abundant bibliography: several chapters give 100-200 citations, mostly from the last 10 years."
@source: Serge Flandrois, France, CARBON, 2005
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| 0.840183 | 1,309 | 2.75 | 3 |
Polska / śląskie
|Synagogues, prayer houses and others||Cemeteries||Sites of martyrdom||Judaica in museums||Andere|
|Province:||śląskie / kieleckie (before 1939)|
|County:||zawierciański / olkuski (before 1939)|
|Community:||Pilica / Pilica (before 1939)|
|Other names:||Piltz [j. jidysz]; Pilica [j. niemiecki]|
The town of Pilica belonged to the Małopolska Provence in the past. Nowadays, it is a town situated in Silesia, Zawiercie County, at the source of the Pilica River. From a geographic point of view, it is located in the central part of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland.
Adam Marczewski /
Jews from Pilica were firstly mentioned in 1581 when the bishop of Cracow, Piotr Myszkowski, accused them of insulting the Host.
In 1598, priest Krzysztof Kazimirski forbade the Catholics to keep the Jews in their homes. Stanisław Warszycki, however, removed them from the town after 1636. The old synagogue was transformed into St. Barbara’s church .
Jews returned to Pilica after 1690 when Michał Warszycki, the contemporary owner of the town, let them settle. Thanks to the permission, in 1700 they possessed a synagogue, a cheder, and a bathhouse. Other privileges were given in 1731, 1733, 1753 and 1787, respectively. In 1763, a session of the Council of Four Lands took place. The council was the central body of Jewish authority. In 1765, 506 Jews lived in Pilica.
The town of Pilica went down in history for its role in the battle for independence. That was the reason why the tsar deprived Pilica of its town rights in 1869, despite the fact that the town had a population of 3,357 people at that time, including 2,267 Jews . Three great fires also contributed to the collapse of Pilica.
At the beginning of the 1870s ,C. A. Moes’s paper factory was set up here. It employed 166 people in 1876. The mining industry developed as well.
In 1883, the town of Pilica had a population of 4,604 people, with 220 houses. In 1885, Pilica was described as follows: “…the puddles on the streets never go dry, and all the backyards are as dirty as garbage cans”. In 1886, a fire destroyed the town severely again. Over 200 Jewish families were deprived of roofs over their heads. The majority of them left the town and moved to Zawiercie, Łódź, and even Cracow. In 1897, 1,287 Poles and 2,688 Jews lived here. Most of them lived off craftwork and market trading. Merchants-middlemen from Pilica were well-known outside the town of Pilica.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th century, Pilica was a famous center of Hasidism: “After a famous tzaddik from Góra Kalwaria died, a considerable number of Hasidim started to go on pilgrimages to the rabbi’s brother-in-law. The latter, on the other hand, was Pilica’s rabbi. Rabbi Pinkus Rotenberg was the head of the Jewish synagogue district. Pilica, unlike many other towns, could be proud of a 300-year-old synagogue made of larch wood.
From an administrative point
The first mentions of the Pilica settlement come from 1227. Pilica’s status was promoted as it was the birthplace of Elżbieta Granowska, wife of Władysław Jagiełło. She spent the last years of her life in Pilica: „... Maria Józef of Wesslów Sobieska, widow of Prince Konstantin, son of Jan Jana Sobieski, owned of Pilica and benefactor of the Fransiscan monastery”.
Around 1394, Pilica gained city-status. In the 17th Century, the monastery of the Reformed Fransiscans was established.. In the 18th Century, the city was an important centre of the craft trade. From 1793, Pilica found itself annexed to Prussia. In 1807, it lay within the Warsaw Principality and, from 1815, within the Polish Kingdom. In 1870, the Tsarist authorities removed Pilica’s city-status.
In September 1939, Pilica was occupied by the German army and, in January 1945, by the Soviet army.
In 1994, Pilica regained its city-status.
With your financial contribution towards the development of a town description, a photo documentation or other activities, you will be awarded a donation certificate.
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The washboard and tub are shown here with other washing day items like wooden tongs, carbolic soap and dolly pegs.
Before the invention of the washing machine, the washboard was a popular tool used when washing clothes. The woman doing the washing rubbed the clothes, with soap, up and down on the washboard's corrugated surface.
The washboard shown here is made from a frame of hardwood inlaid with corrugated glass panels. It is probably from the 1930s. Some washboards had panels made from corrugated zinc or iron, or were just plain wood. Washboards first began to be mass produced and affordable in the second half of the nineteenth century. They were sold in ironmongers from the 1860s. Homemade versions had been in use for some time.
A shallow, rectangular wooden tub was often used with the washboard as the board could be placed against its flat sides, and could rest on the bottom. Smaller items were washed like this although stubborn stains on larger items were scrubbed on the washboard before going into a larger tub. The tub shown here has a little shelf for the soap, and an extended base, which would prevent it from tipping over in a moment of extra-strenuous scrubbing!
Wooden Tub:Length:76cm Washboard:Length:56cm
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| 0.984755 | 278 | 3.4375 | 3 |
A set of 24 flash cards discussing the topic of foods, drinks and eating habits. Each card contains a promt for a question, so the task makes students exercise the present simple interrogative, too. Suitable for pair work or group work. Example: What / people eat in Italy? What / you not like to eat? you / have brunch at weekends? Chocolate or chips? Why?
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Last month, NASA crashed its twin spacecraft from its GRAIL mission into the moon, but not before it turning on the cameras for some final footage as it orbited around the lunar surface.
NASA recently released the video of shots taken with the on-board camera just days before the spacecraft went out of commission.
Here’s more about the footage from the video’s description:
This video of the moon was taken by the NASA GRAIL mission’s MoonKAM (Moon Knowledge Acquired by Middle School Students) camera aboard the Ebb spacecraft on Dec. 14, 2012.
At the time the images were taken, the spacecraft were about 6 miles above the northern hemisphere of the moon’s far side, in the vicinity of the Jackson impact crater. This imagery was acquired as part of a final checkout of spacecraft equipment prior to its planned impact on a mountain near the moon’s north pole on Dec. 17.
Check out the surface of the moon from spacecraft’s perspective:
The spacecraft dubbed “Ebb” and “Flo,” which were launched in 2011 as part of the work conducted by the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission, made impact with a mountain near the moon’s north pole on Dec. 17, 2012. The impact site was named after Sally Ride, who had worked on the GRAIL mission.
“Sally was all about getting the job done, whether it be in exploring space, inspiring the next generation, or helping make the GRAIL mission the resounding success it is today,” GRAIL principal investigator Maria Zuber of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge said in a statement. “As we complete our lunar mission, we are proud we can honor Sally Ride’s contributions by naming this corner of the moon after her.”
According to NASA, the pair was intentionally landed on the moon because they didn’t have sufficient altitude or fuel to continue with the mission.
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| 0.960516 | 419 | 3.21875 | 3 |
This promotion is for Rewards members only. To take advantage of exclusive offers like these, join Office Depot® OfficeMax® Rewards now!
In its simplest form, cash flow is the movement of money in and out of your business. It is most often described as the process in which your business uses cash to generate goods or services for sales to your customers, collects the cash from the sales, and then completes this cycle all over again.
The two basic elements of your business's cash flow are the cash inflows and cash outflows. Cash inflows are the movement of money into your business. Examples of cash inflows include cash collected from sales to customers, collections on accounts receivable, and the proceeds from a bank loan or other types of loans. Cash outflows are the movement of money out your business. Examples of cash outflows include paying expenses, purchasing property or equipment, and paying back a bank loan or other types of loans.
Improving your cash flow means:
- accelerating your cash inflows the flow of money into your business
- delaying your cash outflows the flow of money out of your business
- minimizing expenses the amounts you pay for operational costs of your business
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en
| 0.968762 | 242 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Journal Prompts for Dreamers
Where do dreams come from? Many philosophers, psychiatrists, and other experts, as well as everyday people, have made conjectures about the sources of our night visions. But they remain a mystery.
Some dreams are obvious, of course. We’ve all experienced dreams that are clearly relevant to what’s going on in our lives or dreams that are some reflection of the past. Some people claim they’ve dreamed events before they actually happened — precognitive dreams that allow a dreamer to peer into the future.
Some of us remember every single dream we have. A few of us may even take time to jot down our dreams in a dream journal. Others cannot remember any of their dreams and will claim they don’t dream at all. There are those whose dreams are so vivid that they are induced into sleepwalking, and there are those whose dreams carry the essences of their greatest fears — nightmares.
Some dreamers are so attuned to their dreams that they can actually control a dream while they are having it (this is called lucid dreaming). They decide to fly in a dream, and they are off, soaring through the dream-sky.
Dreaming for Inspiration
Dreams may unlock mysteries, answer questions, or give us new insights. They inform artists’ work, help scientists solve complex problems, and they give writers plenty of fodder for fiction and poetry.
In fact, many famous works of art and inventions were inspired by dreams. In an article titled “Dream Art,” Wikipedia provides a list of artists and their works, which came directly from dreams. Some of the most notable artists, writers, musicians, and filmmakers who have captured dream material to produce great works of art include William Blake, Salvador Dali, Clive Barker, Mary Shelley, Robert Louis Stevenson, Stephen King, Carlos Castaneda, David Lynch, Rush, Paul McCartney, and Roger Waters, to name a few.
Dreams can even provide the answers to complex technical or scientific problems. Sewing machine inventor Elias Howe was having trouble figuring out how the needle on his machine would work, until one night he had a dream in which he was imprisoned by a group of natives, who were dancing around him and holding spears that had holes near their tips. This image finally gave Howe the idea he needed to make his invention work: a needle with a hole at the tip, which was designed much like those natives’ spears.
Journal Prompts and Dreams
If you’ve ever kept a dream journal, then you have some experience with exploring your dreams during waking hours. When you keep a dream journal, you learn to pay more attention to your dreams, and you start remembering your dreams better and in greater detail. Dream journals are ideal for generating raw creative material.
Today’s journal prompts aren’t based around a dream journal, and they don’t ask you to keep one, although doing so is definitely recommended. If you do happen to keep a dream journal, then you’ll have an advantage here, because these journal prompts do require that you remember a dream or two. Yet the main goal with these journal prompts is to add another tool to your writer’s toolbox, to leverage a little bit more of your imagination by paying attention to the messages, images, and signals that your subconscious is sending you when you’re sound asleep.
To complete these journal prompts, you do need to be a dreamer. If you don’t make a habit out of remembering your dreams, or if you rarely remember them, then you might try keeping a dream journal for about a week. As you fall asleep, remind yourself that in the morning your first task will be to write down your dreams. Promote dreaming and remembering dreams by using affirmations such as “I will dream” and “I will remember my dreams.” Then give these journal prompts a try.
- Write down a full account of a dream you’ve had recently. Try to include as many details as possible.
- Think back over some of the dreams you’ve had and try to identify recurring themes. Perhaps you’re often being chased in dreams (or doing the chasing), maybe a lot of your dreams are set in nature or feature animals.
- Identify the people, creatures, and animals in your dreams by describing them. Could they become characters in your next short story?
- Do you ever notice minute details in your dreams? Elias Howe noticed that in his dream, the natives’ spears had holes in them. Try to pinpoint seemingly minor details that appear in your dreams and write descriptions of them.
- Do your dreams ever stick with you throughout the day? Are images from your dreams haunting you as you go about your business? Why do you suppose this happens with some dreams but not others? What are the images that linger?
- Have you ever felt like a dream was trying to tell you something or send you an important message? What was the dream? What message did you come away with?
- If you could construct a full, vivid dream, which you will have tonight and remember in full tomorrow, what would happen in the dream? Who would be there? Where would it take place?
Interesting Facts About Dreams
- The scientific study of dreams is known as oneirology.
- Abraham Lincoln dreamed of his assassination.
- At one time, some experts believed that dreams only happened in black and white. Most people actually dream in color.
Good luck with these journal prompts! Now let’s talk about dreaming and how we can use dreams to inspire our writing!
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|HLUBOKA NAD VLTAVOU: (Frauenberg) , České Budějovice|
website in Czech with photo: landmarked and freely accessible. "The cemetery is located 500 meters SW from the center of the main road leading into Czech Budejovice, the pumping station and bank Munický pond. It was founded in the mid-17th century and expanded in the 19th century. About 190 tombstones from 1750 - 1941 are visible. During 1990s. cemetery area was cleared of self-seeded vegetation, fallen tombstones righted and the enclosing wall around the cemetery repaired. Currently maintenance is provided by the City of Hluboká. In 2009 the restoration of damaged historic tombstones began." [September 2011]
cemetery photo [February 2009]
Hluboka nad Vltavou is situated on the banks of the Vltava river about 10 km north of the town Ceske Budejovice, 394 m a.s.l. Originally settled around the castlefounded in the first half of the 13th century by King Wenceslas II. Its strategic importance diminished after the founding of Ceske Budejovice. In 1285, the village became property of Zavis of Falkenstejn, but the owners often changed. King Charles IV founded the water system with a lot of fish ponds around the town in the 14th century including nearby Bezdrev pond, one of the largest ponds in Bohemia. The name was Podhradi (meaning "settlement around the castle") until 1869. In 1908 the town merged with the village Zamosti on the opposite bank of the Vltava river giving new town the name Hluboka nad Vltavou ("Hluboka Above the Vltava River"). The chateau styled after the Royal Castle in Windsor and the Pseudo-Gothic Church of St. John Nepomucene from 1846 stand in the centrer of the town. Two game preserves found on both sides of the Vltava river north of the town include Stara Obora (Old Preserve) on the right bank used for the breeding of fallow-deer, mouflons [?] and wild boars and t other preserve on the left bank called Ponesicka Obora (Ponesice Preserve) where stags were bred. The old Jewish cemetery from the beginning of the 18th century is located below the dam of the Municky Rybnik (Munice Pond).The small Baroque hunters' chateau Ohrada with a hungtin museum and a small zoo are on the pond. [February 2009]
US Commission No. CZCE00037
Alternate name: Frauenberg in German, formerly Podhradi. Hluboka Nad Vltavou is located in Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice at 49º03 14º26, 8 km NNW of Ceske Budejovice. Cemetery: 500 meters W, near the pond called Municky Rybnik. Present town population is 1,000-5,000 with no Jews.
|Last Updated on Friday, 07 October 2011 10:05|
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Florida's $9 billion orange crop, the largest in the world after Brazil's, may not survive an incurable disease that threatens to wipe out citrus groves throughout the United States.
The disease, known as "citrus greening" or huanglongbing, is caused by a bacterium, Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. The bacteria are spread from tree to tree by a tiny insect called the Asian citrus psyllid, The New York Times reports.
A tree affected by citrus greening may not show symptoms for years. Eventually, however, the leaves turn yellow and fall, while the tree's fruit fails to mature, falling to the ground prematurely before the tree slowly dies. [Image Gallery: A Rainbow of Fall Leaves]
"We have got a real big problem," Vic Story, a lifelong Florida citrus grower, told The Times. "It's definitely the biggest threat in my lifetime, and I'm 68. This is a tree killer."
There is no known cure for citrus greening (which also affects grapefruit, lemons and other citrus crops), despite the best efforts of numerous research labs. The Candidatus bacteria is so devastating to citrus crops that it was classified as a bioterror weapon in 2003, The New Yorker reports.
A global blight
Though the Sunshine State is now the most critically affected - all 32 of Florida's citrus-growing counties have reported the disease - the blight has also been found in California, Arizona, Texas and other states. China, Mexico and Brazil are also grappling with infestations.
And it keeps coming: Between 1985 and 2003, officials intercepted 170 cases of Asian citrus psyllids entering U.S. ports on plant material, according to a report from the University of California, Davis, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
"The industry that made Florida, that is synonymous with Florida, that is a staple on every American breakfast table, is totally threatened," Sen. Bill Nelson of Florida told The Times. "If we don't find a cure, it will eliminate the citrus industry."
An industry under assault
Citrus greening isn't the only problem threatening the state's citrus industry, which employs more than 75,000 people. Rainfall in Florida this year has been 40 percent to 70 percent below the average of the past 30 years, Bloomberg reports.
Hurricanes, canker disease (another bacterial infection of citrus fruits), hard freezes and the vagaries of the international orange market, which Brazil dominates, have also battered Florida's citrus industry.
Agricultural economists have taken note of the toll exacted by citrus greening and other threats to Florida's most iconic crop. In April, the U.S. Department of Agriculture cut Florida's orange crop forecast for the fifth straight month; in October 2012, the department had estimated 154 million boxes, but now expects the state to produce about 11 percent less, or roughly 138 million boxes.
Researchers fight back
The industry isn't giving up easily, however. In the past six years, citrus growers have spent $60 million to establish a research center seeking to eradicate citrus greening, according to RT.com.
Florida lawmakers have also approved an $8 million fund for research into the condition, while Washington State University has begun a $9-million, five-year project to develop genetically modified psyllids that cannot transmit citrus greening.
Even Coca-Cola is fighting back: The company, which owns Minute Maid, has announced plans to invest $2 billion to plant 25,000 acres of new Florida orange groves.
Coca-Cola's investment is "a real morale boost to the industry and a sign they have confidence we will find a cure for greening," Adam Putnam, Florida's agriculture commissioner, told The Times.
- Top 10 Ways to Destroy Earth
- Gallery: Tantalizing Images of Plant Sex
- Image Gallery: One-of-a-Kind Places on Earth
Copyright 2013 LiveScience, a TechMediaNetwork company. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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view a plan
This is lesson idea is for teaching the names of the Fingers using “Where Is Thumbkin?”
Title – “Where is Thumbkin?”
By – Celeste McKenzie
Subject – Music
Grade Level – PreK
Objective: Students gain finger control and manual dexterity; improve drawing, tracing and cutting skills. Develop an awareness for the relationship between what they are singing in the song & their own hand as well as their cut-out hand.
Teach the song, “Where is Thumbkin?” by rote, helping students to gain control and dexterity in pointing only one finger at a time.
Most difficulty is typically observed with “middle man” and “ring man”. Distribute paper and crayons. Have students trace (or you trace) their hand. Cut it out. Sing the song again, having students point to the appropriate finger on their cut-out hand as they sing. You can also point out that the cut out hand is an opposite of their other hand when held together, like praying hands.
E-Mail Celeste McKenzie !
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Charles II, last of his line, was an imbecile:
The Habsburg King Carlos II of Spain was sadly degenerated with an enormous misshapen head. His Habsburg jaw stood so much out that his two rows of teeth could not meet; he was unable to chew. His tongue was so large that he was barely able to speak. His intellect was similarly disabled. His brief life consisted chiefly of a passage from prolonged infancy to premature senility. Carlos’ family was anxious only to prolong his days and thought little about his education, so that he could barely read or write. He had been fed by wet nurses until the age of 5 or 6 and was not allowed to walk until almost fully grown. Even then, he was unable to walk properly, because his legs would not support him and he fell several times. His body remained that of an invalid child. The nature of his upbringing, the inadequacy of his education, the stiff etiquette of his court, his dependence upon his mother and his superstition helped to create a mentally retarded and hypersensitive monarch.
A new PLoS One paper dives into the genetics:
The kings of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty (1516-1700) frequently married close relatives in such a way that uncle-niece, first cousins and other consanguineous unions were prevalent in that dynasty. In the historical literature, it has been suggested that inbreeding was a major cause responsible for the extinction of the dynasty when the king Charles II, physically and mentally disabled, died in 1700 and no children were born from his two marriages, but this hypothesis has not been examined from a genetic perspective. In this article, this hypothesis is checked by computing the inbreeding coefficient (F) of the Spanish Habsburg kings from an extended pedigree up to 16 generations in depth and involving more than 3,000 individuals. The inbreeding coefficient of the Spanish Habsburg kings increased strongly along generations from 0.025 for king Philip I, the founder of the dynasty, to 0.254 for Charles II and several members of the dynasty had inbreeding coefficients higher than 0.20. In addition to inbreeding due to unions between close relatives, ancestral inbreeding from multiple remote ancestors makes a substantial contribution to the inbreeding coefficient of most kings. A statistically significant inbreeding depression for survival to 10 years is detected in the progenies of the Spanish Habsburg kings. The results indicate that inbreeding at the level of first cousin (F = 0.0625) exerted an adverse effect on survival of 17.8%612.3. It is speculated that the simultaneous occurrence in Charles II (F = 0.254) of two different genetic disorders: combined pituitary hormone deficiency and distal renal tubular acidosis, determined by recessive alleles at two unlinked loci, could explain most of the complex clinical profile of this king, including his impotence/infertility which in last instance led to the extinction of the dynasty.
Razib Khan explains:
F, or the coefficient of inbreeding, is critical here. Charles II was not simply the offspring of a first cousin marriage, he was the culmination of a repeated instances of cousin marriage over several generations. [...] In other words, Charles II was moderately more inbred than the average among the offspring from brother-sister matings!
The Spanish Habsburgs had higher infant mortality than Spanish commoners.
This all ties into Daenerys’s first chapter in Game of Thrones:
Despite the seemingly obvious drawbacks of hemophilia, porphyria, and flipper babies, royal incest was a historical phenomenon in many cultures. The Pharoahs of Egypt most closely resemble the Targaryen pattern, although they tended to stick to half-brother/half-sister marriages until the Ptolmys, who went in for direct brother-to-sister marriages. The Incas and the royal house of Hawaii also went in for brother-sister marriages. In medieval Europe, direct incest was both illegal and condemned by the Church, with the bizarre case of Jean V of Armagnac the only case I could find of a brother-sister marriage.
The danger of this practice can be seen in the case of the House of Hapsburg, in both its Austrian and Spanish lines was well-known for “consanguineous marriage,” including one marriage of an uncle to a niece. Even avoiding direct incest of brothers and sisters or fathers and daughters, they still succeeded in increasing the inbreeding coefficient tenfold to the point of parent-child and brother-sister levels. This lead to recurrent problems with deformity, infertility/importance, mental disorders and retardation, and other genetic abnormalities.
Given these problems, it’s surprising the Targaryens lasted as long as they did with so few obviously deformed offspring, given how brother-sister marriage increases the risks of genetic disorders beyond the levels associated with marrying first cousins. It’s possible that, like some royal houses engaged in direct incest, they practiced infanticide to weed out obvious cases of maladaptive traits. This might explain how so many Targaryens are described as having been beautiful (although part of that may be the association between Targaryen traits like silver hair and purple eyes with power and therefore beauty) — although they clearly missed a spot when it came to Maelys the Monstrous. Their track record when it comes to weeding out less obvious conditions that might have affected the mind is less good (although it’s hard to separate nature vs. nuture in these circumstances): Maegor the Cruel, Aerion Brightflame, Rhaegel Targaryen, Mad King Aerys II, the list is hardly inspiring.
The marriage between Daenerys and Khal Drogo brings up an interesting historical point — it’s probable that the Dothraki are patterned not off the Mongols, but rather the Huns, and Khal Drogo himself on that most famous Hun, Attila, and Daenerys off of the Roman princess Honoria. In 450 AD, the willful and infamous lady Honoria, sister to the weak Emperor Valentinian III, sent a plea for help to Attila in overcoming her brother, and offered in exchange her hand in marriage — and half of Gaul. At the time, Attila was one of the greatest warlords in the known world, extracting tribune from Constantinople, laying waste to the Balkans, and smashing Roman armies. To win Honoria’s hand and secure her position, Attila invaded Gaul, capturing Metz, Rheims, and Paris — before being defeated at the Battle of Châlons. When Valentinian III denied him his bride, Attila invaded Italy and practically burnt it to the ground — the city of Venice was founded out in the lagoon by refugees trying to get away from his horsemen. So like Khal Drogo, Attila would lay kingdoms to waste for the sake of his bride — and like Drogo, Attila would die no warriors death, but from a most minor injury — he suffered a massive nosebleed while intoxicated, and choked to death on his own blood.
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FRIDAY, Sept. 23 (HealthDay News) — Americans may be living longer than ever before, but they're not necessarily living better. And that's especially true for people who are obese, a new study finds.
An obese man can expect to live almost six more years of his life with diabetes, compared to the same estimate in the 1980s. For women, the extra time with diabetes is now 2.5 years.
"At the same time we've been seeing decreases in mortality, we're not seeing a decrease in diabetes-free life," said study author Solveig Cunningham, an assistant professor in global health at the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University, in Atlanta.
"At the population level, we see increases in diabetes incidence. But, if you parse out the data by weight, almost the entirety of the increase was in the obese population. In normal-weight people, diabetes incidence was going down," she noted.
Results of the study are published in the October issue of Diabetes Care.
Almost 26 million Americans have diabetes, according to the American Diabetes Association. The vast majority of those have type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes develops when the body no longer uses insulin effectively (insulin resistance) or doesn't produce enough insulin to meet the body's needs. Being overweight or obese is a common risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes, although not everyone who develops this form of diabetes is overweight.
For the current study, Cunningham and her colleagues reviewed data from several sources, such as the National Vital Statistics System and the National Health Interview Survey.
From these sources, they obtained population data on age, sex, body mass index, diabetes status and deaths.
The average life expectancy at birth in America is now 77.7 years, according to background information in the article.
Even as life expectancy was increasing in the United States, the incidence of diabetes was also on the rise. In 2000, the lifetime risk of diabetes was estimated at 33 percent for men and 39 percent for women, according to the study.
Life expectancy at age 18 for both men and women increased between the 1980s and 2000s, and the overall estimated diabetes-free life went down by about 1.5 years, according to the study.
However, the number of 18-year-olds who would develop diabetes over their lifetimes went up by almost 50 percent for women and nearly doubled for men, the study reports. Moreover, the obese fared worst of all. The loss of diabetes-free life was 5.6 years for men and 2.5 years for women.
"There are a lot of health care implications from our study," Cunningham said. "If we're going to be targeting diabetes as a preventable disease, which type 2 diabetes is, we need to focus on obese individuals. And, I think we need to take new approaches to try to lower diabetes risk in this group. The present efforts to curb diabetes have been successful for some segments of the population, but less so for the obese," she said.
Though it's not always easy, lifestyle changes tend to have the biggest impact on diabetes risk, she said. That means careful monitoring of the diet and regular physical activity. "Even for the highest-risk groups, lifestyle changes are effective," said Cunningham.
"From population studies like this, it's hard to predict the impact on an individual, but once people get diabetes, it can have a huge impact on their life expectancy and their quality of life," explained Dr. Vivian Fonseca, president-elect of medicine and science at the American Diabetes Association.
Fonseca echoed Cunningham's advice. "Type 2 diabetes is preventable. Moderate degrees of lifestyle change can decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes by 60 percent over a three-year period. And, some of those benefits extend much longer. Moderate lifestyle changes are walking 30 minutes a day and losing about 5 percent of your body weight," Fonseca said.
Both experts said that lifestyle changes may be more effective in preventing diabetes than medications if they're done consistently.
Last Updated: 9/26/2011
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"Camp Tarawa" 1943...
Waimea community embodies proud history
Submitted by: MCB Hawaii
Story Identification Number: 200421317592
Story by Sarah Fry
WAIMEA, Hawaii(February 13, 2004) -- When Pearl Harbor was bombed in December of 1941, about 400 residents lived in the Big Island community of Waimea -- now known as "Kamuela" -- most of them employee families of the huge Parker Ranch, and a few related businesses. The community was diverse, including Hawaiians, Chinese, Filipinos and, by a significant majority, Japanese.
Waimea residents and cowboys -- known in Hawaii as "paniolos" -- quickly came together to organize 24-hour watches against further Japanese attack. The Hawaii National Guard, then the U.S. Army, set up an encampment at the edge of town on Parker Ranch.
Within months, thousands of American service men were fighting in the Pacific. After the bloody Battle of Tarawa in November 1943, remnants of the 2nd Marine Division arrived in Hawaii. Their wounded were unloaded at Pearl Harbor and taken to the Naval hospital at Aiea -- now the Marine Forces Pacific headquarters building at Camp H. M. Smith. The battle-scarred survivors who did not need hospitalization were taken to the Big Island of Hawaii to recover and rebuild the division.
Of the Marines shipped to Hilo, some were moved by truck, but most were loaded into open rail cars to travel the 65 miles to Waimea on a narrow-gauge line usually used to transport sugar cane. Fog and mist shrouded the passage and winds chilled the ragged division. A few division members were landed on the beach, 16 miles from Waimea by landing ship tanks, or LSTs.
The Marines' new camp was located in a saddle between Hawaii's two volcanoes, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, which towered in the distance. Ever-breezy Waimea was not the "island paradise" many of the men had expected.
The Marines were battle-weary and cold, still wearing the uniforms in which they had fought and sailed back in across the Pacific. Many were sick with malaria. Though their morale sank as they surveyed their new "home," before they could rest they would need to resurrect what they would come to call "Camp Tarawa." The good news was that a detachment of Navy Seabees arrived to help.
Parker Ranch owner Richard Smart had leased 40,000 acres to the Marine Corps for $1 a year. When 2nd Marine Division arrived, he moved out of his home, Puu Opelo, so it could become division headquarters. The Waimea school and hotel were converted to hospitals. Parker Hall became the local United Service Organizations.
Women took in washing. Families invited Marines into their homes on weekends for home-cooked meals. When Marines received "free" time, they joined forces with townspeople to play against outsiders, held boxing matches and basketball games.
The Marines sorely needed blankets and warm clothing items. Most personal gear had been lost in the battle. Entrepreneurs showed up to sell everything from newspapers to hot dogs.
As 2nd Marine Division began to recover and to retrain in earnest, it made major changes in the community. The Marines dammed the Waimea River miles upstream and piped water down to the town. They ran electricity throughout the area, replacing kerosene as the fuel for lights. They also built an icehouse, where they made ice cream for the troops and local children.
The division practiced amphibious landings, air cover and amphibious tank operations in preparation for its next battle assignment, at Saipan, then Tinian and, for the 8th Marine Regiment, Okinawa. When 2nd Marine Division left Waimea for Saipan, artillery units of "V" Amphibious Corps continued to train on the mountain ranges.
A few weeks later, trucks rumbled into town bearing the newly formed 5th Marine Division, just arrived from Camp Pendleton, Calif. These Marines donned new gear and equipment and seemed younger and more willing to laugh than the battle-hardened troops now on their way to the Marshall Islands.
The 5th Marine Division trained, in part, by assaulting two volcanic formations on Parker Ranch. Lava ash slowed the Marines' progress as they fought their way up the steep slopes, but many knew that their hard work at Camp Tarawa was in preparation for the coming assault on Iwo Jima's Mount Suribachi in the Volcano Islands.
The Marines introduced rodeo to Hawaii, where cattle raising and horse breaking had a long history as a business, not a sport. Parker Ranch provided horses, steers and calves for the rodeo, and a huge barbecue for the participants and onlookers to enjoy.
On Christmas Day 1944, the division mounted out for landing rehearsals at Maalea Bay, then headed for Iwo Jima. Those not killed or seriously wounded returned to Camp Tarawa in April 1945, and began to rebuild for the invasion of the Japanese home islands.
When the war ended, the 5th Marine Division was sent to Japan for occupation duty, and the Army took over Camp Tarawa, auctioning off equipment and structures.
In 1984, the Waimea Civic Club erected a monument outside Waimea, along Mamalahoa Highway, to remember the one-time home to two Marine Divisions.
Photos included with story:
The Camp Tarawa Memorial honors the heroic Marines and Sailors of the 5th Marine Division, who trained at Camp Tarawa in preparation for the Feb. 19, 1945, assault on the island of Iwo Jima during World War II. Photo by: Courtesy of the Pacific War Memorial Association
Text version of story is attached below:
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Title: Rhythm of Music
Description of Idea: In this lesson plan students learn about rhythm, how it relates to music, and how rhythm is felt through the body.
Expectations: It is expected that students gain an understanding of what rhythm is, how rhythm can be created with different parts of the body, and how well the student can copy a rhythm created by the teacher.
Each student in the class is expected to participate in the activities of the lesson, so that an understanding of rhythm can be attained.
Part 1: Focus
The teacher describes what rhythms and beats are.The teacher initiates a discussion by asking the students to describe where they have heard different types of rhythm, and then the teacher discusses the students responses and talk about why rhythm is important.
Part 2: Introducing the Art
Teacher discusses with students how rhythm can be felt from the way we use words and language. To demonstrate this idea to the students, the teacher claps simple rhythmic pattern and have the students repeat the pattern that was created.
The teacher selects nursery rhymes and use the words to create different rhythmic patterns.The teacher has the students say the nursery rhymes line by line and have the students clap the rhythm of the rhyme as they say it.
The teacher introduces other ways that rhythm can be felt, such as through the feet by stomping, dancing, etc.
*Can the student repeat the rhythmic patterns of the nursery rhyme?
*Can the student express individual interpretation of the rhythm with clapping and stomping?
*Can the student identify that story telling can have rhythmic patterns?
Adaptations: For ESL students who are at the intermediate level of English, this assignment can be adapted so that the students can bring in music from their cultures and have them try and create rhythms. This allows the students to have a personal connection to the lesson plan and can make it easier to understand the concept of rhythm with music that is familiar to them.
Source: Davis Bing, Rosalind. Farrel, Tina. Hodax Rhoades, Jane. McCoy, Gloria. Morris, Bunyan. Yoshida, Nan. SRA Art Connections, teachers addition, level k. Columbus, Ohio. SRA McGraw-Hill:1998. 116-117
Submitted by: Natalia Charles
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Photo: Chris Christner (flickr)
We tend to associate hurricanes with destruction.
However, hurricanes that sweep across the Atlantic Ocean can be constructive, at least for barren, relatively lifeless stretches of ocean.
Environmental scientists, including Steve Babin at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, have found that in a hurricane’s wake, tiny ocean plants called phytoplankton tend to do very well and bloom in large numbers.
Babin thinks that what’s happening is that when a hurricane passes over so called “ocean deserts,” it stirs up the water. The churning dredges up cooler, nutrient-rich water from deeper in the ocean. This does two things. First, it brings the phytoplankton that are already there closer to the surface, where they have greater access to sunlight. Second, the nutrients that swirl up to the surface create the perfect condition for a healthy phytoplankton bloom.
This is interesting for a few reasons. Phytoplankton are the basis for the entire ocean food chain, and phytoplankton are known to absorb lots of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. As we all know, carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gasses contributing to global warming. So, at least theoretically, by giving life to phytoplankton, hurricanes actually help combat global warming.
Or maybe not.
Other researchers have found that when hurricanes stir up ocean water they also release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. We all know that more carbon dioxide escaping into the sky is bad for global warming. Factor in the chance that global warming may be increasing the number and intensity of hurricanes, and now it’s not at all clear what we should think of hurricanes.
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FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
(Sources at end)
General Questions About Shariah Islamic Law
1. What is Shariah, also called Shariah Islamic Law?
• Shariah, meaning “the way” or “path”, is the entire body of Islamic law dating back to the 7th century
• It is a legal framework regulating how Muslims must live their lives, both privately and publicly, in order to be considered devout Muslims.
• Shariah has remained virtually unchanged for the past 1000 years.
• Shariah today is the law of the land in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Sudan, parts of Nigeria, Indonesia, and the law under which the Taliban operate in Afghanistan and, more recently, in Pakistan. Al-Qaeda radicals operate under Shariah Islamic Law too.
2. What areas of life are covered by Shariah?
• Shariah stipulates behavior regarding political life, divorce, child rearing, hygiene, sexuality, marital concerns, finance, penal codes, sexuality, supremacy of men, subjugation of women, treatment of non-Muslims, dietary laws, hygiene, social relationships, banking, business, economics, contracts, prayer and spirituality.
• Shariah also mandates that devout Muslims participate in Jihad (“holy” or “just” war) and da’wa (proselytizing and propaganda) in order to achieve the goal of Shariah, to create a one world Islam, known as the “Caliphate”. Violent Jihad is waged against non-devout Muslims and non-Muslims who refuse the “invitation” to live according to Shariah.
3. Why is Shariah considered “indivisible? What happens to Muslims who do not follow Shariah Islamic law?
• Shariah is an all-embracing body of religious, social, political, and military duties which, according to Shariah authorities, cannot be segmented in any way.
• Under Shariah, a Muslim is “devout” if he follows, or at least recognizes that one should follow, every aspect of Shariah. There is no ability to pick and choose a part of Shariah as authoritative and a part as “obsolete”.
• Those who aren’t faithful to Shariah in its entirety are not recognized as true Muslims, and are punished.
• Muslims who choose to reject all or part of Shariah are deemed “apostates” and are subject to punishment or even death.
4. Why is Shariah considered by many who live under it to be a barbaric, authoritarian and cruel system?
• Shariah is seen by many who live under it as an oppressive and violent political movement, much like communism and fascism, controlling through fear of barbaric and cruel punishments and death.
• Shariah has been used as the basis for political leaders to retain control over Muslims and non-Muslims by forcing them to adhere to an oppressive Shariah “constitution” developed more than 1000 years ago.
• More than ever before in history, Shariah “authorities”, schooled for many years in all aspects of political Shariah, have gained strength. Shariah law authorities are empowered by petrodollars and share political powers with sovereign rulers who fear overthrow by Shariah radicals.
5. What percentage of Muslims wish to live under Shariah Islamic law?
• Polls suggest that only 10-15% of the world’s 1.2 billion Muslims worldwide wish to live under the all-encompassing Shariah system that dictates all aspects of a Muslim¹s life including religious, social, political, and military obligations.
• This translates into a huge pool – 120-180 million – of recruits and supporters for one of the primary tenets of Shariah: Jihad.
• Shariah law authorities are empowered by petrodollars and share political powers with sovereign rulers who fear overthrow by Shariah radicals.
• If there is a choice, peace-loving Muslims (which are the majority of Muslims) choose to stay away from authoritarian Shariah law.
• It is Muslims themselves who are most oppressed under Shariah, especially Muslim women, children, gays and peace-loving Muslims.
6. What are some examples of authoritarian Shariah law?
• Capital punishment for those who slander or insult Islam.
• Murder of Muslims who wish to leave Islam.
• Requirement of women to obtain permission from husbands for daily freedoms; beating of disobedient woman and girls;
• Execution of homosexuals;
• Engagement of polygamy and forced child marriages;
• Requirement of the testimony of four male witnesses to prove rape;
• Stoning of adulteresses;
• Slavery is permissible.
• Waging Jihad is a religious obligation
• Amputation of body for criminal offenses;
• Female genital mutilation;
• Inferior status for all non-Muslims, known as Dhimmitude.
7. What is the purpose of authoritarian Shariah Islamic Law ?
• The primary purpose of authoritarian Shariah law is to promote a Shariah-based Islam as the only legitimate theo-political system (church and state are one) and help establish its rule worldwide through Jihad and da’wa (acts of kindness) of many kinds, including word (propaganda & intimidation which suppresses of free speech ), the sword (violence), and money (economic influence and finance).
• Shariah is institutionalized around the world through infiltration into Shariah funded mosques, universities, banks, companies, lobbying groups, and Islamic charities all over the world.
8. What are the sources of Shariah Islamic Law ?
• Much of Shariah is a post-Quranic, meaning not written in the Quran or the words of Mohammad. It is a man-made, politicized doctrine and more radical than the Quran. In fact, the word Shariah only appears in the Quran once. However, some ideas of Shariah Law are in the Quran and also in the Hadith, or interpretation of the life of Mohammad. It is important to remember that just because a Muslim follows the faith of Islam and reads the Quran, it does NOT mean they subscribe to or promote or want to live under Shariah Islamic Law. Many peace-loving Muslims worldwide do NOT want to have any connection with Shariah Islamic Law.
9. How is Shariah related to Jihad?
• The goal of Shariah is to create a one world Islam in which a Shariah-based Islam reigns supreme, known as the caliphate.
• Shariah obligates all “devout” Muslims to either wage or support violent Jihad against the non-Muslims who refuse to live according to Shariah.
• The Sept 11th attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in which nearly 3000 Americans were murdered was an act of Shariah-sanctioned Jihad.
General questions about Shariah Islamic finance also known as Shariah Compliant Finance (SCF)
1. What is Shariah compliant finance, often called “Shariah Finance”, or “Islamic Finance”?
• Shariah compliant finance is a mechanism designed to wage Jihad against the West through economic control.
• Shariah Finance is “political totalitarian control through finance”
• Traditional banking has been the sole and primary source of banking in the Middle East and by Muslims since the beginning of banking history. The first Shariah Bank: The Islamic Development Bank was created in 1973 – 1974.
2. How did Shariah compliant finance begin?
• Shariah compliant finance is not part of the Quran, and was created in the 1930’s by Hassan al-Banna as a means of creating an economic infrastructure for the institutionalization of Shariah, and funding of Jihad. Hassan al-Banna (1906-1949) was an Egyptian social and political reformer best known for founding the Muslim Brotherhood. Al-Banna’s leadership was critical to the growth of the brotherhood during the 1930s and 1940”s.
• It was not until the 1970’s when oil prices rose and OPEC was created that Shariah Finance got its real start as Shariah authorities saw an opportunity to harness petrodollars toward their goal of a one world Islam through Jihad, which of course, requires money, influence, economic power, and a place to house this with real bricks and mortar. Traditional banking, similar to Western banking has existed in the Middle East since the start of banking. Muslims investors like most investors all over the world, do not choose to mix politics, religion and money.
3. How does Shariah Islamic Finance work?
• Banks and the real estate on which they sit provide global hard asset locations for the promotion and legitimization of Shariah worldwide.
• As stated earlier, most Muslims do not want to live under Shariah Law, which explains why Shariah Banking was unsuccessful and represented only a market share of investment assets in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Indonesia as recently as 2004. In fact, Saudi Arabia did not have an official Shariah Islamic Bank until 2004. Traditional banking was primary. Though Saudi Arabia has ruled under Shariah Law for years, they resisted the entry of Shariah Banking until 2004. The Saudi Royal Family was not interested in having religious radical Sheiks manage their money or have any access at all. Today Egypt continues to hold back Shariah Banking, having suffered serious fraud and bankruptcy issues by Shariah banks in the 1980”s. Unfortunately, Egypt today is being pressured into creating Shariah Banks by Shariah faithfuls who claim Egyptians are not devout Muslims without Shariah Banking. The government of Egypt is being shamed and threatened into Shariah compliance.
4. What is the difference between the stated purpose of Shariah Islamic Finance and the real purpose as evidenced in recent, well-documented examples?
• While the stated purpose of Shariah finance focuses on issues of forbidden interest and prohibition against investments in pork and alcohol, this not the true focus of Shariah finance
• For example, Shariah states that investments in banking are forbidden because the excess of interest income , yet in 2008 Muslims who appear to be Shariah faithful investors purchased 8.5% of Citibank this past year, purchased Barney’s clothing store which sells sexy “non-Islamic” western wear, hotels which serve alcohol, and have purchased thoroughbreds and racetracks, and hotels with gambling. All these activities are forbidden under Shariah, yet it appears it is these same investors who are demanding Shariah Islamic investments? Most of the transactions above are private deals, so no public disclousure of transparency is required or accessible.
• Shariah Law is about control and creation of a one world Islam, and Shariah finance is a means of achieving that control through economics, finance and real estate.
5. How is Shariah Finance being promoted by global and U.S. banks and investment companies?
• Shariah Finance is being promoted as “ethically responsible,” “culturally respectful” Islamic religious investments. This on the basis that Shariah forbids investment in gambling, alcohol and pornography. But what about a political agenda that mandates violent Jihad, stones women, forces girls to marry, and calls for the death of Muslims who leave the faith. Is this “ethically responsible”?
• Shariah Finance is being promoted to non-Muslims as a way to diversify their portfolios with a new kind of investment.
• Because collecting interest is considered exploitative and “un-Islamic”, Shariah investments are artificially re-formulated so that interest cash flows become “rents” and “profits”. This is achieved through derivative structures and contracts. This is perfectly legal, much as other western derivatives.
• Banned Industries: Shariah investments may not invest in “haram”industries”, i.e. non-Shariah industries such pork, alcohol, media, entertainment, gambling, and interest based financing.
6. What are the processes of “Zakat contributions” and oversight of “purity” of Shariah investments? What are some of the inconsistencies one finds if one digs deep into the prospectus of a Shariah Investment?
• Zakat contributions: Shariah Law mandates that devout Muslims give “zakat” or charity to Shariah Approved Charities. Muslims are obligated to donate 2.5% of assets. Shariah Banks in the Middle East are donating these profits directly to Islamic Shariah Charities on behalf of investors. The charity is chosen by the Shariah sheiks that sit on the “advisory board” of these banks. It may well be that up to 20% is being donated, a number we have heard about, but have no direct evidence.
• In speaking with American bankers setting up shop in the Middle East and offering Shariah investments, our team was told that a particular American bank was paying a 20% tax to the government in which they were operating, for the right to conduct this business. Businesses often pay taxes to the government in which they are directly operating. It becomes a question of whether this is tax money is really “zakat” and is being directed to Islamic charities, of which many of which fund terror. We just don’t’ know.
• It is very unclear how American Investment Companies transacting in America are handling this charitable obligation requirement of Shariah Law. Transparency is very weak in disclosing exactly how, where, if and who is paying this Zakat or Shariah charitable obligation .
• There are two central Zakat collecting agencies. One in UAE and one in Malaysia. These Zakat agencies donate to Shariah approved charities. There are 8 Shariah approved categories of Zakat including the needy , however up to 4 of the Shariah approved charities can be interpreted to “fund Jihad”. This is because the goal of Shariah is to create a one world Islam through Jihad, and so funding is required to train, support, transport and arm Jihadis.
• Purification: Oversight of Shariah investments by Shariah authorities requires that the return on investment NOT contain “interest” of profits attained from investments in un-Islamic companies, excess interest income. If return on investment does by chance include these “tainted” or “impure” profits, they must be given to Shariah Zakat charities so that the Shariah investment remains “ pure”.
• Example of purification: Under Shariah Return on Investment (ROI) cannot include interest income or income from “unislamic “ companies (like pork or alcohol producers). If there is a Shariah mutual fund that only invests in shoewear companies (completely Islamic), these companies have operating cash on their balance sheets that are invested in overnight money markets. This overnight interest income cannot be distributed as part of ROI, and must be “purified” by giving this funds away to Shariah approved charities. The kind of overnight interest income can be quite substantial.
• Though transparency is very weak, one Islamic fund did disclose that purification was approx 6% of ROI. Extrapolation: There is currently $ 1 trillion dollars of Shariah Assets in the US as of Nov 2008, and if this money were to yield 5% annually (ROI), this translates to $3 billion of the return on investment would be distributed to Shariah approved Charities. Given that 4 categories of Shariah charity allow for “support of Jihad”, it can be extrapolated that $1.5Billion of these dollars are funding terror. This example assumes that the 6% purification number we uncovered is accurate. Again, transparency is very very weak.
7. What exactly is not being disclosed by Banks, Law firms & Consultants promoting Shariah Finance? In Prospectuses and on websites?
• The true nature of Shariah Law and its connection to Jihad.
• Disclosure that Sept 11th was a Shariah Jihad attack.
• Disclosure that Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Iran & the Taliban/Al-Qaeda are Shariah governments or regimes.
• The political nature of Shariah goal to create one world Islam, or hegemony.
• The tenets of Shariah law such as polygamy, forced child marriages, etc.
• Treatment of non-Muslim according to Shariah.
• The philosophy, writings and mandates of paid Shariah Scholars who are schooled first and foremost in Shariah Law and must embrace every aspect of Shariah Law including Jihad against the West and inhumane rules of living and justice.
• The exact process of “purification” and giving of “zakat”. How much is given away, who decides and where it goes.
• The eight categories of approved Zakat of which 4 can be interpreted to mean “ in the service of Jihad”. Meaning funding of suicide bombers, support for Jihadists including their meals and travel.
8. Who are key drivers of Shariah Finance on Wall Street, in London Dubai? Are these drivers providing full disclosure of Shariah?
The following key drivers of Shariah Finance are NOT providing full disclosure of the true nature of Shariah Islamic Law, it’s connection to Jihad, human rights abuses, Taliban and Al-Qaeda, Iran and Saudi Arabia.
a. Investment Firms/ Banks: Citibank, HSBC-Amanah, UBS, Barclays, Deutche, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, BOA, Goldman Sachs, Lloyds, Barclays, Arcapita, Inc.
b. Hedge funds: Millennium, Zweig-DiMenna, Toqueville Asset, Paulson & Co, Ospraie Capital.
c. Index Providers: Dow Jones, S & P,
d. Law Firms; Gerstyn Savage, Patton Boggs, Kings & Spalding, Clifford Chance, Murtha Cullina LLP
e. Consulting Firms: Shariah Capital
f. Real Estate Investment Companies: Guidance Residential, Blackstone
9. How might the promotion of Shariah Finance on Wall Street be fraudulent?
• Shariah Mutual Funds promote themselves as “ethical funds.”
• One must ask, however, how a political doctrine that conducts Jihad against non-believers, & oppresses Muslim women, children and gays, and who calls for the death of peace-loving Muslims who criticize Shariah or choose to leave the faith “ethical”?
• How would an American investor of Shariah finance react if he knew that Sept 11th was an act of Shariah-sanctioned terror? Isn’t this a material omission of fact and therefore fraudulent marketing of Shariah investments by all investment service providers? Is this securities and consumer fraud?
10. Is a Shariah finance investor entitled to know that some of his ROI might be donated to Shariah Zakat charities, of which many have been found to fund terror?
• Every Shariah finance investor should be aware the US Treasury Department has designated 27 Muslim charities in the US and worldwide as terrorism entities due to their funding of terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda, HAMAS and others.
• Every Shariah finance investor should ask himself if he is the unwittingly funding terror himself.
• Every Shariah Finance investor should understand that there are 8 categories of acceptable “charity” as defined by Shariah Law, of which 4 may be interpreted to mean “support of Jihad”, such a supporting families of suicide bombers.
11. Do All Muslims Support Shariah Islamic Finance?
Not at all.
Here’s who has spoken out publicly despite personal threats by Shariah radicals.
Muslim Canadian Congress
American Islamic Congress for Democracy
Muslims against Shariah
Timur Kuran- Professor of Economics and Political Science and Gorter Family Chair in Islamic Studies- Duke University.
12. Who are some Muslim critics of Shariah IslamicFinance?
• Pakistani scholar Fazlur Rahman takes a position supporting fixed interest, as does the well-known scholar, Seyyed Vali
• Reza Nasr. Muslim Turkish academic Timur Kuran has stated the following objections to Islamic finance:
? Shariah-compliant finance is an “invented tradition” of our time that does not go back to Muhammad’s time
? The complex Shariah financial tools involve thinly-disguised payments of interest
? Shariah-compliant finance merely serves the Islamist goal to enhance a separate Islamic identity, preventing assimilation
? Shariah-based economics have also dismally failed in relieving poverty in Muslim lands
13. Has there been Muslim consumer rejection of Shariah Islamic Finance?
• While this is hard to quantify, traditional banking, non-religious non-political, was the only kind of banking until Shariah banking was created in 1970”s.
• Demand for Shariah banking has been artificially created by Shariah radicals who threaten peace-loving Muslims saying that they are not “true” Muslims unless they live a life according to Shariah law (which includes banking with an Islamic Shariah Bank). Even still as of Aug 2008, only 20% of Muslim assets worldwide are in Shariah banks. There is tremendous pressure being put on liberal Muslims through mosques that in order to be a devout “true” Muslim they must engage in Shariah Banking and donate to Islamic Charities.
• During the 1980’s there were numerous Shariah banking failures in Egypt due to lack of transparency and alleged fraud. To this day, Nov 2008, Egypt is one of the last Islamic countries NOT to engage in Shariah banking. There is pressure every day by Shariah radicals on the Egyptian government, so the expectation is that Shariah banking may well start again in Egypt soon.
• 14. Who are the Shariah authorities advising U.S. financial institutions, law firms and consultants, and what risks do they impose on their U.S. clients?
• The top 20-30 advisers include Sheikh Yusuf Qaradawi, Sheikh Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Sheikh Mohamed Ali Elgari, Faysal Mawlawi, Sheikh Nizam Yaquby, Suleyman al-Maniya and others.
• Analysts suggest there may be conflicts of interest and antitrust issues, since the same advisers often are on the Shariah advisory boards of dozens of Islamic banks, U.S. banks, and various Islamic indexes (the Dow Jones Islamic Index, the S&P 500 Islamic Index), as well as smaller financial services companies such as mortgage financer Guidance Financial Group.
• As advocates of Shariah Law, these advisors embrace Jihad against the West, subjugation of non-Muslims, and oppression of Muslim women, children, homosexuals and non-believers.
15. Could you give examples of profiles of prominent Wall Street and London Shariah Scholars who sit on “Shariah Advisory Boards” in banks on Wall Street and all over the world?
• Yusuf Qaradawi: A prominent Muslim Brotherhood ideologue, Qaradawi is chairman of the Shariah boards of the two Qatari Islamic banks owned by the ruling families among many others. He is well known for his statements in favor of Jihad, including suicide-homicide attacks against Israeli citizens by Palestinian terrorists and legal rulings supporting the Jihad carried out by Hamas and Hizballah against Israel.
• Muhammad Taqi Usmani: A radical Deobandi cleric and a former Shariah court judge from Pakistan, Usmani sits on dozens of Shariah boards in the West and is a key executive in the Karachi Deobandi madrassa Darul Uloom, which has trained thousands of Taliban and jihadist cadres. He was complicit in the murder and suffering of countless innocent Ahmadi Muslims declared apostates in Pakistan. He has said that Muslims living in the West “must live in peace until strong enough to wage Jihad’ against their fellow-citizens in order “to establish the supremacy of Islam.” Usmani is on the board of the Dow Jones Islamic Index (as of May 2007, now he is off their website?), UBS-Warburg, Guidance Financial Group, Citiicorp-Citi Islamic Investment Bank, HSBC Amanah Finance, Saudi American Bank, Islamic Development Bank of Jedda, First Islamic Bank of Bahrain, and many other institutions.
• Sheikh Yusaf Talal DeLorenzo: DeLorenzo is considered to be the leading authority on Shariah Finance in the United States and one of the half-dozen best-known Shariah Advisors internationally. Although he has carefully avoided making public statements in support of Jihad, his affiliations, high praise of Shariah scholars like Taqi Usmani and Yusaf Qaradawi indicates he is a full supporter of Shariah Islamic Law. To e an Islamic Scholar, by definition you must embrace Shariah Islamic Law in its entirely, it is indivisible. He studied with prominent Deobandi Scholars at madrassa Jamia Uloom Islamia in Pakistan. The international Crisis Group (ICG), a human rights think tank in Brussels said the Jamia Uloom madrassa is the “fountainhead of Deobandi militancy countrywide”, has “ carried the mantle of Jihadi leadership” and “boasts close ties with the Taliban”. DeLorenzo himself was an advisor to Pakistani president Zia ul-Haq the military dictator, who in the late 1970’s put into place the network jihadi madrassa that eventually produced the Taliban. Delorenzo, who lives in Virginia, said “in order to be more readily understandable to regulators in Muslim-minority countries, such as the U.S. and Europe, there is nothing wrong in using another term, like Ethical Advisory Board “ (instead of Shariah Advisory board). DeLorenzo has also said” Adapting Islam to modern finance” could influence other areas of Shariah which has “ essentially been in a coma for several centuries…and desperately needs reviving.” Sheik DeLorenzo as of Sept 2008 sits on these advisory boards: Dow Jones Islamic Market Index, Guidance International, Inc., Brown Brothers Harriman Islamic GLobal Equity Fund, Socially Acceptable Market Investments (SAMI), Thababi Ijara Fund I in UAE, Ihila.com in Dubai, Muslim E-financials in Washington D.C. , Devon Islamic Ventures. Sheik DeLorenzo is the Chief Shariah Officer at Shariah Capital in Greenwich, Connecticut. Shariah Capital has been involved in many of Shariah Islamic deals made in America
16. What are other names for Shariah Finance?
• In America and around the globe, these are the names for Shariah Finance: Islamic Finance and Shariah Finance, Shariah Compliant Finance, Shariah Banking, Islamic Banking, Interest Free Banking, Ethical Banking, Socially Responsible Banking, Riba-free banking.
• How can a political movement that promotes forced child marriages, subjugation of women, killing of homosexuals, polygamy and stoning of adulterers , jihad against non-believers be ethical???? The justification is : slamic investments don’t invest in gambling or alcohol.
17. If Shariah is really as oppressive and barbaric as described here, how is it possible that American companies and banks all over the world have embraced Shariah banking as a new marketplace?
• The campaign to globalize Shariah including Shariah Finance is being enabled by sovereign Middle East Rulers actively promoting and funding the political goals of Shariah.
• The result is a multi million dollar advertising campaign directed at Western banks to educate them about “ethical financing needs” of over 1.2 billion Muslims eager to invest in Western investments as long as certain “benign” Islamic religious requirements are met.
• At oil prices of $100 barrel, the Middle East takes in $1trillion dollars in revenues, much of which is profit. Years ago, Sovereign Islamic rulers didn’t have access to western markets. Today, thanks to the Internet banking and bankers developing a ‘multicultural “ viewpoint… Western financial markets have opened up to Islamic countries. Mid-East rulers want a good return on their investment like everyone else. Let’s not forget however, that Mid-East rulers can invest freely in America, without Shariah banking. And they do. Note Prince Talaweed, currently has an 8.5% state in Citicorp.
• At a recent Islamic Finance conference in New York City, an attendee asked, “I understand Shariah Finance. No interest, no pork; but what does Shariah exactly mean?” The entire room of over 300 investment bankers, lawyers and the presenters of the conference went silent. Sheik Nizam Yaquby, was asked to respond. He answered this question with a simple “Shariah is the path on which we walk, the water which we drink”. Not one person in the room followed up with a question. The group went back to looking at flowcharts and graphs. (A team of experts working to expose Shariah finance has been attending these conferences).
18. Why are Western banks allowing this?
• Western banks are not asking the real questions about the goals, methods and laws of Shariah because they are blinded by promise of enormous fees and annuities. This is not uncommon with Western Banks:
– The Sub-prime mortgage meltdown occurred because bankers where not asking the right questions and doing their own independent due diligence. There is a term for this; it is called “moral hazard”. This means that an investment firm has less incentive to protect themselves from fraud if they have a law firm someone they trust saying they have done the due diligence and everything is legitimate. This is why the sub-prime mortgage collapse resulted in a global economic crisis. Firms relied on the assurance of other firms, colleagues, lawyers, that the mortgages were well documented. Very few firms did independent due diligence. And so when there is a loss in value in value, every firm across the globe has a loss because there are no “fire walls”. Essentially, it becomes a house of cards.
-The Savings and Loans disaster of the 1980”s, Latin American debt crisis of the 70:s, dot.com crisis of the 90”s…all were the result of blindness, perhaps willful, on the part of American and global bankers.
-In each case, when the lack of transparency and poor due diligence became known, millions of American investors, homeowners, and breadwinners lost their retirement savings, homes and/or livelihood
19. How fast is Shariah Islamic Finance growing?
• Estimates for total funds committed to some kind of SCF investment or transaction is $ 1 trillion worldwide as of Jan 2007.
• Annual SCF growth is estimated at 15-25%.
20. What kinds of Shariah Finance investments are being offered?
• U.S. Financial Institutions are quickly creating the same array of SCF ( Shariah Compliant Finance ) products that exist in traditional finance markets:
-SCF bonds (sukuk)
– SCF mutual funds
– SCF mortgages
– SCF hedge funds and SCF REITS
-SCF insurance products.
– SCF Exchange traded commodities platforms
-SCF home mortgages
-SCF Exchange traded funds.
21. Where is Shariah-compliant finance most prominent? According to the November 2007 edition of The Banker:
• Iran dominates the world of Shariah-compliant finance.
• Three of the five largest Shariah-compliant financial institutions in the world—including the top two—are Iranian.
• The amount of Shariah-compliant financial assets in institutions in Iran is over twice as large as the amount in financial institutions in the world’s second largest Shariah-compliant country, Saudi Arabia.
22. How does Shariah Finance threaten Americans?
• Shariah finance is a threat to Western values, human rights and US national security.
• Shariah finance has a political objective: to legitimize Shariah Islamic Law in the West.
• Shariah-compliant finance provides financial support to extremism and terrorism.
• Shariah-compliant financial institutions employ Shariah scholars, many of whom have been shown to be extremists, even to the point of advocating suicide bombing and jihad against America.
• Shariah Scholars are directing profits of Shariah investments to Islamic charities. Under Shariah, “charity” or “zakat” includes the funding of Jihad, 27 Islamic charities have been designated as funding terrorism by the US Treasury Department.
• Wall Street is branding and endorsing Shariah Islamic law as legitimate and western by promoting Islamic financial investments. Wall Street is welcoming Shariah Islamic Finance into America through our banking system. It’s easy for American’s to say: If Citicorp, Harvard Law and Business School , Dow Jones and everyone else is involved in Shariah finance..it must be safe, western culturally important..and we must then consider Shariah Islamic law in our court system, public education system, politics, etc…to be sensitive to this important population.
• Shariah Islamic Finance is giving Shariah faithful religious leaders a seat at the corporate table of every firm involved in Shariah Islamic Finance.
23. How does Shariah finance threaten freedom-loving Muslims in the West?
• In the same way the terrorist leaders who are given a world platform to speak are legitimized, so Banks and investment companies engaged in Shariah finance legitimize Shariah as a respected way of life.
• Democratic Muslims come to the West to escape Shariah and religious political oppression.
• Acceptance of Shariah in the name of blind “multiculturalism” by uniformed capitalists undermines freedom for these immigrants.
24. Could you give an example of how Shariah Finance legitimizes Shariah Law? They seem so different.
• Yes, England is a good example of how Shariah Finance drives the Shariah agenda.
• London has embraced Shariah Finance in the past 5 years.
• Lloyds Bank has announced plans to offer Shariah investments to every one of their 2000 branches.
• HBS, Citibank, Barclays, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, Deutche Bank, UBS: all offer Shariah investments.
• In addition, there are more than 10 Islamic Shariah courts in England.
• Polygamy is recognized with social service benefits granted to up to four wives to one man.
• There are reports of forced child marriages, criminal penalties for “insulting Allah”.
• There are reports of “No-Go “ Shariah neighborhoods, in which western-clothed girls are at risk of rape, with no guarantee of protection by police authorities.
• The highest Chief Justice in U.K. Lord Phillips just stated that Shariah Law could be compatible with English Common Law.
• There is a crisis of forced child marriages. Children are falling off school rosters without a trace and forced child marriages are suspected.
25. Have Shariah-compliant financial institutions in the US been tied to terrorism?
Yes. Here are three examples:
• Two Shariah-compliant banks registered in the Bahamas, Bank Al-Taqwa and Akida Bank, were, according to the US Treasury Department, shell companies actually run out of Italy and Switzerland, whose only real business was laundering money to terrorists. From 1988 until November 2001, when it was designated a terrorist entity by the US government and the UN, Bank Al-Taqwa transferred tens of millions of dollars to HAMAS, Al Qaeda, the PLO, Algerian Armed Islamic Group (GIA), the Taliban, Egyptian Gama’a al Islamiya and the Tunisian An-Nahda.
• Today in 2008, there is an active lawsuit managed by the Cozen O’Connor law firm, representing 36 global insurance companies (Ace, Chubb, Allstate) and Cantor Fitzgeral which alleges that Saudi Arabia and a network of Shariah Islamic banks (e.g., Dubai Islamic bank) were the source and/or mechanism of funding the September 11th terrorist attacks and the U.S. Cole attack which murdered over 3000 Americans. http://www.philly.com/inquirer/hot_topics/19374964.html.
• Bait u Mal al Islamic (BMI), a Shariah-compliant investment company based in Secaucus, NJ, ( which promoted itself as an Islamic alternative to conventional investments and solicited funds for real estate development), was named as the “US banker for the Muslim Brotherhood.” by U.S. Federal prosecutors. In testimony before a US Senate committee, former White House counterterrorism advisor Richard Clarke said that BMI’s financial services were little more than a cover “to conceal terrorist support,” and that its investor list “read like a who’s who of designated terrorists and Islamic extremists.” BMI worked closely with the Bank Al-Taqwa/Akida Bank network in transferring millions of dollars to terrorist groups through them, while receiving large amounts from well-known donors suspected of funding terrorism. These included the Hamas top leader, Mousa Abu Marzouk, who made a number of investments with BMI. Tellingly, BMI continued to work with Marzouk even after the latter was declared an internationally designated terrorist by the United States government in 1995.
26. How widespread is the use of Shariah Islamic charities to fund terror?
• The United States Department of Treasury has designated 27 Muslim charities in the US and worldwide as terrorism entities due to their funding of terrorist groups like Al Qaeda, HAMAS and others. See a list of these orgs on this website under Shariah Islamic Charities.
27. We know that there is state sponsorship of terrorism. Is there state sponsorship of Shariah finance?
• State sponsorship of Shariah finance has been ongoing since its inception with the founding of the first Shariah-compliant bank in 1975, Islamic Development Bank (IDB).
• In Iran, which has more Shariah-compliant institutions than any other nations, all of the banks are in fact state-run.
• More recently, UAE has created the DIFC, which is a trade free zone in Dubai which states it’s preference for Shariah compliant companies and banks.
28. Have Shariah-compliant financial institutions been tied to weapons of mass destruction?
• Yes. Iran’s largest bank, Bank Melli, which was named in the November 2007 edition of The Banker as the largest Shariah-compliant bank in the world, has been put under sanctions by both the US government and the European Union for its role in financing Iran’s nuclear and ballistic missile programs.
• Also, UAE, a promoter of Shariah Finance has exported nuclear components to North Korea.
29. What can our government do to protect our markets from Shariah finance?
• The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and Trustreet PPTYS (TSY) must enforce existing federal and state securities law mandating due diligence, transparency and disclosure of material aspects of Shariah Finance.
• Mechanisms to fund terror must be exposed and criminalized.
• Petrodollars must be invested through existing Western banking regulations and markets.
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| 0.947682 | 8,248 | 3.0625 | 3 |
- Table View
- List View
Mathews (history, U. of New Mexico) offers an alternative view to histories that concentrate on the violent and often tragic confrontations between native Americans and Anglo-Americans in the 19th century. Instead, she concentrates on the clashes between the Indian nations and colonizers that began almost 300 years before the United States was born. Topics include the origins, migrations and geographical location of the earlier native Americans, the history of the Spanish in the southwest, the history of the French from the Saint Lawrence and Great Lakes to the Rocky Mountains and Russian involvement from the Aleutian Chain to Northern California. The book also addresses major issues in the study of American Indian history. Annotation ©2008 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)
For the first time, there is now a textbook that addresses state standards for the teaching of New Mexico history at the high school level. In this thoughtful work, the authors delineate New Mexico's role in the shaping of the United States by carefully analyzing how the rich histories of the many cultures of the region affected and in turn were affected by influxes of newcomers seeking health benefits, minerals, farms, relaxation, and new beginnings. Supplementing this richly illustrated and accessible textbook is the optional Teacher Guide Book on CD for use with A History of New Mexico Since Statehood, which will help in structuring lessons, tests, and student activities. The Teacher Guide Book is included free with the purchase of twenty-five classroom copies.
Select your format based upon: 1) how you want to read your book, and 2) compatibility with your reading tool. To learn more about using Bookshare with your device, visit the Help Center.
Here is an overview of the specialized formats that Bookshare offers its members with links that go to the Help Center for more information.
- Bookshare Web Reader - a customized reading tool for Bookshare members offering all the features of DAISY with a single click of the "Read Now" link.
- DAISY (Digital Accessible Information System) - a digital book file format. DAISY books from Bookshare are DAISY 3.0 text files that work with just about every type of access technology that reads text. Books that contain images will have the download option of ‘DAISY Text with Images’.
- BRF (Braille Refreshable Format) - digital Braille for use with refreshable Braille devices and Braille embossers.
- MP3 (Mpeg audio layer 3) - Provides audio only with no text. These books are created with a text-to-speech engine and spoken by Kendra, a high quality synthetic voice from Ivona. Any device that supports MP3 playback is compatible.
- DAISY Audio - Similar to the Daisy 3.0 option above; however, this option uses MP3 files created with our text-to-speech engine that utilizes Ivonas Kendra voice. This format will work with Daisy Audio compatible players such as Victor Reader Stream and Read2Go.
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| 0.926323 | 630 | 3.34375 | 3 |
In the early 19th century Russian literature suddenly came to life, beginning with Russias most beloved poet, Alexander Pushkin. He grew up in the grounds of Tsarskoye Selohe always yearned for it:
Wherever fate decrees that we must go,
Wherever fortune leads us by the hand,
Were still the same: the world a foreign land,
Our mother countryTsarskoye Selo
Literature brought to life the human side of an often inhuman Petersburg, never more so than in Pushkins famous poem The Bronze Horseman.
Pushkin, the founder of Russias humanistic literature, juxtaposed this mighty monument, the statue of the Bronze horseman (that Catherine dedicated to Peter the Great), to the small, beaten-down clerk who was pursued by it, during the flood of 1825.
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| 0.938617 | 175 | 2.625 | 3 |
Parkway Project Guards the Wetlands
By ELSA BRENNER
Published: July 7, 1991
DOBBS FERRY— WETLANDS were once considered prime areas for highway development. Since they were not suitable for housing, the thinking went, they could be paved over and used to carry commuter traffic.
But in recent years Federal and state highway policies have changed, with concern focused today on protecting the delicate ecological balance of wetlands. As a result, government officials say, new construction on many older highways is becoming increasingly expensive and time-consuming.
State Department of Transportation officials working in Westchester cite as an example a reconstruction project on the Saw Mill River Parkway between Dobbs Ferry and Ardsley, the first major work on the roadway in a decade. Basically designed to correct a recurrent flooding problem, the project entails raising the roadway above the level of an adjacent flood plain. Permits and Hearings
"We've spent more time getting Federal permits, going to public informational hearings and worrying about sensitive wetland areas than we have on engineering the basic changes," said Joel D'Ascoli, a civil engineer with the Transportation Department's parkway design group.
The stretch of parkway under reconstruction is only eight-tenths of a mile long. But because the Saw Mill River meanders along the road, and at two points crosses under it, state engineers have had to build a temporary siltation pond, gingerly move topsoil from one location to another and consult with Federal and local officials at numerous steps along the way.
Occasionally the project involves rerouting of traffic onto local roads and the removal of trees, and that affects some residents' backyards.
"The way we used to do things in the 1950's is no longer acceptable," said Frederick Slader Jr., supervisor of parkway design for the Transportation Department. "Federal, state and community governments have become very pro-active when it comes to the environment."
"Any loss of these delicate areas due to construction," he said, "must be mitigated." This is known as a "no-net-loss policy."
If dirt is removed from one section of the parkway, for example, it must be carried to another area. That delicate procedure is followed, highway engineers say, so that the seeds naturally existing in wetland soils are preserved and allowed to continue generating new growth indigenous to the area. Wetlands serve as natural filters of water and are host to a wide diversity of birds, mammals and plant life, although there are no protected species in the area surrounding the parkway.
"We're willing to go the extra yard to maintain the parkway's natural character," Mr. D'Ascoli said. "The D.O.T. isn't out to destroy the environment. We have to live on this planet ourselves."
Nicholas Pucino, parkway coordinator for the department until his retirement this year, said the Saw Mill River Parkway, which dates from the 1920's, could not have been built under the "enlightened policies" and environmental regulations of today. It was conceived as a cleanup project by the county to pave over an area where squatters lived in shacks along the river.
The first section of the road, which starts at the New York City border with Westchester County, was built in 1926. By 1929, the parkway extended north as far as Elmsford. Owned by Westchester County, it was lengthened in sections over the years until 1954, when it reached Katonah. State and Federal Money
The East Hudson Parkway Authority, a state agency, took over the road in 1960 and oversaw it until 1979, when it came under the jurisdiction of the State Department of Transportation. The state then set up a highway construction fund, which was supplemented by Federal money.
Financed in part by the Federal Highway Administration, the current project on the Saw Mill River Parkway is being monitored closely by the Army Corps of Engineers, which had to approve the state's plans and issue a permit before work could begin this spring.
The Corps of Engineers will check the area and a new one-acre pond four times annually over a five-year period to insure that Federal guidelines for wetland areas are being met and to monitor water levels, wildlife and plant regeneration.
The $5.3 million reconstruction project, which is to be completed by Sept. 1, 1992, entails raising the level of the parkway up to eight feet, leveling a hump in the road and enlarging the northbound entrance and southbound exit ramps at Ashford Avenue. A bridge over the parkway at Ashford Avenue will be rebuilt, another bridge will be repaired and wider shoulders will be added, in part to carry water runoff. Flooded in Heavy Rain
Flooding became a problem, Mr. D'Ascoli said, as towns along the parkway became more densely developed, reducing the open space that absorbs water during storms. Originally designed as a winding, scenic road for urban motorists taking a leisurely Sunday drive north to Westchester's parks, the highway today serves as a major north-south commuter highway.
About four or five times a year, during heavy rains, the four-lane parkway has to be sealed off to traffic from Ashford Avenue in Dobbs Ferry south to Lawrence Street in Ardsley. At those times, Mr. D'Ascoli said, commuter traffic is detoured onto smaller local streets, causing tie-ups and delays.
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| 0.968066 | 1,128 | 2.703125 | 3 |
DALLAS — Chest compression-only CPR performed by bystanders — without rescue breathing — keeps more people alive with good brain function after having a sudden cardiac arrest, according to a Japanese study reported in Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association.
Sudden cardiac arrest is the abrupt loss of heart function, usually resulting from an irregular heart rhythm.
Compression-only CPR from bystanders should start immediately after the cardiac arrest, followed by a shock with an automated external defibrillator, or AED, said Taku Iwami, M.D., Ph.D., study lead author and senior lecturer in the Department of Preventive Services at Kyoto University School of Public Health in Japan.
"Early initiation of CPR and shocks from a public access AED are the keys to saving lives from sudden cardiac arrest," he said.
An AED is a portable device that delivers an electric shock to reestablish an effective heartbeat. These devices are available in public areas in the United States and in countries like Japan where the study was conducted.
Researchers analyzed the records of 1,376 people in Japan who had sudden cardiac arrests between 2005 and 2009 that were witnessed and received CPR and AED shocks from bystanders. Of these arrests, 36.8 percent received compression-only CPR and 63.2 percent received conventional CPR with chest compressions and breaths.
When comparing survivors after one month, researchers found:
- More than 46 percent (46.4) of the compression-only CPR patients were alive, compared to 39.9 percent of those who received conventional CPR.
- The chest-compression-only CPR led to 40.7 percent of patients having favorable brain function compared to 32.9 percent of those who received traditional CPR. Patients were considered to have favorable neurological status if they had normal brain function or if they lived independently — even if they had some neurological impairment.
In addition to the improved outcomes, performing CPR with chest compressions only is also preferable because it's easier to learn and preferred by those uncomfortable with mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing, Iwami said.
"Rescue breathing is difficult for some people to perform and might interrupt chest compressions," he said.
The study results also apply to people in the United States and other countries, Iwami said. "Most victims don't receive any CPR, so we need to encourage chest-compression-only CPR and public access defibrillation programs."
The study reports that the combination of early defibrillation with public-access AEDs and compression-only CPR provided by bystanders in witnessed cardiac arrest can provide neurologically favorable survival rates of over 40 percent.
"Across the United States, too many people are dying from sudden cardiac arrest because family members and friends of the victim are unsure how to help. This study confirms that Hands-Only CPR is highly effective. Plus it's easy to do," said Michael Sayre, M.D., national spokesperson for the American Heart Association and Professor of Emergency Medicine at the University of Washington.
The American Heart Association recommends that bystanders do Hands-Only CPR – pushing hard and fast in the center of a victim's chest – if they see an adult suddenly collapse.
Iwami said further studies are needed on whether bystanders should perform compression-only CPR on children.
For infants (up to age one) and children (up to puberty), the association recommends CPR with a combination of breaths and compressions.
Co-authors are: Tetsuhisa Kitamura, M.D., M.Sc., Dr.P.H.; Takashi Kawamura, M.D., Ph.D.; Hideo Mitamura, M.D., Ph.D.; Ken Nagao, M.D., Ph.D.; Morimasa Takayama, M.D., Ph.D.; Yoshihiko Seino, M.D., Ph.D.; Hideharu Tanaka, M.D., Ph.D.; Hiroshi Nonogi, M.D., Ph.D.; Naohiro Yonemoto, Dr.P.H.; and Takeshi Kimura, M.D., Ph.D. Author disclosures are on the manuscript. The study received no outside funding.
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| 0.943718 | 859 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Prions have a bad reputation. They are responsible for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans and a plethora of spongiform encephalopathies in animals. But there may be more to neuronal prions than neurotoxicity. In the February 5 Cell, researchers led by Kausik Si at the Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, report that in the marine mollusk Aplysia Californica, prion-like activity of an RNA binding protein controls long-term facilitation (LTF), a strengthening of synaptic transmission that has been linked to memory formation. The protein oligomerizes into amyloid fibers when Aplysia sensory neurons are stimulated with serotonin and, in turn, the amyloid seems to strengthen LTF. This is the first example of eukaryotic prion activity having a physiological function, according to the authors. They also suggest that it “might be representative of a new class of proteins that utilize a self-perpetuating multimeric state to create self-sustaining altered activity state in the cell in response to specific stimuli.”
Whether other amyloids, such as Aβ, might have similar properties, or have evolved from proteins that did, remains to be seen. “This is a fascinating example of what appears to be another "functional amyloid," wrote Charlie Glabe, University of California, Irvine, in a comment to ARF. He noted that the properties of prions may be relevant to learning. “They are stable and ‘self sustaining,’ at least as long as their assembly from monomer balances their disassembly by chaperones or their degradation,” he wrote (see full comment below).
The study was a collaboration with Howard Hughes Investigator Eric Kandel and colleagues at Columbia University, New York. It continues work carried out when Si was in Kandel’s lab. Then, working with Susan Lindquist at MIT, the researchers found that Aplysia cytoplasmic polyadenylation element binding protein (ApCPEB) has prion-like activity in yeast, and that it is required for long-term facilitation in mollusk sensory neurons (see ARF related news story). But whether the prion activity was necessary for the facilitation was unclear. Now, using a variety of biochemical and cellular approaches, Si and colleagues show that the two seem to go hand-in-hand.
First, Si and colleagues wanted to know if ApCPEB has prion activity in Aplysia. When they overexpressed an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-tagged ApCPEB in mollusk sensory neurons, they found these neurons to be riddled with distinctive green puncta, suggesting that the protein formed some kind of multimer. Tagged proteins lacking ApCPEB’s prion-like N-terminal domain did not form puncta, supporting the idea the aggregates were formed in a prion-like manner. Though the authors could not rule out lower expression as a reason for the absence of puncta, mouse CPEB, which normally did not form aggregates, did when fused to the N-terminal of ApCPEB. In addition, to ensure that the multimeric ApCPEB was not an artifact of overexpression, the researchers took advantage of an antibody, Ab464, that they raised to aggregated ApCPEB. This recognized the puncta and also immunoprecipitated a large molecular weight (over 180 kDa) entity from normal Aplysia CNS. The complex was recognized by antibodies to monomeric ApCPEB, and it was also resistant to boiling in 10 percent sodium dodecyl sulfate, consistent with it being a stable protein aggregate and not an RNA/protein mixture. Since ApCPEB binds to RNA, the researchers wanted to eliminate the possibility that the puncta were simply RNA protein complexes.
To confirm that RNA was not part of the picture, Si and colleagues expressed protein lacking the RNA-binding domain in sensory neurons and still saw aggregate formation. They also used a split fluorescent protein, which only fluoresces when the two halves come together, to test if ApCPEB can multimerize. With two halves of the split fluorescent protein attached to the C-terminal on different ApCPEB constructs, the researchers were able to reconstitute the fluorescence, and it appeared as puncta, again suggesting ApCPEB forms large aggregates. Finally, to show that the protein can form amyloid, the researchers turned to the electron microscope (EM) and thioflavins, dyes that have a characteristic fluorescence once they bind amyloid β-sheets. In vitro, the ApCPEB folded into complexes that stained with thioflavin T and had the appearance of fibers under the EM. The researchers also found puncta in ApCPEB-overexpressing cells that fluoresced upon binding thioflavin S. They did not find any thioflavin S puncta in normal sensory neurons, but they attribute this to a limited number and smaller size of multimers in vivo.
The biochemical and cellular analyses are consistent with ApCPEB being a bona fide prion in Aplysia, the authors write. The protein also passed a further test, albeit a neuronal version. Prions are self-sustaining and can be passed down from one generation to the next. In non-dividing neurons, the equivalent would be to show that a prion multimer can recruit monomers, note the authors. Si and colleagues demonstrated this by taking advantage of KiKGR, a green fluorescent protein that switches to red fluorescence when briefly excited with blue light. In sensory neurons they expressed an ApCPEB chimera tagged with the switch hitter and then zapped it with blue light, turning it into a red fluorescent reporter. They then sat back and waited to see what would happen to newly synthesized, green fluorescing chimeras. After about four hours, they found green protein incorporated into the red multimers, consistent with the idea that the multimers are self-sustaining.
And what of the physiological role? In Aplysia, long-term facilitation can be induced by pulses of serotonin (5-HT), which is released during learning. The scientists found that in neurons expressing the ApCPEB-EGFP chimera, the number of green puncta jumped by 15 percent after five pulses of 5-HT. To test if endogenous ApCPEB also forms multimers in response to 5-HT, Si and colleagues used a filter trap assay commonly used to detect rare oligomers such as those of amyloid-β and α-synuclein. After 5-HT pulses, the filter trapped fivefold more protein as judged by Ab464 immunoreactivity. Together, the different experiments suggest to the authors that 5-HT induces multimerization of ApCPEB.
If ApCPEB forms multimers in response to 5-HT, then do those multimers contribute to neuronal activity? To test this, the researchers injected sensory neurons with the Ab464 antibody. This had no effect on basal neurotransmission, nor on long-term facilitation measured 24 hours after 5-HT pulses. But it did block facilitation 48 hours after induction, when excitatory post-synaptic potentials were down by 64 percent compared to cells free of the antibody. “These results indicate that the multimeric form of Aplysia CPEB is involved in long-term stabilization of activity-dependent change in synaptic efficacy,” write the authors.
Exactly how the multimers contribute to long-term facilitation is unclear, but since ApCPEB is an RNA-binding protein and protein synthesis is part and parcel of the process of memory formation, the multimers may lead to a period of sustained translation at activated synapses, suggest the authors.
What does this work say about prions in general, which heretofore have turned out to be pathological when active? the authors ask. Si and colleagues think that ApCPEB is distinct in that multimers retain activity and are not detrimental to the organism. “It is possible that the ability of a prion-like protein to assume a self-propagating conformational state is part of an evolutionarily conserved molecular mechanism that can create two distinct activity states from a single polypeptide,” they write. Whether this holds true in higher organisms is unclear. Si and colleagues found that the mouse homolog of ApCPEB does not form multimers, but the fruit fly homolog Orb2RA forms puncta in Aplysia neurons that are stimulated with 5-HT. This suggests that there is some machinery in mollusk neurons that induces multimerization of exogenous CPEB. Other researchers agreed that the findings are certainly interesting but were more cautious, noting that this work has not yet been replicated by other labs and that the phenomenon seems to be limited to Aplysia. There was also some concern that much of the findings rely on overexpression of an enhanced GFP-tagged protein, since EGFP is known to multimerize. Though the authors found that ApCPEB fused to hemagglutinin or KiKGR also formed puncta in Aplysia neurons, they acknowledge that some of the prion properties may be due to overexpression.
“I think it is likely that most amyloids have prion-like properties, such as replication and transmission, but the difference may be that CPEB has been selected by evolution to do this in a highly regulated fashion, which is why it may be functional, while the same properties in unregulated amyloids, such as Aβ, may be pathological,” wrote Glabe.—Tom Fagan
- Si K, Choi YB, White-Grindley E, Majumdar A, Kandel ER. Aplysia CPEB can form prion-like multimers in sensory neurons that contribute to long-term facilitation. Cell. 2010 Feb 5;140(3):421-35. PubMed.
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- Vitamin Guide
- Health Conditions
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- Diet & Weight Loss
- Herbal Remedies
- Current News
- Food Guide
“Indigestion” refers to any number of gastrointestinal complaints, which can include gas (belching, flatulence, or bloating) and upset stomach. “Heartburn” refers to a burning feeling that can be caused by stomach acid regurgitating into the esophagus from the stomach, by gastritis (inflammation of the lining of the stomach), or by an ulcer of the stomach or duodenum (also called peptic ulcer). “Low stomach acidity” refers to the inability to produce adequate quantities of stomach acid that will affect digestion and absorption of nutrients.
In some cases, such as lactose intolerance, symptoms of indigestion are due to a specific cause that requires specific treatment. Sometimes symptoms associated with indigestion are caused by diseases unrelated to the gastrointestinal tract. For example, ovarian cancer may cause a sensation of bloating. Anyone with symptoms of indigestion should be properly diagnosed by a healthcare professional before assuming that the information below is applicable to their situation.
The most common cause of heartburn is gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), in which the sphincter between the esophagus and the stomach is not functioning properly. Another, related cause of heartburn is hiatal hernia, in which a small portion of the stomach protrudes through the aforementioned sphincter.
According to Jonathan Wright, MD, another cause of heartburn can be too little stomach acid.1 This may seem to be a paradox, but based on the clinical experience of a few doctors such as Dr. Wright, supplementing with betaine HCl (a compound that contains hydrochloric acid) often relieves the symptoms of heartburn and improves digestion, at least in people who have hypochlorhydria (low stomach acid). The amount of betaine HCl used varies with the size of the meal and with the amount of protein ingested. Typical amounts recommended by doctors range from 600 to 2,400 mg per meal. Use of betaine HCl should be monitored by a healthcare practitioner and should be considered only for indigestion sufferers who have been diagnosed with hypochlorhydria.
Medical researchers since the 1930s have been concerned about the consequences of hypochlorhydria. While all the health consequences are still not entirely clear, some have been well documented.
Many minerals and vitamins appear to require adequate concentrations of stomach acid to be absorbed optimally—examples are iron,2zinc,3 and B-complex vitamins,4 including folic acid.5 People with achlorhydria (no stomach acid) or hypochlorhydria may therefore be at risk of developing various nutritional deficiencies, which could presumably contribute to the development of a wide range of health problems.
One of the major functions of stomach acid is to initiate the digestion of large protein molecules. If this digestive function is not performed efficiently, incompletely digested protein fragments may be absorbed into the bloodstream. The absorption of these large molecules may contribute to the development of food allergies and immunological disorders.6, 7
In addition, stomach acid normally provides a barrier against bacteria, fungi, and other organisms that are present in food and water. People with inadequate stomach acidity may therefore be at risk of having “unfriendly” microorganisms colonize their intestinal tract.8, 9 Some of these organisms produce toxic substances that can be absorbed by the body.
Some researchers have found that people with certain diseases are more likely to have an inability to produce normal quantities of stomach acid. However, this does not mean these diseases are caused by too little stomach acid. Jonathan Wright, MD, usually tests patients’ stomach acid if they suffer from food allergies, arthritis (both rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis), pernicious anemia (too little vitamin B12), asthma, diabetes, vitiligo, eczema, tic douloureux, Addison’s disease, celiac disease, lupus erythematosus, or thyroid disease.10
The symptoms of indigestion or upset stomach may include painful or burning sensations in the upper abdomen, bloating, belching, diffuse abdominal pain, heartburn, passing gas, nausea, and occasionally vomiting. The appearance of these symptoms is often associated with eating.
Copyright © 2015 Aisle7. All rights reserved. Aisle7.com
The information presented in Aisle7 is for informational purposes only. It is based on scientific studies (human, animal, or in vitro), clinical experience, or traditional usage as cited in each article. The results reported may not necessarily occur in all individuals. Self-treatment is not recommended for life-threatening conditions that require medical treatment under a doctor's care. For many of the conditions discussed, treatment with prescription or over the counter medication is also available. Consult your doctor, practitioner, and/or pharmacist for any health problem and before using any supplements or before making any changes in prescribed medications. Information expires June 2016.
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| 0.925512 | 1,070 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The merits of having political competition are as follows:
- For a democratic form of government, political competition is a must. If there is no political competition, then elections will become pointless.
- In this system political leaders are being rewarded by people for serving and also being punished for not doing the work.
- Regular electoral competition provides incentives to political parties and leaders.
- Politicians know that if they fail to satisfy the voters with their work they will not be able to win in the next elections.
- Due to Political competition, political parties and leaders are forced to serve the people.
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| 0.983781 | 138 | 3.390625 | 3 |
The first of these links in the chain of eternity includes the rise, maturity, and decay of the Oriental civilization at its three distinct but interconnected centers, Egypt, Babylonia, and Crete-Mycenæ. The second reaches from 1200 B. C. to 300 A. D., and it too is filled with the growth, fruition, and decline of a civilizationthe high material and intellectual culture of the Greeks and Romans. Overlapping this for several centuries, the third or Christian period runs down to our own time. The nineteenth century of our era may be regarded as the opening of a fourth period, one of untold possibilities for human development.
The Greeks, like the Christians, went to school for many centuries to their predecessors. Their earliest poems, the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, are in one sense a legacy from the Cretan-Mycenæan age, in which the scene of their action is laid. None the less, like the peoples of mediæval and modern Europe, the Greeks owed the production of their most characteristic things to their own native effort.
It was in the eighth and seventh centuries B. C. that the Greeks became a new species of mankind. In this, the time of their expansion from an Ægean into a Mediterranean people, they shook off the bonds which had shackled the Oriental spirit, and, trusting to their own intellects, faced without flinching the grave problems of human life. When they then awoke to a realization of their position, they found themselves in the possession of cities which were at the same time states. Political connection between them there was none, and slender indeed were the ties of sentiment, language, and religion which bound to one another the Hellenes of Miletus, Corinth, Syracuse, Marseilles, and the hundreds of other Greek city-states then in existence. The complexity of the map may be appreciated by observing that Crete alone had twenty-three distinct states. In Greece, as elsewhere, cities in which life was at once national and municipal proved the most favorable soil for the growth of free institutions.
The keynote of the formative age of Greece was the rise of individualism. Poets freed themselves from the Homeric conventions, and dealt not as of yore with the deeds of ancient heroes, but with their own emotions, ideas, and experiences. They laid aside the measure and diction of the Epos and wrote every man and woman in his native rhythm and dialect. Sculptors and painters, long since accustomed to work in the spirit of a school, and to elaborate more and more scrupulously certain types of art, now became conscious that so much of their work was of their own creation that they began laying claim to it by adding their signatures.
The problems of religion were no longer satisfactorily settled by the Homeric revelation. They forced themselves directly upon the attention of every thinking individual. One man remained orthodox, another took refuge in the emotional cults of Dionysos and Demeter, another revolted and sought to explain the world as a product of natural laws and not of divine creation. Men who had earlier been obscured by their respective families, clans, and brotherhoods, now severed themselves for all public purposes from these associations, recognizing only the authority of a state which threw open its privileges to all alike. There were revolters in politics as there were revolters in religion and in art: the tyrants are the kinsmen of the personal poets, Archilochus, Sappho, Alcæus, and of scientists like Thales of Miletus and the Ionian physicists.
The sixth century which followed was an age of reaction. Men shrank from the violent outbreaks of the preceding generations. It was the time of the seven wise men, of the precept nothing in excess, of the curbing of aristocracies with their claim to be a law unto themselves. During this epoch of repression a rich and diversified culture which had developed in Sparta was narrowed down to one single imperious interestwar and preparation for war. With the leveling down of the Spartan aristocracy went the decay of the art and letters of which it had been the bearer. The Spartan people became an armed camp living a life of soldierly comradeship and of puritanical austerity, ever solicitous lest its serfs (there were fifteen of them to every Spartan) should revolt and massacre, ever watchful lest the leadership which it had established in Greek affairs (there were 15,000 Spartans and 3,000,000 Greeks) should be imperiled. In Athens the course of development had been directly the opposite of this. There, too, the nobles were ousted from their monopoly of political rights, but on the other hand, the serfs were admitted to citizenship. The men who molded Athens in its period of democratic growth were themselves aristocrats who never doubted for a moment that the culture of their order would ennoble the life of the masses. Hence no pains or expenses were spared by them to build and maintainat their own costpublic palæstræ and gymnasia in which poor and rich alike could obtain a suppleness and grace of body that added charm and vigor to their movements; and to institute so-called musical contests in which the people generally had to participate, and the preparation for which incited all classes to study literature and artabove all to learn the words and the music of lyric and dramatic choruses. The aristocracy died down in Athens, but the Athenians became the aristocracy of all Greece.
That they did so was largely the work of their most brilliant statesman, Themistocles, whose Life by Plutarch is included in The Harvard Classics.1 Under his far-sighted guidance Athens built an invincible fleet at great financial sacrifice, cooperated with Sparta with singular devotion and unparalleled heroism in beating off the Persians, and established her maritime empire. Aristides2 was at first his unsuccessful rival and later his faithful collaborator, and Pericles,3 whose interest in science, philosophy, jurisprudence, art, and literature makes him the best exponent of the culminating epoch of Greek development, profited sagaciously by their work. He both perfected the institutions of Athenian democracy and defined and organized its imperial mission. No man in high place ever took more seriously the doctrine that all citizens were equally capacitated for public service, yet no more ardent imperialist than he ever lived. The truth is that Athenian democracy with all that it implies was impossible without the Athenian maritime empire. The subject allies were as indispensable to the Athenians as the slaves, mechanics, and traders are to the citizens of Platos ideal republic.
This empire Sparta sought to destroy, and to this end waged fruitless war on Athens for ten years (431421 B. C.). What she failed to accomplish, Alcibiades,4 the evil genius of Athens, effected, for at his insistence the democrats embarked on the fatal Sicilian expedition. After the dreadful disaster which they sustained before Syracuse (413 B. C.), their dependencies revolted and ceased paying them tribute; whereupon, unable to make head against the Sicilians, Spartans, and Persians, who had joined forces against her, Athens succumbed in 405 B. C. It is doubtful whether any other city of 50,000 adult males ever undertook works of peace and war of similar magnitude. Athens led Greece when Greece led the world.
The Spartans took her place, but they held it only through the support given them by their confederates, Persia and Syracuse. When they quarreled with the Persians they at once lost it; regained it by the Kings Peace of 387 B. C., but only to fall before Thebes sixteen years later. Thebes depended solely upon her great warrior-statesman, Epaminondas. His death in battle, in 362 B. C., meant the downfall of the Theban supremacy, and at the birth of Alexander the Great in 356 B. C. the claim could be made that what the Greeks had sought for two hundred years had now been accomplished: all the European Greek cities, great and small, were again free as they had been in the seventh century. In reality, as Plutarchs biography of Demosthenes5 shows, they lived rent by factional struggles, in constant fear and envy of one another, and under the shadow of a great peril which union, not disunion, could alone avert.
Philip of Macedon united Greece under his own leadership, and with the power thus secured Alexander the Great laid the Persian Empire prostrate and open for swift and persistent Greek colonization. As Machiavelli in his Prince6 points out, his successors had to meet no other difficulty than that which arose among themselves from their own ambitions. This was sufficient, however. It led to a thirty years war such as had never before been seen. At its end the Græco-Macedonian world was paralyzed by an unstable balance of power in which Egypt, under the Ptolemies, by using its great wealth to maintain a magnificent fleet held Macedon and Asia in check. The unification of Italy under Rome (343270 B. C.) and the subsequent destruction of the Carthaginian Empire (264201 B. C.) brought into hostile conflict with Egypts enemies a military state which was far stronger than any individual Greek kingdom. This state had a population of 5,000,000, an army list of 750,000, and it could keep 100,000 men in the field for many years at a stretch. Such a force could be stopped only by a federation of the entire Greek world. The Greeks again paid the just penalty for their disunion, and after a bitter struggle they sank under the Roman sway.
The Romans who conquered the Greeks were not gentlemen like Cicero7 and Cæsar8 and their contemporaries of a hundred and fifty years later. Their temper is only partially revealed in Plutarchs Coriolanus,9 in which a legendwhich, however, the Romans and Greeks of Plutarchs time (46125 A. D.) believed to be a factis made to illustrate the alleged uncompromising character of their political struggles and the lofty virtues of their domestic life. In fact, they had many of the qualities of Iroquois, and when they took by storm a hostile city, their soldiersuncultured peasants, once the iron bonds of discipline were relaxedoften slew every living thing which came in their way: men, women, children, and even animals. The world was not subdued by Rome with rosewater or modern humanitarian methods.
Five generations later the Italians were in a fair way to being Hellenized, so powerful had been the reaction of the eastern provinces upon them in the interval. During this epoch of rapid denationalization, the Roman aristocracy, which had guided the state first to internal harmony, then to stable leadership in Italy, and finally to world-empire, became divided against itself. The empire had nurtured a stock of contractors, money lenders, grain and slave dealersthe so-called equestrian orderwhich pushed the great landed proprietors, who constituted the senate, from position to position; wrested from them control of the provinces which it then pillaged most outrageously, and helped on the paralysis of government from which the rule of the emperors was the only escape. The youth of Cicero coincided with the suicidal strife between the agrarian and the commercial wings of the aristocracy. Cicero, being a new man, had to attach himself to great personages like Pompey, in order to make his way in politics, so that his political course and his political views were both wobbly; but he had at least one fixed policy, that the harmony of the orders must be restored at all costs.10 This, however, was impracticable.
The empire had also bred a standing army, and the necessity that this be used against the Teutons, Italians, Greeks, and Gauls bred leader after leader who could dictate terms to the civil government. The last of these was Julius Cæsar. He was the last because he decided not to coerce the senate, but to put himself in its place. His short reign (4944 B. C.) is a memorable episode in the development of Rome, in that it was the first reappearance of a world monarchy since Alexander the Greats death. Cæsar is greeted in contemporary Greek documents as the Saviour of the entire race of men. After his murder a quarrel arose between rival candidates for the command of the troopsCæsars troops, as the assassins found to their sorrow. Antony,11 his master of horse, finally took one half of them with him to the East, to finish Cæsars projected campaign against the Parthians, to live in Alexandria at the feet of Cleopatra, Cæsars royal mistresswho was not only an able and unscrupulous woman, but also the heir of a bad political traditionto bring Egypt into the Roman Empire by annexing the Roman Empire to the Egyptian crown. The most that can be said for him is that he was a kind of bastard Cæsar. On the other hand, Augustus, Cæsars adopted son, to whom the command of the rest of the troops fell, proved to be a statesman of the highest order. He roused national and republican feeling in Italy against Antony and his Egyptian harlot; but, after defeating them at Actium in 31 B. C., he had to reckon with the demonor was it a ghost?which he had conjured up. This he did by establishing a peculiar compromise between republicanism and monarchy called the principate, which lasted, with fitful reversions to Cæsars model, and gradual degeneracy toward a more and more complete despotism, until the great military revolt of the third century A. D. occurred, when the Roman system of government, and with it the Græco-Roman civilization, sank in rapid decay. For two hundred and fifty years sixty millions of people had enjoyed the material blessings of peace and orderly government. They had cut down forests, made the desert a garden, built cities by the hundreds, and created eternal monuments of the sense for justice and magnificence which penetrated from Rome to the ends of the known world. Then they became the helpless prey of a few hundred thousand native and barbarian soldiers. The decline of the Roman Empire is the greatest tragedy in history.
During the principate the prince or emperor seemed to be the source of all actions, good and bad. Upon the will and character of a single individual hung suspended, apparently, the life and weal of every human being. It was, therefore, natural for this age to be interested in biography. Hence Plutarch is at once a document for the time in which he lived and a charming betrayer of the Græco-Roman world on which he looked back.
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| 0.978553 | 3,060 | 3.234375 | 3 |
A Currency Board as an Alternative to a Central Bank
Publication Date: May 2004
Publisher(s): Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
The Foreign Operations Act (P.L. 102-391) signed on October 6, 1992 allows the U.S. quota, or contribution, increase to the IMF of $12 billion to be used to "...support monetary stability in member countries through the instrumentality of currency boards." What is a currency board? How does it differ from an alternative monetary arrangement such as a central bank? Why was it adopted by countries with histories of chronic inflation (e.g., Argentina) and those emerging from the Soviet bloc (e.g., Bulgaria), and urged upon those suddenly hit by currency speculation (e.g., Indonesia)? What role did the currency board play in Argentina's 2001-2003 financial difficulties and why was it abandoned? Although factors affecting the decision to adopt a currency board vary from country to country, as do outcomes, fundamental differences between currency boards and central banks remain constant. This report focuses on their differences to provide a foundation for evaluating disparate cases.
To understand the differences, it should be noted that the most important function of a central bank is its ability to alter the supply of money. When this power is abused, as occurs when central banks must provide the monetary wherewithal to finance government budget deficits, it undermines the functions that money performs in a market economy: that of a unit of account, medium of exchange, and store of value. History is replete with episodes of such an abuse of monetary policy. The most egregious consequences of abuse are to be found in episodes of hyperinflation with prices rising daily. Countries have sought a variety of monetary arrangements to curtail abuse in the issuance of money.
A significant example is a currency board. Currency boards now function in Bulgaria, Hong Kong, Djibouti, Lithuania, Estonia, and Brunei, and are promoted by some economists as a means for developing countries to achieve macroeconomic stability. The sole function of these boards is to issue currency (and coins) that are 100% backed by a commodity (e.g., gold and silver) or by the stable valued currency of another country. A currency board is forbidden from altering the amount of currency by buying or selling assets denominated in domestic money. As a result, the currency it issues is "safe" or of stable value (or as stable in value as the currency to which it is linked), and this stability would contribute to the vital role money plays in market economies. A currency board arrangement is very similar in nature to the formal adoption of another country's currency, popularly known as "dollarization."
Using a currency board has a potential downside for a country. It is exposed to every shock that affects the exchange rate of the country to which it has tied its currency, and prevents the use of monetary policy to counter those shocks. Argentina is a recent example of what can happen in a currency board country. Argentina linked its currency to the U.S. dollar. The large appreciation of the dollar between mid-1995 and 2002 had a severely depressing affect on the Argentine economy which led to the abandonment of the currency board and economic crisis. Unlike central banks, currency boards also lack a lender-of-last-resort function. In a financial crisis, currency boards would be unable to lower interest rates and lend banks money to quell bank runs. This report will not be updated.
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| 0.957392 | 700 | 2.9375 | 3 |
silicone, polymer in which atoms of silicon and oxygen alternate in a chain; various organic radicals, such as the methyl group, CH3, are bound to the silicon atoms. Silicones, which are unusually stable at extreme temperatures (both high and low), may occur as liquids, rubbers, resins, or greases. Silicones are prepared from halides of organic silicon compounds by decomposition. Such compounds are chosen and used in mixtures that allow the desired molecular weight and degree of cross-linking to be obtained in the final polymer. Water repellent, chemically inert, and stable at extreme temperatures, silicones are used as protective coatings and electrical insulators and in caulk.
Implants consisting of silicone gel surrounded by hard silicone were used in reconstructive and cosmetic breast surgery until 1992. The safety of inserting silicone prostheses into the body was questioned in a large product-liability case involving breast implants, but an Institute of Medicine panel concluded in 1999 that there was no evidence linking such implants with cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other serious illnesses. The use of such silicone implants for reconstructive surgery and for cosmetic surgery has been again approved by the FDA since 1998 and 2006 respectively.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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| 0.944398 | 270 | 3.40625 | 3 |
By "Cost of Production" is
meant the total sum of money required for the production of a
specific quantity of output. In the word of Gulhrie and Wallace.
We have discussed the important
types of cost which a firm has to face. The cost of production
from the point of view of an individual firm is split up into
the following parts.
is a period of time over which at least one factor must remain
fixed. For most of the firms, the fixed resource or factors
which cannot be increased to meet the rising demand of the good
is capital i.e., plant and machinery.
The entrepreneurs are no doubt
interested in the total costs but they are equally concerned in
knowing the cost per unit of the product.
short run, the shape of the average total cost curve (ATC)
is U-shaped. The, short run average cost curve
falls in the beginning, reaches a minimum and then begins to
Marginal Cost is an increase
in total cost that results from a one unit increase in output.
It is defined as "the cost that results from a one unit change
in the production rate".
Before we explain, the relation
of average variable cost (AVC) and average total cost (ATC)
to marginal cost (MC), it seems necessary that the various types
of costs and their relationship should be shown in the form of a
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| 0.918124 | 293 | 3.734375 | 4 |
Neurons in the brain fire in sync to music. Musical training may enhance this ability, and perhaps some other skills.
While listening to music you might find yourself tapping your foot or bobbing your head to the beat. What you might not have expected is that as you listen to your favorite tune, the rhythms in your brain also follow along.
Brain rhythms arise when large groups of neurons fire together. Previous studies have shown that listening to someone talk can elicit such activity. Now research reveals that brain rhythms also synchronize with musical sequences. And musical training can enhance this ability. The study is in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [Keith B. Doelling and David Poeppel, Cortical entrainment to music and its modulation by expertise].
Magnetoencelphalography, or MEG, is a technique that measures the tiny magnetic fields generated by brain activity. Researchers used MEG to compare the brains of musicians and nonmusicians while the subjects tried to detect small changes in pitch during short clips of classical piano music by composers like Bach, Beethoven and Brahms. The trained musicians, not surprisingly, tracked the pitch changes better.
When it came to tempo, musicians and nonmusicians alike synched their brains to the music—when the music had more than one note per second. But when faced with slower tempos, only the brains of musicians synched up.
Because speech and music share similar brain networks, it’s possible that musical training thus could also improve linguistic abilities. So pick up your instrument of choice and play away—you might not feel it, but your brain waves will dance along to your favorite song.
Executive Producer: Eliene Augenbraun
Producer: Benjamin Meyers
Writer and Narrator: Diana Kwon
Audio Engineer and Editor: Steve Mirsky
Stock Footage and Images: VideoBlocks, ©iStock.com, Polina Shuvaeva/©iStock.com
Brainwave Data (Adapted From): Keith Doelling, N.Y.U., Department of Psychology
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| 0.935039 | 425 | 3.453125 | 3 |
John Chrysostom, Saint (krĭsˈəstəm, krĭsŏsˈ–) [key] [Gr., = golden-mouth], c.347–407, Doctor of the Church, one of the greatest of the Greek Fathers. He was born in Antioch and studied Greek classics there. As a young man he became an anchorite monk (374), a deacon (c.381) and a priest (386). Under Flavian of Antioch he preached brilliantly in the cathedral for 12 years, winning wide recognition. In 398 he was suddenly made patriarch of Constantinople, where he soon gained the admiration of the people by his eloquence, his ascetic life, and his charity. His attempts to reform the clergy, however, alienated many monks and priests, and the court of the Roman emperor of the East came to resent his denunciation of their ways. He lost favor when he demanded mercy for the dishonored Eutropius and when he refused to condemn without a hearing certain monks accused of heresy. Empress Eudoxia and Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, succeeded in having St. John condemned (403) by an illegal synod on false charges. The indignation of the people was reinforced by an opportune earthquake, and the superstitious Eudoxia had St. John recalled. He continued to attack the immorality of the court, and Emperor Arcadius exiled him to Cucusus in Armenia. There he continued to exert influence through his letters, and Arcadius moved him to a more isolated spot on the Black Sea. St. John, already ill, died from the rigors of the journey. Although not a formal polemicist, John Chrysostom influenced Christian thought notably. He wrote brilliant homilies, interpreting the Bible literally and historically rather than allegorically. His treatise on the priesthood (381) has always been popular. His sermons and writings, remarkable for their purity of Greek style, afford an invaluable picture of 4th-century life. His influence was already great in his own day, and the pope withdrew (406–16) from communion with Constantinople because of his banishment. In 438, St. John's body was returned to Constantinople, and Emperor Theodosius II did penance for his parents' offenses. His accomplishments as a preacher and theologian are marred by a virulent anti-Semitism. John Chrysostom was not the author of the liturgy that bears his name. In 1909, Pope Pius X declared him patron of preachers. Feasts: in the Eastern Church, Sept. 14, Nov. 13, and Jan. 27; in the Western Church, Jan. 27.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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| 0.978317 | 580 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Spacecraft and orbit
SNAP could be launched on a Delta IV or a Soyuz SREGAT.
The spacecraft itself is rather compact for such a large telescope.
The current design calls for a length of 6 meters and a width
of 2.5 meters. Unlike the usual configuration of
solar panels extending outward like "wings", SNAP's
solar panels will lie along the body of the spacecraft.
This simplifies the design and makes the panels more reliable.
SNAP's orbit will place it at a gravitational balance point
between the Sun and the Earth, located about
1.5 million kilometers (1 million miles) from the Earth
in the direction away from the Sun. This region, called the
L2 Lagrange point (or colloquially as a "halo orbit")
has many advantages. For one, very little fuel is needed
to keep the spacecraft in position.the combined gravity of the
Earth and Sun act to keep the spacecraft in place, much like
a ball sitting at the bottom of a groove.
Also, at L2 the telescope can be "thermally stable". Since the Sun shines on it all the time, the temperature does not change much, putting less stress on the telescope and optics (as opposed to low-Earth orbit, where the spacecraft experiences 18 sunrises and sunsets every day). The relatively remote placement of
the spacecraft also makes it easier to eliminate sources of stray light entering the telescope,
since the Earth, Sun, and Moon will always be in
the same area of sky as seen by SNAP, making it
easier to baffle the telescope.
SNAP's main mirror will have a diameter of about 2 meters
(about 6 feet). While small compared to some ground-based
telescopes (which have mirrors as large as 10 meters across)
this is still a powerful mirror for a space-based telescope.
The primary mirror will collect the light and reflect it to
a secondary mirror, which in turn reflects that light through
a hole in the primary mirror. Two additional smaller mirrors
then direct the light to the "focal plane platform",
where the filters and instruments are mounted. This type
of optical setup is called a three-mirror anastigmat (TMA), and is familiar
to astronomers: it is a tried-and-true way of packing
a lot of telescope into a relatively small volume. While the
focal length (the distance from the mirror to where the
light is focused) is 22 meters, the actual physical
length of the optical package is only about 3 meters.
Most space telescopes have many cameras on board which
perform different functions. SNAP, however, has a
very different design. Instead of filters mounted on a
wheel and a complicated series of mirrors to direct the light
into the detectors, SNAP mounts the detectors on a metal
plate, and the filters are mounted directly onto
the detectors! In a sense, SNAP will have 72 different
cameras on board: 36 which can detect visible light (the kind
our eyes can see) and 36 that "see" in the infrared.
The detectors are near-infrared (NIR) sensors and visible light charged-coupled devices (CCDs). The CCDs are similar to what are used in
retail digital cameras. However, unlike their earthbound
cousins, the CCDs on SNAP are far more sensitive to light,
and produce much higher quality images. Each infrared detector is 2048 x 2048 pixels (4.2 megapixels). Each visible light CCD is 3512 x 3512 pixels (12.3 megapixels). This means
SNAP will be like a 600 megapixel camera!
SNAP's field of view is truly huge: each image it takes
will be about a square degree, or four times the
size of the full Moon. Hubble, for comparison, has a
maximum field of view of only 1/400th that size. This will
allow SNAP to look at a large part of the sky at once.
Since SNAP is designed as a survey telescope, the wide
field of view greatly enhances its abilities versus
The visible and infrared CCDs together will detect
light from about 350 nanometers (roughly blue)
to 1700 nanometers (well into the infrared). There are 6
different filters used for the visible light CCDs and three
for the infrared. This means that SNAP will have color
vision, allowing scientists to better study the type of
light emitted by astronomical targets.
SNAP's resolution (the ability to distinguish
between two closely-spaced objects) will be about 0.2
arcseconds in the visible and 0.3 arcseconds in the infrared.
An arcsecond is 1/3600th of a degree (for comparison, a person
with typical "good" eyesight can distinguish objects as small
as about sixty arcseconds, meaning SNAP's vision will be
very sharp, about the same resolution as the Hubble Space Telescope.
For more technical data on the filter and CCDs, please see the
A spectrograph is a device that sorts incoming light
according to its wavelength (in visible light, the
wavelength corresponds to color). The resulting spectrum
yields a wealth of information about an astronomical target,
including its temperature, chemical composition, rotation, and in
some cases even its distance.
SNAP's spectrograph will have two detectors (like the
imaging camera), one visible and one infrared. It will cover
a wavelength range of 350 to 1700 nanometers, or from the visible
blue to the infrared. It uses what is called an image slicer to
divide the observed part of the sky into 60 strips, and produce
spectra of each of those slices. After slicing, each incoming
beam of light is split so that one beam is sent to the
visible detector and one to the infrared detector.
The main purpose of the spectrograph is to measure the spectra
of supernovae and determine
- what kind of supernova it is,
- measure the features that change from supernova
- determine the redshift of host galaxy of the supernova, and therefore the amount by which the universe has expanded since the star exploded,
- build a library of supernovae spectra that can be
used as a reference, and
- tie in the observations of
"standard stars" (stars with known characteristics)
to the observations of supernovae.
Technical documentation on the SNAP mission, the spacecraft, and
the instruments can be found
SNAP Lawrence Berkeley Lab website
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| 0.916559 | 1,389 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Dallas, Texas - In 2014, Mexico implemented a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages as a step toward reversing the twin epidemics of diabetes and obesity.
A study examining the first-year impact on beverage volume sales in Mexico after tax implementation shows that a tax of one peso per liter decreased the volume of sugary drinks purchased by a significant amount (6% monthly average), while also increasing the volume of healthier drinks purchased (4% monthly average), specifically bottled water. This makes a strong business case for implementing these taxes elsewhere. The study also rebuffs the myth that these taxes are regressive. In fact, low-income families chose healthier drinks more often.
Scientific research shows that overconsumption of added sugars contribute to heart disease and other chronic diseases such as obesity and diabetes. Mexico has paved the way for other nations to decrease sugary drink intake and has shown sugar-sweetened beverage taxes are an effective strategy to make healthy choices easier.
The American Heart Association is excited to see such progress in just one year of this new tax, and looks forward to tracking long-term impact and changes to consumer health. We will continue to support similar efforts to make heart-healthy living easier for all communities.
Sugary drinks are an unnecessary part of the American diet, that decades ago were just a treat and are now guzzled at alarming rates by many people, particularly young males. From sports drinks to sodas to fruit-flavored drinks, today’s children are often drinking their age in the number of sugary drinks they consume each week. Evidence shows adults should consume no more than about 36 ounces of these drinks, or 450 calories, each week - yet the average 8-year-old boy consumes about 8 servings, or 64 ounces, each week. Reducing consumption as part of a heart-healthy lifestyle will help improve rates of obesity, diabetes, dental caries, and heart disease.
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| 0.947856 | 391 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Only a little. which we have discussed ad nauseum. There is the crude
Berekhat Ram figurine, which lots of archaeologists believe was a fertility
figurine or a goddes. It is a statue of a naked lady and is dated to
300,000 years ago. It was made by Homo erectus.
Secondly, Neadnerthals show signs of having had a bear cult similar to that
found today among the Ainu and the Chippewa. They arranged bear skulls in
In Spain Homo erectus killed an elephant and ritualistically laid out half
of the bones on the ground in a pattern that united the bones as they would
have been in life.
If body painting is to be included as evidence of religion, (it is in modern
primitive societies) then evidence for body paint goes back 1.6 million years.
Foundation, Fall and Flood
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| 0.961618 | 187 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Vaccine Adjuvants – It can be defined as a component which potentiates the immune system and accelerates the immune responses to an antigen. It can also be termed as an immunologic adjuvant. These components act to induce, prolong, and enhance antigen-specific immune responses when used in combination with specific vaccine antigens.
Related journals of Vaccine Adjuvants
Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, Mycobacterial Diseases, Journal of Vaccines and Vaccination, Vaccine & immunization news : the newsletter of the Global Programme for Vaccines and Immunization, Therapeutic Advances in Vaccines, Trials in Vaccinology
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DENVER (CBS4)– The Denver Museum of Nature and Science is crawling with some unique reptiles from all over the world.
Some people find them creepy while others are drawn to their prehistoric anatomy.
There are 60 different reptiles from five different continents around the world on display.
CBS4’s Justin McHeffey visited the temporary exhibit at the DMNS Wednesday morning where he learned the difference between binocular vision, which humans have, and monocular vision, a trait possessed by the veiled chameleon.
The lizard has skin that changes color and a really long tongue that moves at about 16 feet per second.
“One of my favorite features are his eyes. He has eyes that can look in two different directions at the same time. That’s called minocular vision. So if he wants to really focus on something he’ll aim both of his eyes at it, but most of the time one is watching me while the other one is watching whatever he wants to watch. It’s a pretty cool feature,” said DMNS Educator Brian Hostetler.
“He can see both things at the same time which is a really cool adaptation that we don’t have. If we tried that we would have major headaches and a lot of problems because we have binocular vision that faces forward all the time. He has the two eyes that look in both directions.”
The exhibit is on display through July 8. It is free with regular museum admission.
There are several free days for the museum on the calendar, including May 6, June 17 and July 7.
RELATED LINK: dmns.org
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TITLE: A Parable
By Claudette Wood
SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT
SEND ARTICLE TO A FRIEND
A sheep owner had to go on an extended trip. As he prepared for his journey, his neighbor came to him and said, "Friend, while you are gone, I will take care of your flock for you." The owner was grateful and accepted his neighbor's offer of help. Then he went on his way.
While he was gone, his neighbor was not faithful to remember his offer to help the owner. He spent much time at the city gates playing "throw the stones." In the evening when he would come home, the neighbor would pass by the owner's house and say to himself, "Oh, well, I forgot today, but the flocks will be alright until tomorrow." Then he would go into his home and sleep. After a while, the sheep owner's flocks began to be sick and some of them died. The gate developed a break in it and many of the owner's flock escaped through the break.
When the owner came home from his trip, he noticed that the men at the city gate gazed at him with strange, angry expressions. He didn't understand why his friends would behave so. His neighbor was also at the gate, but he refused to meet the owner's gaze. Upon his arrival at his home, the owner found his flock dead or missing. The men from the city gate had followed him home and stood accusing him of being cruel, to leave his animals without anyone to care for them. As they spoke, the owner’s neighbor stood with them and allowed this criticism, and he even offered criticisms of his own, without any mention that he had offered to take care of the flock in the owner's absence. The city-gate men told him that they would hold a council to discuss this owner's negligence and pass judgment on him.
The owner was amazed at his neighbor’s accusations. When given his opportunity to speak at the council meeting, he reminded the neighbor that while he had intended to hire someone to care for his flock, the neighbor had made the offer of help, and the owner had accepted his generous offer. His neighbor accused the owner of not being thoughtful enough of him to leave the animals' food where he could easily reach it. He spoke of the struggle to get water from the city well to the flock, and that the owner had not told him how difficult it would be to care for this flock. Then the owner asked the city-gate men why they had not done anything to help keep the flock from dying, since they saw that the flock was not being cared for.
The city-gate men then knew the truth of what the neighbor had done, and they turned their gaze upon him. The neighbor was unable to look at the city-gate men, because he had made many false accusations against the owner in his absence. And the city-gate men were ashamed that they had not been better friends to the owner and tried to save the flock. The owner went to his home vindicated. The city-gate men went back to the city gate. The neighbor went back to his home, and every day he would go to the city gates and play a new game of "throw the stones" with the men at the city gate.
The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.
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In many practical purposes foundation engineer uses fill to raise the plinth level and for many other reasons. This fill is compacted to desired percent compaction to have better bearing stratum for founding building structures. Now in this post we will discuss about settlement generated by consolidation of compacted fill.
We all know that compacted fill usually undergo some degree of subsidence. This is due to readjustment of grains due to self-weight. There have two forms of settlement. One is settlement of underlying soil on which the compacted fill rests. Another settlement is due to settlement of compacted fill itself. The settlement of underlying soil will not discuss in this post.
a. Type of soil particles and particle packing; in one word soil fabric. The soil fabrics in relation to compaction effort.
b. The amount of water used during compaction process and future changes from provided moisture content.
c. The height of fill (i.e. self weight from thickness of fill) and superimposed load from foundations or from any other surcharges.
The settlement of compacted fill due to consolidation involves future mass saturation and can take a time of the order of several years. Geotechnical engineers may predict such types of consolidation in laboratory. Soil sample to filled is compacted to required moisture content and field density and put under consolidation testing device to test primary compression and secondary compression and swelling properties as well.
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I was teaching first and second conditionals to an intermediate English class the other day, and then we started with 'wish' statements.
We talked about famous people and their wishes. For example: 'Barack Obama wishes the USA didn't have such a high unemployment rate.'
And then we continued with the lesson and I introduced 'wish' statements with would. My example was 'I wish my daughter would do better at school'.
Then a student asked me what the difference between 'I wish' with 'did' or 'didn't' and 'I wish' with 'would' or 'wouldn't' was.
I said the difference was tense, if I say 'Barack Obama wishes the USA didn't have such a high unemployment rate', it's present tense.
If I say 'Barack Obama wishes the USA wouldn't have such a high unemployment rate.' It's incorrect, I think it would be better if I said : 'Barack Obama wishes the unemployment rate would improve in the USA.' , future tense.
And with the daughter example,'I wish my daughter would do better at school.', means that I hope she will improve in the future, and when I say 'I wish my daughter did better at school.' does that mean right now she is doing badly, and I want it to change today? Or does it mean that I don't think it will change?
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| 0.981791 | 288 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Science fiction writers are always searching for good ideas for plots that will capture the interest of their readers. A common premise was that radiation somehow altered biological processes, transforming normal human beings into superhumans, some good and some evil. One example is the Incredible Hulk.
Your task is to create your own superhero by pretending that it is possible to magnify the abilities governed in selective sites in the human brain. You may find it helpful to begin by listing the component parts of the brain and their functions. Identify the area of the brain that would have to be altered to accomplish skills you've determined are important for your character. You must choose nine (9) of these components to include in your superhero. Some of these components will be necessary to accommodate the characters new skills while some will be the ones altered to produce the new characteristics.
You will need to:
. Draw your superhero, (can use clip art) (10 points)
. Design a costume/outfit that reflects his/her main ability (20 points)
. Name your character (10 points)
. Determine the super abilities she/he possess (20 points)
. Identify the brain structures that will need to be augmented to accommodate the new super skill (30 points)
. Identify a simple plot that would encourage this superhero to come to the rescue (10 points)
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http://teachinghighschoolpsychology.blogspot.com/2009/09/superheroes-brain-assignment.html
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| 0.931102 | 276 | 3.28125 | 3 |
If you would like to support the Shabbat Shalom Weekly, please click here:
GOOD MORNING! Do you have a soul? Most people answer, "Yes!" Now ... do you have a body? The answer is obviously yes. Perhaps the correct answer is that a person IS a soul and has a body. If we realize that our essence is spiritual - and eternal - it puts a whole different spin on life. We need to be concerned about our bodies and our health and make our every effort to sustain them, but the real importance is the soul, because that is our true self. Yom Kippur is about the soul.
Throughout the year we either bring merit to the soul or sully the soul through our actions and behavior. The 613 mitzvot of the Torah are there to help each of us develop our soul and perfect it. From the beginning of the Hebrew month of Elul through Yom Kippur we introspect, review the year and our interactions with the Almighty and our fellow human beings. We work on repairing what needs repairing. Yom Kippur is the culmination.
The Torah gives us special mitzvot, commandments, for Yom Kippur to help us see more clearly that we are souls and to help us relate to life on a soul level. The Torah states:
"This shall be an eternal decree: In the seventh month [counting from the month of Nissan] on the tenth of the month you shall afflict yourselves and all manner of work you shall not do, neither the native born nor the convert amongst you ... before the Almighty you shall be purified." (Leviticus 16:29-30)
These "afflictions" are ways for us to minimize the body's control over our lives. What are they? There are five "afflictions" on Yom Kippur (from before sunset Wednesday, October 12th until nighttime - when the stars come out - Thursday evening, October 13th) - we are prohibited from:
- wearing leather shoes
- marital relations
- anointing the skin with salves and oils
- washing for pleasure
By negating the body we give preeminence to the soul. Life is a constant battle - between the yetzer tov (the desire to do the right thing, which is identified with the soul) and yetzer hora (the desire to follow your desires, which corresponds with the body). The Talmud compares the body to a horse and the soul (neshama) to a rider. It is always better to have the rider on top of the horse - to have the rider controlling the horse and not the horse controlling where the rider is going!
Jewish tradition teaches that on Yom Kippur the yetzer hora, the desire to follow your desires, is dead. If we follow our desires, it is only out of habit. On Yom Kippur we can break our habits! Here are three questions to think about on Yom Kippur to help you develop your life plan:
- Am I eating to live or living to eat?
- If you're eating to live, then what are you living for?
- What would I like written in my obituary or on my tombstone?
Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, is the anniversary of the day Moshe brought down from Mount Sinai the second set of Ten Commandments. This signified that the Almighty forgave the Jewish people for the transgression of the Golden Calf. For all times this day was decreed to be a day of forgiveness for our mistakes. However, this refers to transgressions against the Almighty. Transgressions against our fellow man require us to correct our mistakes and seek forgiveness. If one took from another person, it is not enough to regret and ask the Almighty for forgiveness; first, one must return what was taken and ask for forgiveness from the person and then ask for forgiveness from the Almighty.
In the prayer service we say the Viduy, a confession, and the Al Chet, a list of transgressions between man and God and between man and man. It is interesting to note two things. First, the transgressions are listed in alphabetical order (in Hebrew). This not only makes a comprehensive list, but gives a framework to include whatever transgression you wish to include under the proper letter.
Secondly, the Viduy and Al Chet are stated in the plural. This teaches us that we are one people and that we are responsible for each other. Even if we did not commit a particular offense, we carry a certain measure of responsibility for those who transgressed - especially if we could have prevented the transgression.
The Rambam, Maimonides, teaches that each individual's life is always on a balance - like the old-time scales where the weights were put on one side and the produce on the other side - and that each of us should think before doing an action that this transgression or that this mitzvah (commandment) could tip the scales.
Likewise, Rambam teaches that each community, each country and ultimately the world is judged in the same manner. Thus, an individual should not only think that his transgression or fulfillment of a mitzvah tips the scale for him alone, but may very well tip the scale for all of mankind!
On Yom Kippur we read the Book of Jonah. The lesson from the story is that God readily accepts the repentance of anyone who sincerely desires to do Teshuva, to return to the Almighty and to the path of the Torah - just as He did with the people of Ninveh.
There is still time to get a copy of the Rosh Hashana / Yom Kippur Survival Kit to get a better understanding of the holiday, the prayers, the prayer services and the opportunity that is afforded to you to grow in spirituality, to come closer to the Almighty, to perfect yourself and to perfect the world! It is available at your local Jewish bookstore, at judaicaenterprises.com or by calling toll-free to 877-758-3242.
Yom Kippur begins Wednesday evening, October 12th (Yizkor is on Thursday, the 13th). By the way, if you wish to keep focussed that you are a soul and not a body, train yourself to say "My body is hungry" and not "I am hungry"!
May you have a meaningful Yom Kippur and a sweet and healthy year!
For more on "Yom Kippur" go to ShabbatShalomAudio.com!
Torah Portion of the Week
Vayelech begins with Moshe passing the torch of leadership to Yehoshua (Joshua). Moshe then gives Yehoshua a command/blessing which applies to every Jewish leader:
"Be strong and brave. Do not be afraid or feel insecure before them. God your Lord is the One who is going with you, and He will not fail you nor forsake you."
Moshe writes the entire Torah and gives it to the Cohanim and Elders. He then commands that in the future at the end of the Shmita (Sabbatical Year) the king should gather all the people during Succot festival and read to them the Torah so
"... that they will hear and learn and fear the Lord your God and be careful to perform all the words of the Torah."
The Almighty describes in a short paragraph the course of Jewish history (that's starting from Deuteronomy 31:16 for the curious). Lastly, before Moshe goes to "sleep with his forefathers," he assembles the people to teach them the song of Ha'azinu, the next weekly Torah portion, to remind them of the consequences of turning against the Almighty.
based on Growth Through Torah by Rabbi Zelig Pliskin
The Torah states:
"And now write for you this song." (Deuteronomy 31:19)
This verse contains the last commandment in the order of the Torah, which is to write a Torah scroll. The Chofetz Chaim noted that this mitzvah comes right after the verse which states that the Almighty will hide His presence from the people because of their transgressions. The reason this commandment follows the previous verse is to teach us that even in times of darkness and destruction, when one engages in Torah study one will find much light and consolation.
CANDLE LIGHTING - October 7:
(or go to http://www.aish.com/shabbat/candlelighting.asp)
Chicago 6:02 Guatemala 5:28 Hong Kong 5:47
Honolulu 5:54 J'Burg 5:52 London 6:05
Los Angeles 6:10 Melbourne 6:08 Mexico City 6:04
Miami 6:42 Moscow 5:32 New York 6:10
Singapore 6:38 Toronto 5:29
QUOTE OF THE WEEK:
One who only waits for his ship to come in
has already missed the boat.
In Loving Memory of
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| 0.94449 | 1,897 | 2.625 | 3 |
SFA develops rain gardens at Pineywoods Native Plant Center
June 9, 2014
NACOGDOCHES, Texas – Through a partnership between the Arthur Temple College of Forestry and Agriculture and SFA Gardens, three rain gardens now enhance the quality of water entering Lanana Creek during rainfall events.
Rain gardens are being implemented across the country to help reduce pollutants and prevent erosion as rainwater washes off impervious surfaces such as parking lots and into the vegetated depressions, according to Dr. David Creech, director of SFA Gardens. SFA’s new rain gardens are located within the Pineywoods Native Plant Center and are situated to catch water coming from the parking lots of Raguet Elementary, the Tucker House and the Music Preparatory Building.
“Water comes off of these parking lots and is full of all the noxious pollutants that we don’t want to see end up in the streams, creeks and rivers of East Texas,” Creech said.
The project came about after a trip to Washington, D.C., during which Dr. Matthew McBroom, assistant professor of forest hydrology, saw a rain garden located near the National Arboretum. The rain garden, he explained, located in the heart of the city’s dense urban development, works to improve the quality of rainwater runoff before it enters the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. McBroom said he immediately thought this would be a beneficial addition to the SFA campus.
“In keeping with SFA’s sustainability mission and also in thinking about how we train students, we decided that rain gardens are a very effective way to manage non-point source pollution from urban areas,” McBroom explained.
To understand the effects of the rain gardens, environmental science graduate student Zhengyi “Justin” Wang studied the water quality before and after its transition through the gardens, explored the differences among the rain gardens and modeled their basic hydrologic function.
McBroom said those involved are encouraged by the results of this first-year study and expect the efficacy of the gardens to increase as the plants grow and establish larger root systems. In the coming years, other graduate students will continue to track the gardens’ effectiveness and make improvements in their design.
While the gardens’ primary purpose is improving water quality, they provide a number of other advantages, including vegetative diversity, wildlife habitat and aesthetic appeal, the faculty members said. Also, if constructed with native plants, as the SFA rain gardens are, they require relatively little upkeep.
For information on related topics, visit the college of forestry and agriculture’s website at www.atcofa.sfasu.edu.
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At the Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence, we’re always interested in innovative teaching practices. When we heard about Jennifer Crissman Ishler’s “Diversity Circles” activity, we wanted to learn more. Below is a description of the activity and its pedagogical benefits. Jennifer Crissman Ishler is a senior instructor in human development and family studies.
In all of the courses taught by Jennifer Crissman Ishler, students experience an activity called “Diversity Circles.” She’s been using the activity for 14 years, in classes ranging from 20 to 150 students, and it’s consistently mentioned positively in her SRTEs and other course feedback.
The rationale behind the activity is that it helps students deal more successfully with the diversity they will encounter in their classes, their residence halls, and their future careers. Crissman Ishler urges her students to listen and learn when exposed to diversity and to try to avoid making assumptions. While the activity seems like a natural for the counselor-education and human-development courses she teaches, she believes it can be useful in other courses as well, since students in any discipline will encounter diversity throughout their lives.
The activity goes something like this: Each student privately draws a circle, places his or her name inside, and then draws lines connecting to four smaller circles.
In each of the smaller circles, the students write down a trait that expresses who they are as a multicultural being–traits such as gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and so on. Crissman Ishler then asks the students to think about one of the circles they felt happy to be part of, as well as one circle where they’ve experienced awkwardness such as being singled out in a negative way by others. They share their feelings in small groups and, if they wish, with the larger class. Students play “break the stereotype” by stating “I am a _____________, but not a _________________.” In the first blank, the students state a multicultural identity they embrace, while in the second blank they state a stereotype that doesn’t fit them in relation to that identity.
Often the sharing time includes nervous laughter. Crissman Ishler helps the students process the experience, asking them: “Why are we laughing? What’s awkward about this?” During the processing of the experience, students think about how language like “That’s so gay” or “That’s so retarded” can wound others–often without the speaker even knowing it, since many elements of identity are invisible.
The in-class processing of the activity is crucial. At the beginning, Crissman Ishler tells the students: “I’m going to put you on the spot today. It’s about you–your interpersonal reflection. I’m asking you to share, to take risks.” The point is to have fun, and also to learn. But she also sets ground rules so that the students can feel safe in their sharing: While there will be a variety of opinions, they must be expressed politely–and students are reminded that the information their classmates share is to remain confidential.
“I continue to use it because I think it’s got great value,” Crissman Ishler says. “It’s something simple they can all relate to. With the right processing, it can lead to an aha! moment. It’s the one thing that always stays in my curriculum.”
If you’d like more information about the activity and how it might be adapted to your own teaching, please contact Jennifer Crissman Ishler at [email protected].
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An African Native of World Popularity
The watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) is hardly a vegetable, but it is such a universally popular truck or garden crop that it has a place in this article.
The culture of the watermelon goes back to prehistoric times. It was grown by the ancient Egyptians, as revealed by pictures that survive to the present. Old names in Arabic, Berber, Sanskrit, Spanish, and Sardinian are all unrelated, indicating great antiquity of culture in lands about the Mediterranean and east as far as India.
The long and general culture of the watermelon from North Africa to middle Asia led to the view that it was of Asiatic origin, although it had never been found wild in Asia or elsewhere. Finally, however, about a hundred years ago, the great missionary-explorer, David Livingstone, settled the question of its origin. He found large tracts in central Africa literally covered with watermelons growing truly wild.
In the wild state both bitter and sweet melons occur in the same locality, but the bitter ones appear no different from the sweet. The natives knock a hole in each fruit to taste the juice before taking it for food or drink.
Important Water Source in Dry Times
In certain semidesert districts the watermelon is an important source of water to the natives during dry periods; even today there are districts in Africa where it is cultivated for that purpose. One explorer, writing in this Magazine, stated that he had depended entirely upon watermelons for his water supply for as long as six weeks.*
Watermelons have been grown to an important extent in the warmer parts of Russia, Asia Minor, the Near East, and Middle East for thousands of years, although they appear to have reached China only about a thousand years ago.
A wide range of sizes and shapes, rind, seed, and flesh colors was described by European botanists of the 16th and 17th centuries; in fact, all the shapes, sizes, and colors that we now know. These include yellow and white flesh as well as red flesh, and speckled seeds as well as white, red, brown, and black. There are also green-seeded varieties.
The plant was doubtless known many hundreds of years ago in all European countries where it could be grown. It was brought to America by some of the earliest European colonists, being common in Massachusetts in 1629. The Florida Indians were said to have been growing watermelons by the mid-1600's, and Father Marquette, French explorer of the Mississippi, mentioned them in 1673 as being grown in the interior of the country.
In America the watermelon is used almost entirely as a dessert, to be eaten fresh-and cold. The rind, however, is made into preserves or sweet "pickles" to some extent. The seeds are used in this country only for planting.
Watermelon Beer in Russia
In southern Russia a beer is made from watermelon juice, or the juice may be boiled down to a heavy syrup like molasses for its sugar.
In Iraq, and in Egypt and elsewhere in Africa, the flesh of the melon is used as a staple food and animal feed as well as a source of water in some dry districts.
In the Old World, particularly Asia, the seeds are roasted, with or without salting, and eaten from the hand. Orientals also preserve watermelon by salting or brining large pieces or halves in barrels.
Although melons weighing 25 to 40 pounds are most popular in America, our seed catalogues have listed small varieties such as Baby Delight, Northern Sweet, and Sweet Siberian for many years. These small five- to ten-pound melons have long been grown in the cooler parts of the country where the summers are short.
Greatly oversized watermelons have no sound market value. They are too difficult to handle without damage or wastage; most customers do not want them; and they are likely to be inferior in quality to those of normal size. Modern emphasis is upon high quality of garden products rather than mere size, although of course large yields per unit of land are always sought.
Although the watermelon will not cross with pumpkin, squash, or cucumber, it will cross with the so-called preserving melon, or citron, which is simply a hard, white-fleshed watermelon, good only for preserving. Cross pollination with citron will cause no harm unless the seed of the fruit from a cross pollinated flower is planted. Such seed will produce mixed melons of poor quality.
"Seedless" watermelons have been produced experimentally in recent years by two wholly different methods, neither of which appears practical as yet for use by farmers and gardeners.
* See "Adventures Among the 'Lost Tribes of Islam' in Eastern Darfur: A Personal Narrative of Exploring, Mapping, and Setting Up a Government in the AngloEgyptian Sudan Borderland," by Maj. Edward Keith-Roach, National Geographic Magazine, January, 1924
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Are Mica and Micah the same person?
Answers to your Scripture Questions
Mica, a son of Mephibosheth and the grandson of Jonathan, Saul’s son (2 Samuel 9.12), is also called Micah in 1 Chronicles 8.34. He became the head of a well-known family in Israel and the father of four sons (1 Chronicles 8.34-35, 9.40, 41). The name Mica is an alternative form of Micah, but Mica, Saul’s great grandson, is not Micah, the prophet.
Micah, the prophet, was a contemporary of Isaiah. He was the author of the Book of Micah, the sixth book of the Minor Prophets. He came from Moresheth, a small village of the foothills of southwest Palestine halfway between Jerusalem and Gaza. Little is known about him, but the prophecy of Micah portrays him as a man of deep religious sensitivity.
Mica or Micah is the name of several different men in the Bible. In addition to the two named above, there are:
3. Mica, a Levite, the son of Zichri (1 Chronicles 9.15).
4. Mica, a Levite, who signed the covenant with Nehemiah (Nehemiah 10.11).
5. Micah from Ephraim who is a central figure in the narrative of the migration of the tribe of Dan (Judges 17, 18).
6. Micah, son of Shimei and a descendant of Reuben, according to the genealogy in 1 Chronicles 5.4-6.
7. Micah, the son of Meribbaal and grandson of Jonathan (1 Chronicles 8.34), and also called Mica in 2 Samuel 9.12.
8. Micah, a Levite and one of the sons of Uzziel living at the time of David (1 Chronicles 23.20, 24.24, 25).
9. Micah, the father of Abdon (2 Chronicles 34.20) and called Michiah in 2 Kings 22.12.
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This vertical treadmill is used to develop exercise countermeasures for keeping astronauts healthy in microgravity. It is also used to study human mobility in partial gravity environments on the moon and Mars.The Advanced Capabilities Division (ACD) provides the knowledge, technology, and innovation that will enable current and future exploration missions. ACD is composed of three major programs: the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP), Human Research Program (HRP), and the Exploration Technology Development Program (ETDP). These ACD programs and their projects provide knowledge as a result of ground-based research and technology development, research conducted in space, and observations from robotic flight missions. ACD also develops and matures advanced technology, integrates that technology into prototype systems, and transitions knowledge and technology to the Constellation Program. Through its activities, ACD provides operational and technical risk mitigation for Constellation Projects.
The LRO will provide detailed mapping for human landing site selection. A secondary payload, the LCROSS, will observe the impact of its rocket stage into the Moon to determine if water is present in the plume of ejected material.Maturing relevant new technologies will allow NASA to place Orion, the crew vehicle, into service as soon as possible after the Space Shuttle's retirement. These technologies include structures, thermal protection systems, propulsion, life support systems, capabilities for using localized resources, and many others that will enable future human and robotic exploration missions. Both ground-based and ISS-based research will support these development efforts.
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Tuticorin was a
small town with a rich maritime history. It was
the center for maritime trade and pearl fishery.
It was ruled by various dynasties like the
Pandyas and Cholas, then fell into the hands of
the Portuguese and Dutuch before finally coming
under the administration of the British. The
natural harbour and rich hinterland of Tuticorin
Port prompted the East Indian Company to plan the
development of the harbour. The lighthouse built
in 1842 marked the beginning of the history of
Tuticorin Harbour Development Wooden piers and
iron screwpile pier were constructed and
trolleyrails laid to connect the Port to the
the citadel of the freedom in the early 20th
centuary. In 1906, the great freedom fighter of
India, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai launched the
first Swadeshi ship in British India. The minor
Port of Tuticorin had a flourishing trade
handling a variety of cargoes meant for the
neighbouring countries of Sri Lanka, Maldives
etc. and the coastal regions of India.
of India sanctioned the construction of a harbour at Tuticorin to cope
with the changing requirements of the maritime trade. On the 11 July
1974, the newly constructed Tuticorin Port was declared as the 10th
Indian Major Port. On the 1st April 19779, the erstwhile Anchorage
Port/Minor Port and the newly constructed harbour were merged into an
Integrated Port Trust under the Major Port Trust Act 1963. From then
on, Tuticorin Port has had two operational wings:
'A' comprising of the new
Major Port and
Zone 'B'representing the old Anchorage or Minor Port.
Port is situated on the East Cost of India about 540 kms South West of
Madras. Located in the Gulf of Mannar with Sri Lanka on the South East
and the large land mass of India on the West. Tuticorin Port is well
sheltered from the fury of storms and cyclonic winds. It is
strategically located very close to the major international sea
is well connected to various trading centres within Tamil Nadu and
the neighbouring states of Kerala, Karnataka and AP by
National/State Highways. Regular bus services are available to
several major cities throughout South India.
The Port is
linked to the broad-guage railway system of th ecountry. There is a
daily express train service between Tuticorin and Madras and other
connecting trains to Madurai.
connected by air to other major cities via. Madurai and TRivendrum.
journey by road from Tuticorin to Madurai takes 3 hours and
Trivandrum 4 hours. Tuticorin is expected to be air linked after the
newly commissioned Air Port is served by regular flight service.
Port of Tuticorin is created with a breakwater system jutting into th
esea for about 4 km, one of th elongest in th eworld. The Port was
designed and executed entirely through indigenous efforts.
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Find out how to get your kid excited about being back at school. more
Whooping cough is a very contagious and potentially fatal illness that is also called pertussis . Most people are immunised against the illness, so their risk of getting sick is small. Pertussis is serious and kills about one in two hundred babies who contract it, although most older children and adults who get it recover.
What causes whooping cough?
Whopping cough is caused by a bacterium called Bordetella pertussis . It is spread from person to person when someone who has the illness coughs or sneezes. Symptoms usually appear a week to three weeks after being exposed to the illness. People who have whopping cough are contagious for the first three weeks they have the cough or for the first five days of antibiotic treatment.
Is whooping cough serious?
Whooping cough is so serious that we vaccinate against it. The illness is can be deadly for babies under six months. One in two hundred babies who get whopping cough will die from it.
Can I prevent whooping cough?
The best way to protect your kids from whooping cough is through vaccination. Vaccinations are given at two months, four months, six months and four years. A booster is given in secondary school. If your child does get sick, keep her home from school and childcare until she is no longer contagious to prevent infecting other children.
How do I know if my child has whooping cough?
Whooping cough begins with what looks like a cold. Kids with whooping cough sometimes develop a severe cough after which they may make a distinct “whooping” noise as they gasp for air. This noise is not always obvious, but the gasp can be. The cough can last for months, even after the child is no longer sick. Kids who get whopping cough may also vomit after coughing. The coughing may be worse at night.
How do I treat whooping cough?
Call your doctor. Your child will need to take antibiotics for ten days to several weeks, depending on how serious the infection is. Almost all babies with whooping cough are admitted to the hospital for treatment as a precaution, since the illness is most serious for very young children. Other people who live in the house may also need to take antibiotics.
Should I call the doctor?
All suspected cases of whopping cough should be reported to the doctor, even if your child is not showing symptoms. Also call the doctor if your child turns blue while coughing or can't seem to get enough air.
What you need to know about whooping cough
- Whooping cough is also called pertussis.
- Whooping cough is potentially deadly for babies less than six months old.
- Whooping cough is treated with antibiotics.
- Whooping cough can be prevented with vaccinations.
Find more relevant articles and information about whooping cough disease:
- Know more about vaccines
- What is common cold?
- What is the best way to take a temperature?
- Read more about fever
- Read more about fever
- Learn more about common childhood infections
Written by Rebecca Stigall for Kidspot, Australia's parenting resource for family health. Sources include Better Health Channel, NSW Health and Health Insite.
Last revised: Monday, 18 January 2010
This article contains general information only and is not intended to replace advice from a qualified health professional.
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The movie industry began in the 1870s with the development of celluloid film for still photography, making it possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. The first "motion picture" appeared in 1878 when Edward Muybridge, an English photographer, used 24 cameras to produce a series of stereoscopic images of a galloping horse.
The new technology required a person to look into a viewing machine to see the pictures which were separate paper prints attached to a drum turned by a hand crank. The pictures were shown at a variable speed of about 5 to 10 pictures per second, depending on how rapidly the crank was turned.
By the 1880s, the development of a motion picture camera allowed individual images to be captured and stored on a single reel. Inventor Thomas Edison capitalized on the innovation by developing a motion picture projector called the "Kinetoscope." The projector shone light through the processed and printed film magnifying these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience.
Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques. Howe's December 1896 showing in Wilkes-Barre was among the first public exhibitions of projected motion pictures in America and it dramatically changed his personal fortunes.
Born in Wilkes-Barre in 1856, Howe, like many of the early movie entrepreneurs, had little formal education. He floated from job to job as a traveling salesman until 1883 when he ventured into the entertainment business. Purchasing a miniature working coal mine, Howe exhibited the model on tour throughout the anthracite region. His combination of lecture and demonstration proved to be marketing genius appealing to the American desire to learn and be entertained simultaneously.
In 1890, Howe discovered a new mechanical marvel to bring to the masses - the Edison phonograph. For the next six years, he toured eastern Pennsylvania and upstate New York offering recorded musical concerts and speeches at any venue where he could get a booking.
Billing himself as "Professor," Howe emphasized the moral and educational qualities of his presentations. His "high class" imprimatur distinguished him from other traveling acts like P.T. Barnum's circus, and appealed to the wide range of social and economic groups, all of whom felt better about themselves after an evening in his company.
The advent of motion pictures in the mid-1890s presented a natural segue for Howe's "high class" formula. Unable to secure a license from Thomas Edison to use his Kinetoscope, a single-reel film projector, Howe built his own two-reel projector (Animotiscope) and spliced Edison's films together to offer a longer, uninterrupted show and used a phonograph to add sound. By doing so, he was the first to use these mediums in tandem commercially. Audiences flocked to the shows which were conducted at a range of venues, including church halls, community centers, legitimate theaters and opera houses throughout the region. His "high class" programming featured primitive newsreels, local scenes and travelogues.
By 1903, Howe was operating six traveling companies with a headquarters in Wilkes-Barre.
To keep his audiences entertained, he added backstage crews to provide sound effects, toured Europe to acquire more footage of royalty and faraway ports of call for his travelogues, and became the nation's first filmmaker to employ teams to shoot newsreels of American presidents.
Howe carved out such a niche market that his motion picture exhibitions still flourished even when nickelodeons - the first movie theaters - began to appear around 1905. While nickelodeons dominated small towns across the nation, Howe moved into larger cities on the East Coast and in the Midwest. He continued to emphasize his "high-class" programs, with films of the Olympic Games, the wedding of King Alphonse of Spain, and various travel programs and newsworthy events.
Indeed, Lyman Howe's motion picture company was still very much in business when he died in 1923. Afterward, the company continued as a commercial film laboratory and distributor of educational shorts well into the Great Depression.
William C. Kashatus teaches history at Luzerne County Community College. He can be contacted at [email protected].
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Library Home || Full Table of Contents || Suggest a Link || Library Help
|Carl R. (Rod) Nave; Georgia State University|
|HyperMath uses concept maps to explore mathematics ideas and applications to physics and astronomy. Originally developed in HyperCard, HyperMath covers the topics of algebra, trigonometry, geometry, vectors, linear algebra, logarithms, exponents, calculus, and differential equations through a network-like environment.|
|Levels:||High School (9-12), College|
|Resource Types:||Course Notes, Problems/Puzzles, Internet-Based Projects, Web Interactive/Java|
|Math Topics:||Basic Algebra, Linear Algebra, Exponents/Roots, Logarithms, Calculus (Single Variable), Calculus (Multivariable), Differential Equations, Euclidean Plane Geometry, Trigonometry, Physics|
© 1994- The Math Forum at NCTM. All rights reserved.
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How to Overload Methods in Java
A Java class can contain two or more methods with the same name, provided that those methods accept different parameters. This technique, called overloading, is one of the keys to building flexibility into your classes. With overloading, you can anticipate different ways that someone might want to invoke an object’s functions and then provide overloaded methods for each alternative.
The term overloading is accurate but a little unfortunate. Normally, when you say that something is overloaded, there’s a problem. Fortunately, you don’t have to worry about Java collapsing under the weight of overloaded methods.
You’re already familiar with several classes that have overloaded methods, though you may not realize it. The PrintWriter class, for example (which you access via System.out), defines 10 versions of the println method that allow you to print different types of data. The following lines show the method declaration for each of these overloads:
void println() void println(boolean x) void println(char x) void println(char x) void println(double x) void println(float x) void println(int x) void println(long x) void println(Object x) void println(String x)
The basic rule in creating overloaded methods is that every method must have a unique signature. A method’s signature is the combination of its name and the number and types of parameters it accepts. Thus, each of the println methods has a different signature, because although all the methods have the same name, each method accepts a different parameter type.
Two things that are not a part of a method’s signature are
The method’s return type: You can’t code two methods with the same name and parameters but with different return types.
The names of the parameters: All that matters to the method signature are the types of the parameters and the order in which they appear. Thus the following two methods have the same signature:
double someMethodOfMine(double x, boolean y) double someMethodOfMine(double param1, boolean param2)
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While the idea of a convention to combat desertification was discussed during the UNCED preparatory process, it was only in Rio where language was adopted requesting the General Assembly to establish an intergovernmental negotiating committee for the purpose of negotiating a convention. The General Assembly, during its 47th session in 1992, adopted resolution 47/188 calling for the establishment of the INCD and the convening of five sessions, with a view to finalizing the Convention by June 1994. The organizational session of the INCD was held in January 1993. At that meeting delegates elected Bo Kjelln (Sweden) Chair of the Committee, elected the Bureau, adopted the rules of procedure, set the schedule of meetings and established two working groups.
The first session of the INCD was held in Nairobi, Kenya from 24 May - 3 June 1993. The first week of this session focused on the sharing of technical information and assessments on various aspects of drought and desertification. Divided into seven sections, the information sharing segment provided an opportunity for scientists, technical experts, delegates and NGOs to share relevant experiences and learn more about the scourge of desertification and its global dimensions. The second week focused on the structure and elements to be contained in the Convention. Delegates also exchanged ideas about the Convention and its objectives.
Negotiations stalled in Nairobi over the elaboration of related regional instruments while still giving priority action to Africa. Kjelln proposed that an instrument on Africa, such as an annex, be negotiated once the main structure of the Convention had been defined and that similar instruments for other regions be negotiated subsequently. This proposal met with resistance from a few countries in regions other than Africa. They felt that their own problems with desertification deserved attention and that similar instruments for their regions should be negotiated simultaneously with the instrument for Africa. The decision on this matter was deferred.
The second session of the INCD met in Geneva from 13-24 September 1993. At this session, the Committee considered the compilation text of the Convention prepared by the Secretariat and agreed on the future programme of work of the Committee, including the elaboration of regional instruments for Africa, Asia and Latin America to supplement the Convention. As in Nairobi, the most difficult issue to resolve was the negotiation of regional instruments. At the conclusion of the second session of the INCD, the two working groups completed their discussion of the Secretariat's compilation text, identifying areas of convergence and divergence. There appeared to be consensus on a number of areas including the need for: a clear and concise preamble that refers to the history of desertification in the UN system; clear and concise objectives; and implementable commitments that are central to the Convention and articulated at different levels (local, regional and international). All delegates stressed the need for a public awareness strategy; improved education; and increased cooperation and coordination between North and South, South and South and among donors.
The 48th session of the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution submitted by the INCD that urged the Committee to successfully complete the negotiations by June 1994. The INCD shall hold one session after the adoption of the Convention during the interim period in order to review the situation pending its entry into force, in particular with regard to the implementation of provisions adapted to the specific needs of each region. This extra session should be held not later than 31 January 1995.
[Return to start of article]
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Above is a screenshot from Wednesday’s Bloomberg News. The headline suggests that green energy is a white knight poised to save the U.K. from rolling blackouts. However, the body of the article states nothing of the sort. Below is the story’s actual thesis:
[Government science advisor Sir David] King said power outages [in the United Kingdom] could occur as early as 2017 as old nuclear, oil and coal-fired power stations are closed because not enough is being done to replace them. The school’s study shows Britain can’t meet its goal of cutting carbon emissions 80 percent by 2050 without ramping up nuclear power and electrifying both transport and heating.
The comments contrast with findings by Bloomberg New Energy Finance, which last month concluded that growth in renewable energy will prevent the U.K. from suffering an electricity crisis. Britain will build more than 30 gigawatts of capacity by the end of 2016, two-thirds of it in solar, wind and biomass and the rest largely fired by natural gas, according to the researcher.
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What is it?
Health information technology (health IT, or HIT) is a term that encompasses a number of emerging technologies that make it possible for health care providers to manage patient care, records, and information through computerized or technological systems. Health IT is an emerging field of exchange between providers and patients, and also practices, insurance, government and quality entities. It is increasingly viewed by many as a tool to better manage patient care through secure use and sharing of health information, and for promotion of quality, efficiency, and safety of health care delivery.
Health IT includes such technologies as the use of electronic health records (EHRs) instead of paper medical records to maintain people's health information, or even the idea of universal health records (UHRs). Health IT also encompasses electronic prescribing (E-prescribing, or eRx). It can also refer to electronic personal health records (EPHRs) of either a device or web-based nature. Patient portals on hospital or practice websites are also considered a form Health IT.
Use of Health IT may provide advantages to providers such as access to accurate and complete information about a patient's health, the ability to better coordinate care, especially in the case of serious or complex medical conditions, and information to help doctors diagnose health problems sooner, reduce medical errors, and provide safer care at lower costs. Patients may reap benefits such as secure sharing of medical information, such as test results, through technology, for those who opt for this convenience. Health IT may allow patients to more fully take part in decisions about their health care. It may also expand access to care through such innovations as telemedicine.
Widespread use of health IT may also improve our national health care system through increased efficiency, reduction of redundancy in care and diagnosis, and reduction of paperwork for patients and doctors.
Privacy and Security
One of the biggest concerns with the advent of new technological record keeping and electronic health information is patient privacy and health information security. The Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has been tasked with working to ensure that electronic health information exchange is private and secure. Currently, ONC has ongoing privacy and security initiatives covering many different aspects of emerging Health IT.
On July 8, 2010, HHS announced proposed regulations under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 that would expand individuals’ rights to access their information and restrict certain disclosures of protected health information to health plans, extend the applicability of certain of the Privacy and Security Rules’ requirements to the business associates of covered entities, establish new limitations on the use and disclosure of protected health information for marketing and fundraising purposes, and prohibit the sale of protected health information without patient authorization.
ONC is also coordinating with the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) on CMS’s development of a final regulation on the Medicare and Medicaid Electronic Health Record Incentives Programs. The incentives programs promote critical privacy and security measures and business practices.
ONC also is developing a final regulation on standards and certification criteria to ensure that electronic health records (EHRs) contain the capabilities to support needed privacy and security requirements.
ONC is ensuring that the technical and policy foundations of the nationwide health information network will demonstrate methods for achieving trust among entities exchanging information while integrating best practices for privacy and security. A privacy and security workgroup of the Health Information Technology Policy Committee (HITPC) was convened with strong consumer representation to hold public deliberations and make recommendations related to patient choice in how health information is exchanged; consumer access to health information; personal health records (PHRs); segmentation of health information; and transparency about information sharing and protections.
Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH)
The Health Information Technology for Economic Health Act (HITECH), passed as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) in 2009, made important changes to the federal government’s promotion and support of health IT. HITECH provided funding for the Office of National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) at HHS.com of the Office of National Coordinator (ONC) Initiatives include:
* Health Information Exchange Program: (all 50 states and eligible territories): The objective of this program is to rapidly build capacity for exchanging health information across the health care system, both within and across states addressing clinical and administrative health care data among health care institutions, providers, and data repositories.
* National Health Information Network: NHIN reflects ONC’s effort to develop the technical specifications and components necessary for a secure national, interoperable HIT infrastructure— standards, services, and policies that enable secure health information exchange over the Internet. NHIN will provide a foundation for the exchange of health information across diverse entities, within communities, and across the country.
* Regional Extension Center (REC) Program: HITECH allocated funding for RECs which will provide health care providers (particularly primary care clinicians) working to adopt and use EHRs with training and support services, information, and guidance.
* Beacon Communities: ONC provides funding to 17 selected communities throughout the United States that had substantial development of secure, private, and accurate systems of EHR adoption and health information exchange. The Beacon Program supports these communities’ efforts to build and strengthen their HIT infrastructure and exchange capabilities to improve care coordination, increase the quality of care, and slow the growth of health care spending. The Program—a proof-of-concept approach intended to demonstrate the ability of HIT to transform local health care systems—focuses measurable improvement in three areas: quality, cost-efficiency, and population health.
What does this mean for my practice?
HITECH also provided for Medicare and Medicaid incentive payments to eligible providers and hospitals to become users of certain Health IT advances, such as electronic health records (EHR) and e-prescriptions (eRx).
Incentives are available for use of some of these technologies, starting in 2011. Some of the incentives will be reduced after 2012. Others, will transform into penalties for non-adoption.
Please see the AAHIVM website page on e-prescriptions (eRx).
Office of the National Coordinator
ONC- HIT & Privacy and Security
HHS: HIT and HIPAA
HHS: Health Information Technology
The latest news in HIT
HRSA's HAB Grantee The Ryan Network Uses Health IT for Integrating HIV Testing
HHS announces initiative to stimulate adoption of electronic health records in minority communities
Baby's death spotlights safety risks linked to computerized systems
Summary of Title IV - Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act
Government Health IT
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Photo: RCE Kitakyushu
With an estimated 50,000 attendees, the recent Rio+20 conference on sustainable development was the largest UN event ever held. Despite widely reported dissatisfaction with the summit’s outcome, the gathering was much more than a room full of country representatives hammering out the “future we want”, as the outcome document is titled.
With more than 500 on-site side events and hundreds of nearby meetings, forums and workshops, there was ample opportunity for participants to share their responses as well as discuss new approaches to the challenges of global development.
One such response, led by the United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS), is a call for the concerted effort of multiple stakeholders to further develop collaborative learning systems that enable transformation towards green, resilient and just societies. The UNU-IAS Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Programme took advantage of the Rio+20 assembly to host a side event with partners and members of international and regional organizations and government agencies to explore the critical needs and questions surrounding multi-stakeholder learning.
An initiative of the UNU-IAS, the Regional Centres of Expertise (RCEs) are regional (primarily sub-national) networks of multiple stakeholders that focus their learning projects on specific sustainability-related challenges framed around their reality and geographical location.
Forming a local community of practice by sharing knowledge and resources in a common commitment to implement ESD, RCEs are an excellent testing ground for international, regional and national sustainable development processes. New technologies that encourage more sustainable ways of living, producing and consuming can also be piloted in these communities. At the same time, the RCE community, being initiators of multiple sustainability innovations through co-engaged learning, can help in shaping new policy regimes for sustainability.
Many successful learning experiments developed by RCEs that have local and even regional impact could catalyse major changes globally. The next challenge for these experiments would be to scale up these achievements to move from one-off projects to programmes that can systematically support the emergence of innovative experimental practices for a low-carbon, just and resilient society.
The RCE movement started with the development of a global community of local networks that interacted with each other, fostered by the Global RCE Service Centre coordinated by UNU-IAS. As a natural result of this interaction, RCEs then created clusters according to similar challenges and interests. Sustainable consumption and production (SCP), health and traditional knowledge, teacher education, climate change, higher education and others are some examples of key themes that permeate RCE work worldwide.
Through these thematic collaborations, RCEs establish connections that cross borders, at regional and international levels. This promotes the fertilization of ideas through the sharing of local experiences and building of cultural understanding. This further enhances the translation of global thinking into local actions, and the infusion of local learning and innovations into global policies. In such a manner, the RCEs become nodes of “dialectic development” between local and global.
Members of the global community of RCEs address local sustainability challenges depending on their location. Fostered by different governance arrangements that also influence the types of developed projects and engagement of various stakeholders, in many cases RCEs are led by universities while others are strongly supported by local governments or NGOs.
At the Rio+20 side event, several RCE representatives shared their experiences and the history of RCE development, giving a snapshot of the type of multi-stakeholder collaborations going on around the globe.
For example, mainstreaming the involvement of institutions of higher education with the local community and engaging the participation of students, RCE Vienna facilitates a broad range of projects related to SCP in the region between the Slovakian capital Bratislava and the Austrian capital Vienna. Notably, their project on ecomobility encourages more sustainable transport solutions for companies (and their employees) located in the region through awareness-raising about more environment-friendly means of transportation: use of bicycles, car pooling, use of public transport, limitation of parking lots in companies and so on.
RCE Graz (Austria) focuses on collaboration between rural and urban areas in the region using universities as strategic partners. Youth, particularly students, are seen as important actors in the region with the RCEs promoting their engagement in decision-making processes at different levels.
Specifically, Sustainability4U is an initiative that involves the four universities in the city of Graz. One of the developed projects, UniMobil_4U, encourages students and staff to use bicycles for transportation through improvement of routes between the four universities. Road adaptation, track designs and other needs were identified, and solutions are being discussed with regional policymakers.
RCE Kitakyushu (Japan) is an example of efforts by civil society, particularly women’s groups, to create a platform for various types of activities and learning in the context of education for sustainable development. Having started as a community movement to fight pollution caused by local industries in the area, it now encompasses citizens, universities, the municipal government, NGOs and the business sector.
The joint efforts were aimed at environmentally recovering the region from heavy industrial pollution whilst preserving economic activities. Nowadays, the city is a model for green economy, selected in 2010 as one of the 11 future cities under the Future City initiative of the Japanese government and nominated in 2011 as a green growth model city by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Further, with the goal of promoting sustainable livelihoods, RCE Kitakyushu developed educational materials that raise awareness about food production and consumption, inviting children to think about the origin of ingredients so as to promote local products and boost sales for the area’s producers. With this, the expectation is to change behaviour towards food consumption, stimulate the local economy and reduce the impact of food transportation and consequent CO2 emissions.
In Brazil, RCE Sao Paulo works on developing educational strategies that help cope with sustainability challenges and especially the impact of climate change in a highly urbanized area. Closely working with government and academia to promote innovative applied science and technology solutions, this RCE is functioning as a platform to bridge the gap between academia, science, policy and community.
Also interacting at the international level with networks such as C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, RCE Sao Paulo is using educational activities to reduce local climate risks and impacts by sharing its expertise and practices within public schools at all levels and local communities, and with entrepreneurs, unions and environment professionals.
RCE Rio de Janeiro has also been collaborating with local government, universities, industry and institutions working with small and medium enterprises to provide an educational approach to the region’s development plan. Prioritizing strategic areas for local development, RCE Rio de Janeiro focuses on improving scientific training by transforming curricular structures to incorporate sustainability thinking and by offering capacity-building programmes that develop skills and abilities for jobs and income generation, all in view of promoting a culture of entrepreneurship that has a strong sustainable and ethical component.
With a view to strengthening international collaborations involving the global RCE community, at the Rio+20 side event, Eileen de Ravin from the United Nations Development Programme, Heinz Leuenberger from the United Nations Industrial Development Organization and Clemens Mader from the Copernicus Alliance (a European network of universities that promotes education and research for sustainability) were invited to reflect on current development of RCE work aiming to further support their international activities.
The discussants stressed the opportunities the RCE framework provides as a platform for collaboration that engages multiple stakeholders, facilitates transformation in education at all levels and enables synergies between academic programmes for sustainability and other regional activities.
Communities connect with universities through the work of RCEs and, thus, have access to technologies and innovative solutions whilst also contributing with their traditional knowledge initiatives.
As the scaling up of projects is a fundamental problem that needs to be addressed for a major impact on global sustainable development levels, the worldwide RCE community can be a space through which projects that promote more sustainable consumption and production practices are implemented and opportunities for green jobs are generated.
Contributing to this discussion, the audience also addressed the challenges of developing horizontal thinking, the need to establish strategic priorities for a global community considering diversity, the communication gaps between local community groups and higher education within RCEs in some regions, and the need to further develop the capacity of RCEs to address important sustainability issues and to have business models for community development.
These are not easy issues. However, the work being developed by RCEs contributes to empowering local communities with global thinking and has great potential to not only influence local development but also to promote transformations as a global community that may significantly impact, at a similar level, global sustainable development.
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Only one third of all people wash their hands with soap after using the toilet or before
eating. The consequences are fatal. Each day, about 3,600 children under five die from diarrhea.
Diarrheal diseases in children are still the second most common cause of death. Medical studies show that regular hand washing with soap can prevent half of all diarrheal.
In Europe alone, the annually recuring influenze epidemics or severe virus epidemics could be tackled through improved hygiene. The EHEC epidemic in Germany in 2011, or the recently imported Noro virus from China which paralyzed many students in German primary schools, clearly demonstrate the need for regular handwashing with soap. It’s so easy, yet often neglected.
To raise awareness for the need of regular hand washing with soap, the German Toilet Organization e.V. will today celebrate Global Handwashing Day 2012 at Gendarmenmarkt in Berlin – along with students from four schools in Berlin. The art installations by the students will show the importance of hand washing with soap and also demonstrate why toilets are an integral part of healthy living.
Around the world, over 200 million people are involved in celebrations in over 100 countries. Global Handwashing is endorsed by a wide array of governments, international institutions, civil society organizations, NGOs, private companies, and individuals.
So, what is your local community doing on Global Handwashing Day 2012?
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Butter does spoil.
More Info: As a dairy product, butter has a relatively short shelf life. Butter is made with about 80% fat and 15% water. Exposure to bright light and air break down the fat molecules that make the butter rancid so butter that is left out at room temperature will begin to degrade in odor and taste within a few days compared to weeks when stored in a cool dark place.
How to Store Butter
If packaged and cared for properly butter will last for one to two weeks in a refrigerator at a temperature set below forty degrees Fahrenheit. Butter absorbs odor so ensure that it is wrapped properly. For best results keep unopened butter in its original packaging. Butter that has been opened should be returned to the refrigerator in a waterproof, airtight container. Do not wrap butter for storage in aluminum foil as metal hastens food oxidation.
Butter absorbs odors readily so should be stored in an airtight, moisture-proof container like a freezer bag. Butter will keep at 0 degrees Fahrenheit or below for six to nine months. When you are ready to use the butter, thaw it in the refrigerator.
How to Tell If Butter Is Rancid
Rancid butter is evident in the bitter taste and foul odor. A stick of butter that has gone bad will also have a translucent look and be darker in color than when it purchased fresh. If butter has been minimally exposed to heat, light, and air it may be salvageable. Dark yellow patches will be evident where the butter has had the most exposure. These can generally be removed to salvage the rest of the butter that can still be enjoyed.
Extension, University of Missouri. “GH1115 Using and Storing Butter | University of Missouri Extension.” University of Missouri Extension Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2012. <http://extension.missouri.edu/p/GH1115>.
“HGIC 3510 Safe Handling of Milk & Dairy Products : Extension : Clemson University : South Carolina.” Clemson University. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2012. <http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/food/food_safety/handling/hgic3510.html>.
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Robert J. Nemiroff
George Mason University and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and
Jerry T. Bonnell
Universities Space Research Association and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
This lesson plan is meant to be used for undergraduates studying astronomy to supplement to an existing introductory astronomy course. As such, it may guide the instructor in preparing her/his own lecture or be distributed and read by the class. Students reading this lesson plan / lecture might need to do some background reading on astronomy to understand some of the terms and concepts used. Any good introductory astronomy textbook should be able to fill this role. For more detailed background material on the Curtis - Shapley debate, both students and teachers are urged to access the 75th Anniversary Astronomical Debate home page on the World Wide Web with URL:
The information provided includes a glossary relevant to the 1920 debate, the actual submitted transcripts of the 1920 debate, and a bibliography citing several good sources that review the `Great Debate' and the surrounding times.
The historical material presented in this lesson plan and accessed through the World Wide Web home page is accurate to the best of our knowledge. There are some distinct subjective comments in this work, however, and there should not be taken as indicative of anyone other than ourselves. The need to summarize events and issues relevant to the `Great Debate' may lead readers to perceive mis-characterizations or oversights for which we apologize in advance. Interested readers are urged to consult the original sources presented in the bibliographies to form their own mis-characterizations and oversights which they feel are more representative of the truth!
An important objective is to give students a sense of the scope of humanity's efforts to find a place in the Universe. This quest has a long history and is closely connected with societies' abilities to make observations and interpret them according to current beliefs and prejudices.
A central objective in detailing the events and issues surrounding the Curtis - Shapley debate is to illustrate how scientific progress is made. Scientific theories are subjected to rigorous tests to determine which are right and which are wrong, but the results of these tests themselves are often controversial and must be interpreted. We look back on the Curtis-Shapley debate with a historical perspective and have different interpretations of the results. Neither Curtis nor Shapley was entirely right or wrong and both presented ideas which represented major advances. What does this imply for current scientific controversies?
A further objective in studying some of the arguments used by both astronomers in the debate is to provide a practical example of how two very successful scientists interpreted observations and data and tried to synthesize a coherent overall picture. Each suspected that some of the data available to them was misleading or wrong. Each was forced to choose, without the benefit of historical hindsight.
The ultimate objective of the lesson plan is to familiarize students with a little known historical event, `The Great Debate', which brought into focus philosophical and scientific thought, discoveries, and advances which had a profound effect on humanity's subsequent perception of the Universe.
Does it really matter that two astronomers debated each other near the beginning of this century? It is now clear that a once little-heard-of discussion was at the crux of a major change of humanity's view of our place in the universe. The events that happened in the first quarter of our century were together much more than a debate - this is a story of humanity's discovery of the vastness of our universe, a story of a seemingly small academic disagreement whose dramatic resolution staggered the world. It is a story of human drama - two champion astronomers struggling at the focus of a raging controversy who's solution represents an inspiring synthesis of old and new ideas. It is the story of monumental insight and tragic error. It is a story of an astronomical legend. Does this sound melodramatic? It s all true. And it happened this century.
In 1920 Harlow Shapley was a young ambitious astronomer. He had published a series of papers marking several fascinating astronomical discoveries - many times involving properties of stars in binary systems or globular clusters. He was a rising star himself - a golden boy of astronomy.
In 1920 Heber D. Curtis was a bit older, more established, and very well respected in his own right. He had published a series of solid papers on good astronomical results - many times on the properties of spiral nebulae. He was a `rock of clear thinking' to all that knew him. He was a hard worker usually taking the conservative view - frequently skeptical of anything new until proven to his exacting standards..
By now you know they are going to clash in a historic debate in 1920. Do you want to know who was right even before you know the issues? Was it the prodigy or the pro? OK, we'll tell you: they split. Each was right about some things and wrong about others. Shapley, the prodigy, made a monumentally correct deduction from existing astronomical data that our Sun was not at the center of our Galaxy and that our Galaxy was much larger than anyone had previously believed. Curtis vigorously opposed these views, but Shapley, like Copernicus before him, single-handedly moved the center of the universe, this time light-years from its old location. Harlow Shapley lived up to his potential. But possibly the biggest surprise came from the Curtis, the pro. Curtis was able to argue convincingly - for the first time from hard scientific data - that spiral nebulae were external galaxies and that our own Galaxy was only one of a vast number of galaxies, or `island universes'. Shapley saw this viewpoint as contrary to his large Galaxy idea. Curtis' accomplishment is impressive, representing an unprecedented redefinition of humanities concept of the universe, but he did not do it alone. He led a school of thought that had supported the island universe idea both philosophically and scientifically for more than 100 years. So Heber Curtis lived up to his reputation.
The complete scientific resolution of all the issues involved in the debate occurred slowly over the next two decades. At the time, not everybody realized what far- reaching implications the resolution of this debate would bring. In the years following the debate, Curtis was appointed Director of the Allegheny Observatory and then went on to become the Director of the Observatories at the University of Michigan. Shapley was appointed Director of the Harvard College Observatory.
In actuality, the term `Great Debate' best applies to the actual running disagreement on the nature of our Galaxy and the nature of spiral nebulae that raged from the turn of the century through the 1930s. This "debate" was between many different astronomers scattered around the globe, using data and results from many instruments, and took decades to resolve. It was truly Homeric. The term `Great Debate' is usually applied, however, to the actual meeting of Curtis and Shapley in 1920, an event which served as a focal point for the controversy.
It is difficult, with the naked eye, to see anything that is not in our Milky Way Galaxy. Every individual star one can see is in our Galaxy. From Earth's Southern Hemisphere, one could see large fuzzy patches called the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds that are satellite galaxies to our own Milky Way, and in the Northern Hemisphere a dim fuzzy patch call the Andromeda Galaxy, M31, is visible if one knows where to look, but that's it - everything else visible is in our home Galaxy.
If you have a telescope or another means of seeing fainter objects, the situation changes completely. But astronomers did not always have telescopes. Humanity didn't always know the limits of our Galaxy and the existence of other galaxies - this knowledge came only this century - what was thought previously?
While it is certainly true that early civilizations had a drastically different picture of the universe, their concepts were sophisticated and completely consistent with their ability to observe the universe, just as ours are today. Early Greek civilization recorded evidence that the earth was spherical based on observations of the circular Earth shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse. The Greek scientist Erasthothenes was able to obtain a rough estimate of the size of the earth by noting the relative lengths of shadows cast at different locations at the same time. So at that time the center of the Universe was thought to lie about 9000 km down - the distance they computed to the center of the earth.
The earth was considered the center of the universe because the leading theory about this at the time came from the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy in about 140 A.D. In this theory, the earth was at the center of the universe, and the sun, the moon, the planets and stars orbited the earth.
The center of the universe remained at the center of the earth, in the view of the majority of the scientific community, until the 1500s. Occasionally there were those who suggested otherwise, the most famous of which is Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek scientist well-ahead of his time, but he, unfortunately, was not taken very seriously for very long.
The successful challenge to the earth-centered universe was begun by the Polish Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543. In his book De Revolutionibus, he argued that the Sun was at the center of the solar system (and hence universe), and that the planets - including the earth - revolved around the sun. This heliocentric theory provided a conceptually simpler explanation for certain peculiar `retrograde' motions of the planets than the Ptolemaic geocentric theory but encountered stiff resistance from those who felt it was heretical to move humanity so far from the center of the universe.
The Italian Scientist Galileo Galilei greatly supported Copernicus's sun centered universe. In his book Sidereus Nuncius of 1610, Galileo bolstered this view with some of the first astronomical observations with a telescope. He was able to trace the motions of four bright moons as they orbited Jupiter, stunning visual proof that not all objects in the universe orbited the Earth as Ptolemy required. He was also able to see that many regions of the night sky that appeared fuzzy and nebulous to the unaided eye actually consisted of many individual stars when viewed through the telescope. Although forced to recant in his lifetime, his observations and analysis soon led to the recognition the Earth and planets orbited our sun which was one of many stars, and that the band of the Milky Way was a band of stars. In the centuries which followed, larger telescopes were used to explore the newly revealed universe of stars. By the time of the Curtis - Shapley Debate in 1920, through the arduous technique of star counts, astronomers had tried to map out the extent of the Milky Way. This work still placed the sun close to the center of a flattened universe of stars and so the center of the universe arguably remained at the center of the sun until the resolution of the Curtis - Shapley debate.
Strangely enough, acceptance of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity and popular cosmologies derived from it led to the view that each part of the Universe was expanding from all others quite similarly, so that the modern view is that there IS no unique center of the Universe. Acceptance of this did not take place until after Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding in the 1930s.
The history of the size of the universe closely follows the history of the center of the universe. With the discovery that the earth was round, the size of the universe expanded to the size of the solar system. The estimated size of the solar system also evolved as astronomical knowledge crept forward in the middle ages. The distance to the furthest planet in the solar system became separated from the size of the universe as people questioned why the stars did not move like the planets. The stars and everything else in the night sky were delegated to a great sphere that encompassed the solar system. There were no truly scientific estimates of the radius of this sphere - only folklore. Even the distance to Saturn, the most distant planet known to `pre-telescopic' astronomers, was not well determined until the time of Kepler. In truth, the distances to stars were just too large for direct trigonometric measurements (parallax) even in the 1500s.
Kepler, a contemporary of Galileo, studied data taken in the years before by Tycho Brahe and postulated three laws of motion for the planets. These laws of motion allowed an accurate estimate of the distances to the planets, hence an accurate estimate of the size of the solar system and hence that day's conception of the size of the universe.
At about the same time, the generally accepted view that everything seen in the night sky was contained in our solar system sized universe fell away. The telescopes in use from the time of Galileo caused recognition that stars were at much greater distances than even the furthest planets of our solar system.
In the mid-1700s, the English astronomer Thomas Wright suggested that two concentric spheres existed outside the solar system, and that between these spheres existed all stars and our sun and solar system. By looking along the shell we saw the band of the Milky Way, and looking perpendicular to it just the few stars between us and the boundary of the shell. The size of the shell and hence the size of the universe was not well determined in this model.
In the late 1700s Immanual Kant revised Wright's model, based partly on a misinterpretation, to suggest a Galaxy with dynamics like the solar system. In this model the stars rotated about the center of the Galaxy just as the planets revolved around the center of the sun. Kant's even suggested that the faint nebulae seen may be composed of individual stars. Although Kant considered that the sun's distance from the center may be great, he did not estimate this distance, and did not estimate the size of this universe. Kant's thoughts were not taken as scientific proof, but could be considered the start of the controversies at the heart of the Curtis - Shapley debate.
William Hershel set out to determine the size of the universe scientifically in the late 1700s. Using a new telescope with a 48-inch mirror, he counted stars in several directions, assumed a uniform star density, and hence estimated the distances needed to count so many stars in these directions. Thus, along specific directions in space he could determine the relative extent of the universe of stars. Like Galileo, Hershel also noted that some nebulous objects could be resolved into stars and believed for a while that all nebular objects could be so resolved.
Progress then had to wait for the development of larger telescopes. In the mid- 1800s, William Parsons, the Earl of Rosse, began using a 72-inch diameter telescope. He was able to resolve structure in some of the nebula as spiral structure, and thus conclude again that these were stellar systems like Kant had proposed 70 years before. Still, however, no one could estimate the distance to any of these nebulae, so the size of the universe remained unclear. The theory that spiral nebulae were separate `universes' unto themselves became known as the `island universe theory.'
At the turn of the century, the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn used the latest data of the day to postulate a model for the Galaxy - and the universe in his eyes - that consisted of a flattened stellar system 10 kiloparsecs (30,000 light years) in diameter and 2 kiloparsecs (6,000 light years) in thickness. He placed the sun near the center of this universe. Kapteyn used the parallax method to calibrate the distance to the nearest stars, and proper motions and apparent brightnesses to estimate the distances to successively further stars. Kapteyn's extensive application of the method of star counts used by Herschel also confirmed his results for the dimensions of the Galaxy, or `Kapteyn's Universe' as it was called.
From the turn of the century to 1920, the controversy which inspired the `Great Debate' that would occur in 1920 was on. Many articles were published reporting evidence that spiral nebulae were separate galaxies like our own and at significant distances. Many discussions were held on the what new data indicated for the size of our Galaxy. Astronomers' view of the size of the universe and our place in it was in a state of flux. On the external galaxy issue, most astronomers believed that spiral nebulae were external galaxies until Harlow Shapley led one last final assault on this idea.
In 1918 and 1919 Shapley published articles in the Astrophysical Journal elucidating a new model for the Galaxy. Basing his model on the asymmetric distribution of globular clusters, Shapley estimated that the diameter of our Galaxy was 100 kiloparsecs, 10 times larger that Kapteyn's value. Shapley also placed the center of the Galaxy some 20 kiloparsecs distant from the Sun, a drastic, dramatic shift in location. In his view, this large meta-Galaxy was the universe and the spiral nebulae were simply one relatively minor population of mostly gaseous objects contained within it.
Shapley was a leader in the area of observing and understanding globular clusters, but he was not the first to notice that the distribution of globular clusters on the sky is not uniform. A plot of the positions of Globular clusters on the sky shows that they are concentrated more toward one half of the sky. Shapley conjectured that this half of the sky housed the true center of our Galaxy. In 1909, another astronomer, Bohlin, suggest similar arguments which were not seriously considered. What Shapley had done that Bohlin had not was to determine approximate distances to the globular clusters, and thus give a distance of our Sun from the Galactic center. Shapley used Cepheid variables in the globular clusters to help make this distance determination.
Shapley also felt it necessary, however, to comment on the nature of spiral nebulae. Shapley thought that the Galaxy was so large it was essentially the whole universe. Shapley not only based his opinion on the distribution of globular clusters and the distances to globular clusters, but on the apparently measured rotation velocities of spiral nebulae.
In the 1910s and 1920s, Adriaan Van Maanen, an astronomer at Mount Wilson Observatory and friend of Shapley's, measured the internal rotational motion of several spiral nebulae. Measuring small motions, called proper motions, of astronomical objects was Van Maanen's task at Mount Wilson, and he was well known for having successfully measured the proper motions of nearby stars. Van Maanen measured motion in seconds of arc per year, an angular rate of motion, by comparing photographs of the same region of the sky taken years apart. Knowing the distance to the spiral nebulae would allow the conversion of his measured angular rate of rotation to a rotational velocity in kilometers per second. The distances to the spiral nebulae were not known but Shapley argued that if the nebulae were placed well outside the boundaries of the Galaxy, as Curtis and others had suggested, the rotational velocities implied would be a substantial fraction of the speed of light! This was an unreasonable result and thus he argued that the real distances to the spiral nebulae must be closer to bring their implied rotational velocities in to a physically acceptable range.
Shapley also did not believe that spiral nebulae were galaxies in their own right. At the time of the Great Debate, he thought that spiral nebula were gaseous clouds repelled by the light pressure of our Galaxy and that our Galaxy was moving through these clouds. That spirals were racing away from us was a result of the spectroscopic observations made by Slipher. Shapley thought that his postulated great extent for our Galaxy precluded spirals from being galaxies in their own right.
Curtis followed several lines of thought to conclude that spiral nebula were galaxies. He argued that novae observed in our Galaxy were similar to novae observed in spiral nebulae, implying that the nebulae were very distant - and composed of stars. Curtis cited Slipher's spectroscopic measurements of high radial velocities for the nebulae as further evidence that they were not galactic objects which would be moving much more slowly relative to the sun. In his view, the apparent sizes of the spiral nebulae were consistent with Kapteyn's dimensions for a galaxy when the nebulae were located at extragalactic distances. Photographs of some of the spiral nebulae also revealed bands of absorbing material which Curtis interpreted as being consistent with absorbing material he believed existed at the edge of our own Galaxy.
The main reason Curtis gave for disagreeing with Shapley's model of the Galaxy was that he did not believe that Cepheid variables were good distance indicators. He therefore did not believe the distances Shapley gave for globular clusters, and hence did not believe Shapley's distance to the center of the Galaxy.
Furthermore, Curtis did not believe van Maanen's measurements of the rotations of spiral nebulae. He pointed out that these measurements involved angular motions much smaller than had ever been measured, and were unrealistically small to measure.
It has been said that the `Great Debate' of 1920 was neither `great' nor a `debate.' But wait, wasn't it said previously that it was? The actual debate between Shapley and Curtis was, in fact, not well publicized at the time, not well attended by astronomers, and did not take the form of a debate. Have we all been duped?
To be sure, what occurred was not truly a debate - each person gave a 40 minute presentation and was given one opportunity to rebut the other's remarks. After these remarks, several comments were made from the floor, including a substantial comment from Henry Norris Russell, arguably the most famous astronomer of the day, in support of Shapley.
The debate was held as a public event during the 1920 meeting of the National Academy of Sciences. It was held in the main auditorium of the Natural History Museum, then the U.S. National Museum, in Washington, D.C. on April 26. The auditorium, still in use today, is now known as the Baird Auditorium. Most of the attendees were members of the National Academy of Sciences but not astronomers, but several prominent astronomers did attend. Harlow Shapley implies in his autobiography "Through Rugged Ways to the Stars" that Albert Einstein was in attendance.
Shapley spoke first and gave a popular level lecture. Curtis followed, but gave a more technical lecture. Shapley's popular lecture was geared toward the audience of mostly non-astronomers. His approach was to educate them with the basic background material, finally using only simple arguments to support his position. Shapley concentrated on convincing the audience that his model of our Galaxy and its size were more nearly correct than Curtis'. He only briefly mentioned his views on the distances to spiral nebulae near the end of his lecture.
Curtis tried to create the best logical argument from the data, not trying to fill in all the background. He gave a more detailed presentation of the present state of research, as he saw it, and focused most strongly on the distances and nature of spiral nebulae, frequently posting comparative tables outlining how spiral nebulae made more sense as galaxies in their own right..
It is not really scientifically important who `won' the debate at the time. It was the underlying arguments and conclusions used by Shapley and Curtis that are held up to modern scientific scrutiny - not a hypothetical straw pole of an audience that consisted of mostly non-astronomers. Nevertheless who won is of human interest and so we will speculate on this point:
If a straw pole had been taken at the actual debate, we believe Curtis would have won. Notes from people who attended, Curtis' letter to his family about the event, and Shapley's eventual guarded characterization of the event as a `draw' all tend to support this conclusion. But who won is a subjective estimate. More importantly, how have the scientific arguments withstood the test of time? Looking back, whose arguments and conclusions were more scientifically correct?
Scientifically the debate was close to a draw. There are several popular misconceptions about this, even in the modern scientific community. The first misconception is that Shapley won. Astronomers who have not studied the debate sometimes assume this because Shapley went on to become the more famous astronomer. A second misconception is that Curtis won. Astronomers who believe this have a tendency to believe that the only scientific issue at hand was the nature of the spiral nebulae - a point which Curtis won hands-down.
But each was correct on a major point, and each was incorrect on a major point. Shapley was correct that our sun was well off from the center of our Galaxy. Let's not take this point lightly. He, like Copernicus before him, had moved humanity's place in the cosmos far away from where it was previously. As Copernicus had moved it from the Earth to the Sun, Shapley moved it, almost single-handedly, from the Sun to the center of the Galaxy. This in itself is truly historic. Shapley was also correct that our Galaxy was much bigger than Kapteyn had hypothesized previously. Another major point where Shapley was correct was about the usefulness of Cepheid variables as distance indicators. The distance scale of the Galaxy he obtained from them was too large but not far off by astronomical standards - and Cepheids continue to be cornerstones of our knowledge of distances to further objects even today. Harlow Shapley was a great astronomer.
Curtis, however, was correct that spiral nebulae are external galaxies. This was the first time this was shown with valid scientific evidence, and this point in itself is also truly historic. In fact, there is no precedent for this - it is an accomplishment that is unique in history. So Heber Curtis was also a great astronomer. Curtis was also correct that van Maanen's measurements of the rotation of these nebulae were inaccurate. In view of his arguments against using Cepheids as distance scale indicators, it is ironic that this point was ultimately settled in his favor by Hubble's discovery of Cepheids in the Andromeda Nebula several years after the debate.
Shapley and Curtis were also wrong about some things. Shapley was completely wrong about spiral nebulae - they are exactly as Curtis had argued (and many had surmised, including Kant before him). Shapley was also somewhat incorrect on the size of our Galaxy, which he estimated to be larger than it really is. Curtis was wrong about some things too. Curtis was wrong about the Sun's place in the galaxy - it is not near the center as he estimated from star count analyses like those of Kapteyn. Curtis was wrong about Cepheids - they do indeed show a period - luminosity law somewhat similar to that Shapley had computed, and they continue to be useful distance indicators. Curtis was wrong about the size of our Galaxy - it is larger than he estimated - Shapley was more nearly correct on this point.
Oddly enough, Curtis and Shapley were BOTH wrong on some issues that they agreed upon. The most major of these points was on interstellar absorption of starlight. Both agreed that interstellar absorption was not important in determining the size of the Galaxy. Today we know interstellar absorption is extremely important. Curtis did realize that some spiral nebulae seen edge-on were dark along their leading edge - which he correctly attributed to interstellar absorption. But Curtis thought that this only occurred at the edge of galaxies, and so was not important for determining distances internal to our Galaxy. Oddly, Curtis surmised that since no globular clusters were seen in our Galactic plane, that globular clusters could not be inside our Galaxy - and used this to argue against Shapley's large Galaxy hypothesis!
It is interesting to estimate who won on the point of the title of the debate: "The Scale of the Universe." Shapley defined the universe at that time to be the local Galaxy, and his estimate of the size of our Galaxy was more nearly correct than Curtis'. Curtis would define the Universe as all that is - which includes spiral galaxies - so that the whole of the universe has much greater scale than just that of our Galaxy. So on this point Curtis, too, could be considered more correct.
Shapley did not consider the debate to be about the distances to spiral nebulae. He considered this to be a side point on the greater issue of the just how large our Galaxy was. He considered it somewhat unfair that Curtis made this such a major point. Curtis considered the distances and nature of spiral nebula to be a major point in the debate. So we see that they didn't even agree on what they were disagreeing on!
Whose arguments went on to have greater lasting impact? Shapley's placement of our sun away from the Galactic center surely is a major accomplishment, as been stated several times previously. But the discovery that spiral nebulae are galaxies just like our own is possibly without parallel. It is of dramatic importance in the big scheme of defining human existence. It is possibly the major reason why the Curtis - Shapley debate will never be forgotten. Future historians will always want to learn about the time that humanity learned there was a whole universe of galaxies out there, and so they will always be drawn to this focal point of this disagreement: the Curtis - Shapley debate. The study of galaxies in the universe continues to be a ground-breaking field in astronomy even today, and has numerous different sub-branches.
Which scientist personally had greater scientific impact? This answer is particularly subjective, but we would venture Shapley. Curtis and Shapley each represented the points of view of many astronomers, and each did contribute original research to their respective view-points. Possibly, though, Shapley contributed greater original research to the view-points he represented than did Curtis for his. There were others besides Curtis who probably could have argued most of what Heber Curtis did at the `Great Debate.' But probably nobody could have taken Shapley's place. Curtis led a movement of many astronomers who had been guessing that spiral nebulae were galaxies for more than 100 years. But Shapley was one of the first to argue that the Sun is well away from the Galactic center, and that Cepheids are valuable astronomical tools for distance estimation. Shapley won several impressive battles almost single-handedly, while Curtis led an army to win on a truly epic point.
In 1924 Edwin Hubble located Cepheid variables in the nearest major spiral nebulae, M31. This had immediately followed a period where stars in this nebulae were being resolved. When confronted with this evidence Shapley immediately admitted he was wrong on the spiral nebulae issue - an issue that he did not consider at the heart of the 1920 debate.
During the 1920s and 1930s, evidence mounted that interstellar absorption was important and also that Cepheids were indeed good distance indicators. This allowed the astronomical community to understand why globular clusters were not visible in the galactic plane (their light was being absorbed) and allowed for a better calibration of distance indicators. These led to acceptance that the globular clusters distribution was indeed centered on the center of our Galaxy - just as Shapley had claimed. They also led to a better understanding of the size of our Galaxy which showed again that Shapley was more nearly correct.
In 1995 there is planned a debate in commemoration of the 1920 `Great Debate.' Historically, it is planned to occur 4 days before the exact 75th anniversary of the `Great Debate' and in exactly the same location.
This 1995 debate is over gamma ray bursts (GRBs). GRBs are huge flashes of gamma-radiation first detected by US defense satellites in the 1960s. Bohdan Paczynski, a Professor at Princeton has been endorsing a cosmological origin for these mysterious flashes. Donald Q. Lamb, a Professor at the University of Chicago, has been endorsing a Galactic origin for these GRBs. Some see many analogies between the `Great Debate' of 1920 and the pending `Diamond Jubilee Debate' of 1995. The most compelling of these analogies is that with spiral nebulae. Curtis lead the movement in 1920 backing spiral nebulae as galaxies at `cosmological distances' while Paczynski in seen by many to lead a similar movement for the origins of GRBs today. Shapley felt spiral nebulae were in our Galaxy - as Lamb has been at the forefront arguing about GRBs.
But both disagreements involve discovery at the cutting edge of science. As Dr. Frank Shu states in his book "The Physical Universe, An Introduction to Astronomy:" "The Shapley - Curtis debate makes interesting reading even today. It is important, not only as a historical document, but also as a glimpse into the reasoning processes of eminent scientists engaged in a great controversy for which the evidence on both sides is fragmentary and partly faulty. The debate illustrates forcefully how tricky it is to pick one's way successfully through the treacherous ground that characterized research at the frontiers of science."
1. List 3 scientific issues that were disagreed on during the Shapley - Curtis debate.
2. How did Shapley determine which direction the center of the galaxy was? How did he estimate our distance from the center?
3. What are Cepheid variables? How were they important in the Shapley - Curtis debate? Extra-credit: In what ways are Cepheid variables important today?
4. Describe Kapteyn's model for our Galaxy. How did Shapley's view differ?
5. What evidence did Heber Curtis use to show spiral nebulae were external galaxies at the 1920 debate?
6. What evidence did Edwin Hubble use to show that spiral nebulae were external galaxies in 1924?
7. (Math involved) Both Copernicus and Shapley might be credited with `moving' humanity's perception of where the center of the universe was. Which moved the center by a greater factor?
8. (Math involved) How much larger did the observable universe become when Curtis was eventually proved right about spiral nebulae being galaxies?
9. (Math involved) Van Maanen claimed to have measured proper motions for objects in M31. Given the modern distance to M31, how fast (km/sec) would the M31 objects be moving to have the van Maanen proper motions? Why is this unreasonable?
10. (Math involved) Find the apparent angular size of M31 and the apparent angular size of the smallest galaxies visible in 1920. How much further away were the smallest galaxies than the largest galaxies, in Curtis' view?
Return to the 1920 Great Debate Page
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Having a current child ID kit enables parents to provide immediate and essential information for the search, recover, and rescue of a missing child. Follow these tips to build a DNA kit for your child.
A child ID kit enables parents to provide immediate and essential information for the search, recovery, and rescue of a missing child. Keeping accurate, complete, and up-to-date records of your child is critical when supplying information to law enforcement for investigation. Both basic identifying information and DNA samples should be included. For more advice on advocating for your child, see the Top 10 Tips for Advocating for
Your Child with Special Needs.
1. A current photo of your child (within 6 months, especially for younger children): According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children and law enforcement experts, the photo should:
• show the child’s face in full color
• be in digital format for easy access at all times
• capture the way the child really looks
• include a shot with and without glasses if your child wears them
2. A complete description of your child, including:
• date of birth
• hair color/style
• eye color
• identifying marks such as moles or tattoos
3. Fingerprints taken by a trained professional; NCMEC recommends that only parents or guardians permanently store their child’s identifying information.
4. DNA sample: While there are many DNA collection kits commercially available, it is not difficult to collect a sample on your own. Items rich in DNA include an old toothbrush allowed to air dry, baby teeth, a hairbrush used frequently by your child for at least one month, or a bandage with dried blood. Store these items in an envelope licked shut by your child and placed in a cool, dry, readily accessible place.
5. Dental X-rays and dental charts should be updated by your dentist every two years until your child is 18. Include your dentist’s office location and contact information in your child’s ID kit for reference.
For more information about this and other child safety topics, contact NCMEC at 1-800-843-5678.
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August 5, 2011
Innate Cells Shown To Form Immunological ‘Memory’ And Protect Against Viral Infection
Innate memory provides protection against vaccinia
Researchers have demonstrated that cells of the innate immune system are capable of "memory", and of mounting rapid protection to an otherwise lethal dose of live vaccinia virus. The study, published in the Open Access journal PLoS Pathogens on August 4th, challenges previous thought that only B cells and T cells can store memory to ward off future infection. The finding, by researchers from Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, and Hebrew University and Duke University, has potentially significant consequences for the design of future vaccines, particularly for HIV.Immunological "memory" is what the immune system builds to respond more effectively to pathogens (such as bacteria and viruses) that the host organism has encountered previously. Traditionally, immunological "memory" has been thought to reside within the cells of the adaptive arm of the immune system (B cells and T cells) that recognize highly specific portions of pathogens through unique receptors.
This study, lead by Dr. Geoffrey Gillard, shows that an innate population of cells, called natural killer (NK) cells form "memory" to vaccinia virus infection despite the fact that they lack the receptors of traditional "memory" cells. Transfer of "memory" NK cells into immunodeficient mice was enough to protect these mice against a normally lethal exposure to vaccinia virus. Because the NK cell population lacks the receptors that allow B and T cells to develop highly specific "memory" responses to pathogens, the study raises important questions to the manner in which "memory" NK cells are capable of recognizing virus upon a second exposure.
Understanding how innate "memory" functions will be critical for incorporating this property into more effective vaccines, particularly as part of a vaccine against HIV. The properties of NK memory, most notably the ability to respond very rapidly, may be helpful in exerting early control of HIV infection by limiting the ability of the virus to overwhelm the host immune system in the early stages of infection.
On the Net:
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http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/2091462/innate_cells_shown_to_form_immunological_memory_and_protect_against/
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| 0.927847 | 431 | 3.1875 | 3 |
- freely available
Remote Sensing 2014, 6(1), 716-739; doi:10.3390/rs6010716
Abstract: Peatlands are important terrestrial carbon stores. Restoration of degraded peatlands to restore ecosystem services is a major area of conservation effort. Monitoring is crucial to judge the success of this restoration. Remote sensing is a potential tool to provide landscape-scale information on the habitat condition. Using an empirical modelling approach, this paper aims to use airborne hyperspectral image data with ground vegetation survey data to model vegetation abundance for a degraded upland blanket bog in the United Kingdom (UK), which is undergoing restoration. A predictive model for vegetation abundance of Plant Functional Types (PFT) was produced using a Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) and applied to the whole restoration site. A sensitivity test on the relationships between spectral data and vegetation abundance at PFT and single species level confirmed that PFT was the correct scale for analysis. The PLSR modelling allows selection of variables based upon the weighted regression coefficient of the individual spectral bands, showing which bands have the most influence on the model. These results suggest that the SWIR has less value for monitoring peatland vegetation from hyperspectral images than initially predicted. RMSE values for the validation data range between 10% and 16% cover, indicating that the models can be used as an operational tool, considering the subjective nature of existing vegetation survey results. These predicted coverage images are the first quantitative landscape scale monitoring results to be produced for the site. High resolution hyperspectral mapping of PFTs has the potential to assess recovery of peatland systems at landscape scale for the first time.
Upland landscapes are an important environmental, conservation, social and economic resource on national and global levels . They are often places of scenic natural beauty and biodiversity hotspots. The ecology of peatlands are unique and the biodiversity value is high due to the national and international importance of rare or threatened plant and animal species which they support [2,3]. As well as providing a habitat for important bird and insect species [4,5] and ecologically-important plants , uplands also have a rich cultural heritage, having been shaped by human activity over centuries . The importance of peatland ecology is recognised under legislation. Blanket bogs are a UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) priority habitat (UKBAP, 2008), and a priority for conservation under the EC habitats directive. The importance of peatlands has become widely recognised due to the diversity of ecosystem services they provide [8–10]. Examples include agricultural services, air and water regulation and carbon storage and sequestration. Peatlands are the single largest carbon reserve in the UK, storing around 3 billion tonnes of carbon .
All of these features and ecosystem services require peatlands to be in a favourable condition with vegetation cover. The potential to sequester carbon is greatly reduced and carbon stores are rapidly lost when peat becomes exposed . A range of pressures including overgrazing, burning, pollution and climate change have led to large areas of degradation and exposed peat. Restoration projects aim to reduce peat erosion by restoring vegetation coverage and to return peatlands to functioning ecosystems. Monitoring is crucial, given the investment in restoration. Remote sensing of peatlands offers the potential to monitor restoration success by charting the succession of vegetation communities as an alternative to the time-consuming and expensive traditional field survey methods.
Vegetation is the most obvious physical representation of an ecosystem, so monitoring vegetation can be one of the most important tools for understanding ecosystem properties, functions and condition. Functional composition, therefore, can be an important indicator of underlying ecosystem properties and ecosystem health . Functional classifications, although generally derived to describe static conditions of a landscape, have also been used to predict response to disturbance . Plant species reflect habitat changes in a detailed way by their presence, disappearance or absence , so monitoring species composition can be used to assess change in the peatland environment.
The discipline of landscape ecology has benefited from the partnership with remote sensing and the provision of high value spatially-explicit data [16–18]. The opportunities this presents for environmental monitoring have recently been recognised by national conservation bodies [19,20]. However, presently, peatland applications are concerned with the immediate priority of basic habitat inventories. Ecologically, peatlands are characterised by a wide diversity and complexity in their composition and interaction between different vegetation types . Peatland restoration monitoring, therefore, requires monitoring of vegetation composition on a fine spatial scale, to match the spatial scales of the processes under observation . A pixel size of less than 3.45 m is recommended, in an intact upland peatland, to determine patch size in the vegetation . Advances in the spatial and spectral resolutions of remote sensing data, and of modelling techniques using this data, have made the remote sensing of such ecological variables more feasible .
In this paper, we aim to establish the empirical relationship between hyperspectral remote sensing data and vegetation abundance, creating a model of the predictive coverage of PFTs and cover types across a landscape scale restoration site on upland blanket bog.
2.1. Study Area
The study area is focused on the restoration work by Moors for the Future (MFF) on Bleaklow Plateau, an upland blanket peatland in the Peak District National Park (PDNP) in the southern Pennines in Northern England. The peatlands of the PDNP, are a fragile environment, subject to severe degradation, situated at the south-eastern extent of the upland peatlands in the UK, and also at the southern climatic border of blanket bog distribution (Figure 1). The restoration work involves application and maintenance of a nurse crop of grasses, the application of lime to raise the pH, and fertiliser to ensure their survival. Geojute, a geotextile mesh, is used to stabilise the substrate, as well as cut heather brash which creates a microclimate and prevents loss of seeds and further surface erosion. Finally, structurally important species such as bilberry, cowberry and cotton grass are plug planted directly into the peat.
The site includes peatland in various states of disturbance, from intact to degraded blanket bog and areas undergoing restoration. The age of the restoration areas covered by the airborne images spans four years, providing a temporal trajectory across a spatial area (Figure 1). However, the heterogeneous vegetation communities vary on a much smaller scale due to the complex interaction of influencing factors, such as patches of intact vegetation, local topography, and erosional processes. They are representative of the mire (bog) communities in the UK National Vegetation Classifications (NVC), with the addition of fine nurse grasses. Present are M19-Calluna vulgaris—Eriophorum vaginatum blanket mire, the slightly more impoverished M20-Eriophorum vaginatum blanket and raised mire—often associated with disturbances in the vegetation community—and the M3-Eriophorum angustifolium bog pool community, which is a typical of recent or disturbed bog pools, or often forms an early seral stage in the transition from exposed peat back to mire vegetation .
2.2. Data Acquisition
The airborne hyperspectral data was acquired using the SPECIM (Oulu, Finland) AISA Eagle and Hawk sensors. With the spatial binning settings and acquisition conditions, this resulted in an image with 482 bands with a spectral range of 400–2450 nm, after the data from both sensors was stacked. The spatial resolution was dictated by the integration time of the sensors, due to the topography of the terrain and flight restrictions. Following geocorrection, this resulted in a spatial resolution of square 0.7 m pixels, for both sensors. The rigorous pre-processing procedure included atmospheric correction using the Empirical Line Correction (ELC) method on a primary flight line, followed by radiometric normalisation using the orthogonal flight line approach (ORTHORADMOS) to correct between the 12 overlapping flight lines. The ELC was carried out using five Pseudo Invariant Features, three 6 × 6 m vicarious fabric targets in black, grey and white, and two natural vegetation targets, chosen as spectrally bright and dark natural targets. Radiometric correction resulted in an average RMSE of all the regressions for all the flight lines of 0.87% for the Eagle sensor and 1.00% for the Hawk sensor, tested using a validation set of pixels in the overlapping areas between flight lines. Geometric correction using a parametric approach with the aircraft navigational information along with a LiDAR DEM was verified with post processed DGPS to be accurate to 0.77 m, within 1.1 pixels.
Vegetation plots were surveyed in the 10 day window immediately after the flight, while vegetation composition was as similar as possible to conditions during the image acquisition. The 58 plots, each of size 2 by 2 m, were selected by systematic sampling of existing MFF monitoring plots, which had been previously laid out on a 100 m grid, to a 200 m spacing. This stratified approach allows characterisation of the different areas of the site and ages of restoration (Figure 1). The spectral data was extracted and averaged, from the four inner-most central pixels covering each vegetation plot. This was done to ensure the variation in vegetation composition across the plot was captured, which allowed direct comparison to the vegetation survey, and also so that any additional pixels overlapping the edge were not included in the analysis. Visual inspection of the selected pixels confirmed that edge effects were minimised. The image spectra from the plots were split into calibration and validation datasets in a 60:40 ratio, to allow validation of the regression models. They were selected by stratified random sampling, where the strata were vegetation community groups along a floristic trajectory of restoration, as identified in a previous analysis. This ensured that calibration and validation sets contained plots from the different stages of restoration and therefore a mix of vegetation communities.
2.3. Sensitivity Analysis to Class Generalisation
The predictive performance of empirical regression models can depend upon the degree of class generalisation . There are three main PFTs in peatlands; bryophytes, graminoids and shrubs. These represent groups of different structure and biochemistry, such as leaf structure, water and pigment content and architecture, resulting in different spectral characteristics at the leaf and canopy scale . Senescent vegetation, has been shown to have a distinct effect on the spectral signal , so was considered here as a separate cover type, as was bare peat. Senescent vegetation was identified as above ground biomass which was not photosynthetically active during the vegetation survey. As species level data does not display such distinctive differences in biophysical characteristics and spectral response as PFTs , the percentage cover of species data was combined into generalised floristic variables representing these three PFTs (Table 1).
Whilst it is convenient to aggregate species into PFTs, the results of the vegetation survey in this study showed that the peatland vegetation communities are not made up of spatially contiguous clusters of functional types. Vegetation, in fact, grows in more mixed patterns, with individual species favouring slightly different conditions. The spatial pattern of the key species has also been influenced by the active restoration management. Therefore, sensitivity to class aggregation of the vegetation data into PFT was tested by examining relationships of spectral indices to single key species, as well as the PFT. This was done using scatterplots, histograms of the distribution and correlations between the species abundance data and the spectral indices. For both PFT and the key species, the lack of linear relationships was explained by the non-normal distribution of the vegetation variables. They are all skewed, with many zero values. This has been reported by other studies modelling vegetation coverage , but may be exaggerated by the degradation and subsequent restoration leading to an unusual distribution of species, including areas of vegetation with species missing that might otherwise be expected in an undisturbed ecosystem.
Species within a PTF have similar biophysical characteristics leading to similar spectral responses . The cover values of single species are more variable than averaged values of entire stands , therefore, by aggregating species into PFTs, the influence of any anomalies in the individual species response are reduced, giving a stronger relationship. Another reason for generalising to the PFT level is the heterogeneous nature of the peatland environment. Despite acquisition at a high spatial resolution, the Eagle and Hawk sensor still detected a mixture of species within a single 0.7 m pixel, making relationships with single species hard to define. Vegetation mapping of single species using PLSR had previously been found to be less successful than for functional groups measured with Ellenburg indicator values, and was ascribed to the zero values and low number of occurrences, causing weak models . PFTs in a peatland have been successfully mapped using PLSR, but the relationship to composition of single species has proved unsuccessful .
2.4. Regression Modelling
Hyperspectral measurements using narrow bands contain useful information for quantifying biophysical characteristics of vegetation canopies, not available from multispectral scanners [33,34]. However, the data sets contain a large amount of redundant information . The use of statistical models for the retrieval of vegetation characteristics requires that the strong collinearity in the spectral data is accounted for. Two approaches can be taken to this: either full spectrum methods using all the spectral bands simultaneously by employing data compression in the regression algorithm; or alternatively, the number of independent variables can be reduced before modelling. This is commonly done either by using spectral indicators, such as vegetation indices which exhibit a strong relationship to the main vegetation biophysical variables, or by selecting a few diagnostic spectral bands as regression factors that permit modelling of the target variable .
Narrow band spectral indices, namely Plant Senescing Reflection Index (PSRI), Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI), Cellulose Absorption Index (CAI), Vogelmann Red Edge Index (VOG) and Red Edge Position (REP), were used as spectral indicators in order to reduce the number of independent variables in the calibration equation. A stepwise multiple linear regression approach was rejected; data exploration of the relationships between the vegetation abundance data and spectral indices revealed that statistical assumptions required for multiple regression modelling were not met, in particular, weak relationship between the variables, the non-normal distributions, and collinearity both between independent (spectral) variables and between floristic variables. The Spearman rank correlation coefficient, r, between spectral indices and cover type, demonstrate the lack of relationship (Table 2).
Instead, a PLSR, using SPSS software, was employed to gain maximum information from the spectral information from the hyperspectral data.
Published results using Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) for vegetation studies in comparison to other methods of statistical modelling show it to be a powerful technique [36,37]. Direct comparison to results obtained from indices also prove PLSR to be more accurate [36,38]. PLSR applies a data compression within the regression and, as such, is a promising technique for quantitatively assessing vegetation characteristics, efficiently using the full spectral information of hyperspectral data [34,39]. It has become an established technique in vegetation remote sensing, used extensively for biochemical and biophysical modelling [36,37,40]. Other applications include biomass estimation , and modelling soil properties [41,42]. Application of PLSR in modelling vegetation presence and composition has previously been applied by relating ordination axes to reflectance for mapping floristic gradients [30–32,43].
PLSR is a multivariate technique designed to analyse data with strongly collinear, noisy and numerous independent, or predictor, variables [44,45]. As such, it copes with the high dimensionality and collinearity of hyperspectral data. PLSR is well suited for calibration on a small number of samples; the method can be used if the number of wavelengths is greater than the number of observations . Similar to Principal Component Regression (PCR), the information content of the intercorrelated bands is reduced to a few independent latent factors, or vectors. Most important, these latent vectors are not only generated to maximise information content in the spectral information as a PCA, but are also optimised for the response variable [39,43]. This may be expected to lead to better calibration in comparison to other linear empirical-statistical methods. All the vegetation variables are entered together, in this case per cent coverage of each species; the model takes into account relationships between the dependent (floristic) variables in the formation of the latent factors. This makes PLSR a suitable method for quantifying the abundance of each of the PFTs because of the strong relationships between the proportions of each type of vegetation.
An alternative data compression modelling technique, Principal Component Regression (PCR), has been criticised when applied to hyperspectral data. The criticisms are that the reflectance data is compressed based purely on the statistical properties, so the first few principal components (PCs), used as regression factors, do not retain the factors of variability required in the predictive equation. The benefits of the full spectral data can be lost, as the higher order PCs do not preserve the spectral information in the original feature space, oversimplifying the variance [36,46,47]. PLSR avoids this by taking into account variation in the response variable, which is why it was selected for analysis in this study. Other machine learning methods may be appropriate for different datasets.
In an ideal PLSR model, a few new latent factors will explain most of the variation in both the predictors and responses. Factors that explain response variation (variation in the vegetation data in this case) provide good predictive models for new responses. Factors that explain predictor variation (variation in the spectral reflectance) are well represented by the observed values of the predictor. The use of too many latent factors can cause over fitting , so the optimum number of latent factors for the model was found by visual inspection of three types of plot: cumulative proportion of variance accounted for; score-plots of the latent factors; and residual variance plots. This was assessed when applied to the validation dataset. A good PLSR model will have good correlations between the X-scores and the Y-scores for the first few latent factors, with the relationship decreasing in strength with each successive factor .
Variable selection can enhance PLSR results [31,48,50,51]. To remove unnecessary spectral information, a PLSR model with the less important predictors removed was tested. Prior to any analysis on the spectral data, the bands from 1,356–1,456 nm and 1,792–1,962 nm around the main water absorptions in the SWIR were removed, but subsequent selection was based upon the weighted regression coefficients along with a plot of the variables’ importance. Interactive variable selection reveals much about the relationship between the spectral data and the vegetation data, and the importance of different parts of the spectrum in predicting vegetation abundance. The regression coefficients are a function of the range of the original reflectance values, and so are highlighted areas with a large range in reflectance values, for example, the blue spectrum and the large peak at 1,450 nm which will be more volatile due to atmospheric scattering [34,52]. For this reason, the bands that were considered for removal from the PLSR were those that have relatively small coefficients and a small VIP value, below 0.8 . Bands were only removed if they did not fall at wavelengths with known diagnostic absorbance features. For the PLSR with five latent factors, the bands removed were in the Hawk sensor between 1475 nm and 1791 nm, and for the analysis with 10 latent factors, Hawk bands from 1,166 nm–1,298 nm and 1,513 nm–1,784 nm.
The method for selecting the variables to remove may be an important factor for increased accuracy. The interactive method employed here, of interpreting the VIP and weighted regression coefficients together, has the benefit of ensuring that all the important parts of the spectrum are included; for example, the red edge known to represent chlorophyll concentration , and the absorption features in the SWIR related to plant cellulose . Purely statistical methods of selection such as jack-knifing do not always improve results, as keeping the selected bands well-spaced is important for maximising information content . Only variables that form continuous and evidently unimportant regions should be eliminated, and this elimination should not be driven by the degree of fit and the prediction errors .
The PLSR models were validated against the test dataset of 22 independent samples, allowing an objective assessment of which model had the optimum parameters, number of latent factors and selection of variables, and therefore which model performed best. The best PLSR models were applied to the airborne images on a per pixel basis, resulting in a set of predictive images, one for each of the three PFTs or two cover types.
3.1. Class Sensitivity
Testing how appropriate aggregating the data into cover types was revealed that the single species distributions were more strongly skewed. This is because the aggregation reduces the occurrences of zero and low percentages of cover in the vegetation data, having a strong effect on the distribution. The correlation coefficient (r) values from the Spearman rank correlation were generally lower for the key species than for the aggregated functional groups; there were fewer significant relationships between the key species variables and the spectral indices than for PFTs and cover types. Relationships between the spectral data are marginally stronger for PFTs than for species level.
3.2. Latent Factors of the PLSR
The optimum number of latent factors for the model to avoiding over fitting, was found using the plots for cumulative proportion of variance (Figure 2); scores of the latent factors (Figure 3); and residual variance (Figure 4).
Figure 2 shows the amount of variation explained by each additional latent factor; 85% of the predictor variation is explained by the first two factors, rising to 96% with three, and plateauing out at 99% by five latent factors. However, the response variation is less well explained by the first few factors; only 39% in the first two factors, rising to 62% by factor five and 85% by factor 10, suggesting that more latent factors are required to explain both sets of variance and predict the response of the vegetation data.
The correlations in the latent factors (Figure 3) followed the expected pattern of a strong relationship for the first few factors to an extent. The first latent factor showed one of the strongest relationships, which then drops until latent factor 4, when the R2 values remained relatively constant between 0.39 and 0.54. The stable correlations for the X and Y scores, not dropping off after the first few latent factors, again suggest that a larger number of factors should be included. Above 15 the values rose again, suggesting that above this level the model would suffer from over fitting.
Residual plots, and plots of distance to response and predictor models, did not identify any outliers in the data, so all the vegetation plots were included in the model. The 10 latent factor model performed better on these two counts as well. All of the samples in the 10 latent factor model fitted closer to the model in both dimensions, but particularly in terms of the modelled predictors, so the residuals were reduced. There was an upward trend in the distribution of the residuals in the five latent factor model, underestimating the cover in plots with low percentages and over estimating those with high ones. This is symptomatic of data without a normal distribution. The effect was eliminated with 10 latent factors (Figure 4).
3.3. PLSR Variable Selection
Selection of variables to be removed was based on the weighted regression coefficients and the plot of variables importance (Figures 5 and 6). The regression coefficients take into account differences in the range of variation of the original values and are an expression of the relative importance of the predictors—in this case spectral bands—in predicting the response. The Variable Importance for Projection (VIP) statistic summarises the contribution of each predictor in fitting the PLSR model for both predictors and response .
3.4. PLSR Validation
The PLSR models were validated against a test dataset. The accuracy of the PLSR was assessed in terms of absolute prediction accuracy (RMSE) and the amount of explained variance (coefficient of determination R2). Table 3 shows the final results.
Reducing the number of variables reduced the RMSE on the validation dataset by 2%– 4.5%, with the largest improvement in the shrubs obtained using 10 latent factors. The validation results confirm that 20 latent factors do over fit the model. The lowest overall RMSEval, for the complete model, 13.19 is the PLSR with five latent factors and a reduced number of spectral bands. This has to be considered the best overall model for predicting all the cover types in the same manner. The best model for each individual cover type or PFTs do favour the 10 latent factor models selected for graminoids, bare peat and bryophytes, as indicated in Table 3, and Figure 7. The greater amount of variation in the vegetation classes explained by 10 factors should lead to greater improvements in the final results.
3.5. Application to the Image; Spatial Prediction
The predictive images produced by applying the PLSR show patterns of abundance that are in accordance with field observations and knowledge of the site. The success lies in the level of detail provided as a result in the high resolution data over a large area. Particular examples are picked out for illustrative purposes. From the predicted shrub image (Figure 8a) Vaccinium myrtillus can clearly be picked out in white. It is seen as a distinctive bright green colour in June on the tops of hags and along the tops of the gullies on the Eagle true colour composite (Figure 8b).
The success of the predicted bare peat image is demonstrated by the ability of the PLSR model to correctly identify the bare gully sides between the grass lined bottoms and the vegetated tops (Figure 9). These are narrow linear features, approximately 1–2 m wide.
The images have predicted values with a wider range than the predicted plots calculated in the model validation because the model was built on a sample, whereas the whole image has some pixels with a wider range of values. However, histograms of PLSR predicted cover show there is a normal distribution, and the majority of the pixels predict a percentage coverage in the range expected from the RMSE of the model validation, as confirmed by the mean values (Table 4). There are only few very extreme pixels in this case at the tails of the histograms, and so the sample pixels in the calibration dataset are considered representative.
False colour composites of combinations of the five modelled images are useful representations of the vegetation composition at a landscape scale. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate this, using some example subsets representing different areas and conditions on the site. Figure 10 is a composite of PLSR predicted abundance images for graminoid, shrub and bryophytes, the three main vegetation types on the site. The clear differences in colour demonstrate the heterogeneous nature of the vegetation communities and the small spatial scale on which they vary. The relative dominance of the three PFTs in each pixel dictates the colour representation, following the colour additive principle. Different topographical features, stages of restoration and resulting vegetation communities along the floristic trajectory of restoration can be identified (Figure 10). Figure 11 shows bare peat, bryophytes, and graminoids PLSR images, displayed as RGB respectively, and demonstrates the flexibility of using the various combinations of PLSR images to highlight different vegetation communities, elements of the ecosystem, and restoration processes.
Figure 11 is centred on the control area, where there has been no restoration, but it also includes some of the restored areas (Figure 1). The control area itself is dominated by exposed peat hags, which are easily identified as red tones in the image. The edges of the peat hags are being recolonized by two different PFT in two separate processes, which can also be identified on the FCC image (Figure 11). The pink tones are predominantly bare peat but with a proportion of graminoids. This re-colonisation of the hags with grasses is happening in the main control area, where grass seeds have washed into the gully bottoms from the surrounding restoration blocks. This is especially the case on the more sheltered south facing gully sides, but different illumination may be contributing here. The other process is bryophyte establishment, predominately Campylopus introflexus, a pioneer species after disturbance and one of the first re-colonisers in the restoration process. In Figure 11, this process is identified by the graduation from orange to yellow tones. The orange tones are pixels with a high proportion of bare peat and a presence of bryophytes and, as the proportion of bryophytes increases, the colour shifts towards yellow. From the colour additive principle, yellow indicates areas with approximately equal predicted abundance of bare peat and bryophytes, with very low values for graminoids pixels, this is present on a few of the hags. This second process is occurring more predominantly on the western side of the control area which boarders one of the more established and oldest restoration blocks (Figure 1). The yellow tones graduate to greenish-blue colours as the proportion of bare peat is reduced and bryophytes and graminoids increase. The other main features in Figure 11 are the dark blue gullies with a high percentage of graminoids where the grass seed has been washed in and germinated. Away from the hag and gully topography, the paler blues represent areas of established graminoids with Eriophorum spp, such as the plateau area seen at the western side of Figure 11.
The application in the PLSR model to the whole image has provided a quantitative measure for the abundance of cover types across the whole restoration site. This landscape scale model is an invaluable tool for operational restoration monitoring. By calculating the mean of each cover type in the blocks of restoration seeded in each year between 2003 and 2006 (Figure 1) we can see some general trends in succession (Figure 12). There is a sharp decline in bare peat between the area that has had no restoration and those seeded most recently in 2006. In this four-year time period, the graminoids and bryophytes also increase. It takes a further year for the shrubs to start increasing coverage. This happens at the expense of bryophytes, which start to drop off as they become out-competed and the other species take hold.
Initial investigation revealed a lack of clear linear relationships between the spectral indices and the PFT abundance data (Table 2), suggesting that PLSR using the full spectral information of the hyperspectral data was the more appropriate modelling approach. Investigation into the data revealed the primary problem in attempting to model abundance of species from spectral data as the non-normal distribution of the vegetation data, as seen in the histograms and scatterplots of relationships with spectral indices. The skewed distributions are a result of vegetation plot data matrices with zero or low values. Aggregation into PFT rather than single species reduced this effect. This same situation, of low numbers of occurrences causing weak models has been reported with the modelling of species abundance [31,32]. A sensitivity test on the relationships between the spectral data and the vegetation abundance data at PFT and single species level confirmed that aggregating the data to PFTs was the correct scale for analysis, and is supported by studies in the literature [31,32,56]. This test suggests that aggregating vegetation survey results into PFT would be sensible for operational monitoring. It would make the ground vegetation survey results more robust, as it is very unlikely that any misidentification of individual species would be severe enough to change result between PFT. Using PFT also conforms to the way that the restoration practitioners think and communicate about the plant communities.
The interactive method for selecting the variables for analysing the VIP statistic along with the weighted regression coefficients did make some improvements in the results. Schmidtlein and Sassin found this method to be more effective by further reducing the number than in this study and ensuring the spacing between bands. Ensuring the full spectral data is represented and that known diagnostic features are represented in the PLSR avoids the pitfalls identified in the PCR method. The VIP statistic did select bands in parts of the spectrum known to be diagnostic of biophysical properties of the vegetation. Spectral bands from the Eagle sensor (VIS-NIR, 400–1,000 nm) were dominant, particularly the blue proportion of the visible spectrum (400–500 nm), showing the value of this region where all the vegetation pigments absorb. The chlorophyll absorption features were identified with the VIP statistics, with a second peak at the chlorophyll absorption maxima, 660 nm, (Figures 5 and 6). The rapid rise in vegetation reflectance between the low red chlorophyll reflectance to the high near infrared reflectance was identified in the PLSR as an important feature, marked by a peak in the significance of all of the bands around the red edge, between 670 and 780 nm. The subsequent peaks in the SWIR at 1,160 nm, 1,450 nm, and 1,960 nm, were all at wavelengths with water absorptions . The peak in importance of bands at the longer wavelengths of 2,290 and 2,448 are a result of cellulose absorption features, with the shrubs showing the highest values in these peaks. The weighted regression coefficients of the individual spectral bands showed which bands are most important in the model. The bands in the SWIR, Hawk sensor, showed a considerably lower contribution (Figures 5 and 6). These results suggest that the SWIR has less influence in the landscape-scale monitoring of the vegetation on peatland from the hyperspectral image than initially predicted .
One possible reason for the high RMS error of the validation data is the effect of complex field conditions on the PLSR technique, which was originally designed for lab analysis where confounding variables can be controlled. Plant canopy reflectance is affected by either the observing conditions; variable viewing and illumination geometry; or variations in the target such as variable LAI or internal shade from the canopy structure. Feilhauer et al. showed that a brightness-normalised modification to the PLSR significantly improved the prediction of leaf chemistry from normal PLSR, but made little improvement on the effects of variable LAI and variable viewing angle. A further refinement of the model in the future could be to test this adapted algorithm.
The models are weakest at predicting coverage in plots with zero or very small percentages of the particular type of vegetation, sometimes giving negative cover values in these cases (Figure 7). The negative cover values are within the RMSE margin of the model and so were considered to be unavoidable output from the statistical model.
Despite the PLSR validation errors being larger than reported in other studies [31,32,43], the model does manage to predict the abundance of the different cover types to a level that is useful in an operational context. The lowest RMSE values for each cover type range from 10%–16%, with senescent vegetation, bare peat, graminoids, bryophytes and then shrubs being predicted the most accurately. The ability to predict how much bare peat there is in an area of restoration with a 10% accuracy is extremely useful for restoration managers, as would being able to predict the proportion of shrubs to graminoids to within 16%. Traditional vegetation survey employs a visual assessment of the percentage cover of each species, which involves subjective decisions and therefore inherent error . One of the main assumptions under which multivariate modelling is applied to remotely sensed data states that the modelled variables are measured accurately. Curran suggests that violation of this assumption would cause the most difficulty, so it is the uncertainty of the vegetation abundance data that has the biggest impact upon the regression model. When viewed in this context, the RMSEval of the PLSR is reasonable. Furthermore, the percent abundance of the dominant species in each of the vegetation communities, along the trajectory of restoration, as defined in previous analyses of vegetation composition data, varies by a magnitude that is greater than the error in the PLSR prediction models, therefore making this an operationally useful tool.
The predictive images show patterns of abundance that are in accordance with field observations and knowledge of the site. Their success is demonstrated by the ability of the model to allow features at a single pixel level as a result of the high spatial resolution. The widespread pattern of a decrease in bare peat and bryophytes and an increase in graminoids and shrubs is evident in the mean coverage of each cover type in the restoration blocks (Figure 12), despite the more complex small scale processes and the extremely heterogeneous nature of existing vegetation and topological features within each block. This is why high spatial resolution is also a requirement in order to see these more complex variations.
The output from the PLSR model produced images of predicted coverage for each PFT or cover type. This is a validated quantitative measure of abundance of vegetation at a landscape scale. Monitoring of the restoration site has not been achieved on this scale with this accuracy before. It provides an invaluable operational tool for restoration managers. Complete coverage at a landscape scale is impractical by traditional surveying methods. The PLSR images allow operational decisions by restoration managers to be informed by the spatial patterns. Applications could include land management decisions on further treatment, such as patch reseeding, fertilizer application or plug planting, without the need for extensive ground-based survey. The PLSR predictive images will help inform judgment about the effectiveness of the restoration, for example by identifying areas where reversion has occurred. The high spatial resolution data makes the images particularly effective, as the detail in the vegetation response has been captured and not averaged over areas larger than the actual scale of change. The PLSR used the majority of the spectral bands in the model; so it was equally the high spectral resolution of the data which contributed to the success of the vegetation cover predictions. These PLSR predicted images provide a monitoring tool that would not be achievable using lower spatial and spectral resolution remote sensing.
The project was funded by a NERC CASE studentship with Natural England (NE/F013787/1), held at The University of Manchester. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Moors for the Future Partnership for facilitating the work and in their role as CASE partner. The hyperspectral images were collected by the NERC Airborne Research and Survey Facility (ARSF), and the ASD field spectrometer was on loan from the NERC Field Spectroscopy Facility (FSF).
The research for this paper was conducted by all the authors. The writing of the paper was conducted by Dr. B Cole with revisions and edits by both J. Mcmorrow and Prof. M. Evans.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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|Plant Functional Type||Key Species|
|Graminoids||Nurse (fine) grasses|
|Shrubs||−0.240||−0.501 *||0.044||−0.459 *||−0.816 *|
|Bare peat||0.338||0.702 *||−0.170||0.397 *||0.614 *|
*Significant at 0.01 level.
|Overall||Graminoids||Shrubs||Bare Peat||Senescent Vegetation||Bryophytes|
|5 LF all variables||R2cal||0.62||0.64||0.64||0.84||0.55||0.41|
|RMSEval||16.73||16.20||16.80 *||16.81||10.02 *||21.73|
|5 LF reduced variables||R2cal||0.62||0.63||0.63||0.85||0.55||0.41|
|10 LF all variables||R2cal||0.85||0.85||0.94||0.93||0.79||0.73|
|10 LF reduced variables||R2cal||0.84||0.84||0.92||0.92||0.76||0.74|
|RMSEval||15.46||15.93||19.78||10.96 *||13.03||16.11 *|
|20 LF all variables||R2cal||1.00||1.00||1.00||1.00||1.00||0.99|
*most successful model for each cover type.
|Cover Type||Mean Predicted Abundance (%) from PLSR Image|
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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<urn:uuid:c08fece8-d8dc-449f-b800-a3724e2b7b46>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/6/1/716/htm
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|
en
| 0.891613 | 11,976 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Drivers Of Cloud Computing Adaption
Cloud computing is now in heavy use in the industry and even the consumer market is starting to consider the benefits of cloud computing. Even though it is using the same technology that we have since more than 10 years ago, the cloud computing paradigm made all of the difference by simply changing the implementation of networking technology. But what exactly drives the development of cloud technology, what motivates its constant update, and what prevents people from adopting it?
Well, the biggest driver of cloud computing has always been economics. Because of changing market trends, heavy competition, and a failing world economy, IT organizations, companies, and other businesses need to be able to adapt to the rapid changes in order to stay afloat and make profit. Cloud computing brings with it immediate advantages because of cost savings.
The following are cost saving benefits are immediately felt by a business the moment they implement cloud computing technologies.
Cost savings on hardware and utilities brought about by scalability – the traditional method of supporting an organization with an IT infrastructure was to “buy and build for peak”, meaning that you have to build your IT infrastructure for future proofing. By assuming that the company will still grow to use more IT resources, you build your IT infrastructure depending on the projected size of the organization in the coming years. This means buying the most expensive and powerful equipment. Once they are installed, only a partial part of it is being actively used, meaning that most of its capacity and power are wasted. But with cloud computing, you no longer need to build the infrastructure yourself, it is being given as a service and you get to pay only for that portion that you use. When you need more resources, you can just get it and pay a little more. That is straight up cost savings and zero waste; you no longer have to pay for stuff like electrical utilities used on server cooling.
Cost savings on Technical expertise – one big problem with startup companies making their own IT infrastructure is finding the right people for the job. It becomes a tedious process when you happen to need people with high levels of technical expertise but are not able to give the compensation that they require. Surely there is a better way than to work with inexperienced workers. Cloud computing providers will already have the technical expertise to run a large system so you do not need to. Cost savings made by foregoing the hiring process, salaries, and human errors credited to new and inexperience administrators.
Cost savings due to security – information is really the most important variable in today’s online world. Once you get your data compromised, you lose money and customer’s trust. Like the above point, it is hard to find personnel with extensive computer security background, while your cloud provider might already have these kinds of people on staff.
By Abdul Salam
- Green Technology And The Cloud Industry - June 29, 2015
- Passing Big Data Through A Drinking Straw - October 22, 2013
- Cloud Computing Bottleneck: The Bandwidth Problem - October 17, 2013
- The Compromise For Internal And External IT - September 23, 2013
- Potential Powerful Pitfalls – Big Data, Big Trouble - September 10, 2013
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://cloudtweaks.com/2012/11/drivers-of-cloud-computing-adaption/
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| 0.948238 | 642 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Address: P. O. Box 1457, Los Gatos,
Figure 1. Spark Gap EMI Source
The May, 2001 Technical Tidbit, Hidden Threats to Electronic Equipment, discussed how static fields can cause internal sparking in electronic equipment resulting in operational problems due to electromagnetic interference, EMI. The same effect can be used to make an EMI generator that produces strong, reproducible, EMI either for stressing electronic systems or just to show how easily a static field can be converted to strong EMI. Figure 1 shows a spark gap and antenna formed by two pieces of copper foil tape placed upon a piece of clear plastic and covered with clear packing tape. Figure 2 shows a close-up of the spark gap itself. The pattern in the background is from a paper towel under the plastic. Several attempts at positioning the foil of the left side of the gap were necessary before a close enough spacing was achieved. This accounts for the rippled appearance of the foil on the left.
Figure 2. Close-up of Spark Gap
To see how this structure works, place an AM radio tuned to an empty frequency within a meter of the device. Charge a styrofoam cup by rubbing it on clothing. If you can feel the hair on your arm arm stand up when the cup is held near your arm, there is a charge of several thousand Volts on it. Bring the charged cup close to the foil on one side of the gap. You will hear successive "pops" in the radio as the cup approaches the foil and (usually) the same number of pops as the cup is removed. This happens because sparks form in the gap in response to the static charge on the cup as described in Hidden Threats to Electronic Equipment. In a dark room, you can actually see the sparks in the gap as a charge is induced on the foil by the proximity of the cup!
The characteristics of a spark are determined mostly by the arc length. A number of factors influence arc length including voltage, speed of approach for moving pieces, and atmospheric conditions. The gap in Figure 2 is a fraction of a millimeter. For such a small gap, the risetime of the current when a spark forms is very fast and the current waveform is repeatable. Low voltage ESD events, a few hundred volts or less, can have risetimes in the tens of picoseconds range. A high voltage spark with a relatively long arc length results in a slower risetime of the current and the current waveform may vary between successive sparks. A 10 kV discharge may have risetimes of tens of nanoseconds. The resultant di/dt for a small, low voltage, arc is higher than for high voltage events and in many instances is more likely to result in a system upset.
The packing tape over the copper foil and gap seals the environment of the spark and helps stabilize its characteristics against humidity and contamination from the environment. The copper foil forms an antenna to radiate the high frequency energy generated by a spark.
To get an appreciation of how intense the EMI generated by this structure is, short a scope probe with its ground lead and connect a one meter wire to the probe as shown in the July, 1999 Technical Tidbit "The Shorted Scope Probe." The one meter wire and probe cable shield acts as an antenna while the probe measures the voltage across the ground lead due to ESD induced currents flowing on this antenna. When a spark is induced in the gap of Figure 1, the radiated field can produce several volts across a 15 cm scope probe ground lead at a distance of one meter. You will notice that pops in the radio are accompanied by scope traces of nearly identical waveforms. The polarity of the waveforms as a charge approaches the foil is inverted from the waveforms as the charge is withdrawn.
So what is this engineering "toy" good for? Besides being a good science project for a student in school, it can be used to debug system ESD immunity problems. Just hold the "EMI Generator" near your system and induce sparks. It does not matter how the spark is induced, once the spark jumps, the radiated fields are pretty much the same as arc length and antenna structure is constant. Confirm that a spark is jumping by listening for pops in an AM radio. If you can induce a system problem within the distance of a meter or so, you may have interesting field problems. If your equipment does not react to the EMI generator held nearby, count your blessings! The system will be less likely to respond to EMI in the field.
Top of page
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<urn:uuid:dc819468-33ad-40fc-b8fb-cd061f6e4aa2>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.emcesd.com/tt2001/tt060101.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.9347 | 938 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Examination by infrared reflectography has revealed a detailed underdrawing for Margaret’s head and headdress. The lower part of the portrait has only a simple outlining, the design of which seems to have been more fully developed at a later stage.
The underdrawing has been executed with a brush and a liquid medium. The lines are sometimes relatively broad and free, for example those that indicate the crimped edges of her headdress, including the marks which suggest that originally the edge of the fabric was to echo the curve of her right cheek.
The shadowed side of her face is modelled with very fine closely hatched lines of exceptional delicacy. It is almost as detailed as the shading on Van Eyck’s portrait study in metalpoint on paper of a Cardinal, usually identified as Niccolò Albergati (Kupferstich-Kabinett, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden).
Van Eyck seems to have made this very elaborate drawing, complete with colour notes, in order to produce the painting, 'Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Albergati' (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), when he no longer had access to the sitter.1 Of course, this would not have been the case when executing a portrait of his wife.
As well as the possible change to the edge of the white fabric, there are several differences between the underdrawing and the final painting. The diagonal lines sketched across Margaret's ear imply that it may have been intended to be covered. The ‘horns’ of coiled hair were also originally shorter and Margaret’s eyes, especially her left eye, were drawn in a higher position.
The Arnolfini Portrait
Both in its technique and in the alterations made during painting, the underdrawing in this portrait is strikingly similar to that of the considerably smaller scale head of Arnolfini's wife in The Arnolfini Portrait. In this instance, however, the eyes have been moved up.2
Next: X-rays and pentimenti
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<urn:uuid:dc770db0-f31a-4d7b-8357-10b1c68fde52>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/research/the-restoration-of-margaret-the-artists-wife/the-underdrawing
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|
en
| 0.975154 | 432 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC)
What Is Tuberous Sclerosis?
If you have tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), your cells don’t stop dividing when they should. This means you get tumors in lots of places in your body. They aren’t cancer, but they can cause problems where they’re growing. There are treatments available that can shrink the tumors and make you more comfortable.
Every case is different. You might get TSC in certain parts of your body, and TSC might affect someone else differently. The tumors can look like thick or light patches on your skin, and if they're in your lungs, they can cause breathing problems.
Treatments can help you manage your symptoms and live an independent life.
Between 1 million and 2 million people around the world have this condition.
You get TSC because of a problem in your genes. For most people, it’s caused by changes that happened when your cells were first coming together or when you were just an embryo.
About a third of people inherit TSC from a parent. If one of your parents has it, you have a 50% chance of getting it.
Symptoms usually show up early, shortly after birth. But they can also appear later in life.
Your symptoms depend on how many tumors you have, how big they are, and where they are. When you have TSC, all of that can change throughout your life.
Tumors in a kidney can stop it from working like it should. They can also cause bleeding inside your body or high blood pressure.
Tumors in your heart usually happen when you're young, and they shrink over time. But they can block blood flow or cause problems with your heart rhythm.
Lung tumors can make you short of breath, even after mild exercise. They can also cause a cough or make your lung collapse.
Tumors in your brain could cause:
Tumors in your eyes can make you see double or give you blurry vision.
In other places in your body, you may have patches of different color skin and dark or light growths that might look like warts.
In your mouth, tuberous sclerosis can weaken the enamel on your teeth or make your gums overgrow.
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<urn:uuid:6a9eab76-bf35-44c8-a638-5b5fb4bec32c>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/tuberous-sclerosis
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|
en
| 0.953523 | 476 | 3.5 | 4 |
By Bonnie Messbarger
Recently I was reading some of the blogs on Ms. Magazine’s blog site, and found this article to be really interesting. It talks about the new book written by Caryl Rivers and Rosalind C. Barnett called The Truth About Girls and Boys: Challenging Toxic Stereotypes About Our Children. The book takes a look into the pseudoscience of gender essentialism, which basically is the idea that because we have different genders that means there is a natural difference in their biological and psychological makeup. This belief has bled into parenting styles, media and corporation strategies, and even education. Some see the differences between boys and girls to be so great that they need to be educated not only separately (as in a private all girls/boys school), but in completely different ways. The Ms. Magazine Blog says, “In the U.S., 524 public schools now have at least one single-sex classroom; nine years ago there were only a dozen.” Leonard Sax and Michael Gurian are the faces of gender separation in the classroom with books like “Why Gender Matters” and “Boys and Girls Learn Differently”. So, what exactly are these people suggesting we teach in these single-sex classrooms?
For starters people like Sax and Gurian tell us girls learn most effectively in a calm and quiet environment, where there isn’t much noise and everyone learns home economics, poetry, and other subjects that they see as useful to women. They are taught to be passive, quiet, and to nurture and listen. Also according to these stereotypes, boys learn best in an active environment, where they are moving constantly, and there is lots of noise. They disassemble electronics, and cars, and learn how to make things fly. They do not read literature critically, or discuss art and music, that is for women. They are outgoing and persistent, and taught to take charge and lead.
In my opinion, these stereotypes, which are basically what they are, are dangerous to be teaching young children. This system of separation could be very damaging for both boys and girls because of how limiting it is. This idea of different education methods for boys and girls claims to be based on science. But this “science” doesn’t account for boys who like to cook and teach and girls who like to build planes and take charge. This whole idea of separatist education is shocking to me, because it seems more like something out of a classroom in the 1900’s than a classroom in 2011. As a woman who’s outgoing, bakes, works on cars, can’t sit still, plays video games, sews, reads, and learns best by being hands on, I don’t see how these separate classrooms can be beneficial to anyone.
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<urn:uuid:d5701b35-482d-4c93-8ac7-0325164a196e>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://info.umkc.edu/womenc/2011/09/14/gender-stereotypes-in-the-classroom/
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|
en
| 0.965155 | 581 | 3.140625 | 3 |
|River Birch - 2002 Urban Tree of the Year|
|Society of Municipal Arborists Picks the Most Popular City Tree to Plant|
Betula nigra Heritage™ was selected Urban Tree of the Year for 2002 as determined by responses to an annual survey in arborist magazine City Trees. This magazine serves as Journal to The Society of Municipal Arborists (SMA) and readers select a new tree each year.
According to SMA, "the Heritage River Birch was selected as this year's Urban Tree of the Year. Although it was not a majority vote, the popularity of the Heritage River Birch comes from its tolerance to the urban environment; its beautiful bark in summer and winter, and its specimen-like qualities."
The three most common birch species grown in urban environments in America are paper birch, European white birch and the heat-tolerant river birch. River Birch, or Betula nigra, seems to be the only birch truly adapted to the hardships of urban conditions. Especially the Heritage™ or "Cully" cultivar. This tree stands up to heat and a deadly birch borer which can become a real problem with other birch species planted under city conditions and subject to pruning and other intrusive forms of landscape management.
According to City Trees Editor, Leonard Phillips, the tree was chosen "to illustrate the importance of selecting the right tree for the right spot...The Urban Tree of the Year also provides extra publicity to excellent trees that need planting more often. Our cities often contain too many of the common maples and ash that are cheap, easy to grow, and are short-lived. A quality urban tree is a better investment for the future of the city. Cities last forever, why plant a tree that will live only seven years on average."
A lot of arborists and urban foresters have used the tree and are recommending it highly in and around towns and cities.
Arthur Plotnik, in his Urban Tree Book describes the tree this way - "River birch bark is naturally platy or flaky; in cultivated varieties, it peels in colorful flakes of brown, salmon, peach, orange, and lavender - as if some child had gone wild with crepe paper. The superb 'Heritage' variety provides a pinkish-white bark, a bonus for regions deprived of paper and European white birches."
The Reader's Survey indicates that this year's runner-ups were Autumn Brilliance Serviceberry, Golden Rain Tree, Shawnee Brave Bald Cypress, and Allee Lacebark Elm. You can find many of these online at About Tree Catalogs.
Here is a river birch descriptive summary:
|Description (provided by City Trees)|
|Common Names:||river birch, black birch, water birch, red birch|
|Botanical Name:||Betula nigra 'Cully'|
|Habitat||Eastern United States, from southern New England to Florida and west to Minnesota and Kansas, in the wild, limited to moist areas and is most commonly found along stream banks and areas that flood.|
|Hardiness Zone:||3 - 9|
|Mature Size:||Height 45' - 50'; Spread 30'- 40'|
|Flower:||Male catkins are 2" to 3" long, female flowers are 1" to 1_" long, male catkins are usually grouped in threes.|
|Fruit:||Ornamentally insignificant, resembling immature catkins, opening and shedding small nutlet seeds in spring.|
|Foliage:||Summer: Leathery texture, glossy dark green upper side, light green on underside, somewhat diamond-shaped with a wedge-shaped leaf base, doubly serrate margin and slightly incised, alternate, ovate. Autumn: Golden-yellow to yellow-brown in good years, leaves drop quickly.|
|Twigs/Bark:||Red-brown ultra-thin twigs transition into cinnamon-colored, heavily-lenticeled young branches, exfoliating to a cream-light orange-lavender color to reveal salmon-brown and white patches on the trunk and large branches.|
|Pruning:||Pruning in late winter and throughout spring, will cause sap to bleed from the wounds, pruning is best accomplished in late summer through autumn.|
|Growth Rate:||Vigorous and robust, full size in 30 years|
|Planting:||Transplants best in spring by B & B or container, somewhat sensitive to being transplanted in autumn, and care should be taken to amend the soil, fertilize, water thoroughly, mulch adequately.|
|Site Requirements:||Makes best growth on moist river bottom soil, but has proven to be adaptable to dried sites, performs well in soils that are acidic to neutral, pH 6.5 or lower.|
|Pest Resistance:||Resistant to Bronze Birch Borer; most trouble free birch|
|Storm Resistance:||Resistant to wind and ice damage due to stout branching habit, does not weep like River Birch.|
|Salt Resistance:||Fair; avoid winter salt spray to enhance survival during winter.|
|Landscape Uses:||Useful in parks, residential areas, plaza plantings, larger residences, public grounds, parks, golf courses and city streets, good for clumps or single specimen, lawn tree; shade is light and allows turf to grow, texture is medium, useful along streams and in naturalistic areas.|
|Other Comments:||Full sun to partial shade, very symmetrical branching.|
|Available from:||Most nurseries.|
|
<urn:uuid:334acdd1-c252-4a52-ba3c-0ef1f42ac16c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://forestry.about.com/library/weekly/aa070902a.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.915006 | 1,182 | 2.734375 | 3 |
|Publication number||US6304045 B1|
|Application number||US 09/146,886|
|Publication date||16 Oct 2001|
|Filing date||3 Sep 1998|
|Priority date||3 Sep 1998|
|Publication number||09146886, 146886, US 6304045 B1, US 6304045B1, US-B1-6304045, US6304045 B1, US6304045B1|
|Original Assignee||Siemens Automotive Inc.|
|Export Citation||BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan|
|Patent Citations (21), Referenced by (17), Classifications (10), Legal Events (5)|
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet|
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to polyphase variable speed “brushless direct current (DC)” motors and, in particular, to speed controls for such motors.
2. Description of the Related Art
Brushless DC machines are well known in the art. A brushless DC machine is a sychronous machine, which is powered by alternating current, operated in such a way as to behave like a DC machine. Input power from a DC source is converted into alternating currents which are supplied to armature windings on a stator. Sensors signal the position of the rotor, on which magnets are located, to electronics which control switching elements converting the input DC power to polyphase alternating currents. The frequency and phase angle of the stator currents are controlled such that a constant angular displacement exists between the poles of the rotating stator field and the field poles of the rotor. Such a constant angular displacement also exists in a DC machine. However, in a DC machine the field windings are on the stator and the armature windings are on the rotor.
Typically, the polyphase alternating currents are three-phase currents, the phases being displaced from one another by a phase angle of 120°. Each phase of the three phases of alternating current supplies one of three phase windings found on the stator. The alternating current supplied to the phase windings can be either bipolar or unipolar. Bipolar alternating current can be a full rectangular wave or sinusoidal alternating current and unipolar alternating current is usually a half rectangular wave alternating current, the current varying from zero to a certain magnitude with no current reversal. A typical three phase winding for a three phase bipolar brushless DC motor in a star configuration is shown in FIG. 1. Typical examples of bipolar and unipolar alternating current are shown in FIGS. 1a and 1 b, respectively.
In the configuration shown in FIG. 1, two phase windings can be connected to the power supply through the half H-bridge switching system comprised of at least one half H-bridge switching arrangement 2. For example, to turn phase windings A and B on, switches Q1 and Q4 would be turned on. To apply current in the opposite direction through phase windings A and B, switches Q3 and Q2 would be turned on. The remaining switches would be left in the open position. VS stands for supply voltage and GND stands for ground in FIG. 1.
The current flow in each winding must be synchronized to change direction simultaneously with the change in direction of the back electromotive force (EMF) developed by the phase winding such that the current flow in each winding opposes the back EMF developed by each phase winding. FIG. 2 illustrates the variation over time of the back EMF for each phase winding and the combined variation of back EMF and current over time for any two of the three phase windings shown in FIG. 1.
Current always flows through two phase windings when the combined phase to phase back EMF is at its maximum magnitude, shown in FIG. 2 by the flat portion of a trapezoid. The sequence in which all three phases are energized is shown in FIG. 2a. FIG. 2a presents one electrical cycle that is continuously repeated as the motor rotates. When the back EMF is reversed in a pair of coils, the current must reverse its direction as well. This is effected by turning on corresponding switches.
When operating in the above mode, the motor will run at full speed, determined by the applied load. One of the important features of brushless DC motors is the ability to change the operating speed continuously. Speed control has been achieved by various methods including linear speed control, pulse width modulation (PWM), block commutation, and by applying resonant converters.
Speed variation using linear speed control is obtained by operating switches, for example, metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) in their linear operation regions (as variable resistors). The MOSFETs' resistance determines the magnitude of current passed through the phase coil. This type of control can only be utilized for relatively low levels of current due to the MOSFET heating effect.
Speed variation using PWM is obtained by chopping the phase current. The PWM frequency is much higher then the EMF waveform frequency. In this case, the current pulses of a constant frequency are varied in width, thus changing the average value of the current. MOSFETs can act as switches which are either fully turned on or fully turned off. When the MOSFETs are turned off, the phase current is chopped. The pulse width of 100% corresponds to full speed operation. The lower the pulse width, the lower the average phase current and speed. A pulse width of 60% means that the MOSFET is turned on for 60% of the pulse duration time, and is turned off for the remaining 40% of the time. This type of control, although more efficient than linear speed control, requires a snubber circuit comprising a power resistor (dissipating substantial amounts of heat) and a capacitor. It can also generate substantial amounts of radio frequency interference due to fast current transition rates.
Speed variation using block commutation is obtained by changing the duration of the phase current during each conduction period, see FIG. 3. In this type of control, speed is a function of time during which the relevant phase MOSFETs are turned on for each conduction period, a conduction period being, for example, 60 degrees. In such a case, the phase duration would be in the range of approximately 20 degrees for low speed, 40 degrees for medium speed, and 60 degrees for full speed operation. The main advantage of this method is a simple drive circuit, with relatively high efficiency. The disadvantage is the fact that at low speeds, the magnitude of current pulses can become high. As a result, this method has been used only over small ranges of speed.
Speed control using resonant converters is obtained using various control topologies in which resonant components such as inductors and capacitors are used to control the energy flow. This is an emerging method of speed control by which very low thermal losses and reduced radio frequency interference (RFI) can be obtained. Added components may limit this technology in space and cost sensitive applications.
The present invention relates to an apparatus which utilizes the methods of block commutation and linear speed control to achieve brushless DC motor speed control, while minimizing the disadvantages of those methods.
The brushless DC motor of the present invention utilizes alternating currents comprising a plurality of phases, of alternating current each of the plurality of phases being supplied to a phase winding group, each phase winding group being wound on a stator included in the brushless DC motor. Each phase of the plurality of phases of alternating current is split into a plurality of subphases of alternating current , and each phase winding croup comprises a plurality of phase winding subsections. Each phase winding subjection of the plurality of phase winding subjections is supplied by a subphase of a plurality of the plurality of subphases of alternating current. The brushless DC motor further comprises means for switching current so as to conduct the current through at least one of the plurality of phase winding subsections. The motor is operative at a plurality of motor operating speeds, each motor operating speed being determined by a current path through at least one of the plurality of phase winding subsections different from current paths corresponding to those of the plurality of motor operating speeds other than the motor operating speed corresponding to the current path.
The means for switching currents can comprise at least one half H-bridge switching arrangement, and the plurality of phases can be three in number. The alternating currents can be bipolar or unipolar. Block commutation or linear speed control can be used to vary motor speed between a first speed of said plurality of motor operating speeds and a second speed of said plurality of motor operating speeds.
FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of the three-phase brushless DC motor bipolar winding configuration;
FIG. 1a is a schematic drawing of a typical example of bipolar alternating current.
FIG. 1b is a schematic drawing of a typical example of unipolar alternating current.
FIG. 2 illustrates graphical displays of back electromotive force and current waveforms in the three-phase bipolar winding configuration;
FIG. 2a shows the sequence and duration for which the phases of the three-phase bipolar motor are energized for full speed operation during one complete electrical cycle;
FIG. 3 is a graph showing current pulse change during block commutation;
FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the brushless DC motor split-phase bipolar winding configuration according to the invention;
FIG. 5 illustrates the speed-torque curves for the brushless DC motor split-phase bipolar winding configuration according to the invention; and
FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of the brushless DC motor split-phase unipolar winding configuration according to the invention.
Referring initially to FIG. 4, there is disclosed a schematic diagram of a first embodiment of the invention wherein a a split-phase bipolar winding configuration is incorporated into a brushless DC motor. Each phase winding includes at least two winding subsections. In FIG. 4, phase winding group A has been split into two subsections, namely, phase winding subsection A1, and phase winding subsection A2. Phase winding subsection B has been split into phase winding subsection B1 and phase winding subsection B2. Likewise, phase C has been split into phase winding subsection C1 and phase winding subsection C2. Phase winding subsection A1, B1, and C1 constitute a main set of windings, and phase winding subsection A2, B2, and C2 constitute a supplementary set of windings.
In addition to the supplementary winding, three half H-bridge switches, Q7-Q12, are introduced to perform the current switching functions. A typical motor which incorporates this winding configuration will have three distinct speed-torque curves as shown in FIG. 5.
Referring now to FIG. 5, the “S_main” line represents the base speed-torque line of the motor when only the main winding is in operation, for example, when phase winding subsections A1 and B1 are conducting current. The line “S_sup1” represents the speed-torque line of the motor when the main winding, and one supplementary winding are working together, for example, when phases A1, A2, and B1 are working together. The line “S_sup2” represents the speed-torque line of the motor when the main winding and both supplementary windings are working together, for example, when phase winding subsections A, A2, B1 and B2 are working together. The crossing points of the speed-torque lines and the fan curve will determine the motor operating speed for each winding configuration. These crossing points correspond to three distinct speed levels: Sa, Sb, and Sc. In order to change the motor speed between these points, the block commutation method is used.
As described hereinabove, the block commutation method is an effective method to control the speed of the motor at certain predetermined speed ranges of the motor. For example, the speed change in the range of Sa to Sb is obtained by shortening the duration of the current blocks, see FIG. 3. By doing this, the base speed-torque curve is gradually rotated clockwise as the stall torque is decreased. When the intersection of the fan curve and the base curve reaches the Sb point, the base speed-torque line will have a position indicated in FIG. 5 as the “S_main_blk” line. At that point, the winding configuration is modified to include one supplementary winding. For that configuration as described above, the corresponding speed torque line is “S_sup1”. At this point, the block commutation is disabled, and the motor operates as though at full speed operation.
In order to decrease the speed from point to Sb to Sc, block commutation is again implemented. The base line for the speed change is the “S_sup1” line. At the end of that speed change, point Sc, the speed-torque line will be represented by “S_sup1_blk”. At that point, the winding configuration is again modified to include two supplementary windings. As described above, the corresponding speed torque line is “S_sup2”. At this point, block commutation is disabled again and the motor once again operates as though at full speed operation. Below that speed level, the block commutation method or linear speed control can be used.
In addition to speed-torque curves, FIG. 5 shows the corresponding current curves. In general, for the brushless DC motor split-phase bipolar winding configuration, the block commutation method of speed control is more efficient above one-half of the maximum speed of the motor and the linear speed control method is more effective below one-half of the maximum speed of the motor. If block commutation is used at low motor speeds, the magnitude of current pulses become very high due to low back EMF, and the current pulses in turn cause torque ripples, and can be devastating to electronic switches.
More than one set of supplementary phases can be used according to the invention. For example, different numbers of turns, as well as different wire gages, can be implemented. Other methods beside block commutation can be utilized to obtain a variable speed control.
A second embodiment of the invention is shown in FIG. 6 wherein a brushless DC motor split-phase unipolar winding configuration is shown. In this embodiment, winding group is split in three phase winding subsections. The motor can be made operational at three different speed levels. The first speed level is obtained by switching only Q1, Q2, and Q3 transistors (i.e. switches). The second, lower speed level is obtained by switching only Q4, Q5, and Q6 transistors. The third, lower speed level is obtained by switching Q7, Q8, and Q9 transistors. To obtain a continuous speed control, a block commutation and/or a linear speed control method may be implemented.
Some advantages of the split-phase speed control method over the existing methods of speed control are: (1) radio frequency interference levels lower than those generated by PWM methods, (2) current ripple levels lower than those present using traditional block commutation, (3) the amount of heat losses at high and medium speed operation are lower than those generated by linear speed control or PWM control, (4) hardware and software design is simpler than that needed for PWM control, (5) the split-phase speed control method is a low cost solution when compared to PWM control, (6) the hardware necessary to implement split-phase speed control is of a small physical size, (7) split-phase speed control enables high power density and high power capability, (8) high efficiency is achieved at high and medium speed ranges (no power snubbing circuitry is necessary), (9) increased reliability of motor start-up is achieved when using sensorless commutation, (10) motor starting torque is increased, and (11) there is a minimal effect of excessive levels of supply voltage on internal power losses.
|Cited Patent||Filing date||Publication date||Applicant||Title|
|US3663877||2 Apr 1970||16 May 1972||Ampex||Brushless dc motor including tachometer commutation circuit|
|US3851231 *||19 Jun 1973||26 Nov 1974||Tracked Hovercraft Ltd||Short stator induction motor|
|US3930190 *||21 Jun 1974||30 Dec 1975||Siemens Ag||Brushless DC motor having multiple stator windings|
|US3931553||1 Jul 1974||6 Jan 1976||Allis-Chalmers Corporation||Electronic commutation system having motor stator windings in push-pull|
|US4075543 *||29 Apr 1976||21 Feb 1978||Anvar Agence Nationale De Valorisation De La Recherche||Method of determining the position and connection of multi-pole windings for multi-speed electric machines|
|US4092572||2 Sep 1976||30 May 1978||Pioneer Electronic Corporation||Brushless D.C. motor driving system|
|US4484115||28 Jun 1982||20 Nov 1984||Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd.||Brushless motor|
|US4495450||16 Dec 1983||22 Jan 1985||Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.||Control device for brushless motor|
|US4528485||13 Apr 1982||9 Jul 1985||General Electric Company||Electronically commutated motor, method of operating such, control circuit, laundry machine and drive therefor|
|US4654566||2 Feb 1983||31 Mar 1987||General Electric Company||Control system, method of operating an electronically commutated motor, and laundering apparatus|
|US4746844||16 Jul 1986||24 May 1988||Maghemite Inc.||Control and operation of brushless continuous torque toroid motor|
|US4758768||25 Sep 1987||19 Jul 1988||Penn Engineering & Manufacturing Corp.||12-step commutation device for an electric motor|
|US4882524 *||12 Apr 1988||21 Nov 1989||I Soo Lee||Multi-phase bipolar brushless D.C. motor|
|US5140246 *||6 Mar 1990||18 Aug 1992||Picker International, Inc.||High performance high speed starter for an x-ray tube rotor|
|US5204604||28 Feb 1992||20 Apr 1993||General Electric Company||Linearizer for a switched reluctance generator|
|US5216339 *||30 Sep 1991||1 Jun 1993||Dmytro Skybyk||Lateral electric motor|
|US5216343||30 Apr 1991||1 Jun 1993||Seagate Technology, Inc.||Motor construction and method for limiting spin-up time in a hard disk drive|
|US5221880||15 Oct 1992||22 Jun 1993||Balco, Inc.||Underground trolley vehicle with brushless D.C. Motor|
|US5350987 *||30 Dec 1992||27 Sep 1994||Victor Company Of Japan, Ltd.||Detection of position of rotor in brushless DC motor|
|US5602452||19 Sep 1995||11 Feb 1997||Moog Inc.||Regeneration current-spike limiter for six-step motor drives|
|US5652493 *||8 Dec 1994||29 Jul 1997||Tridelta Industries, Inc. (Magna Physics Division)||Polyphase split-phase switched reluctance motor|
|Citing Patent||Filing date||Publication date||Applicant||Title|
|US6703805||12 Apr 2002||9 Mar 2004||Mountain Engineering Ii, Inc.||System for measuring the position of an electric motor|
|US6710581 *||9 Feb 1999||23 Mar 2004||I.S. Motor Korea Co., Ltd.||Constant-power brushless DC motor|
|US6864613||29 Mar 2000||8 Mar 2005||G & G Technology, Inc.||Armature for an electromotive device|
|US6873085||18 Apr 2002||29 Mar 2005||G & G Technology, Inc.||Brushless motor|
|US7305752||17 Nov 2004||11 Dec 2007||Thingap Corporation||Method for fabricating an inductive coil|
|US7397222 *||30 Aug 2006||8 Jul 2008||Westinghouse Electric Co Llc||On-line testable solid state reversing DC motor starter|
|US20020171306 *||18 Apr 2002||21 Nov 2002||Graham Gregory S.||Brushless motor|
|US20040071003 *||4 Sep 2003||15 Apr 2004||G & G Technology, Inc.||Split phase polyphase inverter|
|US20060082341 *||19 Oct 2005||20 Apr 2006||Thingap Corporation||Split phase polyphase inverter|
|US20070031131 *||4 Aug 2005||8 Feb 2007||Mountain Engineering Ii, Inc.||System for measuring the position of an electric motor|
|US20070200452 *||26 Feb 2007||30 Aug 2007||Thingap Corporation||Brushless motor|
|US20080054857 *||30 Aug 2006||6 Mar 2008||Westinghouse Electric Company, Llc||On-line testable solid state reversing DC motor starter|
|US20140239876 *||26 Feb 2013||28 Aug 2014||GM Global Technology Operations LLC||Electric drive with reconfigurable winding|
|US20150145450 *||26 Nov 2014||28 May 2015||Johnson Electric S.A.||Control circuit for a dc motor|
|WO2008027867A2 *||28 Aug 2007||6 Mar 2008||Westinghouse Electric Co. Llc||An on-line testable solid state reversing dc motor starter|
|WO2011121601A2 *||21 Dec 2010||6 Oct 2011||Epcos India Private Limited||A switched inductor bank|
|WO2011121601A3 *||21 Dec 2010||24 Nov 2011||Epcos India Private Limited||A switched inductor bank|
|U.S. Classification||318/400.41, 318/400.09, 388/815|
|International Classification||H02P6/08, H02K29/00, H02K3/28|
|Cooperative Classification||H02K3/28, H02P6/085|
|European Classification||H02K3/28, H02P6/08B|
|14 Dec 1998||AS||Assignment|
Owner name: SIEMENS CANADA LIMITED, CANADA
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST;ASSIGNOR:MUSZYNSKI, JERZY;REEL/FRAME:009642/0658
Effective date: 19981204
|11 Mar 2005||FPAY||Fee payment|
Year of fee payment: 4
|27 Apr 2009||REMI||Maintenance fee reminder mailed|
|16 Oct 2009||LAPS||Lapse for failure to pay maintenance fees|
|8 Dec 2009||FP||Expired due to failure to pay maintenance fee|
Effective date: 20091016
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UMKC Discovery Could Help Millions
Those who work evening shifts – including police officers, hospital workers and manufacturers – suffer much higher rates of health problems such as heart attack and stroke. University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Biological Sciences researchers have made a discovery that could improve the lives of millions of Americans who work outside of the normal 9-5 day.
In the laboratory, UMKC collaborators found a novel class of proteins that are potential drug targets to improve sleep/wake behaviors. Their findings were published in a recent issue of Neuron, one of the most influential neuroscience journals.
“This is the most important discovery of my UMKC career because it could help so many people,” said Jeffrey Price, a UMKC associate professor of biology. “Not only does this have the potential to affect shift workers, it could improve the function of people as they age or those with neurodegenerative diseases and the blind.”
Price authored the study with Associate Professor Samuel Bouyain; Research Associate Professor Andrew Keightley, Research Assistant Professor Jin-Yuan Fan; and graduate students Boadi Agyekum and Anandakrishnan Venkatesan. The work was multidisciplinary, employing genetics, biochemistry, cell biology, structural biology and proteomics.
“This was a complicated collaboration among three labs over several years,” said Bouyain, who is the head of an X-ray crystallography lab and determined the new protein’s structure. “The parts wouldn’t have made sense on their own.”
Fan’s and Price’s research expertise centers on circadian rhythms, individuals’ 24-hour schedules influenced mainly by light. The study was conducted with fruit flies, whose sleep cycles are similar to humans.
The new protein discovered by the UMKC team has been named Bride of Doubletime. The researchers found it can bind to another already well-known protein, Doubletime (earlier in his career, Price was one of the researchers who discovered that protein). That husband-and-wife-type binding is important because it adds phosphate groups to proteins, altering the body’s internal clock. So evening employees could work with similar wakefulness as when it’s naturally light, if the Doubletime/Bride of Doubletime pair could be targeted by drugs to alter the pace or settings of the internal clock. In a similar way, drugs target a relative of Bride of Doubletime paired with another protein to suppress immune function during organ transplants, so that the organs are not rejected by the body.Posted on Jan 06, 2014.
UMKC Police Officer Boyd Breedlove works evening shifts. Photo credit: Janet Rogers, Division of Strategic Marketing and Communications
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Increased head circumference
Increased head circumference is when the measured distance around the widest part of the skull is larger than expected for the child's age and background.
A newborn's head is usually about 2 cm (centimeters) larger than the chest size. Between 6 months and 2 years, both measurements are about equal. After 2 years, the chest size becomes larger than the head.
Measurements over time that show an increased rate of head growth often provide more valuable information than a single measurement that is larger than expected.
Increased pressure inside the head (increased intracranial pressure) often occurs with increased head circumference. Symptoms of this condition include:
Increased head size may be from any of the following:
When to Contact a Medical Professional
The health care provider usually finds an increased head size in a baby during a routine well-baby exam.
What to Expect at Your Office Visit
A careful physical exam will be done. Other milestones for growth and development will be checked.
In some cases, a single measurement is enough to confirm that there is a size increase that needs to be tested further. More often, repeated measurements of the head circumference over time are needed to confirm that the head circumference is increased and the problem is getting worse.
Diagnostic tests that may be ordered include:
Robinson S, Cohen AR. Disorders in head shape and size. In: Martin RJ, Fanaroff AA, Walsh MC, eds. Fanaroff and Martin's Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine. 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2015:chap 64.
Reviewed By: Neil K. Kaneshiro, MD, MHA, Clinical Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.
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Letters were once the primary form of distance communication. Not so much anymore. However, there are a good number of people who choose to ignore technology advances and write paper mail. So for all those who wish to join the forces of quaint, here is how.
1Get friends who live far away. While this can be achieved by stealing away in the night and travelling to far off planets, it is more practical to remember friends or relatives who live far away or using a pen-pal service.
2Choose a stationary set. Simple lined notebook paper, or adorable Korean specialty stationary all have their own following. It is time for you to choose where you stand in the great stationary debate.
3Get a pen or pencil. Calligraphy, typewriters, fountain pens and coloured markers all make for interesting effects on writing.
4Begin the letter with an opening. Dear is the most commonly used but inventing others can occasionally delight the recipient. Add the date at the top.
5Write a thoroughly irrelevant sentence. This grants the letter an informal tone and defines it as a letter.
6Ask about the recipient's doings.
7Write any interesting news, thoughts,stories or other such things you have had recently.
8Ask any questions you have for the recipient here.
9Close the letter. There are numerous choices for the letter closing. As this is a social letter, sincerely & your truly can be eliminated. Your friend is the most common although anything would really be acceptable. If the recipient or you speak another language, it is common to close the letter in this language.
10Seal the envelope after you put the letter inside. You can use a wax seal or sticker at this step. The envelope also looks charming when decorated. If you suddenly have any last thoughts, they can be written on the envelope.
11Add postage stamps and put in the mailbox.
- Be sure to use the correct amount of postage stamps.
- Write address and return legibly on the envelope.
- Postal services have restrictions on envelope sizes. Beware of using a nonstandard size envelope.
- Do not pester for a reply. Have some patience.
- In most cases it is better if replies are not sent out right after the original letter was received, as this may overwhelm the recipient.
- Official-looking-and-witty titles can make good letter openings and closings. Ex. To the Right Hon. James of the Paper plane.
- Be careful to make your handwriting is legible.
- Beware paper cuts are ready to strike the careless finger.
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The New York Times reported yesterday on a big Beethoven discovery -- a manuscript, in Beethoven's own hand, of his in-process transcription of the Grosse Fuge for piano four hands. If you're thinking, "Huh?" right about now, let the Times explain.
Any manuscript showing a composer's self-editing gives invaluable insight into his working methods, and this is a particularly rich example. Such second thoughts are particularly revealing in the case of Beethoven, who, never satisfied, honed his ideas brutally - unlike, say, Mozart, who was typically able to spill out a large score in nearly finished form.The "Grosse Fuge" -- German for big or grand (not "gross") fugue, or in my translation, "big, badass fugue," or in this translation from the Japanese, "large Hu moth" -- was originally written as the sixth and final movement of one of Beethoven's late string quartets. At the first performance of the quartet, the audience and critic reaction was a lot like yours, i.e., "Huh?" The late quartets are completely sublime music, but can be somewhat difficult to understand, and the fugue, which is a complex work on its own and lasts 15 to 20 minutes, made the quartet it was part of even more difficult. The publisher persuaded Beethoven to write a new sixth movement by offering to pay him to publish the fugue as a freestanding work.
What's more, this manuscript is among Beethoven's last, from the period when he was stone deaf. It not only depicts his thought processes at their most introspective and his working methods at their most intense, but also gives a sense of his concern for his legacy. The "Grosse Fuge," originally part of a string quartet, had been badly treated by a baffled public, and he was evidently eager to see it live on in a form in which music lovers could play it on their pianos at home.
As the Times points out, there's a continuing controversy today over whether the fugue should be restored to its original role as the final movement of the quartet. The pro and con arguments are amusing if you think of them as comparable to a disagreement between "original intent" (Raoul Berger) and "original meaning" (Justice Scalia). The "pro" view is that Beethoven thought the fugue should be part of the quartet and changed his mind for money, all the while insulting the fools who didn't understand it. The "con" view is that Beethoven agreed to substitute a new movement and that we are looking at Beethoven's final decision. I once asked a professional string quartet violinist what he thought, and he proceeded to mock the opening of the substitute sixth movement (bouncing octaves in the accompaniment) and told me that Beethoven wrote it to make fun of his foolish critics. I personally like the substitute movement and think the fugue should stand on its own.
The fugue is a complex work, not a strict fugue like Bach's -- Beethoven rarely if ever wrote fugues according to the book -- but more of a free-flowing effort in several shorter movements. Here is a MIDI version for "string quartet," but I would encourage you to listen to the real thing. (By the way, here's a MIDI version of the transcription for piano four hands.) Segments of the fugue are almost inconceivable in music written in the 1820s, with harmonic clashes that presage the polytonal and atonal music of almost a century later. And even the more traditionally tonal majority of the fugue has an energy to it that verges on musical violence. It really is an amazing composition.
The Times article quotes some musicologists about the fugue:
Like Ms. Carbo, musicologists sounded stunned when read a description of the manuscript by Sotheby's, which will auction it on Dec. 1 in London. "Wow! Oh my God!" said Lewis Lockwood, a musicology professor at Harvard University and a Beethoven biographer. "This is big. This is very big."So when you go into your local CD store to buy a copy, make sure you ask for Beethoven's "Big Badass Fugue" or, better yet, his "Large Hu Moth."
Indeed it is.
Above all, it may shed light on Beethoven's conception of the "Grosse Fuge," a work with almost mythical status in the music world, variously described by historians as a "leviathan," a "symphonic poem" and an achievement on the scale of the finale of his Ninth Symphony and Bach's "Art of Fugue."
UPDATE (12/1): The manuscript sold for $1.72 million to an anonymous buyer.
UPDATE (3/1): The anonymous buyer turns out to be Bruce Kovner, who donated it and other manuscripts to Juilliard.
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Balance Sheet Example,What is The Horizontal and What is the Vertical Presentation Method Of Preparing A Balance Sheet
|Earlier article we have describe what is a balance sheet re:a Balance Sheet is called the Statement of Financial Position which is a snapshot of a company’s financial position at a particular point in time. The Accounting equation which is Assets= Liabilities+ Stockholder’s Equity is closely link to the Balance Sheet. Because of this accounting equation and the double entry system, the Balance sheet will always agree or tally.This article descibes the two ways/formats of preparing the balance sheet.
Balance sheet example using the horizontal presentation method:
Note that the horizontal presentation uses a format that present assets on the left and liabilities and equity on the right
Balance Sheet As at July 31st 2008
Balance sheet example using the Vertical presentation method:
The vertical presentation show the assets followed by liabilities and equity directly below the assets.
Balance Sheet As At 31st July 2008
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Hutchinson Family Organic Ranch
Dave Hutchinson’s parents were grass-fed pioneers. Their commitment to raising grass-fed cattle was rooted in the strong conservationist ethic of the prairie grass rancher, plus a firm belief that feeding grain to livestock was unnatural. The family motto was “If it’s not grass-fed, it’s not gourmet.”
“My parents were interested in conservation of grasslands 80 years ago. We’ve never fed corn to our animals. We know it’s healthier for the cow and for people,’” says Hutchinson, who carries on the family tradition at his 5000-acre ranch in the Sand Hills of North Central Nebraska.
The Hutchinsons were also early adopters of organic methods, having gained organic certification in 1990. Along with help from his wife, one of his five daughters, her husband and a grandchild, Hutchinson raises about 500 cattle, along with a herd of 200 buffalo, 200 meat goats, a small herd of quarter horses, seven donkeys and some dairy cows that supply milk for the family.
Hutchinson explains that the ranch’s location in Nebraska’s Sand Hills, about 70 miles from Broken Bow and 80 miles from Valentine, dictates that the land be carefully managed. Though the sandy soil of the Sand Hills has never been suitable for raising crops, it does support a thriving mix of sand-tolerant grass species, including short-grass, mixed-grass and tallgrass.
In the late 1800s, these grasslands were discovered to be great places to graze cattle. The region continues to be prized as a productive cattle ranching area. The massive Ogallala Aquifer underneath the Sand Hills feeds creeks, rivers and streams throughout the region, ensuring plenty of water for grazing animals.
Hutchinson’s ranch is particularly favored with “some of the purest water on the earth” that comes from 17 artesian wells on the property. Though rainfall is plentiful most of the time, herd sizes are also carefully managed to ensure that animals will have enough to eat, even in times of drought.
Conservationists like the Hutchinsons apply successful land-management practices that prevent overgrazing of the land, so that the natural landscape remains much as it was hundreds of years ago.
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[Note: This is a single part of what will be, by my classification, about 240 compact tribal histories (contact to 1900). It is limited to the lower 48 states of the U.S. but also includes those First Nations from Canada and Mexico that had important roles (Huron, Micmac, Assiniboine, etc.).
This history's content and style are representative. The normal process at this point is to circulate an almost finished product among a peer group for comment and criticism. At the end of this History you will find links to those Nations referred to in the History of the Wampanoag.
Using the Internet, this can be more inclusive. Feel free to comment or suggest corrections via e-mail. Working together we can end some of the historical misinformation about Native Americans. You will find the ego at this end to be of standard size. Thanks for stopping by. I look forward to your comments... Lee Sultzman]
Southeastern Massachusetts between the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island to the western end of Cape Cod. This also included the coastal islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket.
In 1600 the Wampanoag probably were as many as 12,000 with 40 villages divided roughly between 8,000 on the mainland and another 4,000 on the off-shore islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. The three epidemics which swept across New England and the Canadian Maritimes between 1614 and 1620 were especially devastating to the Wampanoag and neighboring Massachuset with mortality in many mainland villages (i.e. Patuxet) reaching 100%. When the Pilgrims landed in 1620, fewer than 2,000 mainland Wampanoag had survived. The island Wampanoag were protected somewhat by their relative isolation and still had 3,000. At least 10 mainland villages had been abandoned after the epidemics, because there was no one left. After English settlement of Massachusetts, epidemics continued to reduce the mainland Wampanoag until there were only 1,000 by 1675. Only 400 survived King Philip's War.
Still concentrated in Barnstable, Plymouth, and Bristol
counties of southeastern Massachusetts, the Wampanoag have endured and grown slowly to their current membership of 3,000. The island communities of Wampanoag on Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket maintained a population near 700 until a fever in 1763 killed two-thirds of the Nantucket. It never recovered, and the last Nantucket died in 1855. The community Martha's Vineyard has sustained itself by adding native peoples from the mainland and intermarriage, but by 1807 only 40 were full-bloods. Massachusetts divided the tribal lands in 1842 and ended tribal status in 1870, but the Wampanoag reorganized as the Wampanoag Nation in 1928. There are currently five organized bands: Assonet, Gay Head, Herring Pond, Mashpee, and Namasket. All have petitioned for federal and state recognition, but only Gay Head (600 members but without a reservation) has been successful (1987). The Mashpee (2,200 members) were turned down by the federal courts in 1978.
Wampanoag means "eastern people." Also called: Massasoit, Philip's Indians, and very commonly in the early records, Pokanoket (Poncakanet).
Algonquin. N-dialect like the Massachuset, Nauset, and Narragansett.
Wampanoag Confederacy:Agawam, Annawon, Assameekg, Assawompset, Assonet, Betty's Neck, Coaxet, Cohannet, Coneconarn (Cawnacome), Cooxissett, Cowsumpsit, Jones River, Loquasquseit, Mattakest (Mattakees, Mattakesset), Mattapoiset, Munponset, Nukkehkummeess, Namasket, Patuxet, Piowant (Piant), Pocasset (Corbitant, Caunbatant, Weetamoo), Pokanoket (Montaup, Sowam), Saltwater Pond, Shawomet (Shanomet), Shimmoah, Tispaquin (Tuspaquin), Totoson, Tyasks (Tyashk), and Wauchimoqut.Nantucket:Miacomit, Nantucket, Polpis, Sasacackeh, Shaukimmo, Siasconsit, Squam (Pennacook), Talhanio, and Tetaukimmo.Martha's Vineyard:Capawack (Capawake), Cheesehahchamuk, Chaubaqueduck, Gay Head, Mankutquet, Nashamoiess, Nashanekammuck, Nohtooksaet, Nunnepoag, Onkonkemme, Pahkepunnasso, Sanchecantacket, Seconchqut, Tewanticut, Toohtoowee, and Warnpamag (Sanchakankachet).Wampanoag Praying towns before 1675:Acushnet, Herring Pond (Comassakumkanit), Kitteaumut, Manomet, Pachade, Quittaub, Sakonnet, and Wawayontat. Also Toikiming on Nantucket and Gay Head on Martha's Vineyard.Praying towns in 1680:Acushnet, Chappaquidgick, Coatuit, Cotuhikut, Gay Head, Meeshawn (Nauset), Mashpee (Marshpee), Matakees, Natick, Punkapog, Sakonnet, Toikiming, and Weequaket.Mainland Settlements in 1847:Assonet, Chipaquadie, Christiantown, Dartmouth, Herring Pond, Mashpee, Mamatakesett Pond, Natick-Dudley-Grafton, Punkapog, Sakonnet, Tumpum Pond, and Yarmouth.
Like other Algonquin in southern New England, the Wampanoag were a horticultural people who supplemented their agriculture with hunting and fishing. Villages were concentrated near the coast during the summer to take advantage of the fishing and seafood, but after the harvest, the Wampanoag moved inland and separated into winter hunting camps of extended families. Since New England was heavily populated before 1600, these hunting territories were usually defined to avoid conflict. Ownership passed from father to son, but it was fairly easy to obtain permission to hunt in someone else's lands. The Wampanoag were organized as a confederacy with lesser sachems and sagamores under the authority of a Grand Sachem. Although the English often referred to Wampanoag sachems as "kings," there was nothing royal about the position beyond respect and a very limited authority. Rank had few privileges, and Wampanoag sachems worked for a living like everyone else. It should also be noted that, in the absence of a suitable male heir, it was not uncommon among the Wampanoag for a woman to become the sachem (queen or squaw-sachem).
The earliest contacts between the Wampanoag and Europeans occurred during the 1500s as fishing and trading vessels roamed the New England coast. Judging from the Wampanoag's later attitude towards the Pilgrims, most of these encounters were friendly. Some, however, were not. European captains were known to increase profits by capturing natives to sell as slaves. Such was the case when Thomas Hunt kidnapped several Wampanoag in 1614 and later sold them in Spain. One of his victims - a Patuxet named Squanto (Tisquantum) - was purchased by Spanish monks who attempted to "civilize" him. Eventually gaining his freedom, Squanto was able to work his way to England (apparently undeterred by his recent experience with Captain Hunt) and signed on as an interpreter for a British expedition to Newfoundland. From there Squanto went back to Massachusetts, only to discover that, in his absence, epidemics had killed everyone in his village. As the last Patuxet, he remained with the other Wampanoag as a kind of ghost.
To Squanto's tragic story must be added a second series of unlikely events. Living in Holland at the time was a small group of English religious dissenters who, because of persecution, had been forced to leave England. Concerned their children were becoming too Dutch and the possibility of a war between Holland and Spain, but still unwelcome in England, these gentle people decided to immigrate to the New World. The Virginia Company agreed to transport them to the mouth of the Hudson River, took their money, and loaded them on two ships (Speedwell and Mayflower) with other English immigrants not of their faith. The little fleet set sail in July only to have the Speedwell spring a leak 300 miles out to sea. Accompanied by the Mayflower, it barely made it back to Plymouth without sinking. Repairs failed to fix the problem, so in September everyone was crammed aboard the Mayflower, and the whole mess sent merrily on its seasick way to the New World.
Landfall occurred near Cape Cod after 65 days and a very rough passage, but strangely enough, the Mayflower's captain, who had managed to cross the Atlantic during hurricane season, suddenly was unable to sail around some shoals and take them farther south. This forced the Pilgrims to find a place to settle in Massachusetts and try to survive a New England winter with few supplies. For the Virginia Company, there was no problem, since in 1620, Great Britain claimed the boundary of Virginia reached as far north as the present border between Maine and New Brunswick. So the Pilgrims were still in Virginia (although perhaps a little farther north than originally promised), but remembering Britain's concern at the time about French settlement in Nova Scotia, the misplacement of the Pilgrims to New England may not have been entirely an accident.
Skipping past the signing of the Mayflower Compact, the first concerns of the new arrivals were finding something to eat and a place to settle. After anchoring off Cape Cod on November 11, 1620, a small party was sent ashore to explore. Pilgrims in every sense of the word, they promptly stumbled into a Nauset graveyard where they found baskets of corn which had been left as gifts for the deceased. The gathering of this unexpected bounty was interrupted by the angry Nauset warriors, and the hapless Pilgrims beat a hasty retreat back to their boat with little to show for their efforts. Shaken but undaunted by their welcome to the New World, the Pilgrims continued across Cape Cod Bay and decided to settle, of all places, at the site of the now-deserted Wampanoag village of Patuxet. There they sat for the next few months in crude shelters - cold, sick and slowly starving to death. Half did not survive that terrible first winter. The Wampanoag were aware of the English but chose to avoid contact them for the time being.
In keeping with the strange sequence of unlikely events, Samoset, a Pemaquid (Abenaki) sachem from Maine hunting in Massachusetts, came across the growing disaster at Plymouth. Having acquired some English from contact with English fishermen and the short-lived colony at the mouth of the Kennebec River in 1607, he walked into Plymouth in March and startled the Pilgrims with "Hello Englishmen." Samoset stayed the night surveying the situation and left the next morning. He soon returned with Squanto. Until he succumbed to sickness and joined his people in 1622, Squanto devoted himself to helping the Pilgrims who were now living at the site of his old village. Whatever his motivations, with great kindness and patience, he taught the English the skills they needed to survive, and in so doing, assured the destruction of his own people.
Although Samoset appears to have been more important in establishing the initial relations, Squanto also served as an intermediary between the Pilgrims and Massasoit, the Grand sachem of the Wampanoag (actual name Woosamaquin or "Yellow Feather"). For the Wampanoag, the ten years previous to the arrival of the Pilgrims had been the worst of times beyond all imagination. Micmac war parties had swept down from the north after they had defeated the Penobscot during the Tarrateen War (1607-15), while at the same time the Pequot had invaded southern New England from the northwest and occupied eastern Connecticut. By far the worst event had been the three epidemics which killed 75% of the Wampanoag. In the aftermath of this disaster, the Narragansett, who had suffered relatively little because of their isolated villages on the islands of Narragansett Bay, had emerged as the most powerful tribe in the area and forced the weakened Wampanoag to pay them tribute.
Massasoit, therefore, had good reason to hope the English could benefit his people and help them end Narragansett domination. In March (1621) Massasoit, accompanied by Samoset, visited Plymouth and signed a treaty of friendship with the English giving them permission of occupy the approximately 12,000 acres of what was to become the Plymouth plantation. However, it is very doubtful Massasoit fully understood the distinction between the European concept of owning land versus the native idea of sharing it. For the moment, this was unimportant since so many of his people had died during the epidemics that New England was half-deserted. Besides, it must have been difficult for the Wampanoag to imagine how any people so inept could ever be a danger to them. The friendship and cooperation continued, and the Pilgrims were grateful enough that fall to invite Massasoit to celebrate their first harvest with them (The First Thanksgiving). Massasoit and 90 of his men brought five deer, and the feasting lasted for three days. The celebration was a little premature. During the winter of 1622, a second ship arrived unexpectedly from England, and with 40 new mouths to feed, the Pilgrims were once again starving. Forgiving the unfortunate incident in the graveyard the previous year, the Nauset sachem Aspinet brought food to Plymouth.
To the Narragansett all of this friendship between the Wampanoag and English had the appearance of a military alliance directed against them, and in 1621 they sent a challenge of arrows wrapped in a snakeskin to Plymouth. Although they could barely feed themselves and were too few for any war, the English replaced the arrows with gunpowder and returned it. While the Narragansett pondered the meaning of this strange response, they were attacked by the Pequot, and Plymouth narrowly avoided another disaster. The war with the Pequot no sooner ended than the Narragansett were fighting the Mohawk. By the time this ended, Plymouth was firmly established. Meanwhile, the relationship between the Wampanoag and English grew stronger. When Massasoit became dangerously ill during the winter of 1623, he was nursed back to health by the English. By 1632 the Narragansett were finally free to reassert their authority over the Wampanoag. Massasoit's village at Montaup (Sowam) was attacked, but when the colonists supported the Wampanoag, the Narragansett finally were forced to abandon the effort.
After 1630 the original 102 English colonists who founded Plymouth (less than half were actually Pilgrims) were absorbed by the massive migration of the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony near Boston. Barely tolerant of other Christians, the militant Puritans were soldiers and merchants whose basic attitude towards Native Americans was not one of friendship and cooperation. Under this new leadership, the English expanded west into the Connecticut River Valley and during 1637 destroyed the powerful Pequot confederacy which opposed them. Afterwards they entered into an alliance with the Mohegan upsetting the balance of power. By 1643 the Mohegan had defeated the Narragansett in a war, and with the full support of Massachusetts, emerged as the dominant tribe in southern New England. With the French in Canada focused to the west on the fur trade from the Great Lakes, only the alliance of the Dutch and Mohawk in New York stood in their way.
Boston traders had tried unsuccessfully to lure the Mohawk away from the Dutch in 1640 by selling firearms, but the Dutch had countered with their own weapons and in the process dramatically escalated the level of violence in the Beaver Wars which were raging along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. The barrier fell when the English captured New York from the Dutch in 1664 and signed their own treaty with the Mohawk. Between 1640 to 1675 new waves of settlers arrived in New England and pushed west into native lands. While the Pilgrims usually had paid or asked permission, the Puritans were inclined to take. There was an especially large amount of immigration after 1660 when the Restoration ended the military dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell, and Puritans were in extreme disfavor with the new English monarchy of Charles II. At the same time there had been a fundamental change in New England's economy. After the Mohawk treaty, many of the Boston fur traders left New England and moved west to Albany near the Iroquois. No longer restrained by the possibility of war with the English, the Iroquois fell on the Algonquin in western New England and began driving them east at the same time English settlement was rapidly swallowing lands in the east.
By 1665 Native Americans in southern New England were simply in the way. The English no longer needed their wilderness skills to survive, and fishing and other commerce had largely replaced the fur and wampum trade which had been the mainstays of the colonial economy during the early years. While there was nothing to equal the devastation of 1614-20, the native population had continued to decline from continuing epidemics: 1633, 1635, 1654, 1661 and 1667. The Puritans' "humane" solution to this after 1640 was the missionary work of John Eliot and others to convert the native population. How "humane" these efforts actually were is a matter of opinion. Converts were settled in small communities of "Praying Indians" at Natick, Nonantum, Punkapog, and other locations. Natives even partially resistant to the Puritan version of Christianity were unwelcome. Attendance at church was mandatory, clothing and hair changed to proper colonial styles, and even a hint of traditional ceremony and religion was grounds for expulsion. Tribal culture and authority disintegrated in the process.
Even Massasoit fell in with the adoption of English customs and before his death in 1661, petitioned the General Court at Plymouth to give English names to his two sons. The eldest Wamsutta was renamed Alexander, and his younger brother Metacomet became Philip. Married to Queen Weetamoo of Pocasset, Alexander became grand sachem of the Wampanoag upon the death of his father. The English were not pleased with his independent attitude, and invited him to Plymouth for "talks." After eating a meal in Duxbury, Alexander became violently ill and died. The Wampanoag were told he died of a fever, but the records from the Plymouth Council at the time make note of an expense for poison "to rid ourselves of a pest." The following year Metacomet (Wewesawanit) succeeded his murdered brother as grand sachem of the Wampanoag eventually becoming known to the English as King Philip.
Philip does not appear to have been a man of hate, but under his leadership, the Wampanoag attitude towards the colonists underwent a drastic change. Realizing that the English would not stop until they had taken everything, Philip was determined to prevent further expansion of English settlement, but this was impossible for the Wampanoag by themselves since they were down to only 1,000 people by this time. Travelling from his village at Mount Hope, Philip began to slowly enlist other tribes for this purpose. Even then it was a daunting task, since the colonists in New England by this time outnumbered the natives better than two to one (35,000 versus 15,000). Philip made little attempt to disguise his purpose, and through a network of spies (Praying Indians), the English knew what he was doing. Summoned to Taunton in 1671, Philip listened to accusations and signed an agreement to give up the Wampanoag's firearms. However, he did not stay around for dinner afterwards, and the guns were never surrendered.
As English encroachment continued, Philip eventually won promises of support from the Nipmuc, Pocumtuc and Narragansett. Because the Narragansett needed time to build a supply of ammunition and guns, it appears the uprising was planned for the spring of 1676. Meanwhile, the English saw what was coming, and the tension was becoming unbearable. In January, 1675 the body of John Sassamon, a Christian Indian informer, was discovered in the ice of Assowampset Pond. Three Wampanoag warriors were arrested, tried for the murder, and hanged. After this provocation, Philip could no longer restrain his warriors, and amid rumors the English intended to arrest him, Philip held a council of war at Mount Hope. He could count on the support of most of the Wampanoag except for those on the off-shore islands. For similar reasons, the Nauset on Cape Cod would also remain neutral, but most Nipmuc and Pocumtuc were ready for war along with some of the Pennacook and Abenaki. The Narragansett, however, had not completed preparations and had been forced to sign a treaty with the English.
In late June a Wampanoag was killed near the English settlement at Swansea, and the King Philip's War (1675-76) began. The Wampanoag attacked Swansea and ambushed an English relief column. Other raids struck near Taunton, Tiverton, and Dartmouth. Despite being forewarned and their advantage in numbers, the English were in serious trouble. Well-armed with firearms (some French, but many acquired through trade with the English themselves), the Wampanoag and their allies even had their own forges and gunsmiths. Drawing from virtually every tribe in New England, Philip commanded more than 1,000 warriors, and even the tribes who chose to remain neutral were often willing to provide food and shelter. Only the Mohegan under Oneko (Uncas' son) remained loyal to the English. Particularly disturbing to the colonists was the defection of most of the "Praying Indians." When Puritan missionaries attempted to gather their converts, only 500 could be found. The others had either taken to the woods or joined Philip. Their loyalty still suspect, the Praying Indians who remained were sent to the islands of Boston Harbor and other "plantations of confinement."
The English assembled an army at Plymouth in July and marched on Philip's village at Mount Hope (near Bristol, Rhode Island) burning every Wampanoag village enroute. They trapped the Wampanoag in a swamp on Pocasset Neck, but they managed to evacuate their women and children by canoe across the bay to the Pocasset of Queen Weetamoo (Alexander's widow). Philip and his warriors then slipped away leaving the English besieging an empty swamp! Leaving his women and children under the care of the still-neutral Narragansett, Philip moved west into the Nipmuc country of central Massachusetts. Although English accounts usually credit Philip as being present at almost every battle in the war, this would have been physically impossible. Philip provided political leadership, while others like Anawon, Tuspaquin, Sagamore Sam (Nipmuc), and Sancumachu (Pocumtuc) led the actual attacks. From Philip's new location in the west, the war then resumed at an even more furious pace than before. The Nipmuc raided Brookfield and Worcester and then combined with the Pocumtuc to attack settlements in the Connecticut River Valley. After a raid at Northfield, a relief force under Captain Beers was ambushed south of town and more than half killed. Three survivors were captured and burned at the stake. In September Deerfield and Hadley were attacked forcing the colonists to abandon their homes and fort-up together in Deerfield. Facing a winter without food, 80 soldiers under Captain Thomas Lothrop were dispatched with 18 teamsters to gather the abandoned crops near Hadley. All went well until the return journey, when the expedition was ambushed by the 700 Pocumtuc at Bloody Brook south of Deerfield. Another English force with 60 Mohegan warriors arrived too late and found only seven survivors.
Having dealt with the northern settlements on the Connecticut River, Philip's warriors began to work south attacking Hatfield, Springfield, Westfield, and Northampton (three separate times). Even with the help of the Mohegan, the English in western Massachusetts were hard-pressed, and by late fall, they were on the defensive and confined to a handful of forts. By this time Philip felt confident enough to return to the Narragansett in Rhode Island and collect his women and children. Travelling west to the Connecticut River, he moved north to the vicinity of Deerfield and then west into the Berkshire Mountains where he established his winter quarters just across the border from Massachusetts at Hoosick, New York. Gaining new recruits from among the Sokoki (and even a few Mahican and Mohawk), the population of Philip's village at Hoosick grew to more than 2,000, and the winter of 1675-76 was a long, terrible battle with hunger.
For obvious reasons, the English considered neutral tribes who helped the Wampanoag as enemies, but their efforts to stop this widened the war. At the outbreak of the fighting, the Narragansett had gathered themselves in single large fort in a swamp near Kingston, Rhode Island. Although it appeared they were on the verge of annulling their treaty with the English and entering the war on the side of Philip, the only thing they had been guilty of during the first six months of the conflict was providing shelter for Wampanoag women, children, and other non-combatants. In December of 1675, Governor Josiah Winslow of Plymouth led a 1,000 man army with 150 Mohegan scouts against the Narragansett. The English demanded the Narragansett surrender of any Wampanoag who remained and join them against Philip. When this was refused, the English attacked. Known as the Great Swamp Fight (December 19, 1675), the battle almost destroyed the Narragansett. In all they lost more than 600 warriors and at least 20 of their sachems, but the English also lost heavily to and was in no condition to pursue the Narragansett who escaped. Led by their sachem, Canonchet, many of the survivors joined Philip at Hoosick.
Philip in the meantime had attempted to bring the Mohawk into the war against New England. New York's governor Edmund Andros was a royal appointee with little love for the Puritans in Massachusetts and at first kept his colony neutral. This changed when he learned of Philip's efforts to enlist the Iroquois. From long experience, the Iroquois were not comfortable with the presence of a large group of heavily-armed Algonquin on their borders (they had been at war with them for more than a century), and after several Mohawk were killed near Hoosick under questionable circumstances, refused Philip's request. Encouraged by Governor Andros, the Mohawk became hostile and forced Philip to leave New York. He relocated east to Squawkeag in the Connecticut Valley near the border of Massachusetts and Vermont. Philip did not wait for warmer weather to resume the war. In February he launched a new series of raids throughout New England using his most effective weapon ...fire. Victims included: Lancaster, Medfield, Weymouth, Groton, Warwick (Rhode Island), Marlborough, Rehoboth, Plymouth, Chelmsford, Andover, Sudbury, Brookfield, Scituate, Bridgewater, and Namasket.
As English soldiers rushed about trying to cope, they fell victim to ambushes. In March Canonchet and the Narragansett almost wiped out one command (60 killed), and in another fight shortly afterwards killed 70 more. With these successes Philip was able to gather a large number of warriors at Squawkeag, but he was unable to feed them. Although he was able to raid the English with impunity and fend off the Mohawk, Philip desperately needed to clear English settlement from the area so his people could plant corn and feed themselves. For this reason, the Narragansett and Pocumtuc joined forces in attacks on Northfield and Deerfield during the spring of 1676. Both raids were ultimately repulsed with heavy losses. Meanwhile, Philip's followers needed seed corn for spring planting. Canonchet volunteered in April for the dangerous task of returning to Rhode Island where the Narragansett had a secret cache. He succeeded, but on the return journey was captured and executed by the Mohegan.
Canonchet's death seemed to dishearten Philip and marked the turning point of the war. Philip moved his headquarters to Mount Wachusett, but the English had finally begun to utilize Praying Indians as scouts and became more effective. In May Captain William Turner attacked a fishing camp at Turner's Falls killing over 400 (including the Pocumtuc sachem Sancumachu). Before forced to retreat by superior numbers, the English also killed several gunsmiths and destroyed Philip's forges. Turner lost 43 men on his retreat to Hatfield , but the damage had been done. Philip's confederacy began to break up, and it was everyone for himself. Some Nipmuc and Pocumtuc accepted an offer of sanctuary by New York and settled with the Mahican at Schaghticook. Others joined forces with the Sokoki (western Abenaki) and moved north to Cowasuck, Missisquoi, and Odanak (St. Francois) in Quebec. Philip and the Wampanoag, however, chose to return to their homeland in southeast Massachusetts.
Throughout the summer the Wampanoag were hunted down by Captain Benjamin Church's rangers and Praying Indian scouts. Philip went into hiding near Mount Hope, but Queen Awashonks of the Sakonett surrendered and switched sides. On August 1st Philip escaped during an attack on his village, but the English captured his wife and son who were sent as prisoners to Martha's Vineyard. Five days later, the Pocasset were caught near Taunton, and Weetamoo (Alexander's widow) drowned while trying to escape. The English cut off her head and put it on display in Taunton. Philip and Anawon remained in hiding in the swamp near Mount Hope until betrayed by an informer, John Alderman. Guided by Alderman, Benjamin Church's rangers surrounded Philip on August 12th. Alderman shot and killed Philip (for which he was given one of Philip's hands as a trophy). Philip's corpse was beheaded and quartered. His head was displayed on a pole at Plymouth for 25 years. Anawon was captured on August 28th and later killed by a mob, and Tuspaquin was executed by firing squad after he surrendered. Philip's wife and son were reportedly sold as slaves to the West Indies, but it appears they were instead exiled from Massachusetts and joined the Sokoki at Odanak.
The war should have ended with Philip's death, but peace treaties were not signed for another two years. Meanwhile, the English continued to hunt down Philip's allies and those who had helped them. An expedition under Captain Richard Waldon attacked the Nashua in the midst of peace negotiations during 1676 killing 200. The prisoners were sold as slaves. Samuel Mosely followed this with an unprovoked attack on the neutral Pennacook. Other expeditions against the Androscoggin and Ossipee finally drew the Kennebec and Penobscot of the eastern Abenaki into the war. In November, 1676 an English army attacked Squawkeag and destroyed the corn needed for the coming winter. The Sokoki withdrew north to the protection of the French in Canada, but the English had provoked the Abenaki and Sokoki into at least 50 years of hostility.
With Philip and most of their leaders dead, the Wampanoag were nearly exterminated. Only 400 survived the war. The Narragansett and Nipmuc had similar losses, and although small bands continued to live along the Connecticut River until the 1800s, the Pocumtuc disappeared as an organized group. For the English, the war was also costly: 600 killed and more than half of 90 settlements attacked with 13 destroyed. Edward Randolph, an agent of the crown, estimated 3,000 natives were killed, but his estimate appears to have been very conservative. From a pre-war native population in southern New England of 15,000, only 4,000 were left in 1680, and the harsh peace terms imposed by the English placed them in total subjugation. In what has been called the Great Dispersal, the Algonquins in southern New England fled either to the Sokoki and French in Canada, or west to the Delaware and Iroquois.
Except for the villages on the off-shore islands which had remained neutral, the surviving mainland Wampanoag after the war were relocated with the Sakonnet or mixed with the Nauset in Praying Villages in western Barnstable County. The Wampanoag community on Martha's Vineyard has persisted to the present day, although the one on Nantucket was destroyed by an unknown epidemic in 1763. The mainland Wampanoag became increasingly concentrated near Mashpee, but Massachusetts withdrew recognition during the 1800s. Without benefit of a treaty with the United States, only the Wampanoag at Gay Head have been able to gain federal recognition.
First Nations referred to in this Wampanoag History:
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