text
stringlengths 199
648k
| id
stringlengths 47
47
| dump
stringclasses 1
value | url
stringlengths 14
419
| file_path
stringlengths 139
140
| language
stringclasses 1
value | language_score
float64 0.65
1
| token_count
int64 50
235k
| score
float64 2.52
5.34
| int_score
int64 3
5
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
The Anatomy of an Acoustic Guitar
All guitars share certain characteristics that make them behave like guitars and not violins or tubas. Understanding the anatomy of an acoustic guitar is important for understanding how to make music with it and how to take care of it.
Both acoustic and electric guitars follow the same basic approach to such principles as neck construction and string tension, and so they have very similar constructions, despite a sometimes radical difference in tone production.
Here is a quick rundown of the guitar's various parts and what they do:
Back: The part of the body that holds the sides in place; made of two or three pieces of wood.
Body: The box that provides an anchor for the neck and bridge and creates the playing surface for the right hand. On an acoustic, the body includes the amplifying sound chamber that produces the guitar’s tone.
Bridge: The wooden plate that anchors the strings to the body.
End pin: A metal post where the rear end of the strap connects. On acoustic-electrics (acoustic guitars with built-in pickups and electronics), the pin often doubles as the output jack where you plug in.
Fingerboard: A flat, plank-like piece of wood that sits atop the neck, where you place your left-hand fingers to produce notes and chords. The fingerboard is also known as the fretboard because the frets are embedded in it.
Frets: Thin metal wires or bars running perpendicular to the strings that shorten the effective vibrating length of a string, enabling it to produce different pitches.
Headstock: The section that holds the tuning machines (hardware assembly) and provides a place for the manufacturer to display its logo.
Neck: The long, club-like wooden piece that connects the headstock to the body.
Nut: A grooved sliver of stiff nylon or other synthetic substance that stops the strings from vibrating beyond the neck. The strings pass through the grooves on their way to the tuners in the headstock. The nut is one of the two points at which the vibrating area of the string ends. (The other is the bridge.)
Sides: Separate curved wooden pieces on the body that join the top to the back.
Strap pin: Metal post where the front, or top, end of the strap connects. (Not all acoustics have a strap pin. If the guitar is missing one, tie the top of the strap around the headstock.)
Strings: The six metal (for steel-string acoustic guitars) or nylon (for classical guitars) wires that, drawn taut, produce the notes of the guitar. Although not strictly part of the actual guitar (you attach and remove them at will on top of the guitar), strings are an integral part of the whole system, and a guitar’s entire design and structure revolves around making the strings ring out with a joyful noise.
Top: The face of the guitar. On an acoustic, this piece is also the sounding board, which produces almost all the guitar’s acoustic qualities.
Tuning machines: Geared mechanisms that raise and lower the tension of the strings, drawing them to different pitches. The string wraps tightly around a post that sticks out through the top, or face, of the headstock. The post passes through to the back of the headstock, where gears connect it to a tuning key (also known as tuners, tuning pegs, and tuning gears). | <urn:uuid:bf3b7404-c5d3-44c9-bf29-b29059a62afb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-anatomy-of-an-acoustic-guitar.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926459 | 716 | 3.59375 | 4 |
miniSD is a smaller form-factor version of the Secure Digital (SD) flash memory card. It is used with mobile phones, PDAs, MP3 players and other portable hardware devices to provide a storage solution. Through use of an (usually bundled) adapter, miniSD cards can bhe inserted into any standard sized SD slot. SanDisk Corporation announced the miniSD card back in 2003 and since it has been adopted and developed by many manufacturer under a variety of different brand names.
Since miniSD has hit the market, microSD cards have come and largely taken over much of the demand. While miniSD cards are already significantly smaller than SD cards, microSD cards are even smaller again and so are a wise choice over miniSD for smaller mobile phones in particular. The dimensions of a miniSD card are about 21.5mm x 20mm x 1.4mm.
There are a variety of Secure Digital (SD) products available..
Secure Digital (SD) --> Original SD card offering capacities up to 8GB currently.
miniSD --> A smaller form-factor version of the original SD card.
microSD --> Currently the smallest flash memory card on the market.
miniSDHC --> High Capacity version of miniSD card.
microSDHC --> High Capacity version of microSD card.
SD plus --> A form of SD card developed by SanDisk.with USB additions.
Eye-Fi --> An SD card with built in Wifi capabilities of its own.
Gruvi --> A form of SD card developed for content distribution by SanDisk. | <urn:uuid:adc545b6-32b7-4b8b-b7f7-e6c8260f0f58> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.afterdawn.com/glossary/term.cfm/minisd | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911022 | 320 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The New International Encyclopædia/Columbus (Indiana)
COLUMBUS. A city and county-seat of Bartholomew County, Indiana, 41 miles south by east of Indianapolis; on the east fork of the White River, and on the Pennsylvania and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroads (Map: Indiana, D 3). It has extensive manufactures of pulleys, tanned leather, threshing and sawmill machinery, tools, starch, flour, furniture, etc. Settled in 1821, Columbus was chartered as a city in 1864. The government is vested in a mayor, elected biennially, and a city council. The water-works and electric-light plant are owned and operated by the municipality. Population, in 1890, 6719; in 1900, 8130. | <urn:uuid:43ca957e-7174-4ffe-868c-9281179aff42> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Columbus_(Indiana) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943418 | 171 | 2.703125 | 3 |
About the Vermilion Cliffs National Monument
Amid the sandstone slickrock, brilliant cliffs, and rolling sandy plateaus of the Vermilion Cliffs National Monument lie outstanding objects of scientific and historic interest. Full of natural splendor and a sense of solitude, this area remains remote and unspoiled. Its centerpiece is the majestic Paria Plateau, a grand terrace lying between two great geologic structures, the East Kaibab and the Echo Cliffs monoclines. The Vermilion Cliffs, which lie along the southern edge of the Paria Plateau, rise 3,000 feet in a spectacular escarpment capped with sandstone underlain by multicolored, actively eroding, dissected layers of shale and sandstone. The stunning Paria River Canyon winds along the east side of the plateau to the Colorado River. Erosion of the sedimentary rocks in this 2,500 foot deep canyon has produced a variety of geologic objects and associated landscape features such as amphitheaters, arches, and massive sandstone walls.
From the blog
This year, National Public Lands Day is September 24, 2011. While many supporters of the National Conservation Lands already volunteer throughout the year, this day provides a high profile opportunity to get others involved in conservation stewardship projects. More than 1,900 events are scheduled across the country, including several in the National … read more
Pulitzer Prize winning photojournalist Jack Dykinga made this photograph of petrified sand dunes at Paria Canyon, in Arizona’s Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness Area. A book with his work was part of a campaign to create national monuments there. Following the creation of the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument and Vermilion Cliffs National … read more | <urn:uuid:6f6ea649-0193-4a0c-8065-eb832731e86f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://conservationlands.org/conservationlands/vermilion-cliffs-national-monument | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904824 | 367 | 3.34375 | 3 |
|Name: _________________________||Period: ___________________|
This test consists of 5 multiple choice questions and 5 short answer questions.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is ironic about Mrs. Erlynne's public disgrace?
(a) Lady Windemere would have disgraced Mrs. Erlynne, but Mrs. Erlynne saved her.
(b) Mrs. Erlynne disgraced herself by trying to disgrace Lady Windemere.
(c) Lady Windemere tried to disgrace her at Lord Darlington's.
(d) Mrs. Erlynne would have disgraced Lady Windemere first.
2. Who does Cecil Graham admire aloud?
(a) Mrs. Erlynne.
(b) Lady Windemere.
(c) Lady Agatha.
(d) The Duchess.
3. Who is the one person Lady Windemere must see before she leaves town?
(a) Lord Darlington.
(b) Lady Agatha.
(c) The Duchess.
(d) Mrs. Erlynne.
4. How does Lady Erlynne know where to find Lady Windemere?
(a) She has read Lady Windemere's letter to her husband.
(b) She has bribed Parker for the information.
(c) She has asked Lord Windemere where to find his wife.
(d) She ask read Lady Windemere's letter to Lord Darlington.
5. Lady Windemere thinks that Mrs. Erlynne is there because:
(a) Lord Darlington sent her to bring her home.
(b) Lord Augustus warned told her where to find her daughter.
(c) Lord Windemere sent her to send his wife away.
(d) Lord Windemere sent her to fetch his wife.
Short Answer Questions
1. Who discovers there must be a woman in Lord Darlington's rooms?
2. Lady Windemere claims she will not return to her husband because:
3. When Lady Windemere hears the men's voices, she cries:
4. What time did Windemere arrive home that night?
5. According to Lady Windemere, actions are the first tragedy in life, and:
This section contains 293 words
(approx. 1 page at 300 words per page) | <urn:uuid:56061ef2-8c9c-4c92-9c9e-d4d125daf9b7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/ladywindermeresfan/test4.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930575 | 499 | 2.6875 | 3 |
When a star like our own reaches the end of its life, it begins to run out of hydrogen fuel in its core. Like a car running out of gas, it will begin to sputter, swelling to a size that could encompass every planet in our solar system out to Mars. When this happens, the sun will swallow the Earth and will spell certain doom for all life on our planet. This time-lapse video by Ed Lopez shows how he created a stunning illustration depicting the inhabitance of a dying world that must travel into the stars to find a new world to call home. In the process he will show how to create a star, a planet, and even a few spaceships along the way. This time-lapse was created by piecing together video segments from the original tutorial. | <urn:uuid:9459a5bd-05e4-407b-8150-19f7c8cc9792> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://design.tutsplus.com/articles/stunning-time-lapse-of-an-illustration-of-a-dying-star--psd-20831 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952786 | 161 | 2.96875 | 3 |
4 Answers | Add Yours
The only two people to hear the prediction of the witches were Macbeth and Banquo. Banquo, knowing these predictions, can readily suspect Macbeth of the murder of Duncan. In order to take care that this does not happen, Macbeth needs to have Banquo killed. His reason for having Fleance killed is that the witches told Banquo that he would be the father of kings, though none himself. Therefore to prevent Fleance being king, Macbeth must have him killed also.
I believe there are 2 reasons for this. One is due to the second part of the witches' predictions. Banquo was told he would not be a king, but his children would become king. This helps to secure the thrown for Macbeth. Also, Banquo is aware of the predictions the witches gave Macbeth and he saw his reactions. He would be the first logical character to become suspicious of Macbeth.
An interesting question. Macbeth had to kill Banquo (or tried to do so, and Fleance too) because of the other half of the prediction: Banquo's sons would be kings. That means Macbeth's line would be displaced, so Macbeth is trying to secure his heritage.
There are three reasons for his 'spur' onto his desire of killing both, Banquo and his son, Fleance. Banquo was his companion on the hearth, where they had met the witches and heard their controversial predictions. Banquo had asked them to 'look into the seeds of time' and tell him 'which grain will grow and which will not'. Also, Banquo's reaction to the prophecies had been very calm and composed, unlike that of Macbeth's, who was immediately set into a paranoia of 'deep and dark' thoughts. Consequently the witches had prophecised about him being a father to a line of kings. This is the most important of the three prophecies they make, as it comes in the way of Macbeth's sceptre to kingship. Macbeth realises that if Banquo's issue were to become kings, it was possible that the future of Scotland would be 'macbethless'. This thought was very disappointing and inorder to secure his sceptre and his crown for his future descendants he decides to kill both father and son.
Also, Banquo was not only a courageous and brave man, he was also suprememly intelligent and well guided by morals. If he had had suspicion on Macbth for having murdered Duncan, he was not one of the kind who would do nothing about it. There was a constant fear in Macbeth that Banquo knows one of the plausible reasons why he might have killed Duncan, and that in itself would lead into plenty speculation and judgement here on earth.
The reasons in short-
1) Banquo's presence when the prophecies were sounded
2) Banquo's over whelming intelligence and courage coupled with morals.
3) Possiblity of Fleance, and hence Banquo's issue coming to the throne.
We’ve answered 327,777 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:b5b6735c-750e-4d95-bb29-d5a691f8ea81> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-was-macbeth-afraid-banquo-that-he-had-kill-1534 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.990853 | 677 | 2.875 | 3 |
The PBT Profiler requires a chemical name and ID Number for each chemical profiled. The preferred ID number is a chemical's CAS Registry Number, although the PBT Profiler will accept any combination of letters, characters, and numbers as an identifier. Chemical names can be in any format up to 120 characters in length.
The PBT Profiler predictions are determined using structure-based estimation methods. The chemical structure of the chemical you want to profile is, therefore, required in order to use the PBT Profiler. The chemical structure is entered into the PBT Profiler by using its SMILES notation, a line-entry system based on elemental symbols.
For those unfamiliar with SMILES notation, online help is available. A SMILES notation can also be generated using the export feature available on many commercial chemistry drawing programs. If you have a chemistry drawing program on your PC, you can "copy" the SMILES notation and "paste" it into the PBT Profiler.
The PBT Profiler has a number of features to help users enter their chemical structure. A lookup database, based on a chemical's CAS Registry Number, contains SMILES notations for over 100,000 chemicals. Note: some of the chemicals in the lookup database have experimental data available and should not be profiled. The PBT Profiler also contains a structure drawing interface that does not require any plug-ins or add-ons. This interface automatically converts a chemical structure (drawn on the web page) to its SMILES notation.General Chemical Information
Users are required to have general information on the nature and reactivity of their chemical to establish if it can or cannot be profiled. Chemicals that rapidly hydrolyze or are highly reactive cannot be profiled. Chemicals that have a high molecular weight (>1,000), are of unknown or variable composition, or contain any metallic elements also cannot not be profiled. More information on why these chemicals should not be profiled is available.
The PBT Profiler is designed for discrete organic chemicals although many chemical products and feedstocks are a mixture of closely related compounds. Mixtures cannot be evaluated using the PBT Profiler. A single, discrete organic compound representative of the mixture may be used although the results should be interpreted with great caution. Representative components of a mixture should only be profiled after an expert familiar with environmental fate and toxicity relationships has been consulted. Assistance is available from the developers of the PBT Profiler.
Developed by the
Environmental Health Analysis Center under contract to
Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Computer Resources Donated by SRC, Inc. Ver 2.000 Last Updated September 4, 2012 | <urn:uuid:a62da960-a710-4c45-af6e-925f3cc074d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbtprofiler.net/information.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902334 | 558 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Pearls: The Treasures of the Sea
Pearl, the birthstone for June, is among the most timeless,
classic and treasured of all gems. Throughout history,
these noble gems have been associated with wisdom, wealth,
purity, romance and mystery. The ancient Egyptians were
buried with them. In Rome, pearls were considered the
ultimate symbol of wealth and status. The Greeks prized
them for their beauty and association with love and
marriage. Medieval knights wore them in battle as a
talisman against injury. And during the Renaissance,
some European countries banned all but nobility from
the right to wear them.
It's hard to believe that such a luscious, beautiful
gem comes from such humble origins. A natural pearl
starts out as a grain of sand or microscopic worm that
works its way into an oyster and cannot be expelled.
To protect its soft body from this irritant, the oyster
secretes a smooth, hard crystalline substance called
nacre. Layer upon layer of nacre coats the foreign object
and hardens, ultimately forming a pearl. In general,
the thicker the nacre, the richer the "glow"
of the pearl - which can greatly enhance its value.
Although early pearl gathering depended on divers braving
the oceans' depths to retrieve these treasures, the
vast majority of pearls today are grown, or cultured,
on pearl farms by surgically inserting a small shell
bead, or nucleus, into the mantle of an oyster.
Even though pearls are harvested en masse on pearl
farms, producing a quality pearl is an extremely rare
event. It is estimated that half of all nucleated oysters
do not survive - and of those that do, only 20% bear
Pearls - the recommended gift for couples celebrating
their third and 30th wedding anniversaries - are cultured
in a variety of sizes, shapes, colors and kinds:
Akoya pearls are the classic round pearls found in
most quality pearl jewelry. They are mainly grown in
the waters off Japan. They come in a range of hues,
including white, cream, pink and peach.
White South Sea pearls are grown in Australia, Indonesia,
the Philippines and other areas of the South Pacific
and are prized for their large size.
Tahitian pearls, grown in French Polynesia, can be very
large and come in a range of natural colors from gray
to black to green to purple. Because of their large
size and unique dark colors, they command very high
Mabe pearls, grown in Japan, Indonesia, French Polynesia
and Australia, are usually flat-backed because they
form against the inside shell of the oyster rather than
within the oyster's body. They are often used in earrings
Freshwater pearls are grown in bays, lakes and rivers
primarily in Japan, China and the United States. They
are often irregularly shaped, of various colors, and
are less lustrous than saltwater cultured pearls Ehence,
they are substantially cheaper.
When shopping for pearls, the five factors that determine
value are luster (surface brilliance); surface cleanliness
(absence of spots, bumps or cracks); shape (generally,
the rounder the pearl, the higher its value); color
(pearls come in virtually every hue of the rainbow,
and a few others, too); and size (the average pearl
sold is 7-7.5 millimeters, but these gems can be as
small as 1 millimeter or as large as 20 millimeters).
High-quality pearl strands will feature pearls well-matched
in these characteristics.
Because pearls are soft, ranking only 2.5-4.5 on the
Mohs scale for hardness, they require special care.
Natural oils from the skin, as well as hair spray, lotions
and cosmetics, can dull their luster. Like other jewelry,
they should be cleaned with a soft damp cloth and stored
in cloth or cotton away from other jewelry to prevent
scratching. Also, avoid allowing your pearl to come
in contact with harsh chemicals, which can erode its
surface. And if worn frequently, pearl necklaces should
be brought to a jeweler once a year for re-stringing
to prevent strand breakage. | <urn:uuid:cce59650-29be-4a88-8dd1-5e13f385a92f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewellerybangkokthailand.com/birthstone-june-pearl.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930701 | 930 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Runcorn is an industrial town and cargo port in Halton, Cheshire. In 2011, Halton's population was recorded to be 127,500, with Runcorn alone being 70,000. The town is on the southern bank of the River Mersey, where the estuary narrows to form Runcorn Gap. Directly to the north across the Mersey is the town of Widnes. Upstream and to the northeast is the town of Warrington and downstream to the west is the city of Liverpool.
Runcorn railway station is on a branch of the West Coast Main Line. It provides frequent services to London (Euston), Liverpool and Birmingham. The A533 road passes through the town from the south, crossing the Runcorn Gap over the Silver Jubilee Bridge, the lowest bridge crossing of the River Mersey. The Manchester Ship Canal runs alongside the Runcorn bank of the River Mersey; the Bridgewater Canal terminates in the canal basin in the town centre, as the staircase of locks leading down to the ship canal was filled in many decades ago.
Runcorn was a small, isolated village until the coming of the Industrial Revolution. It was a health resort in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Towards the end of the 18th century, a port began to develop on the south bank of the River Mersey. During the 19th century, industries developed the manufacture of soap and alkali, quarrying, shipbuilding, engineering and tanning. In the early 20th century, the prime industries were chemicals and tanning. The original village has grown to include what were outlying villages. Except for chemicals, all of the old industries have disappeared and there has been diversification, in particular because of the close links to the motorway system and the development of warehousing and distribution centres. A new town was built to the east of the existing town in the 1960–'70s and areas of private housing have been established, farther to the east; this has resulted in the population more than doubling from around 30,000 to its present level of 70,000.
For more information, see the EN Wikipedia article Runcorn.
GENUKI provides the following details: Runcorn was a township in Runcorn ancient parish in Bucklow Hundred which became a civil parish in 1866. It includes the hamlets of Higher Runcorn, Runcorn Heath, Stenhills and Westfield. The population was 1,379 in 1801, 8,688 in 1851, 16,491 in 1901, 23,931 in 1951, and 58,503 in 2001. | <urn:uuid:980ff980-b4df-47ba-b425-e3ae4bebd6b4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.werelate.org/wiki/Place:Runcorn%2C_Cheshire%2C_England | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969979 | 529 | 2.578125 | 3 |
A new spray-on 'Liquid Glass' is set to revolutionize the construction industry. There are still a few tests that need to be done, but if it passes muster it could become a 'super coating'. It offers protection against everything from water, uv radiation, and dirt, is harmless to the environment, and can be cleaned with just hot water.
""liquid glass." Applied to nearly any surface, an invisible non-toxic layer of silicon just one millionth of a millimeter thick can protect underlying matter from water, bacteria, dirt and even UV radiation.
Made almost entirely of pure silicon dioxide, liquid glass is harmless to the environment and could replace a variety of harsh cleaning chemicals. The coating can be cleaned with water alone, and tests by food-processing companies have shown that a good hot water rinse left liquid-glass-coated surfaces as sterile as normal surfaces doused with strong disinfecting bleach. The coating is also flexible and breathable, so it can be applied to both static and non-static surfaces." | <urn:uuid:9db2dcd5-9e1d-45aa-b8d5-ec4391f081d8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bermanpost.com/2010/02/spray-on-liquid-glass-new-super-coating.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931336 | 211 | 2.640625 | 3 |
A time line is very important in most people’s lives. It tracks all the important events that happen in a person’s life. It may be a simple tool to many where the events are neatly placed along the time bar to reflect the happenings in a person’s life.
You can use some simple software tool for this function. There are many easy key functions in timeline development software for your timeline generation instead of a manual design. A software tool is convenient generating, storing or modifying the timeline.
A timeline gives the individual a better management of his life by reflecting on what has happened. A timeline has very few components: a bar that records the year and boxes of information that records the events.
A timeline in graphics form is very effective. It gives a clearer picture of how the events unfold with a start year. A start year can be any year that the user wants to determine. It can be the birth year or from a significant event year. The timeline period bar can be in months instead of year. It can go by decade rather than yearly. There are so many options to decide on the timeline period bar.
A timeline template tracks the following information:
* Individual name
* Timeline Period bar
* Dates on period bar
* Significant Event
* Description of event
* Start date on timeline bar
* End date on timeline bar
Consider the attached sample template for your convenience. | <urn:uuid:9ea3f740-0d2c-4a93-a018-8f8f9d915573> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sampletemplate.net/timeline-template.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923032 | 290 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Land and People
Arid, semidesert conditions make the country relatively unproductive. In most areas, barren coastal lowland (widest in the south) is abruptly succeeded by a rise to the interior plateau, which is generally c.3,000 ft (910 m) high and stretches toward the northern and western highlands. The Jubba and the Webe Shebele are the only important rivers. In addition to Mogadishu, other important cities are Hargeisa, Berbera (the main northern port), and Kismayo (the principal port of the south).
The vast majority of the republic's population is Somali; they speak a Cushitic language and are Sunni Muslims. They are divided into five principal clans and many subclans. Islam is the state religion. Although Somali is the national tongue, Arabic, Italian, and English are used officially. There are Bantu-speaking ethnic groups in the southwest and numerous Arabs in the coastal towns.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Somalia Political Geography | <urn:uuid:9f2837cc-e576-46e3-b7e0-8d6f9f29ac7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/somalia-land-people.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925454 | 234 | 3.109375 | 3 |
A 20th-century version
of the Double Irish Chain
My great-grandmother was born in Ireland 150 years ago today. I remember her well as she was a formidable presence in my grandmother's house until I was six years old. To recall this sesquicentennial of an Irish-American immigrant I've put a version of the Irish Chain as the Civil War Block of the Week this week on my other blog. Click here to read more:
Since I couldn't fit everything I wanted to say about the Irish Chain there I thought I'd go on about it here.
An indigo and white Irish Chain pieced of nine-patch blocks---
guess as to date:
First we have to define an Irish Chain: An overall design of squares creating a secondary linked pattern across the quilt's surface.
What's the difference between a nine patch and an Irish Chain?
Guess as to date: 1840-1860
A nine-patch can be an Irish Chain, but the one directly above is not shaded to make a chain. The blocks really don't work together to create an all-over linked pattern. Had she shaded all the center and corner squares in her blocks in similar fashion it would have looked like a chain.
We tend to call the linked nine-patch examples Single Irish Chains.
It's really the consistent shading that makes an Irish Chain.
Here's another variation from Pennsylvania (1880-1920). The quilt not only has complex shading that links the blocks, it's also a fairly complex design of two alternating blocks.
One block is 25 squares
And the other has a square in each corner.
These corner squares can be pieced in or appliqued.
We tend to call these Double Irish Chains.
Here's a Triple Irish Chain (late-19th-century?)
Again alternating blocks.
One with 49 squares
The other with three squares appliqued or pieced into the corners.
In looking at quilts with dates actually on them I was surprised to find how consistently popular Irish Chain designs have been.
The women who made and dated the quilts above may not have called them Irish Chains but it is interesting how closely these 18th-century quilts resemble our versions of Irish chains. The one on the right even alternates a block of 49 squares---a Triple Irish Chain on point.
Red and white variations were popular at the end of the 19th century
Double pinks and indigo blue prints
And then new colors in solids from new dyes in the twentieth century.
See more Irish Chains by clicking here on two from the Quilt Index.
And one for sale at the Quilt Complex | <urn:uuid:dc2da9de-6b73-4faf-9960-c36d054e51f2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://barbarabrackman.blogspot.com/2011/07/irish-chains.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952775 | 558 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Organic Farming Studied As Demand Rises
Organic farming sounds simple _ no chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides or genetically engineered plants. But succeeding at it can be complicated. A recent wave of research at universities around the country seeks to take some of the guesswork and financial uncertainty out of the practice.
"There's so many things that interact naturally that you can't control that you could with chemicals. I think you could spend a whole lifetime learning how," said Dale Dyko, who raises corn, spelt _ a type of wheat _ and soybeans on about 30 acres in Xenia in western Ohio.
Organic food sales almost tripled from 1997 through 2003 to $10.4 billion, according to the Organic Trade Association. Organic fruits and vegetables account for most of the sales, while organic meats and snack foods _ such as corn chips and rice cakes _ are two of the fastest growing segments.
"Organic agriculture is just a growth culture within all agricultural industries," said Matt Kleinhenz, the lead researcher on a study at Ohio State University. "Scientifically and practically we don't know enough about it."
The U.S. Department of Agriculture says it has been increasing its financial support of organic farming research at universities and other organizations since 2000. Funding for one program has increased nearly fourfold to about $1.9 million from 2000, said Philip Schwab, a policy adviser with the agency.
However, organic farming makes up only a small part of U.S. agriculture. Certified organic crops were grown on 562,486 acres in 2002, a fraction of the 300 million acres on which all crops were harvested, according to the USDA's census.
Making money at farming has for generations meant using chemicals to kill weeds, fight off insects and disease and otherwise wrench predictable results from soil and plants. Going organic _ and thus abandoning use of nearly all chemicals _ unleashes a different set of variables.
"Conventional ag is a little bit more like a recipe. You know what to pour out of the bag," said Nancy Creamer, director of the Center for Environmental Farming Systems at North Carolina State University.
Farmers like Ed Snavely, who switched from traditional to organic methods in 1986, say they have relied on advice from other growers and trial and error to develop their techniques.
Snavely monitors temperature and soil moisture and scrapes his fingers through the dirt looking for young weeds just below the surface that look like tiny, white hairs to decide when to attach the tools to his tractor that will rip the weeds from the soil.
He'll typically do so three times before planting his crops, which include corn, buckwheat, soybeans and hay, and four times after planting. Waiting even a day too long can allow the weeds to grow too big to manage easily, he said.
Snavely used to kill weeds on his 100 acres in Knox County by spraying chemicals, which required only one trip through the fields.
"With most of your conventional farmers, it's plant, spray and forget. If you're going to go organic, you can't plant and forget. You've got to be out there walking your fields," he said.
Going organic can also be a financial risk. In subtracting nearly all chemicals, farmers say they also subtract from their profits in the first few years. It takes time to master a new way of farming.
Compounding the problem, a farmer who switches from conventional growing methods has to wait three years to obtain certification from the government, a label that helps ensure higher prices.
Snavely said he would have benefited if more scientific data had been available when he first made the switch.
"I took some big yield reductions because I didn't know what I was doing," he said.
Current studies aim to generate data that can be accessed through the Internet or obtained from university and government employees who consult with farmers.
Cathy Eastman, vegetable entomologist at the Illinois Natural History Survey, leads a study that uses three different crop strategies and three kinds of soil enrichment. Scientists from five different fields are studying plant and soil health and how to control weeds and insects.
Kleinhenz and other researchers at Ohio State are studying how farmers can survive a transition to organic farming from conventional farming. They are examining economics, horticulture, soil biology, plant diseases and other issues.
The researchers are looking at four different ways of switching to an organic method over three years: leaving the ground fallow, growing hay, growing a series of vegetables in open air and growing a series of vegetables under plastic tunnels.
Each method is tested with and without composted manure, giving researchers a total of eight plots to test.
Among their initial findings: manure has improved soil fertility faster than expected and weeds have produced fewer seeds in the fallow fields, indicating that the weed population would probably decline more quickly there.
North Carolina State's Creamer said the organic farming studies will also benefit conventional farmers. A study she's leading tests how crops grow after the removal of each of three chemicals _ a herbicide, pesticide and chemical fertilizer.
"A lot of conventional farmers have been waiting for the universities to confirm some of the existing anecdotal evidence," she said.
On The Net:
Organic Trade Association: www.ota.com
The USDA's Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/ | <urn:uuid:0449e152-a0ab-48ba-bbeb-fb314031ff7e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/13631/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962 | 1,112 | 2.828125 | 3 |
In a heated debate on the February 1st episode of CNBC's "The Kudlow Report", financial commentator Donald Luskin offered his "textbook" definition of inflation as "an overall rise in the general price level." I countered with the "dictionary" definition. My 1988 edition of Webster's Dictionary defines inflation as follows: "An increase in the volume of money and credit relative to available goods, resulting in a substantial and continuing rise in the general price level." [Emphasis added.] These differences are not academic and go a long way toward explaining why economists argue so vociferously.
In an inflationary environment, general prices tend to rise, although particular market segments tend to do so at uneven rates. This is hardly controversial. The more disputed question is why prices rise in the first place. As Luskin is well aware, the US Dollar is backed by nothing but confidence and perception. Its value depends upon our collective belief in its current and future purchasing power, and the hope that its supply will be restricted. When its supply is increased, users of the currency lose faith in its buying power and prices rise.
As a corollary, if dollar-holders believe that the US will have no choice but to monetize trillions of dollars of Treasury debt in the near future, the currency will falter. In this manner, currencies that are backed by nothing but confidence tend to behave like stock prices. The share value of a corporation represents the strength of the company. Likewise, the value of a currency represents the strength of a sovereign state.
Looked at through this prism, the fate of the US dollar in the future may not be all that different from the fate of Enron shares in 2001. In the 1990s, Enron was one of the most respected corporations in America, and the share price soared. But once the accounting scandal broke, and Enron's profits were proven to be illusory, the purchasing power of its shares plummeted. Eventually, the shares became worthless.
The shares did not collapse simply because Enron issued more shares and diluted value. The big change came when investors lost faith in Enron. Likewise, the US dollar may lose value because of garden-variety dilution, but the real leg down will occur if holders of US government debt lose faith that they will be paid in full. Even if there is the mere perception such an outcome is likely, it will cause the dollar to tank and aggregate prices to rise.
The Fed and Treasury have set out on a deliberate strategy of creating inflation in order to monetize most of the $14.1 trillion national debt- a debt that is growing by well over a trillion dollars per year!
The charts tell the tale. There can be little doubt that the dollar is being debased. The graph below traces the growth of the monetary base, which consists of physical currency and Fed bank credit (click to enlarge images):
No doubt here. The supply of high-powered money has exploded.
But it is not only the monetary base that has expanded; take a look at M2, an aggregate of money and money substitutes:
Since the recession began in December, 2007, the M2 money supply has increased by over 18%.
Next is the chart of the CRB Index, a group of 19 commodities used to track the overall price of raw materials:
The index clearly shows a strong trend upward, suggesting a general loss of value by the USD.
Yet, for my money, the trajectory of gold prices is the best yardstick to measure that value of the dollar. Below is a ten-year chart of the dollar price of gold. It is self explanatory.
Now, let's look at some charts of the US dollar vs. other fiat currencies.
Here's a two-year chart of the USD vs. the Australian dollar:
Here's a two-year chart of the US dollar vs. the Canadian dollar:
Finally, a two-year chart of the US dollar vs. the Japanese Yen:
Most dollar defenders point to the relative stability of the hallowed Dollar Index, but this only points to a deep flaw in that index; namely, it contains such a high percentage (58%) of the equally challenged euro that it vastly understates the dollar's weakness.
In our recent "Kudlow Report" debate, Luskin claimed that rising commodity prices no longer provided good inflation signals, saying that "for the last decade or so, the canaries [commodity prices] that we're using in this mine shaft just aren't functioning right."
I'm not sure why Luskin has decided to stop relying on market prices to determine the rate of inflation. Apparently, he now prefers dubious inflation metrics provided by the very government that creates the inflation. This is equivalent to trusting Enron's bookkeepers over an independent audit. For a smart guy, such faith is surprising.
By contrast, US dollar-holders around the world are increasingly losing faith in our currency and our government. They are tiring of the Fed's 26-month marathon of zero percent interest rates, and the Treasury's ballooning balance sheet. They are fearful that their bonds cannot withstand the twin threats of devaluation and default. That's why the dollar is losing its reserve currency status and inflation rates are rising. But hey, at least Luskin can keep the faith - I just hope he doesn't mind being the only one. | <urn:uuid:cdcb484f-8e24-409e-adb4-e6c726b7e6a7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://seekingalpha.com/article/251021-the-cause-and-evidence-of-inflation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944603 | 1,108 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Reagan's Economic Triumph
by Bruce Bartlett
June 07, 2004
The New York Sun
Ronald Reagan's economic achievements were among the most important of his presidency. When he took office in January 1981 the American economy was suffering from many ills, including slow growth, high inflation, rising unemployment, and unprecedented interest rates.
Economists commonly believed that it would take decades to fix all these problems, if they could be fixed at all, and that the political cost of doing so was impossibly large for a democracy.
Yet, well before the end of Reagan's presidency in 1988, he had succeeded in reversing all of the problems he inherited, putting the American economy on the path of sound, noninflationary growth that continues to this day.
To appreciate the magnitude of Reagan's achievement, it is important to recall just how bad the economic situation was in 1980. There was a recession that year, beginning in January and ending in July. As a consequence, real growth for the year was negative, with the national unemployment rate averaging more than 7%.Yet, inflation remained dangerously high.
By December 1980, the consumer price index was 12.4% higher than a year earlier. Inflationary expectations, combined with monetary tightening by the Federal Reserve, caused interest rates to hit the highest levels in American history. The prime rate went above 20% at midyear and was still above 15% when Reagan took the oath of office.
Reagan's predecessor, president Carter, was baffled by the combination of economic evils. Many economists believed that it would take the equivalent of another Great Depression to break the back of inflation and restore the nation's economic health, something no sane politician would ever contemplate.
A common estimate was based on "Okun's Law," named for economist Arthur Okun, which says that to bring inflation down by one percentage point will cause the economy to contract by 10%. Thus eliminating a 12.4% inflation rate would either take a very, very long time or involve an unthinkable economic cost.
Nevertheless, by 1986 the American inflation rate was down to just 1.1% and real gross domestic product was rising at a healthy pace. The unemployment rate and interest rates were still stubbornly high, but on a downward trend. Although the American economy had suffered a sharp recession from July 1981 to November 1982,it was far less severe than most economists expected, given the drop in inflation.
It is to Reagan's credit that he never wavered from his commitment to end inflation, even during the darkest days of the recession in 1982, when his party was suffering huge losses at the polls resulting from the economic slowdown.
He remained steadfast because he was certain of the outcome and because the stakes were so high. Reagan firmly believed that the Soviet Union's tottering economy was being kept afloat only by skyrocketing prices for its export commodities, such as oil and gold. Thus, stopping inflation was central not only to the health of the domestic economy, but to the defeat of communism as well.
Of course, the Federal Reserve waged the main fight against inflation. But Reagan consistently supported its efforts and appointed new governors, including Alan Greenspan as chairman in 1987, who supported price stability. But Reagan also believed, rightly, that increasing the production of goods and services was another key to ending inflation.
Toward this end, he pushed for lower tax rates to encourage work and investment, promoted free trade and deregulation to foster competition, and resisted political pressure for government intervention in areas such as corporate takeovers.
Critics of Reagan's policies continue to point to large budget deficits in the 1980s as the price of his success. These troubled him as well. But given the magnitude of Reagan's accomplishments in stopping inflation and bringing about the collapse of communism, I don't think his failure in this area should be held against him.
As impressive as Reagan's tangible accomplishments in office were, his less tangible accomplishments were also significant. Together with Prime Minister Thatcher, he restored the idea that private individuals and businesses were the true sources of prosperity, not government.
They gave legitimacy to free markets, open trade, and sound money, in contrast to socialism, planning, and price controls, which had dominated economic policy throughout the world for more than half a century. The renaissance of growth and freedom in Eastern Europe and the Third World owes much to Reagan's and Mrs. Thatcher's discrediting of the socialist idea and their tireless defense of economic freedom.
It is sad that Reagan was not able to fully comprehend the magnitude of his own achievements in his last years, or even to enjoy the grudging respect of his enemies.
I expect his stature will grow in future years as historians put Reagan's accomplishments into context. In the end, I believe they will conclude that he was among the world's greatest leaders, someone who changed the course of history for the better.
Copyright 2004 The New York Sun, One SL, LLC
All Rights Reserved
The New York Sun | <urn:uuid:de1a1c54-3d1b-4412-b925-4ad3958ce32e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ncpa.org/media/reagan-s-economic-triumph | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.983684 | 1,010 | 2.609375 | 3 |
(Nanowerk Spotlight) A conventional optical microscope equipped with an oil immersion objective can resolve objects no smaller than about 200 nanometers – a restriction known as the diffraction limit. The diffraction limit, which typically is half the width of the wavelength of light (λ) being used to view the specimen, represents the fundamental limit of optical imaging resolution.
Breaking this limit is possible by very sophisticated techniques and costly instrumentation. Now, though, researchers in Switzerland have found that when putting a transparent dielectric particle on top of an object with nanoscale features, details of that object with a size corresponding to ∼λ/7 can be resolved using a conventional microscope objective.
"We achieved super-resolution imaging of nanostructures with sub-diffraction feature sizes by using a microsphere nanoscope in combination with a conventional water or oil immersion objective," Martin Gijs, a professor at Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), tells Nanowerk. "Our fluorescence experiments performed in water show that an object with a size as small as one fourth of the diffraction limit can be quantitatively determined, while a 5.4 × magnification of the image is obtained."
For their technique, the team used transparent barium titanate glass microspheres that are simply put on top of an object that is immersed in liquid medium. Putting particles (60 µm microspheres) onto an object of interest gives access to nanometric details (down to 100 nm in water) of it and allows easy observation of the image via a conventional microscope objective.
"These particles are easily available commercially and at virtual no cost," says Gijs. "The super-resolution feature of the particle is associated with the existence of a so-called photonic nanojet that emerges from the bottom of such a particle, depending on appropriate choice of the particle size and the refractive index, when the particle is illuminated from the top."
Schematic of the microsphere nanoscope. Transparent glass microspheres are located on top of cells and project near-field optical information into the far-field, generating magnified virtual images that are observable by a classical microscope objective. The microspheres can resolve sub-diffraction features and act as superlenses in water or oil. (Reprinted with permission from Wiley-VCH Verlag)
While this optical phenomenon has been known and demonstrated for controlled nanostructures, the EPFL team provides first results on the imaging of biological objects such as centrioles, mitochondria, and chromosomes.
This technique effectively converts a standard laboratory microscope to an instrument with super-resolution capability without extra cost.
Gijs points out that the demonstrated fluorescent superresolution microscopy in water indicates that the technique could be extremely interesting for life science applications.
"We think that in future, due to the straightforwardness of our approach, microspheres will provide a robust and versatile tool that can be used to image with a conventional microscope a variety of biological objects such as viruses, nucleic acids, and functional organelles in living cells," he concludes. | <urn:uuid:ddb1d432-cb0d-4b85-9d27-b70dd619c750> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=33865.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915279 | 644 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Digital noise can be a serious problem for many digital photographers. It is the digital equivalent of grainy film and can be caused by several things including shooting at a high ISO, shooting in low light, or even just having a high-contrast photo. Noise is often present in the darker areas of photos or areas that are not in sharp focus. The following is a simple 3-step solution to reduce digital noise using Photoshop or Photoshop Elements.
Time: 1-10 minutes
Materials Photoshop or Photoshop Elements
A digital photo you wish to edit
Open the photo you wish to edit. Perform any edits you wish to do aside from dealing with the digital noise. Some types of edits can introduce more noise (such as levels adjustments, brightness and contrast, actions etc.). As such, you should edit for noise as one of the final steps in your workflow. Make sure to save your work before you begin the following noise reduction technique.
This is a crop of the image before any noise reduction is performed
This is how the image looks after noise reduction
Once your edits are done and you have flattened your image (Layer>Flatten Image), duplicate your background layer (Layer>Duplicate Layer)
Next use a blur filter on the duplicate layer (Filter>Blur>Lens Blur). You can also use Gaussian Blur if Lens Blur is not available in your version of Photoshop or Photoshop Elements. Make the blur quite heavy for a very noisy photo. Don’t worry if the image appears too blurry, the blur will not be shown at 100%. You want to overdo the blur.
The next step is the most important and it takes a bit of practice to get the hang of. With the eraser tool, you want to erase the areas of the subject where the noise is not prevalent or areas where sharp focus is required. You can change the opacity of the brush depending on how sharp or blurred you would like an area to be. After a few tries, it becomes quite easy to gauge how strong your brush should be. The areas that usually need the most erasing are the foreground areas, a subject’s facial features, or anything that has fine details. The eraser brush should be set to a low hardness value so that the edges have a soft, smooth transition. You may need to adjust the size and opacity of your eraser brush several times during this step.
Note that the areas which you want to be slightly in focus can be erased at a reduced opacity to create less blur. You can see this in the cat's tail
Flatten your image again if desired.
The finished product will look something like this
Digital noise can be one of the most frustrating issues for photographers to deal with in post-production, but with these simple steps you can deal with it quickly and efficiently for a beautiful, clean-looking image. | <urn:uuid:2fb86202-889c-41f4-90b1-1ee5923bc993> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://howtoi.com.au/fix-noisy-photos-with-photoshop-or-photoshop-elements/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933643 | 584 | 2.671875 | 3 |
This text is part of:
Table of Contents:
It has been inferred from this passage that H. was twice in Colchis and twice in Egypt, which is unlikely, if not impossible. He may well have seen Egyptians in Asia Minor, before his travels in the Black Sea, which almost certainly preceded his visit to Egypt (cf. Introd. pp. 14, 19).
μελάγχροες. H. has already (57. 2) said the Egyptians were ‘black’; this was the usual Greek idea (so Aesch. Sup. 719); it is an exaggeration of the ‘brown’ colour; the Colchians were ‘black’ in the same sense; so Pind. Pyth. iv. 212 (376) calls them κελαινῶπες. The hair of the Colchians was short and curly, as contrasted with the lank locks (εὐθύτριχες, Arist. de G. A. v. 3, 782 B) of the Scyths. H.'s ideas of Egyptian appearance have been somewhat confused by the numerous negro slaves he saw in the streets of Memphis. As the Egyptians themselves shaved wholly or in part (36. 1 n.), the ‘woolly hair’ is the more inexplicable. Various attempts have been made to find a basis for H.'s ‘discovery’ (νοήσας πρότερον) of the identity of the Colchians with the Egyptians (cf. Wiedemann, p. 408); the least improbable is the suggestion that the Persian king had deported Egyptians to Colchis. But it is most likely a mistake altogether. For circumcision in Egypt cf. 36. 3 n. H.'s method—to infer identity of race from similarity of custom—is modern, though its sufficiency is doubted; here certainly his conclusion is wrong. His information as to Phoenician usage in Greece (§ 4) is curious.
Σύριοι οἱ ἐν τῇ Παλαιστίνῃ. For these cf. iii. 5. 1 n. H. does not distinguish the Jews from the other inhabitants of Palestine; the Philistines were not circumcised (cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 26 et pass.), nor all the Phoenicians (Ezek. xxxii. 30). Josephus (Antiq. viii. 10. 3), however, is wrong in saying the Jews alone in Palestine practised the rite. For Σύριοι in general cf. i. 6 n. H. here extends them beyond the Halys to the river Parthenius, which lay in the very west of Paphlagonia, though in i. 72 he kept them east of the Halys. For the Macrones who live on the south-east of the Black Sea cf. iii. 94.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. | <urn:uuid:b7f16c84-441a-4355-a5c8-3f21ad337be9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0028:book=2:chapter=104 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953459 | 671 | 3.296875 | 3 |
An introduction to probability distributions
Ugoni, A. and Walker, B.F. (1995) An introduction to probability distributions. COMSIG Review, 4 (1). pp. 16-23.
*No subscription required
Probability allows us to infer from a sample to a population. In fact, inference is a tool of probability theory. This paper looks briefly at the Binomial, Poisson, and Normal distributions. These are probability distributions, which are used extensively in inference. An understanding of these distributions will assist the chiropractor and osteopath to critically appraise the literature.
Keywords: Probability distributions, biostatistics, chiropractic, osteopathy
|Publication Type:||Journal Article|
|Item Control Page|
Downloads per month over past year | <urn:uuid:5adc7e4a-9763-42bb-b48a-f567516f7324> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/11627/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.778363 | 165 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Commonly, a map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations on the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane. Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All map projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.:1
More generally, the surfaces of planetary bodies can be mapped even if they are too irregular to be modeled well with a sphere or ellipsoid; see below. Even more generally, projections are the subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry and projective geometry. However, "map projection" refers specifically to a cartographic projection.
- 1 Background
- 2 Metric properties of maps
- 3 Construction of a map projection
- 4 Classification
- 5 Projections by surface
- 6 Projections by preservation of a metric property
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
Maps can be more useful than globes in many situations: they are more compact and easier to store; they readily accommodate an enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on computer displays; they can facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped; they can show larger portions of the Earth's surface at once; and they are cheaper to produce and transport. These useful traits of maps motivate the development of map projections.
However, Carl Friedrich Gauss's Theorema Egregium proved that a sphere's surface cannot be represented on a plane without distortion. The same applies to other reference surfaces used as models for the Earth. Since any map projection is a representation of one of those surfaces on a plane, all map projections distort. Every distinct map projection distorts in a distinct way. The study of map projections is the characterization of these distortions.
Projection is not limited to perspective projections, such as those resulting from casting a shadow on a screen, or the rectilinear image produced by a pinhole camera on a flat film plate. Rather, any mathematical function transforming coordinates from the curved surface to the plane is a projection. Few projections in actual use are perspective.
For simplicity, most of this article assumes that the surface to be mapped is that of a sphere. In reality, the Earth and other large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, whereas small objects such as asteroids often have irregular shapes. These other surfaces can be mapped as well. Therefore, more generally, a map projection is any method of "flattening" into a plane a continuous curved surface.
Metric properties of maps
Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface independent of its geography. Some of these properties are:
Map projections can be constructed to preserve at least one of these properties, though only in a limited way for most. Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric properties in different ways. The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map. Because many purposes exist for maps, many projections have been created to suit those purposes.
Another consideration in the configuration of a projection is its compatibility with data sets to be used on the map. Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the chosen datum (model) of the Earth. Different datums assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so in large scale maps, such as those from national mapping systems, it is important to match the datum to the projection. The slight differences in coordinate assignation between different datums is not a concern for world maps or other vast territories, where such differences get shrunk to imperceptibility.
Which projection is best?
The mathematics of projection do not permit any particular map projection to be "best" for everything. Something will always get distorted. Therefore, a diversity of projections exists to service the many uses of maps and their vast range of scales.
Modern national mapping systems typically employ a transverse Mercator or close variant for large-scale maps in order to preserve conformality and low variation in scale over small areas. For smaller-scale maps, such as those spanning continents or the entire world, many projections are in common use according to their fitness for the purpose.
Thematic maps normally require an equal area projection so that phenomena per unit area are shown in correct proportion. However, representing area ratios correctly necessarily distorts shapes more than many maps that are not equal-area. Hence reference maps of the world often appear on compromise projections instead. Due to distortions inherent in any map of the world, the choice of projection becomes largely one of aesthetics.
The Mercator projection, developed for navigational purposes, has often been used in world maps where other projections would have been more appropriate. This problem has long been recognized even outside professional circles. For example, a 1943 New York Times editorial states:
The time has come to discard [the Mercator] for something that represents the continents and directions less deceptively... Although its usage... has diminished... it is still highly popular as a wall map apparently in part because, as a rectangular map, it fills a rectangular wall space with more map, and clearly because its familiarity breeds more popularity.:166
A controversy in the 1980s over the Peters map motivated the American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society) to produce a series of booklets (including Which Map Is Best) designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps. In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted a resolution recommending against using any rectangular projection (including Mercator and Gall–Peters) for reference maps of the world.
The classical way of showing the distortion inherent in a projection is to use Tissot's indicatrix. For a given point, using the scale factor h along the meridian, the scale factor k along the parallel, and the angle θ′ between them, Nicolas Tissot described how to construct an ellipse that characterizes the amount and orientation of the components of distortion.:147–149 By spacing the ellipses regularly along the meridians and parallels, the network of indicatrices shows how distortion varies across the map.
Construction of a map projection
The creation of a map projection involves two steps:
- Selection of a model for the shape of the Earth or planetary body (usually choosing between a sphere or ellipsoid). Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.
- Transformation of geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to Cartesian (x,y) or polar plane coordinates. Cartesian coordinates normally have a simple relation to eastings and northings defined on a grid superimposed on the projection.
Some of the simplest map projections are literal projections, as obtained by placing a light source at some definite point relative to the globe and projecting its features onto a specified surface. This is not the case for most projections, which are defined only in terms of mathematical formulae that have no direct geometric interpretation.
Choosing a projection surface
A surface that can be unfolded or unrolled into a plane or sheet without stretching, tearing or shrinking is called a developable surface. The cylinder, cone and the plane are all developable surfaces. The sphere and ellipsoid do not have developable surfaces, so any projection of them onto a plane will have to distort the image. (To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing and warping it.)
One way of describing a projection is first to project from the Earth's surface to a developable surface such as a cylinder or cone, and then to unroll the surface into a plane. While the first step inevitably distorts some properties of the globe, the developable surface can then be unfolded without further distortion.
Aspect of the projection
Once a choice is made between projecting onto a cylinder, cone, or plane, the aspect of the shape must be specified. The aspect describes how the developable surface is placed relative to the globe: it may be normal (such that the surface's axis of symmetry coincides with the Earth's axis), transverse (at right angles to the Earth's axis) or oblique (any angle in between).
The developable surface may also be either tangent or secant to the sphere or ellipsoid. Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe. Moving the developable surface away from contact with the globe never preserves or optimizes metric properties, so that possibility is not discussed further here.
Tangent and secant lines are represented undistorted. If these lines are a parallel of latitude, as in conical projections, it is called a standard parallel. The central meridian is the meridian to which the globe is rotated before projecting. The central meridian (usually written λ0) and a parallel of origin (usually written φ0) are often used to define the origin of the map projection.
A globe is the only way to represent the earth with constant scale throughout the entire map in all directions. A map cannot achieve that property for any area, no matter how small. It can, however, achieve constant scale along specific lines.
Some possible properties are:
- The scale depends on location, but not on direction. This is equivalent to preservation of angles, the defining characteristic of a conformal map.
- Scale is constant along any parallel in the direction of the parallel. This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.
- Combination of the above: the scale depends on latitude only, not on longitude or direction. This applies for the Mercator projection in normal aspect.
- Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location. This is the defining characteristic of an equidistant projection such as the Azimuthal equidistant projection. There are also projections (Maurer, Close) where true distances from two points are preserved.:234
Choosing a model for the shape of the body
Projection construction is also affected by how the shape of the Earth or planetary body is approximated. In the following section on projection categories, the earth is taken as a sphere in order to simplify the discussion. However, the Earth's actual shape is closer to an oblate ellipsoid. Whether spherical or ellipsoidal, the principles discussed hold without loss of generality.
Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface. Auxiliary latitudes are often employed in projecting the ellipsoid.
A third model is the geoid, a more complex and accurate representation of Earth's shape coincident with what mean sea level would be if there were no winds, tides, or land. Compared to the best fitting ellipsoid, a geoidal model would change the characterization of important properties such as distance, conformality and equivalence. Therefore, in geoidal projections that preserve such properties, the mapped graticule would deviate from a mapped ellipsoid's graticule. Normally the geoid is not used as an Earth model for projections, however, because Earth's shape is very regular, with the undulation of the geoid amounting to less than 100 m from the ellipsoidal model out of the 6.3 million m Earth radius. For irregular planetary bodies such as asteroids, however, sometimes models analogous to the geoid are used to project maps from.
A fundamental projection classification is based on the type of projection surface onto which the globe is conceptually projected. The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the earth, followed by an implied scaling operation. These surfaces are cylindrical (e.g. Mercator), conic (e.g. Albers), or azimuthal or plane (e.g. stereographic). Many mathematical projections, however, do not neatly fit into any of these three conceptual projection methods. Hence other peer categories have been described in the literature, such as pseudoconic, pseudocylindrical, pseudoazimuthal, retroazimuthal, and polyconic.
Another way to classify projections is according to properties of the model they preserve. Some of the more common categories are:
- Preserving direction (azimuthal or zenithal), a trait possible only from one or two points to every other point
- Preserving shape locally (conformal or orthomorphic)
- Preserving area (equal-area or equiareal or equivalent or authalic)
- Preserving distance (equidistant), a trait possible only between one or two points and every other point
- Preserving shortest route, a trait preserved only by the gnomonic projection
Because the sphere is not a developable surface, it is impossible to construct a map projection that is both equal-area and conformal.
Projections by surface
The three developable surfaces (plane, cylinder, cone) provide useful models for understanding, describing, and developing map projections. However, these models are limited in two fundamental ways. For one thing, most world projections in actual use do not fall into any of those categories. For another thing, even most projections that do fall into those categories are not naturally attainable through physical projection. As L.P. Lee notes,
No reference has been made in the above definitions to cylinders, cones or planes. The projections are termed cylindric or conic because they can be regarded as developed on a cylinder or a cone, as the case may be, but it is as well to dispense with picturing cylinders and cones, since they have given rise to much misunderstanding. Particularly is this so with regard to the conic projections with two standard parallels: they may be regarded as developed on cones, but they are cones which bear no simple relationship to the sphere. In reality, cylinders and cones provide us with convenient descriptive terms, but little else.
Lee's objection refers to the way the terms cylindrical, conic, and planar (azimuthal) have been abstracted in the field of map projections. If maps were projected as in light shining through a globe onto a developable surface, then the spacing of parallels would follow a very limited set of possibilities. Such a cylindrical projection (for example) is one which:
- Is rectangular;
- Has straight vertical meridians, spaced evenly;
- Has straight parallels symmetrically placed about the equator;
- Has parallels constrained to where they fall when light shines through the globe onto the cylinder, with the light source someplace along the line formed by the intersection of the prime meridian with the equator, and the center of the sphere.
(If you rotate the globe before projecting then the parallels and meridians will not necessarily still be straight lines. Rotations are normally ignored for the purpose of classification.)
Where the light source emanates along the line described in this last constraint is what yields the differences between the various "natural" cylindrical projections. But the term cylindrical as used in the field of map projections relaxes the last constraint entirely. Instead the parallels can be placed according to any algorithm the designer has decided suits the needs of the map. The famous Mercator projection is one in which the placement of parallels does not arise by "projection"; instead parallels are placed how they need to be in order to satisfy the property that a course of constant bearing is always plotted as a straight line.
The term "normal cylindrical projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced vertical lines and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to horizontal lines.
The mapping of meridians to vertical lines can be visualized by imagining a cylinder whose axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation. This cylinder is wrapped around the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.
By the geometry of their construction, cylindrical projections stretch distances east-west. The amount of stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical projections, and is given by the secant of the latitude as a multiple of the equator's scale. The various cylindrical projections are distinguished from each other solely by their north-south stretching (where latitude is given by φ):
- North-south stretching equals east-west stretching (sec φ): The east-west scale matches the north-south scale: conformal cylindrical or Mercator; this distorts areas excessively in high latitudes (see also transverse Mercator).
- North-south stretching grows with latitude faster than east-west stretching (sec2 φ): The cylindric perspective (or central cylindrical) projection; unsuitable because distortion is even worse than in the Mercator projection.
- North-south stretching grows with latitude, but less quickly than the east-west stretching: such as the Miller cylindrical projection (sec 4φ/).
- North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or "plate carrée".
- North-south compression equals the cosine of the latitude (the reciprocal of east-west stretching): equal-area cylindrical. This projection has many named specializations differing only in the scaling constant, such as the Gall–Peters or Gall orthographic (undistorted at the 45° parallels), Behrmann (undistorted at the 30° parallels), and Lambert cylindrical equal-area (undistorted at the equator). Since this projection scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at the expense of shapes.
In the first case (Mercator), the east-west scale always equals the north-south scale. In the second case (central cylindrical), the north-south scale exceeds the east-west scale everywhere away from the equator. Each remaining case has a pair of secant lines—a pair of identical latitudes of opposite sign (or else the equator) at which the east-west scale matches the north-south-scale.
Normal cylindrical projections map the whole Earth as a finite rectangle, except in the first two cases, where the rectangle stretches infinitely tall while retaining constant width.
Pseudocylindrical projections represent the central meridian as a straight line segment. Other meridians are longer than the central meridian and bow outward away from the central meridian. Pseudocylindrical projections map parallels as straight lines. Along parallels, each point from the surface is mapped at a distance from the central meridian that is proportional to its difference in longitude from the central meridian. On a pseudocylindrical map, any point further from the equator than some other point has a higher latitude than the other point, preserving north-south relationships. This trait is useful when illustrating phenomena that depend on latitude, such as climate. Examples of pseudocylindrical projections include:
- Sinusoidal, which was the first pseudocylindrical projection developed. Vertical scale and horizontal scale are the same throughout, resulting in an equal-area map. On the map, as in reality, the length of each parallel is proportional to the cosine of the latitude. Thus the shape of the map for the whole earth is the region between two symmetric rotated cosine curves. The true distance between two points on the same meridian corresponds to the distance on the map between the two parallels, which is smaller than the distance between the two points on the map. The distance between two points on the same parallel is true. The area of any region is true.
- Collignon projection, which in its most common forms represents each meridian as two straight line segments, one from each pole to the equator.
The term "conic projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced lines radiating out from the apex and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to circular arcs centered on the apex.
When making a conic map, the map maker arbitrarily picks two standard parallels. Those standard parallels may be visualized as secant lines where the cone intersects the globe—or, if the map maker chooses the same parallel twice, as the tangent line where the cone is tangent to the globe. The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area near those standard parallels. Distances along the parallels to the north of both standard parallels or to the south of both standard parallels are stretched; distances along parallels between the standard parallels are compressed. When a single standard parallel is used, distances along all other parallels are stretched.
The most popular conic maps include:
- Equidistant conic, which keeps parallels evenly spaced along the meridians to preserve a constant distance scale along each meridian, typically the same or similar scale as along the standard parallels.
- Albers conic, which adjusts the north-south distance between non-standard parallels to compensate for the east-west stretching or compression, giving an equal-area map.
- Lambert conformal conic, which adjusts the north-south distance between non-standard parallels to equal the east-west stretching, giving a conformal map.
- Werner cordiform, upon which distances are correct from one pole, as well as along all parallels.
- Continuous American polyconic
Azimuthal (projections onto a plane)
Azimuthal projections have the property that directions from a central point are preserved and therefore great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on the map. Usually these projections also have radial symmetry in the scales and hence in the distortions: map distances from the central point are computed by a function r(d) of the true distance d, independent of the angle; correspondingly, circles with the central point as center are mapped into circles which have as center the central point on the map.
The radial scale is r′(d) and the transverse scale r(d)/(R sin d/) where R is the radius of the Earth.
Some azimuthal projections are true perspective projections; that is, they can be constructed mechanically, projecting the surface of the Earth by extending lines from a point of perspective (along an infinite line through the tangent point and the tangent point's antipode) onto the plane:
- The gnomonic projection displays great circles as straight lines. Can be constructed by using a point of perspective at the center of the Earth. r(d) = c tan d/; so that even just a hemisphere is already infinite in extent.
- The General Perspective projection can be constructed by using a point of perspective outside the earth. Photographs of Earth (such as those from the International Space Station) give this perspective.
- The orthographic projection maps each point on the earth to the closest point on the plane. Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin d/. Can display up to a hemisphere on a finite circle. Photographs of Earth from far enough away, such as the Moon, give this perspective.
- The azimuthal conformal projection, also known as the stereographic projection, can be constructed by using the tangent point's antipode as the point of perspective. r(d) = c tan d/; the scale is c/(2R cos2 d/). Can display nearly the entire sphere's surface on a finite circle. The sphere's full surface requires an infinite map.
Other azimuthal projections are not true perspective projections:
- Azimuthal equidistant: r(d) = cd; it is used by amateur radio operators to know the direction to point their antennas toward a point and see the distance to it. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to surface distance on the earth (; for the case where the tangent point is the North Pole, see the flag of the United Nations)
- Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to straight-line distance through the earth: r(d) = c sin d/
- Logarithmic azimuthal is constructed so that each point's distance from the center of the map is the logarithm of its distance from the tangent point on the Earth. r(d) = c ln d/); locations closer than at a distance equal to the constant d0 are not shown (
see figure 6-5)
Projections by preservation of a metric property
Conformal, or orthomorphic, map projections preserve angles locally, implying that they map infinitesimal circles of constant size anywhere on the Earth to infinitesimal circles of varying sizes on the map. In contrast, mappings that are not conformal distort most such small circles into ellipses of distortion. An important consequence of conformality is that relative angles at each point of the map are correct, and the local scale (although varying throughout the map) in every direction around any one point is constant. These are some conformal projections:
- Mercator: Rhumb lines are represented by straight segments
- Transverse Mercator
- Stereographic: Any circle of a sphere, great and small, maps to a circle or straight line.
- Lambert conformal conic
- Peirce quincuncial projection
- Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection
- Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection
Equal-area maps preserve area measure, generally distorting shapes in order to do that. Equal-area maps are also called equivalent or authalic. These are some projections that preserve area:
- Albers conic
- Eckert II, IV and VI
- Gall orthographic (also known as Gall–Peters, or Peters, projection)
- Goode's homolosine
- Lambert azimuthal equal-area
- Lambert cylindrical equal-area
- Snyder’s equal-area polyhedral projection, used for geodesic grids.
- Tobler hyperelliptical
These are some projections that preserve distance from some standard point or line:
- Equirectangular—distances along meridians are conserved
- Plate carrée—an Equirectangular projection centered at the equator
- Azimuthal equidistant—distances along great circles radiating from centre are conserved
- Equidistant conic
- Sinusoidal—distances along parallels are conserved
- Werner cordiform distances from the North Pole are correct as are the curved distance on parallels
- Two-point equidistant: two "control points" are arbitrarily chosen by the map maker. Distance from any point on the map to each control point is proportional to surface distance on the earth.
Great circles are displayed as straight lines:
Direction to a fixed location B (the bearing at the starting location A of the shortest route) corresponds to the direction on the map from A to B:
- Littrow—the only conformal retroazimuthal projection
- Hammer retroazimuthal—also preserves distance from the central point
- Craig retroazimuthal aka Mecca or Qibla—also has vertical meridians
Compromise projections give up the idea of perfectly preserving metric properties, seeking instead to strike a balance between distortions, or to simply make things "look right". Most of these types of projections distort shape in the polar regions more than at the equator. These are some compromise projections:
- van der Grinten
- Miller cylindrical
- Winkel Tripel
- Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion
- B. J. S. Cahill's Butterfly Map
- Kavrayskiy VII projection
- Wagner VI projection
- Chamberlin trimetric
- Oronce Finé's cordiform
- Snyder, J.P. (1989). Album of Map Projections, United States Geological Survey Professional Paper. United States Government Printing Office. 1453.
- Snyder, John P. (1993). Flattening the earth: two thousand years of map projections. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76746-9.
- Choosing a World Map. Falls Church, Virginia: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. 1988. p. 1. ISBN 0-9613459-2-6.
- Slocum, Terry A.; Robert B. McMaster; Fritz C. Kessler; Hugh H. Howard (2005). Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 166. ISBN 0-13-035123-7.
- Bauer, H.A. (1942). "Globes, Maps, and Skyways (Air Education Series)". New York. p. 28
- Miller, Osborn Maitland (1942). "Notes on Cylindrical World Map Projections". Geographical Review 43 (3): 405–409.
- Raisz, Erwin Josephus. (1938). General Cartography. New York: McGraw–Hill. 2d ed., 1948. p. 87.
- Robinson, Arthur Howard. (1960). Elements of Cartography, second edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 82.
- American Cartographic Association's Committee on Map Projections, 1986. Which Map is Best p. 12. Falls Church: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping.
- Robinson, Arthur (1990). "Rectangular World Maps—No!". Professional Geographer 42 (1): 101–104. doi:10.1111/j.0033-0124.1990.00101.x.
- "Cartographic Notes". American Cartographer. 1989. 16(3): 222–223.
- Snyder. Working Manual, page 24.
- "Projection parameters".
- "Map projections".
- Cheng, Y.; Lorre, J. J. (2000). "Equal Area Map Projection for Irregularly Shaped Objects". Cartography and Geographic Information Science 27 (2): 91. doi:10.1559/152304000783547957.
- Stooke, P. J. (1998). "Mapping Worlds with Irregular Shapes". The Canadian Geographer 42: 61. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.1998.tb01553.x.
- Shingareva, K.B.; Bugaevsky, L.M.; Nyrtsov, M. (2000). "Mathematical Basis for Non-spherical Celestial Bodies Maps" (PDF). Journal of Geospatial Engineering 2 (2): 45–50.
- Nyrtsov, M.V. (August 2003). "The Classification of Projections of Irregularly-shaped Celestial Bodies" (PDF). Proceedings of the 21st International Cartographic Conference (ICC): 1158–1164.
- Clark, P. E.; Clark, C. S. (2013). "CSNB Mapping Applied to Irregular Bodies". Constant-Scale Natural Boundary Mapping to Reveal Global and Cosmic Processes. SpringerBriefs in Astronomy. p. 71. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7762-4_6. ISBN 978-1-4614-7761-7.
- Snyder, John Parr (1987). Map Projections--a Working Manual. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 192.
- Lee, L.P. (1944). "The nomenclature and classification of map projections". Empire Survey Review VII (51): 190–200. doi:10.1179/sre.1918.104.22.168. p. 193
- Weisstein, Eric W., "Sinusoidal Projection", MathWorld.
- Carlos A. Furuti. "Conic Projections"
- Weisstein, Eric W., "Gnomonic Projection", MathWorld.
- "The Gnomonic Projection". Retrieved November 18, 2005.
- Weisstein, Eric W., "Orthographic Projection", MathWorld.
- Weisstein, Eric W., "Stereographic Projection", MathWorld.
- Weisstein, Eric W., "Azimuthal Equidistant Projection", MathWorld.
- Weisstein, Eric W., "Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection", MathWorld.
- Snyder, John P. "Enlarging the Heart of a Map". Archived from the original on July 2, 2010. Retrieved April 14, 2016.
- Snyder, John P. "Enlarging the Heart of a Map (accompanying figures)". Archived from the original on April 10, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2005.
- Fran Evanisko, American River College, lectures for Geography 20: "Cartographic Design for GIS", Fall 2002
- Map Projections—PDF versions of numerous projections, created and released into the Public Domain by Paul B. Anderson ... member of the International Cartographic Association's Commission on Map Projections
Find more about
at Wikipedia's sister projects
|Media from Commons|
|Data from Wikidata|
- PDF (12.6 MB), U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1453, by John P. Snyder (USGS) and Philip M. Voxland (U. Minnesota), 1989.
- Cartography at DMOZ
- A Cornucopia of Map Projections, a visualization of distortion on a vast array of map projections in a single image.
- G.Projector, free software can render many projections (NASA GISS).
- Color images of map projections and distortion (Mapthematics.com).
- Geometric aspects of mapping: map projection (KartoWeb.itc.nl).
- Java world map projections, Henry Bottomley (SE16.info).
- Map projections http://www.3dsoftware.com/Cartography/USGS/MapProjections/ at the Wayback Machine (archived January 4, 2007) (3DSoftware).
- Map projections, John Savard.
- Map Projections (MathWorld).
- Map Projections An interactive JAVA applet to study deformations (area, distance and angle) of map projections (UFF.br).
- Map Projections: How Projections Work (Progonos.com).
- Map Projections Poster (U.S. Geographical Survey).
- MapRef: The Internet Collection of MapProjections and Reference Systems in Europe
- PROJ.4 – Cartographic Projections Library.
- Projection Reference Table of examples and properties of all common projections (RadicalCartography.net).
- PDF (1.70 MB), Melita Kennedy (ESRI).
- World Map Projections, Stephen Wolfram based on work by Yu-Sung Chang (Wolfram Demonstrations Project).
- Compare Map Projections | <urn:uuid:1792833c-bbd9-47aa-999b-84dd42a03d13> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.878729 | 7,453 | 4.0625 | 4 |
To celebrate the new school year here are some of my favorite posts:
Article 1: Why Do We Go to School?
Article 2: Back to School| A New Year of Learning
Article 3: Back to School| What is Inclusion?
When my son Aaron was in school, shopping was part of his curriculum. From the time he was ten years old he went to the bank and grocery one day a week as part of his special education school program.
This was best practice and came from the work of Drs. Lou Brown, Alison Ford, Sharon Freagon and many others. The idea of a functional curriculum for people with autism, intellectual and developmental disabilities is:
* it takes longer to learn skills, so let’s make sure we teach important skills and not waste their time on dumb stuff
* it takes lots of practice, so let’s give the student lots of opportunities and trials
* use it or lose it, so let’s make sure the skill is something the student will need their whole life
* transition from school to adult life will be smoother
* we only teach skills that if the person didn’t do it, someone else would have to do it for them
* the ability to purchase items would give the person more dignity, self-esteem, self-determination skills and choices in their life
The way it worked was each week, Mom sent in a check for $10.00 and a shopping list. The class went to the same grocery store (because each store is different). Each student cashed their check at the bank and then bought items from the list to take home.
In addition, students also planned a lunch to be made in the classroom the following day. Each would purchase a couple items for that group lunch. These items were purchased with the classroom credit card.
This functional curriculum was based on the philosophy that Aaron would go to the grocery the rest of his life. Before the school year started the IEP team decided this was a high priority skill because he would need to buy food and other items when he was an adult. If he didn’t learn to purchase these items, someone else would have to buy them for him. If Aaron could purchase the items he would have more choices and say in his life and therefore a better quality of life. (Who wants someone else deciding you can only have Cheerios for breakfast all your life.)
Related Service Staff
The curriculum was designed by the IEP team including specialists and the parents. After all, who would be taking the student to the grocery on the weekends, summer, and after school. And who knew what the student liked better than their parents?
I was in the school a lot and went on many of the community training trips with Aaron and his class.
It takes a Village
The speech and language therapist helped Aaron build picture sequences of “shopping at Krogers,” check-off lists with pictures for grocery lists, and learn to interact with the cashier “Thank You” and give a High 5 to the bagger….
The occupational therapist helped Aaron figure out which coin purse/wallet worked best, learn to pay with the next highest bill, learn how to take the money out of his wallet (hold wallet in left hand and take out bills with right) and after many failures of getting the change back in the wallet–it was decided Aaron should just put the change in his pocket….
The physical therapist helped Aaron figure out how to climb up and down the steps on the bus (hold on the rail with his right hand and count the steps), how to maneuver the parking lot (and yes we had an IEP goal that said with 50% accuracy), how to enter the right door–even if there are two “in” doors,
how to reach the items on the bottom shelves (hold on to the grocery cart with his left hand and reach with his right)….
Depending on the therapists schedules, they might only be involved in periodic assessments, or they could go with the class every week. This was an excellent way for the therapist got to really see Aaron in this environment and practice REAL life skills.
The teacher and assistant teachers went every week with the 6-8 students in the multi-handicapped class. She/he helped Aaron match his pictures to the actual items in the store, find his favorite items and put them in the cart, learning appropriate social skills….
After High School
Unfortunately now that Aaron is out of school, he has lost most of those skills because adult service staff refuse to take him to the store or don’t have the knowledge or support they need. Here is a story about Aaron’s home (click here). It is not the fault of the staff. Some of them are very loving and do a great job.
So I take him every weekend when he is home with us. Here is a story of a recent shopping trip (click here).
Aaron and I are a team and we have worked out our own system. We only shop for about 10 items and Aaron puts the items in the cart. Sometimes Aaron will grab something off the shelf and if it is anywhere close to something he might want, I’ll let him buy it. ie. if it is a bag of cookies or cereal –he can keep it. If it is a box of denture tablets probably I’ll tell him what it is and put it back.
Choices: Quality of Life and “If Only”
If I had the opportunity to change things in Aaron’s life, it would be that adult services used a functional curriculum and adult residential services gave Aaron and others with autism and severe disabilities the opportunities to practice their skills. There is no question Aaron would not currently be LOSING these skills. There is no question these skills would enhance Aaron’s self-esteem and quality of life.
The reason I could insist on these skills being taught and used when Aaron was school age was because of the federal mandate in IDEA. The Individual with Disabilities Education Act said that parents were part of the IEP team and the parents had due process if they disagreed with the school personel. There is no such mandate for Adult Services, no due process for parents and/or guardians. Plus, in Adult Services the staff does not have to be trained or have any teaching license.
As my friend Deb used to say, “When I am made Queen of the Universe” I will declare it. Until then, I’ll take Aaron every weekend and give him as many functional experiences I can.
And of course, I’ll dream of the day I am Queen of the Universe. *smile*
What ifs? Comments?
Any stories about your child’s school experiences preparing them for the future? Any luck with using those skills in their adult life?
Anyone else want to be “Queen of the Universe”?
Keep Climbing: Onward and Upward
All my best, | <urn:uuid:f013bd1a-7de0-4b6a-961b-51a33a6880d8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://climbingeverymountain.com/functional-curriculum-use-it-or-lose-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980547 | 1,453 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Flower fabric prints make great gifts.
Hover over each Learning Benefit below for a detailed explanation.
What you need:
- plastic bag
- wooden board
- cotton fabric
- cardboard or wooden frame
What to do:
- Take a walk outside with your child and collect colorful weeds or flowers. Gather a few leaves or blades of grass, too.
- Cut a piece of white cotton — an old T-shirt works best — into a rectangle that measures about 8" x 11".
- Place the fabric square on top of a wooden board. This keeps the fabric from tearing when hit by the hammer.
- Invite your child to place a flower or a few petals upside down on the material. Cover with a clear plastic bag so your child can see the flower. Under close supervision, let your child pound the flower with the hammer.
- After the flower is smashed, remove the plastic bag and scrape off the flower remnants. When you're finished, you should see a distinct impression of the flower on the fabric. Experiment with different types of flowers and petals for a variety of colors. Let your child place them in a random pattern and smash them with the hammer.
- When she is satisfied with the number of flowers she's smashed, frame the fabric. Embroidery hoops work well since they automatically stretch and frame the fabric. Hang the finished creation on the wall so that you and your child can enjoy the flowers all year long.
- cause and effect
- awareness of colors and shapes
- safety awareness
Recommended Products for Your Child Ages 5-7 | <urn:uuid:c70a5166-4570-4646-8231-b9d0382a8e39> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scholastic.com/parents/resources/article/craft-activities/flower-power | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.867344 | 329 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Dutch Minister Describes the Iroquois (1644)
[The Rev. John Megapolensis was a minister at the Dutch church in Rensselaerwyck in New Netherlands, and he was a missionary to the Indians.]
The principal Nation of all the Savages and Indians hereabouts with which we are connected, are the Mahakuaas [Mohawks], who have laid all the other Indians near us under Contribution. This Nation has a very heavy Language, and I find great difficulty in learning it so as to speak and preach to them fluently: there are no Christians who understand the Language thoroughly; those who have lived here long can hold a kind of Conversation, just sufficient to carry on Trade, but they do not understand the Idiom of the Language. I am making a Vocabulary of the Mahakuaa Language, and when I am among them I ask them how Things are called - then, as they are very dumb, I cannot sometimes get an Explanation of what I want. . . .
The Indians in this Country are of much the same Stature with us Dutchmen; some of them have very good Features, and their Bodies and Limbs are well proportioned; they all have black Eyes, but their Skin is tawney: . . . In Winter they hang loosely about them a Deer's, or Bear's, or Panther's Skin, or they take some Beaver and Otter Skins, or Wild-Cat's, Raccoons, Martin's, Otters, Mink's, Squirrel or several Kinds of Skins, which are Plenty in this Country, and sew some of them upon others, until it is a square Piece, and that is then a Garment for them, or they buy of us Dutchmen two and an half Ells of Duffils, and that they hang loosely on them, just as it was torn off, without any sewing, and as they go away they look very much at themselves, and think they are very fine. They make themselves Stockings and Shoes of Deer Skin, or they take the Leaves of their Corn, and plat them together and use them for Shoes. . . . the Wornen let their Hair grow very long, and tie it, and let it hang down their Backs: some of the Men wear their Hair on one Side of the Head, and some on both Sides, and a long Lock of Hair Hanging down: on the top of their Heads they have a Streak of Hair from the Forehead to the Neck, about the Breadth of three Fingers, and this they shorten till it is about two or three Fingers long, and it stands right on End like Hogs Bristles; on both Sides of this Streak they cut the Hair short off, except the aforesaid Locks, and they also leave on the bare Places here and there small Locks, such as are in Sweeping-Brushes, and they are very fine. They likewise paint their Faces, red, blue, &c. and then they look like the Devil himself. . . .
. . . The Women are obliged to prepare the Land, to mow, to plant, and do every Thing; the Men do nothing except hunting, fishing, and going to War against their Enemies: they treat their Enemies with great Cruelty in Time of War, for they first bite off the Nails of the Fingers of their Captives, and cut off some joints, and sometimes the whole of the Fingers; after that the Captives are obliged to sing and dance before them . . ., and finally they roast them before a slow Fire for some Days, and eat them: . . . Though they are very cruel to their Enemies, they are very friendly to us: we are under no Apprehensions from them; we go with them into the Woods; we meet with one another sometimes one or two miles from any Houses, and are no more uneasy about it than if we met with Christians: they sleep by us too in our Chambers; I have had eight at once, who laid and slept upon the Floor near my Bed, for it is their custom to sleep only on the bare Ground, and to have only a Stone or a Bit of Wood under their Heads, they go to Bed very soon after they have supped, but rise early in the Morning; they get up before Day Break. They are very slovenly and dirty; they neither wash their Face nor Hands, but let all the Dirt remain upon their tawney Skin, and look as dirty as Hogs. Their bread is Indian Corn beaten to Pieces between two Stones, of which they make a Cake and bake it in the Ashes; they eat with it Venison, Turkies, Hares, Bears, Wild Cats, their own Dogs, &c. . . . They make their Houses of the Bark of Trees, very close and warm, and place their Fire in the middle of them: they also make of the Peeling and Bark of Trees Canoes, or small Boats, which will carry four, five and six Persons: in like manner they hollow out Trees, and use them for Boats; some of them are very large. I have sometimes sailed with ten, twelve and fourteen Persons in one of these hollowed Trees; . . . The Arms used by the Indians in War were formerly a Bow and Arrow with a Stone Axe and Mallet, but now they get from our People Guns, Swords, Iron Axes and Mallets. Their Money consists of certain little Bones, made of the Shells of Cockles which are found on the Beach; a Hole is made through the middle of the little Bones; and they are strung upon Thread, or they make of them Belts as broad as a Hand or broader, which they hang on their Necks and on their Bodies; they have also several Holes in their Ears. and there they hang some; and they value these little Bones as highly as many Christians do Gold, Silver and Pearls, but they have no Value for our Money, and esteem it no better than Iron. I once shewed one of their Chiefs a Rixdollar, he asked how much it was worth among the Christians, and when I told him he laughed exceedingly at us, saying we were Fools to value a Piece of Iron so highly, and if he had such Money he would throw it into the River. . . .
They are entire Strangers to all Religion, but they have a Tharonhijouaagon, (which others also call Athzoockkuatoriaho) i.e. a Genius which they put in the Place of God, but they do not worship or present Offerings to him: they worship and present Offerings to the Devil whom they call Otskon or Airekuoni. . . . they have otherwise no Religion: when we pray they laugh at us; some of them despise it entirely, and some when we tell them what we do when we pray, stand astonished. When we have a Sermon, sometimes ten or twelve of them, more or less, will attend, each having a long Tobacco Pipe, made by himself, in his Month, and will stand a while and look, and afterwards ask me what I was doing and what I wanted, that I stood there alone and made so many Words, and none of the rest might speak? I tell them I admonished the Christians, that they must not steal, . . . get drunk, or commit Murder, and that they too ought not to do these Things, and that I intend after a while to preach to them, . . . They say I do well in teaching the Christians, but immediately add Diatennon jawij Assyreoni hagiouisk, that is, why do so many Christians do these Things. They call us Assyreoni, that is, Cloth-Makers, or Charistooni, that is, Iron-Workers, because our People first brought Cloth and Iron among them. . . .
The Government among them consists of the oldest, the most sensible, the best-speaking and most warlike Men; these commonly resolve, and the young and war-like Men carry into Execution; but if the common People do not approve of the Resolution, it is left entirely to the judgment of the Mob. The Chiefs are generally the poorest among them, for instead of their receiving from the common People as among Christians, they are obliged to give to them; especially when any one is killed in War, they give great Presents to the next of Kin to the deceased, and if they take any Prisoners they present them to that Family whereof one has been killed, and the Prisoner is adopted by the Family into the Place of the Person who was killed. There is no Punishment here for Murder and other Villainies, but every one is his own Avenger: The Friends of the deceased revenge themselves upon the Murderer until Peace is made by Presents to the next of Kin. But although they are so cruel, and have no Laws or Punishments, yet there are not half so many Villainies or Murders committed amongst them as amongst Christians, so that I sometimes think with astonishment upon the Murders committed in the Netherlands, notwithstanding their severe Laws and heavy Penalties. These Indians, though they live without Laws, or Fear of Punishment, do not kill People, unless they are in a great Passion or fighting wherefore we go along with them, or meet them in the Woods, without Fear.
Source: Ebenezer Hazard, Historical Collections (Philadelphia, 1792), 1, 520-526, reprinted in Albert Bushnell Hart, ed., American History Told by Contemporaries (New York, 1898), volume 1, 525-28.
[Back to History 41 Syllabus] I | <urn:uuid:3284175b-f347-449a-9c92-370782a68fb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/bdorsey1/41docs/07-dut.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977674 | 2,029 | 2.90625 | 3 |
i need to write a program as follows:
Write a program that prompts the user to enter three positive integers representing the number of rows, the number of columns of a grid, and the number of mines hidden in the grid, the program then calls the following function:
void Minesweeper(int nRows, int nColumns, int nMines )
The function Minesweeper( ) prints a grid of nRows x nColumns of 0's and 1's. A 0 represents a square that has no mine and a 1 represents a square that has a mine. The parameter nMines represents the number of mines.
Hint: Store the 0's and 1's in a two dimensional array first then print that array.
i have started it, but i have no idea on where to to go about with this. i will paste my code down below, but i know it wont help much.
i just need someone to point me to the right direction on how to solve it. i know i need to store the values into an array, but i'm a little confused on how to do that with variables? and i assume that my task is to generate the user-defined number of mines into random parts of the array- i dont even know where i would go about trying to figuring that one out.
here's my code:
using namespace std;
void minesweeper(int numbers_r, int numbers_c, int numbers_m);
int main ()
int numbers_r, numbers_c, numbers_m;
cout<<"Enter the number of rows: ";
cout<<"Enter the number of columns: ";
cout<<"Enter the number of mines: ";
minesweeper(numbers_r, numbers_c, numbers_m);
void minesweeper(int nRows, int nColumns, int nMines)
char mines_chr= '1';
char not_mines_chr= '0';
for (int i=0; i<nRows; i++)
for(int j=0; j<nColumns; j++) | <urn:uuid:08d80004-3650-4b82-837a-7429b142fd2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cboard.cprogramming.com/cplusplus-programming/126431-2d-array-help.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.770631 | 457 | 3.15625 | 3 |
College of Agriculture, Department of Animal Sciences (1959-) | Purdue University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections
Name: College of Agriculture, Department of Animal Sciences (1959-)
Historical Note: Animal Sciences first appeared in the Purdue course catalog in 1959. The department was formally created from the consolidation of the Beef, Sheep, and Swine (previously Animal Husbandry), Poultry (previously Poultry Husbandry and after 1957, Poultry Science), and Dairy Production (previously Dairy Husbandry) Departments, starting in the 1962-63 academic year. Animal Science began offering an Animal Food Science option was added to the department’s curriculum in 1966 and founded the Food Science Institute three years later. Food Science remained a component of the Animal Food Science curriculum until 1985 when the former became a separate department. The same year, Animal Science began offering four plans of study: animal agribusiness, animal science, animal production, and animal products. Between 1998 and 2011, the number of bachelor degrees conferred by Animal Science increased two-fold, from 306 to 617. By 2012, the department offered a single degree with six concentrations: agribusiness, behavior/well-being, biosciences, pre-veterinary sciences, production, and products. Animal Science also administers the Animal Sciences Research and Education Center (ASREC), the Felun-Purdue Agricultural Center, and the Southern Indiana-Purdue Agricultural Center (SIPAC).
Sources: “Student Handbook for Undergraduate Programs in the Department of Animal Sciences,” 2012 http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/ugrad/StudentHandbook.pdf
Note Author: John Michael Foster | <urn:uuid:1da95d36-b092-475a-94f1-306258dceb36> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www4.lib.purdue.edu/archon/?p=creators/creator&id=869 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893404 | 349 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Achondroplasia is one of a group of disorders called chondrodystrophies or osteochondrodysplasias. The condition may be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait, which means that if a child gets the defective gene from one parent, the child will have the disorder. If one parent has achondroplasia, the infant has a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder. If both parents have the condition, the infant's chances of being affected increase to 75%. However, most cases appear as spontaneous mutations. This means that two parents without achondroplasia may give birth to a baby with the condition.
The typical appearance of achondroplastic dwarfism can be seen at birth. Symptoms may include:
Exams and testsDuring pregnancy, a prenatal ultrasound scan may show excessive amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn infant. Examination of the infant after birth shows increased front-to-back head size. There may be signs of hydrocephalus ("water on the brain"). X-rays of the long bones can reveal achondroplasia in the newborn.
Treatment and prognosisThere is no specific treatment for achondroplasia. Related abnormalities, including spinal stenosis and spinal cord compression, should be treated when they cause problems.
People with achondroplasia seldom reach 5 feet in height. Intelligence is in the normal range. Infants who receive the abnormal gene from both parents do not often live beyond a few months.
Related category• HEALTH AND DISEASE
Source: MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact | <urn:uuid:456c4f7b-ec5e-4bff-b095-84cd2f5217d1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/achondroplasia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906162 | 361 | 3.75 | 4 |
Posted by Onassia (Parent) on Thursday, February 19, 2009 at 3:30pm.
What is generalization? What words signal generalization and what words do not signal generalization?
- Reading 3rd grade - mysterychicken, Thursday, February 19, 2009 at 4:29pm
Generalization is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning. Generalization posits the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common characteristics shared by those elements. As such, it is the essential basis of all valid deductive inference. The process of verification is necessary to determine whether a generalization holds true for any given situation.
Hope this helped!
- Reading 3rd grade - Writeacher, Thursday, February 19, 2009 at 4:31pm
MC needs to learn to cite the sources from which she copies and pastes.
- Reading 3rd grade - mysterychicken, Thursday, February 19, 2009 at 4:36pm
I can't because I'm not allowed to post links
However I should've mentioned that I used wikipedia. My bad...will try to remember next time!
BTW>how did you know that I'm a she? Just wondering -.-
- Reading 3rd grade - Writeacher, Thursday, February 19, 2009 at 4:37pm
I have no clue -- just remembering comments from earlier posts, I guess!
Yes, please remember to give your sources, even if you can't post a link.
Answer This Question
More Related Questions
- English (Check) - After reading each passage, write the signal word or words it ...
- engineering - Letís suppose the message x(t) is an analog signal shown in the ...
- psychology - the most important aspects of classical conditioning is that the ...
- psychology - The most important aspect of classical conditioning is that the ...
- reading - What is generalization and inference.
- Reading - Is the words good/bad opinion signal words. For example, the ...
- Generalization essay - "In this exercise you'll write an essay supporting a ...
- english - i have to make a poster using the following words: main idea, theme, ...
- Reading - Many people are fascinated by outer space. School children learn about...
- chemistry - What type of feature will be observed in the EI mass spectrum of ... | <urn:uuid:36ff0143-41e5-4f07-9a5c-c1fe7fb341e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jiskha.com/display.cgi?id=1235075411 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929841 | 494 | 3.65625 | 4 |
So we have
But I don't understand, why do we multiply by ?
Because I almost got to the same conclusion by using this method
then I multiplied to make the denominators the same.
Then I followed the standard procedure for dividing fractions, in other words I multiplied x by the reciprocal
and then I also got
but then I don't understand, how one gets rid of the minus below? | <urn:uuid:97d08302-6cb5-4496-9846-e223c0ff75ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/algebra/20313-fractions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902844 | 84 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Full moon to rise on Friday the 13th
Superstitious persons may be wary of the fact that today is Friday, June 13. However, skywatchers will get a special treat as a full moon occurs today. The last time a full moon fell on Friday the 13th in June was 1919.
This moon is known as both the "strawberry" moon as well as the "honey" moon. According to the Old Farmers Almanac, the "strawberry" name comes from the fact that it is strawberry season and the Algonquin Native American tribes knew that this was the time of year to gather the ripening fruit. In Europe, however, this moon is called the "rose" moon.
The moon is also known as the "honey" moon since it can have a slightly golden tint. This is because the moon appears low in the sky, meaning people are viewing it through the lens of more of the Earth's atmosphere according to EarthSky.org. The moon's path across the sky this month mimics the sun's low arc across the sky in December.
This will be the first time a full moon has occurred on a Friday the 13th since Oct. 13, 2000, and it will not happen again until Oct. 13, 2019, according to astronomers.
Additionally, because the moon's orbit around the Earth is egg-shaped, there are times in the lunar cycle when the moon is at its shortest distance away from the earth. This full moon happens to coincide with the moon being located at its shortest distance from the earth, making it appear unusually large. The moon will appear largest when it is near the horizon.
Though researchers aren't quite sure what causes this optical illusion of a larger moon near the horizon, they suspect it has something to do with the human mind trying to make sense of the moon's proximity to familiar objects like mountains, trees and houses in the foreground. | <urn:uuid:fc05bc3f-9d66-4c09-88b6-84a1943dd34a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bentoncourier.com/content/full-moon-rise-friday-13th?quicktabs_2=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975507 | 393 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Summer Company is considering three capital expenditure projects. Relevant data for the projects are as follows.
Project Investment Annual Income LIfe of Project
22A $240,000 $15,000 6 years
23A 270,000 24,400 9 years
24A 280,000 21,000 7 years
Annual income is constant over the life of the project. Each project is expected to have zero salvage value at the end of the project. Summer Company uses the straight-line method of depreciation.
(a) Determine the internal rate of return for each project. Round the internal rate of return factor to three decimals.
(b) If Summer Company's required rate of return is 11%, which projects are acceptable?
Welcome to JustAnswer!
Do you want an excel computation for this problem? Or long hand method?
Yes, I want an excel computation for this problem and a long hand method! | <urn:uuid:52dce9c2-b643-4c23-8f6a-47424130745e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.justanswer.com/homework/1m8k3-summer-company-considering-three-capital-expenditure-projects.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.887873 | 191 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Online Resources for Teachers and
WordSeer (U C Berkeley) (http://wordseer.berkeley.edu/stephen_crane/view.php) is a database of Crane's works that allows searching, heat maps, and much more.
Crane" by Donald Vanouse (from the Literary Encyclopedia)
Search of the Real Stephen Crane" by Paul Sorrentino CEA
Forum, Summer 2000.
Crane by Donald Vanouse, from the Heath Anthology instructor's
sketch of Crane and a bibliography by Donald Vanouse at the Heath
The C-SPAN Booknotes site provides a transcript
of the interview with Linda Davis, author of Badge of Courage:
The Life of Stephen Crane.
Professor Paul Reuben's page
on Crane at his Perspectives in American Literature site
includes an extensive bibliography.
Although it does not directly discuss Crane's writings, this
page on historic
battlefields of the Civil War offers 360 degree panoramic views
of major battlefields.
of Congress page on Crane contains quotations from him and from
Stephen Crane and the Commodore
Haven Teachers Institute has an online lesson plan for teaching The
Red Badge of Courage.
Stephen Crane Research Guide by Rob Bain is geared toward undergraduate researchers and includes annotated entries on print and online materials.
site includes study questions on "The Blue Hotel."
bibliography on "The Blue Hotel"
A Stephen Crane Crossword Puzzle.
Discussion questions on "The
questions on "The Blue Hotel" (Word document from Delhi University)
A lesson plan on Crane and London from the NEH Edsitement site.
on Crane for K-12 teachers
Photo of Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, the school
which Crane begins attending in January 1888. Image reproduced
Crane Log: A Documentary Life of Stephen Crane, 1871-1900, by
Stanley Wertheim and Paul Sorrentino (New York: G. K. Hall, 1994),
page 256. Original in the collection of Stanley Wertheim.
Comments to campbelld at wsu dot edu. | <urn:uuid:4268e8dd-3163-44a6-88ae-8d6824726de9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/crane/teach.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.835734 | 446 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Radon is a colorless, odorless radioactive gas that forms when naturally occurring uranium decays. Radon gas is commonly found in rocks and soil, and it enters homes through cracks and other holes in the foundation. Prolonged exposure to radon levels above 4 picocuries per liter of air significantly increases the risk of lung cancer, even for nonsmokers. The USEPA considers radon the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States overall, and it is the leading cause among non-smokers.
The only way to find out if you have elevated radon levels in your home is to conduct a simple test.
Franklin County Public Health has a limited supply of short term radon test kits available to residents of Franklin County and surrounding counties. Click here to order your free short term radon test kit.
If you have questions or concerns please contact Mike Lopinsky at (614) 525-3859 or at [email protected].
Is there an “acceptable” level of radon?
USEPA has established 4 picocuries / liter of air as the “Action Level” for radon in a home.
How does radon get into my home?
Radon is a radioactive gas that is naturally occurring in the soil and bedrock. It enters the home (usually the basement or slab) through cracks, holes, and other openings.
What do I do if my test results exceed 4.0 picocuries / liter?
Currently, no law requires a homeowner to mitigate the radon. However, if you sell your home in the future, you must disclose that a radon test was conducted, and what level of radon was detected. If you choose to have radon mitigation done, visit the State of Ohio's website and click on "Find a Licensed Radon Contractor in Your Area" on the left side of the page.
What are some other radon resources? | <urn:uuid:4fed4d8b-3bf7-42ff-add0-a6ad70fd185b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.myfcph.org/radon.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929037 | 410 | 3.109375 | 3 |
REDMOND, Wash. — The topic can be delicate: what to wipe our hands, noses and, yup, rear ends with when the need arises. With Earth Day celebrated this Saturday, environmental groups are asking Americans to switch to recycled paper towels, napkins, tissue paper and toilet paper as a way to save virgin forests and the wildlife they shelter — even if it means a slightly rough touch on the backside.
“It’s such an easy change for people to make but has such a huge impact for saving forests,” says Sue Libenson, a spokeswoman for the Boreal Songbird Initiative, a group dedicated to protecting birds in Canada’s section of Earth’s boreal forest, a ring of trees below the Arctic that circles the globe. A source for much of the U.S. paper supply, Canada’s boreal forest is home to two-thirds of that nation's estimated 140,000 species of plants, animals and micro-organisms.
Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council are also pushing consumers to change their habits. The council has rated paper products (see link below) based on recycled content and whether they are whitened with chlorine, which can release toxins into the air and water when combined with other chemicals.
No top-selling household paper product uses recycled content, and activists believe that the industry prefers it that way — stocking store shelves with brands that compete over softness, a quality that comes from virgin tree fiber.
“We know people care about the environment,” says Darby Hoover, an NRDC staffer, but many consumers still don't realize they have a choice.
Recycled paper also can cost more because the market for it now is small. But what's the potential payback for switching? Seventh Generation, one of the largest recycled producers, estimates that:
- One million trees would be saved if every U.S. household replaced just one 250-count package of virgin fiber napkins with 100 percent recycled ones.
- 544,000 trees would be saved by replacing a 70-sheet roll of virgin fiber paper towels.
- 424,000 trees would be spared by replacing a 500-sheet roll of virgin fiber toilet paper.
- 170,000 trees would be saved by replacing one 175-count box of virgin fiber facial tissue.
Industry: People want virgin fiber
Paper industry giants like Kimberly-Clark, which makes Kleenex, dismiss the campaign on several grounds.
Most of its products are made with sawdust and wood chips left over by the timber industry, Kimberly-Clark says, and consumers have already decided that you can’t beat virgin fiber for softness.
“The options are out there for consumers,” says Kimberly-Clark spokesman Dave Dickson, referring to the fact that recycled products are on store shelves but have only won a 2 percent share of the market. “They have voiced their preferences through their purchases.”
Even though most hotels and offices use paper with 40 percent to 60 percent recycled content, Kimberly-Clark believes that consumers would rebel at even adding a small percentage of recycled fiber to home products, Dickson says.
Getting to the bottom
Always ready to get to the bottom of a controversy, I enlisted my wife and two children to help me conduct some tests.
Using the NRDC list, I purchased as many of the recycled products as I could find from a natural foods store and two traditional supermarkets.
While the family was away, I replaced our household paper products with recycled brands. After three days and zero comments, I took that as a sign that we could live happily ever after with recycled.
But another round of tests — this time blind comparisons — revealed sometimes strong preferences, especially among the females in our clan. Here’s our summary for the four types of products:
Paper napkins: Dabbing our mouths with one non-recycled brand and three recycled ones over dinner, my wife and daughter were quick to single out the non-recycled napkin as the most comfortable to the touch. In the words of Alexis, our 14-year-old: “It was better than all the sandpaper napkins.” Nicolas, our 18-year-old son, preferred the recycled Seventh Generation napkin, which Gabriela, my wife, disliked as “waxy.” As for me, I had no preference.
Paper towels:Three recycled brands went up against a non-recycled one. We all disliked the recycled Green Forest towel, calling it stiff and even noisy. “It doesn't even fold,” Nicolas said as he held it up to demonstrate. But the other two recycled towels, Earth First and Whole Foods 365, fared as well as the non-recycled towel.
Tissue paper: I'd only found one recycled brand and it bombed against the two non-recycled tissues we had at home. We all felt the recycled Seventh Generation tissue was too thin. “See-through,” is how Alexis described it. “Not enough barrier” between the fingers and phlegm, was Nicolas' response.
Toilet paper: Here too, my wife and daughter were quick to pick the non-recycled brand out of the five tested. Gabriela had one word for her favorite: “Beautiful.” In equally dramatic fashion, Alexis worried about getting paper cuts from the recycled brands. I agreed the non-recycled brand was softer in one’s hand, but insisted it made no difference on the receiving end of the transaction. We did agree on one thing: Every recycled brand, all of which were double ply, beat the single-ply paper we’ve been using in our guest bathroom.
Our advice to readers? Try this experiment at home with as many recycled products you can find.
We all agreed that in the usual course of using a paper product, we probably wouldn't be as picky as we were during the tests, with one exception: When it comes to wiping a runny nose over several days, we made tissue softness a priority.
If you can live with a recycled product, a next step might be to compare prices. Recycled products do tend to cost more, but the NRDC’s Hoover says buying in bulk, and even buying recycled paper made for hotels and offices, can add up to savings.
And that, dare we say, is our bottom line.
© 2013 msnbc.com Reprints | <urn:uuid:3548f021-2569-4808-97ce-0b3e0bae00a3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12318915/ns/us_news-environment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970143 | 1,357 | 3.15625 | 3 |
An Egyptian statuette, dating back to 1,800BC, is creating intrigue at the Manchester Museum.
The statue of Neb-Senu was retrieved from a Mummy's tomb and handed to the museum 80 years ago but recently staff have noticed the statuette has been rotating very slowly inside its display case, being seen facing in different directions.
In a bid to solve the mystery, a time lapse camera was rigged up next to the case to take one image of the statuette every minute for a week.
It can be seen rotating 180 degrees in the display case on a glass shelf during the time period.
Staff at the museum believe the movement may have been caused by subtle movements from traffic outside or the footfall inside the museum itself.
But the fact the statuette has been in the case for decades and has never moved before and that no other items in the case have moved is puzzling staff.
Watch the statuette's movements in the time-lapse video below: | <urn:uuid:4810dd47-014e-4ae5-a0db-21a124e0bd2b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.itv.com/news/2013-06-25/spinning-statuette-mystery-at-manchester-museum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961288 | 206 | 2.59375 | 3 |
The cost of hiring a car for a day is £50 plus £0.55 per mile travelled. If £y is the cost of hiring a car for a day and x is the number of miles travelled write down the relationship between x and y. Draw the line represented by this equation, identifying the gradient and intercept. If the car is driven 350 in a day, what is the cost of hire? How far can I travel for £150? | <urn:uuid:c2ccfed9-8197-4d19-9757-28929fbb0df6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/pre-calculus/159489-worded-linear-equation-problem-print.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956617 | 91 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Summary/Annotation -> This brief and illuminating account of the ideas of world order prevalent in the Elizabethan age and later is an indispensable companion for readers of the great writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--Shakespeare and the Elizabethan dramatists, Donne and Milton, among many others. The basic medieval idea of an ordered Chain of Being is studied by Professor Tillyard in the process of its various transformations by the dynamic spirit of the Renaissance. Among his topics are: Angels; the Stars and Fortunes; the Analogy between Macrocosm and Microcosm; the Four Elements; the Four Humours; Sympathies; Correspondences; and the Cosmic Dance--ideas and symbols which inspirited the minds and imaginations not only of the Elizabethans but of all men of the Renaissance.
00973cam a2200313Ia 4500
740131q19421991nyu b 001 0 eng u
$y 200806231645 $z load
$c HAM $d OCL $d AZU $d ZQP
$a PR428.P5 $b T5 1960z
$a 828.08 T
$a Tillyard, E. M. W. $q (Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall), $d 1889-1962.
$a The Elizabethan world picture / $c E. M. W. Tillyard.
$a New York : $b Vintage Books, $c [19-?]
$a ix, 116 p. $c 19 cm.
$a Includes index.
$a Bibliography: p. 111-114.
$a English literature $y Early modern, 1500-1700 $x History and criticism.
$a Religious thought $y 16th century.
$a Philosophy $x History $z England.
$a 11/18/1991 $b 11/06/2006 | <urn:uuid:17f529e9-b962-4495-8342-d163f1e703e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.queenslibrary.org/item/the-elizabethan-world-picture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.730597 | 406 | 3.140625 | 3 |
|Kepler's Laws I, II, and III|
This resource offers four videos that explain Kepler's three laws of planetary motion. A brief introduction provides biographical information on Kepler. Links to a glossary are embedded in the text, and written descriptions of what is occurring in the videos are provided.
Intended for grade levels:
Type of resource:
Cost / Copyright:
NASA materials may not be used to state or imply the endorsement by NASA or by any NASA employee of a commercial product, service or activity, or used in any other manner that might mislead. NASA should be acknowledged as the source of its material. It is unlawful to falsely claim copyright or other rights in NASA material. NASA shall in no way be liable for any costs, expenses, claims or demands arising out of use of NASA's cassettes and photographs by a recipient or a recipient's distributees. NASA personnel are not authorized to sign indemnity or hold harmless statements, releases from copyright infringement, or documents granting exclusive use rights.
DLESE Catalog ID: NASA-Edmall-1211
Resource contact / Creator / Publisher:
Contributor: Dr Jim Lochner
The High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center | <urn:uuid:e9950934-20c3-48f7-9d6d-6ea82ebe3090> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dlese.org/library/catalog_NASA-Edmall-1211.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.831815 | 247 | 3.09375 | 3 |
The video you see here is of a robot made by MobileRobots.com using the MobileRanger Stereo Vision System. “MobileRanger stereovision systems are top-of-the-line instruments for measuring depth for demanding applications such as mobile robot navigation, people tracking, gesture recognition, targeting, 3D surface visualization and advanced human computer interaction.” You can see how objects at different ranges are represented by different colors (see my hand?). Very cool.
Above you see a photo from the display Boston Engineering had. What you see is a robotic fish they hope to build in the near future (sorry, no prototypes yet). I’m going to stay in contact with these guys on the project since it’s a pretty cool concept that could be built fairly quickly with the latest technology (the fact that they’re basing it off a Tuna fish is proof alone that this thing will be fast and powerful).
Bo Albinsson at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden, has figured out a way to use DNA as a nano fiber optic cable. They accomplish this by combining DNA strands with a chromophore called YO which has a strong attraction to DNA molecules. By wedging itself into areas of DNA, a 3nm diameter fiber optic cable is born (these fibers are self-assembling).
Fiber optic cables have become more commonplace in the world and are expected to take an even bigger step into the solar energy business by improving photo voltaic cells. Optical computers could also benefit greatly from photon-specific nanowires.
Computers have absolved our responsibilities in many areas of our lives so far. What will happen as this increases?
When computers were first invented, users had complete freedom and power, there was no other option but to allow it. However, if they didn’t follow the computer’s strict set of rules, the computer would break or just not work. Even in the days of Windows 3.11, computers remained obscure and frightening to the masses.
Once computers infiltrated more and more of our lives, it became necessary to remove the need to for “user rules”, computers had to become “user friendly”. Computers were forced to shed their unforgivable interfaces in order to increase their popularity.
So now, computers, when used by the general public, no longer have that level of freedom. To avoid them being used wrongly, computers simply limit the options general users are allowed to access. Then, instead of telling users how to act, they simply guide users through their processes, anticipating rule-breaking, and absolving responsibility. Users lost their fear of computers, complying with the rules not because they are asked to, but because any possibility of breaking them is simply removed. General users no longer have raw power over computers, they just follow the guidelines provided for them to achieve what they need from the machine. As such, even the desire to break the rules is diminished.
Moderator Jonas Lamis just asked the distinguished AI Panel what they would advise the new Obama administration to do if, by chance, each was appointed national CTO?
Google’s Peter Norvig: First advice, “Don’t choose me.” (Audience laughs.) Most important advice is to do what the President-Elect is already doing. #1: Believe in reality. The next thing is to invest in R&D. It’s important to re-establish the United States as a leader there. We’ve slipped over the last 8 years or so interms of funding research.
Steve Omohundro: Imprtant to use tech to make better decisions in our society. This is a huge opportunity for aggregating beliefs and desires of voters. Through semantic consensus we could better express nuances. The bailout is the perfect example – 99 to 1 against bailout, ended up passing it. Morphing as we speak… Potential pathways as we move to the future – now a smattering of diff orgs – better to have country-wide analysis of this future pathway.
Researchers at Georgia Tech University have developed a new type of small-scale electric power generator able to produce alternating current (AC) through the repeated stretching and releasing of zinc oxide wires held with in a flexible plastic substrate that can be incorporated into almost any material.
This new type of piezoelectric generator can produce up to 45 millivolts by converting nearly seven percent of the mechanical energy applied directly to the zinc oxide wires into electricity. A complex array of these devices could be used to charge sensors or low power embedded MEMS devices.
Why is this important to the future?
Micro and nano-scale power systems are going to be in high demand in a future increasingly dependent on sensors and microelectronics. Piezoelectric generators could become a low cost, more durable alternative to miniaturized batteries and fuel cells used to power the billions of sensors, smart tags, and MEMS devices expected to hit the marketplace over the next two decades.
“The flexible charge pump offers yet another option for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy,” said Professor Zhong Lin Wang of the Center for Nanostructure Characterization at the Georgia Institute of Technology. “This adds to our family of very small-scale generators able to power devices used in medical sensing, environmental monitoring, defense technology and personal electronics.”
University of South Florida researchers have developed the tiniest solar cells ever built. The solar cells provide power to the team’s microeletromechanical system (MEMS) used to detect chemicals in lakes. The sensing device includes 20 tiny solar cells each about a quarter the size of a lowercase “o” in a standard 12-point font. [Sample MEMS image shown is NOT actual device]
Why is it important to the future of energy?
In the future we will need ways to power tiny sensors that detect changes in the world based on light, chemicals, temperature, noise, motion, et al. Micro power systems integrated into sensors are a foundation piece to ‘smart infrastructure’ used in applications ranging from energy, to security and environmental detection systems. Sensors embedded into everyday objects, as well as natural and built environments are likely to change the world in the next 50 years, as much as microprocessors changed our lives over the last 50 years.
The assembled device is also important for the future of ‘organic’ (carbon-based) solar cells that differ from traditional ‘silicon’ solar panels printed on glass substrates. Organic solar cells can be suspended in liquids and assembled using low cost ‘ink jet’ printers and, in theory, ‘printed’ on any surface. So we can imagine turning a rooftop or parking lots surface into a light collecting material.
What to watch: An Energy Roadmap for Micro power and Sensors
This fabrication could be significant for micro (millionth of meter) and nanoscale (billionth of meter) energy systems powered by light. The technique might also accelerate development of organic solar cells. But there will be competition from other viable power sources, with better energy densities, including nanoscale designed batteries, fuel cells and piezoelectric devices that convert motion into electrical pulses.
Mark your calendars! The business case for ‘smart infrastructure’ has been made by one of the world’s biggest companies. On November 6th, IBM CEO Sam Palmisano delivered a speech (text / video) at the New York Council on Foreign Relations. Palmisano highlighted ‘Big Blue’s vision of a ‘Smart Planet’ and the tremendous near term opportunities in building out the global smart infrastructures for energy, water, information, and transportation of people and goods.
Palmisano echoed a vision described by visionaries and futurists long ago of a ‘digital planet’. Now we might expect broader endorsements for ‘smart infrastructure’ by mainstream business and policy leaders especially in the US under the incoming Obama Adminstration. We can also build more reliable forecasts and roadmaps based on expectations for investments and application of technologies that improve the flow of traffic (without adding more lanes), more efficient energy grids, wider access to clean water and food, improved personal safety, and more secure information flows around financial, governance, and healthcare information.
Quotes from Palmisano’s address: What’s making this possible? First, our world is becoming instrumented
“There will likely be 4 billion mobile phone subscribers by the end of this year… and 30 billion Radio Frequency Identification tags produced globally within two years. Sensors are being embedded across entire ecosystems—supply-chains, healthcare networks, cities… even natural systems like rivers.“
Second, our world is becoming interconnected
“Very soon there will be 2 billion people on the Internet. But in an instrumented world, systems and objects can now “speak” to one another, too. Think about the prospect of a trillion connected and intelligent things—cars, appliances, cameras, roadways, pipelines… even pharmaceuticals and livestock.“
Third, all things are becoming intelligent
“New computing models can handle the proliferation of end-user devices, sensors and actuators and connect them with back-end systems. Combined with advanced analytics, those supercomputers can turn mountains of data into intelligence that can be translated into action, making our systems, processes and infrastructures more efficient, more productive and responsive—in a word, smarter.“
Do you feel the Singularity has become its own religious movement inside the science community?
Kurzweil began his response by acknowledging that though there are some people who seek the rapture according to their own preferences, that “the idea of the Singularity did not start from religion.” Instead the concept sprang from “over 30 years of technology trends research.”
But he did admit that it can seem similar to some of the concepts contained in religion:
“Some of the ideas look like a way of transcending our limitations. You can argue that’s what technology does in general, and given that it’s exponential it ultimately feels supposedly transcendent, so people use words like rapture.”
“The web is going to wake up. It is already awake because we are awake and we are a part of it.” – Nova Spivack, Singularity Summit 2008
With their recent blogologue concerning the evolution of consciousness, Kevin Kelly of Wired fame and Nova Spivack, creator of Twine, are spearheading a shift away from the commonly held view of a future in which Strong AI grows in a box, to one in which the Cloud or the Planet is the box. Both are striving to broaden the context in which terms like technology, information, intelligence, communication and consciousness are defined. This is a very necessary step as most of the recent theory and development has been dominated by reductionist AI and technology thinkers who seem to view such phenomena in a vacuum.
Clearly, technology, information, intelligence and consciousness (TIICC) do not exist in a vacuum. In his latest post, Kelly expands his definition of the emerging Technium to include the concept of meta-system transition (advanced by Turchin and Heylighen) that Spivack advocates. Thus, both are now in agreement that TIICC are dependent on the system, which is a very positive development, but also brings them out onto a slippery memeslope.
Because there is no such thing as a closed system (as Godel taught us), it is near-impossible, or perhaps fundamentally impossible, to create functional, highly-useful definitions of TIICC. Kelly and Spivack both concur with this reality:
Google Android has one of the best features designed for Google maps. Makes sense, doesn’t it? But while the newly released Android is getting all the hype in the news as of late, it seems Apple isn’t going to let Google get away with that title just yet. With the software 2.2 update, the iPhone will now support Google Street View as well as mass transit directions. With this feature, people will be able to view their actual surroundings so they can get a better sense of where they need to go. The mass transit feature is especially helpful for those who commute on a daily basis and need to catch those buses on time.
It wasn’t too long ago that a map was the confused traveler’s staple — you’d stare at it for what seemed like hours, dimly aware of your orientation or distances, unable to fold it back into it’s designed shape.
“Might this be a first step toward a Singularity X-Prize? :) What do you think a “Singularity University” might consist of?”
I address these questions directly in comments, but all of the foregoing inspires me to suggest a future X-Prize for the good doctor’s consideration: The Island Hop Challenge.
Here are the terms:
A $10 million prize to the first vehicle that can travel from Staten Island in New York to Coronado Island in California, within a six day period and using only the fuel carried by the vehicle at the start of the challenge (plug-in recharge of electric vehicles is forbidden, but an on-board mechanism to re-fill the internal fuel storage is permitted if such is powered from the vehicles on-board power system).
For most of the 20th Century, the U.S. was the world leader in science, technology, and innovation, with the best scientists, the best universities and the most advanced research and development programs. But all of that has begun to change as other countries and regions have become more advanced and more competitive and increasingly challenge U.S. dominance “
A recent article in the New York Times addressed the U.S. technological decline, and the ways Senators Obama and McCain have approached the issue. This story includes some eye-opening statistics about the loss of U.S. primacy in technology, innovation and R&D. At the top of the story, the Times points out the importance of this sector for America’s economy and role in the world:
For decades the United States dominated the technological revolution sweeping the globe. The nation’s science and engineering skills produced vast gains in productivity and wealth, powered its military and made it the de facto world leader. Today, the dominance is eroding.
One sees this in multiple indicators, but perhaps the most important is the country’s high-technology balance of trade. Until 2002, the U.S. always exported more high-tech products than it imported. In that year, the trend reversed, and the technology trade balance has steadily declined, with the annual gap exceeding $50 billion in 2007.
The U.S. has also fallen behind in spending on research and development, which drives high-tech innovation and development. | <urn:uuid:f7cd7816-2407-4fae-9a87-79eb024e5802> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.futureofgadgets.com/futureblogger/category/Technology?page=5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943109 | 3,121 | 3.25 | 3 |
home / studio / gallery / syllabus / topics / news / links / philosophy / contact
Different types of Composition in Painting Robert Kingston
There are many and various methods of conveying order and structure within the picture plane. The method used depends on the intent of the artist and also reflects not only her/his temperament but also the prevailing attitude and values of the society within which the artist is working. Here are a few.
Iconic compositions are based around a central point. They are either circular or bilaterally symmetrical. This type of composition is used in spiritually or cosmic based paintings. There is a hierarchy in the importance of the forms, the center (God) being considered of greatest importance moving towards the less important (further from God) outer edges. Examples would be Indian mandalas, icon paintings of the middle ages, Leonardo Da Vinci’s Last Supper, and – in modern times – Georgia O’Keefe.
Dynamically balanced compositions became prevalent during the Italian Renaissance and reflect a more humanist outlook as opposed to the God centered Middle Ages. There is no center but instead a relationship and balance of unequal parts to each other. There is still a hierarchy of form. Much like a drama stage there is a) the focus, leading player or star of the show, b) supporting cast or secondary elements, and c) the setting, background, the stage itself. The balance point of the composition is usually found just to the right or left of center (but never at the center). This type of composition is used in most paintings we are familiar with in Western culture.
Informal Dynamic Balance
This type of dynamic balance stretches the concept of dynamic balance by shifting the balance point even further from the center and leaving larger empty spaces between elements. A balance is still achieved but very tentatively thus creating a powerful feeling of tension.
Scatter Balance – In this type of balance, perhaps best typifying our present age, there is absolutely no hierarchy of form. Everything is equal (democratic), there is no particular vantage point, parts are equally distributed about the composition. There is no focus or center, no beginning or end. The edges of the composition seem arbitrary and we appear to be looking at a small section of an infinite expanse. Example: Jackson Pollock drip paintings.
Outside the Picture Plane
This type of composition is such that the internal dynamics of the painting are less important than the ability of the painting to influence the space around it. No longer is the painting a "window" but now it is an active element of its environment shaping our perception of the space we are in. It is a mistake to attempt to look "into" such a work. This type of composition is characterized by strong, bold, minimal use of shape and a monochromatic or very limited number of high chroma colors. Example: Ellsworth Kelly | <urn:uuid:aa0aa063-c837-498f-bbc9-8f291913d340> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://driftingcloudstudio.com/composition_in%20painting.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938699 | 587 | 3.25 | 3 |
Benefits of Floods
The worst flood disaster after 1929 hit Pakistan in last weak of July, 2010. We have also observed that not only in Pakistan but floods have become rampant in some other parts of the world as well. This year in 2012, floods have devastated many areas of Pakistan as well as India. Heavy rains swept away cities, towns and villages. A large part of country is continuously suffering from heavy winds and continual rains. The climate of Pakistan involves seasonal winds called Asiatic Moon Soon bellowing right from July to September causing rains all over the country. The recent flood devastation is a direct out come of intense pressure of these winds blowing from north east to south west. It caused an uncompensable havoc and wreaked devastation in three major provinces of Pakistan. Approximately 600,000 people suffered from the flood and 1500 causalities have been recorded till now.
Flood is however, a natural event and it is not purposeless. There are some benefits of flood which cannot be overlooked although it causes great destruction to human inhabitation and agriculture sector. There are many positive things about flooding on scientific and geographical grounds. Recording an admissible fact by the geologists, rivers need occasional flood, to remain healthy and to increase their water level. Paul Dey, the manager of aquatic habitat programme for flood disasters says.
“We can often get wrapped up in the destruction and forget about the bigger picture in essence, floods can be a good thing too.”
The land under the influence of Chenab and Jehlum was lacking in nutritive elements. After flood out break these rivers will be able to re-enrich their lands with essential nutrients. The Indus River will refresh and reshape its river bed, and may pour rich sediments to the canals linked with it. It is obvious that flood water suspends river sediments, helpful for the growth of crops, to the top soil over a large area. Flood waters cover vast land and confer rich soil. That’s why, the land, where the river soil composites after floods, give more production. The land of far-reached areas, quite away from circumference of these rivers, depending only on tube well irrigation will take advantage of soil nutrients by these flood strokes. It will also help to settle inhabitation in those areas where the atmosphere is quite suitable for inhabitation but it lacks in water resources. Flood, in their flow shake up the soil to a sufficient depth, oxygenate it and empower its richness and strength. Occasionally, they create fish ponds where the hatchery abounds in to improve the flood cycle in that locality. Lands, severely struck by flood, bearing as there will be no cultivation for a particular time and later on these lands will produce more in next seasons.
Many areas of Pakistan are facing the water salinity and acidic oriented potable water. Reservoir of flood water will support to move salinity and acids to a sufficient depth inward the water beds. As the result of it, the agricultural land will become more fertile.
The potable water will be more pure and hygienic in these areas. The water beds in northern Sindh and southern Punjab, according to Indus Water Management Authority, are loosing their level. These water beds are slipping downward continuously. The recent floods will cooperate to increase the surface of water beds to the required revel. Complains about the dearth of water in Chenab rebate in flow of Jehlum and shortage of water volume in Sindh will be no more. Flood is fearful natural calamity with its positive and negative merits. Some like the forests which need grappling of fire for their richness, rivers need floods for their melioration. | <urn:uuid:8865150e-ac55-4dea-90b6-699d04051842> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.einfopedia.com/benefits-of-floods-in-pakistan.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960095 | 749 | 3.0625 | 3 |
NEC Corp and NEC Electronics Corp have jointly developed a technology for data communications between LSI chips used in applications such as optical transmission servers and routers.
The interface has achieved a data rate of 12 Gbits per second, approximately five times faster than rates in PCI Express and about 2.4 times faster than rates in the next-generation PCI Express Generation 2 standard. The companies said the interface could achieve such high data rates even through low-price communication systems, in which signals are largely attenuated. NEC Electronics is planning to ship sample IP cores using this technology to ASIC and ASSP manufacturers in the first half of 2006.
Many of current high-speed data transmission technologies, such as PCI Express, Serial ATA and XAUI, are based on serial transmission technology. NEC and NEC Electronics deployed a method called "duobinary," which is often used in optical transmissions, in the new technology. Instead of completely removing waveform distortions (inter-symbol interference), duobinary signaling only permits distortions between signals side-by-side and squeezes bandwidths needed for data transmissions to two-thirds the conventional size.
Compared to conventional binary interface technology including the serial transmission method that does not permit inter-symbol interferences, duobinary interface technology said to enable about one-and-a-half times faster data transmissions. NEC recently announced a backplane transceiver LSI embedded with the duobinary transmission method at the 2005 International Solid-State Circuit Conference (ISSCC). The LSI was manufactured using 90nm CMOS process technology.
NEC and NEC Electronics placed their focus on duobinary interface technology, based on their belief that it will become difficult to design printed-wiring boards using serial transmission technology, when data rates reach 10Gbps and more. In serial data transmissions, the attenuation of signal amplitudes tends to increase and expensive transmission systems are required at a data rate of 10Gbps, and therefore cost is expected to grow to a large amount. The duobinary method is said to enable lower cost for data transmission media than that required in serial transmission technology, because the method permits a certain amount of waveform distortion.
FromNE Asia Online | <urn:uuid:86a286da-83b8-4f23-a65d-79a227dde1d5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Print.aspx?NewsId=12821 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939411 | 445 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Aggadah or Haggadah
AGGADAH or HAGGADAH (Heb. הַגָּדָה, אַגָּדָה; "narrative"), one of the two primary components of rabbinic tradition, the other being halakhah, usually translated as "Jewish Law" (see:
, The Rabbinic Mind, 59f.). The term aggadah itself is notoriously difficult to define, and it has become the custom among scholars to define aggadah by means of negation – as the non-halakhic component of rabbinic tradition (Fraenkel, Midrash and Aggadah, 20). While fair enough, one must be careful in adopting this approach not to define the parallel term halakhah too narrowly. The halakhah of the rabbinic tradition can be described in part as a system of laws, but not infrequently it also has the character of a personal moral and spiritual discipline. It can be expressed in the form of concrete judgments about specific cases, but also in rules involving varying degrees of abstraction and generality. Talmudic tradition often uses stories to express a halakhah. This is obviously so when the story reports an explicit legal precedent. But it may also be true when a story merely describes the behavior of a notable sage, if it is understood that this behavior is worthy of imitation. Despite the varied forms in which the halakhah is expressed, the rules, judgments and precedents included in talmudic literature all have one thing in common: they all categorize specific forms of behavior and well defined areas of experience in line with formal dichotomies, such as "permissible" or "forbidden," "pure" or "impure," "holy" and "profane," etc. Aggadah, on the other hand, investigates and interprets the meaning, the values, and the ideas which underlie the specific distinctions which govern religious life. In line with the accepted tendency to define aggadah as "that which is not halakhah," one could say that the relation between aggadah and halakhah is similar to the relation between theory and practice, between idea and application, and, in the area of ethics, between character and behavior.
[Stephen G. Wald (2nd ed.)]
The aggadah is first and foremost the creation of Palestinian Jewry, from the time of the Second Temple to the end of the talmudic period. Throughout that time, Palestine was the meeting ground of different religions and cultures as well as the field of violent political clashes. Its Jewry, confronted incessantly by bitter struggles with a variety of foes from within and without, evolved in the aggadah an ingenious instrument for deriving guidance from the Torah, for educating the people, strengthening their faith, and bolstering their pride and courage. Though much aggadic material has been preserved in the Babylonian Talmud, it, too, is predominantly of Palestinian origin, as are all the older Midrashim. The contribution of Babylonian Jewry in the field of aggadah, although often reworking earlier Palestinian aggadic themes, often achieves new levels of imagination and originality, frequently striking, engaging, and earthy. Sometimes a "mere" linguistic clarification can be the occasion for developing and elaborating a fragmentary tradition in new and unexpected directions (see:
, BT Bava Meẓi'a VI, Commentary, 148).
According to Bacher the word haggadah is derived from the expression higgid (or maggid) ha-katuv, "Scripture related [or relates]," with which an aggadic discourse often opened. However, the aggadah did not always derive from biblical exegesis, but often arose independently of it. The word aggadah
is rather to be understood as meaning simply "relating," i.e., events which have occurred, and in Sotah 7b "devarim shel aggadah" is used in this sense (cf. B. Lifshitz, The Jewish Law Yearbook, 22, 233–328, and the debate between Lifshitz and J. Fraenkel in Netuim, 11–12 (2004), 63–91). The important consideration here is the "telling," the narration, the wording, the style. The "telling," in this instance aggadah, however, is designed to touch the human heart (Yoma 75a), "so that one should recognize Him who created the world, and so cling to His ways" (Sif. Deut. 49). Its purpose is "to bring Heaven down to earth and to elevate man to Heaven" (Zunz).
Content and Form
The aggadah comprehends a great variety of forms and content. It includes narrative, legends, doctrines, admonitions to ethical conduct and good behavior, words of encouragement and comfort, and expressions of hope for future redemption. Its forms and modes of expression are as rich and colorful as its content. Parables and allegories, metaphors and terse maxims; lyrics, dirges, and prayers, biting satire and fierce polemic, idyllic tales and tense dramatic dialogues, hyperboles and plays on words, permutations of letters, calculations of their arithmetical values (gematria) or their employment as initials of other words (notarikon) – all are found in the aggadah. "Whatever the imagination can invent is found in the aggadah, with one exception: 'mockery and frivolity'" (Zunz), the purpose always being to teach man the ways of God. The aggadah's variegated contents and multiplicity of forms can be accounted for by a consideration of its sources and its manner of growth.
The Folkloristic Aggadah
Although the aggadic literature as known is an expression of the ideas and feelings of the tannaim and amoraim, in many instances it merely adapted ancient material to its needs. Ready at hand were myths dating back to biblical times, popular legends of national heroes – patriarchs, prophets, and kings – and fanciful stories, some the product of the Jewish imagination and "wisdom," and others remnants of the folklore treasury of nearby and faraway peoples, which had become judaized in the course of time. The sages, however, were interested in establishing a connection between the current, popular aggadah and the Bible. Many aggadot seem to stem solely from Bible exegesis or a penetrating examination of the text; yet modern scholarship has been able to determine the place and time of their origin and so to separate the original layers from the later additions of the sages. The study of the epic literature of the ancient Orient, the apocrypha, and the legends of other peoples has helped greatly in this regard, as the following instances show. "R. Judah stated in the name of
: 'When the Holy One blessed be He sought to build the world, He said to the Prince of the Sea "Open your mouth and swallow all the waters in the world." He said to Him "Master of the World, it is enough that I should retain my own." Immediately He struck him with his foot and he died, as it is said: "He breaks the sea with His power; with His understanding He smites through
"'" (BB 74b). Similar statements (Ginzberg, Legends Jews, 5 (1925), 17–18, 26–27) are merely the traditional myths of the revolt of the sea which were preserved in popular memory, and which parallel, fundamentally, the Mesopotamian myth of the war of the god creator against Tiamat, and Canaanite legends recorded in the Ugaritic inscriptions (Cassuto, in: Keneset, 8 (1943), 141–2).
It is related in a baraita that when an accused adulteress was being summoned to confess, she was reminded of biblical parallels for confession, as when not only
but *Reuben too, "confessed and were not ashamed" (Sot. 7b; Sif. Deut. 35:5). With regard to Reuben this is not evident from the biblical narrative itself, but in the Talmud it is derived from the text by homiletical exegesis, by comparing it with the passage, "May Reuben live and not die.… And this he said for Judah" (Deut. 33:6–7; Sot. ibid.). The details of the story, however, appear in the apocryphal Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (Reu. 3). The influence of universal folklore on the aggadah is especially evident in the proverbs and fables. Late talmudic and post-talmudic sources ascribe to *Hillel the knowledge of the "conversations of trees and clouds, and of the beasts and animals" (Sof. 16:9), an element common to the folklore of all peoples. Another relatively late tradition (Suk. 28a) states that his pupil, Johanan b. Zakkai, knew the parables of laundrymen and fox fables. The amora, Johanan, related that R. Meir had known 300 fox fables. On the other hand, there is no confirmation from tannaitic sources for this claim, and it seems that the real "hero" of this tradition is the early amora, Bar Kappara, whose talents in this field may have been transferred to the earlier figure R. Meir by the aggadah (see:
, The Talmudic Parable, 28). For his own part Johanan states that he himself knew only three such fables (concerning which he quotes only three biblical verses): "The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge" (Ezek. 18:2); "Just balances, just weights" (Lev. 19:36); "The righteous is delivered out of trouble" (Prov. 11:8). The Talmud (Sanh. 38b–39a) takes it for granted that the fables to which these verses correspond were known to all. When
was asked to expatiate upon Johanan's statement, he said: "Know that these fables contain moral lessons which are presented as if they emanated from the mouths of the beasts of the fields, like the writings of the Hindus which are called Kitab Kalila wa-Dimna and which contain moral lessons, wise sayings, and metaphors in the forms of animal fables. As for these fables of R. Meir, each was attached to a biblical verse which expressed a similar idea. So the story would be told: 'It happened that a lion caught a fox and wanted to eat it. The fox said to him: What do I possess that can appease your appetite …'" (B.M. Levin, Oẓar ha-Ge'onim, 6, pt. 2, on Sukkah (1934), 31–32).
A more Jewish version of the fable is quoted by Rashi (in Sanh. 39a). Sometimes only the proverb or moral teaching is given, the story itself being known from Aesop or from Indian fables. At other times only the title of the story is mentioned: "Said R. Ammi: 'Come and see how great are the men
of faith. From what is this derived? – from the incident of the weasel and the well. If it is so with one who trusts a weasel and a well, how much more so with one who trusts in God'" (Ta'an. 8a and Rashi ibid.). Yet other stories which were widely known among all peoples have no known earlier source than the aggadah. Although these are recorded as incidents in the lives of the sages, they have a folk origin (PdRK 7 – the story about R. Simeon b. Yohai – this tale of the wise farmer's daughter has spread among the Germanic, Slavic, and Romanian peoples). "The Jews may well be described as the great disseminators of folklore. Many a legend that originated in Egypt or Babylonia was appropriated by the European peoples, and many a European fairy tale found its way to Asia through the medium of the Jews, who on their long wanderings from the East to the West, and back from the West to the East, brought the products of Oriental fancies to the occidental nations, and the creations of occidental imagination to the Oriental peoples" (Ginzberg, Legends Jews, 5 (1925), vii).
From the earliest times the public reading from the Torah and the prophetic books occupied a prominent place in the synagogue service (BK 82a; TJ, Meg. 1:1, 70b). "They read in the book, in the Law of God, distinctly; and they gave the sense and caused them to understand the reading" (Neh. 8:8). At the conclusion of the reading, an exposition adapted to the level of the listeners would be delivered. This exposition contained the seeds of the derashah or discourse, which may be regarded as a continuation of the activities of the prophets "who reproved in the gates" (Isa. 29:21; Amos 5:10). The ordinance requiring the appropriate exposition to be delivered before the festivals was regarded as of the greatest antiquity, the sages asserting: "Moses ordained that Israel should enquire and expound concerning the Festivals" (Sif. Num. 66). Philo mentions the discourse many times (De Somniis 2:127; Apologia 7:12). On the Sabbath that Paul came to Antioch, after the Torah and haftarah reading, the congregants turned to him and asked him whether he wished to preach (Acts 13:14–15). Gamaliel, Joshua, Eleazar b. Azariah, and Akiva delivered discourses in Rome (Ex. R. 30:9). There is also an account of Akiva's address in the town of Ginzak in Media (Gen. R. 33:5). These discourses were delivered to the common people, in some instances gentiles being present in the audience. "At the time the elder sits and discourses, many strangers become proselytes" (Song R. 4:2). The "words of admonition" spoken on fast days were none other than a derashah (Ta'an. 2:1; Tosef., Ta'an. 1:8). Addresses were also delivered on the occasion of family joys and sorrows (Ket. 8b). People flocked to these addresses (Sot. 40a), and enjoyed listening to them. It was accurately said: "'The delights of the sons of man' – these are the aggadot, which are Scripture's delight" (Eccl. R. 2:8). The aggadah eventually became the core of the discourse, the preacher utilizing the occasion to point to the virtues and faults of his audience, to voice their feelings and aspirations, to scrutinize the events of the time, and to judge their deeds and those of their enemies. Whatever he had to say would be linked to the portion of Scripture they had just heard. At times it is difficult to determine whether the biblical exegesis is the source of the aggadic idea or whether the idea was read into the Scriptural passage. This, however, is immaterial. The spirit of the Bible pulsates in these derashot. Only individuals permeated with this spirit, in whom the words of the Bible had become alive, could relate their thoughts and feelings so closely to the text as to emerge with an exegesis and aggadic idea which seem, at times, to have arisen simultaneously. This total involvement with Scripture also explains why, despite the wide differences in the form, style and content of aggadic literature, and the vast distances in time and often in space which it spanned, no radical differences in its essential nature are perceivable.
In addition to its role in the public address, aggadah was studied and taught in the academies. Periods of instruction and study would be enlivened by aggadic interludes. When R. Zeira, on one occasion, was not up to delivering a halakhic discourse, he was besought, "Let the Master deliver an aggadic exposition," the latter requiring less exertion (Ta'an. 7a). The exegesis of some word in the course of a halakhic investigation would often lead to an aggadic discourse (BB 78b). The wording of a halakhah would sometimes recall a popular maxim (BK 92b). Obviously the aggadic expositions of the sages in the academies were subsequently made use of by popular preachers, just as those of the public sermons found their way back to the academies. The aggadah is a fusion of both.
The freedom of interpretation allowed to the aggadah is given expression in the 32 hermeneutical principles included in the
of the Thirty-two Rules attributed to Eliezer b. Yose the Galilean (appearing in the printed editions of the Babylonian Talmud after the tractate Berakhot and in Mishnat Rabbi Eliezer (ed. by H.G. Enelow (1933), 10ff.)), but probably post-talmudic in its present formulation. Some of these principles are the same as those used in halakhic exposition, such as the seven principles of Hillel and the thirteen of R. Ishmael. Others are either exclusively or generally intended for the aggadah. Not invented by the sages, they closely resemble the exegetical methods used by the Greek orators and the grammarians of the ancient world (see:
, Hellenism). The talmudic sages employed these principles in finding scriptural allusions to and support for their ideas and in holding the attention and interest of their audiences. To personify the relationship between God and the people of Israel, the talmudic sages like the interpreters of Homer, from Anaxagoras onward, and like Philo of Alexandria, used parables as allegories. The aggadah knows of no conflict between literal and figurative explanations. The verb "pashat" is used both in reference to the plain or literal meaning (peshat) and to interpretations which are obviously homiletic (derash). Only toward the end of the amoraic period does the rule appear: "A verse cannot depart from its plain meaning" (Shab. 63a; Yev. 11b; cf. Bacher, Exegetische Terminologie der Juedischen Traditions literatur, 2 (1905),
170–3; R. Loewe in: Papers of the Institute of Jewish Studies, London (1964), 140–85) and a distinction was thus established between the two. (See also
The Structure and Style of the Discourse
The derashot or discourses of the tannaim and amoraim have rarely come down in their original form. Ideas that were once coherent are now separated and scattered. In the extant Talmuds they are fragmented, joined with other elements, and removed from their original order. To the words of the early expositors the remarks of the later sages on the same topic have been added. Most evidence on the arrangement of the addresses dates back to amoraic times. The Talmud states that R. Meir would devote one third of his discourse to halakhah, one third to aggadah, and the rest to parables (Sanh. 38b). Since the discourses were based primarily on the weekly Torah and haftarah readings, some preachers would link elements from both. Indeed, the linking together of verses from all three divisions of the Bible and the exposition of Torah verses through verses in the other books was an integral part of the discourse. The Midrash relates that "R. Eliezer and R. Joshua … sat and occupied themselves with Torah … and they linked (the correct reading is horzin) words of the Torah to the Prophets, and of the Prophets to the Hagiographa …" (TJ, Hag. 2:1, 77b; cf. Lev. R. 16:4).
A striking feature of most extant Midrashim is the proem or introduction (petiḥah). A verse from a remote source, usually the Hagiographa or the later Prophets, is adduced. This verse is then interpreted and eventually associated with the section to be expounded, at which point the preacher concludes by repeating the original verse. In some aggadic Midrashim, a series of proems (petiḥot) serve as introductions to the systematic exposition of an entire portion of the Torah. Although it seems that each petiḥah served as the introduction to a specific sermon, some were, very likely, complete sermons in themselves (Heinemann, in: Fourth World Congress of Jewish Studies, 1968). Vestiges of such sermons as delivered by the tannaim have been preserved. The petiḥah, though primarily an expository instrument, also served the purpose of emphasizing the unity of the Bible.
It was customary to conclude aggadic discourses with words of comfort. The sages took note that "all the prophets began with words of reproof and ended with words of comfort" (PdRK ed. Mandelbaum, 238). Sometimes the conclusion of the discourse flowed naturally from the content of the discourse; sometimes it was a deliberate addition. There are many stylistic resemblances between the derashah and the stoic and cynic diatribe, both being rich in dramatic description, anecdote, and antithesis. In these discourses, dialogues are created within the context of biblical events, e.g., "The Egyptians said, 'Let us flee from the face of Israel.' The wicked and foolish among them said: 'Shall we flee from before the afflicted and degraded people? Shall we flee from before Israel?' The wise among them replied: 'Let us indeed flee from the face of Israel'" (Mekh., Be-Shalaḥ, 8).
The aggadic expositors focused their attention upon topics of everyday life, not hesitating to color their remarks with popular maxims, some translated from Greek to Aramaic while others were retained in the original. Aggadic homilies, often faithful reflections of actual customs and institutions of the Roman Empire, are rich in analogy: "This may be compared to a king …" "To a prince …" and the like.
Two styles may be discerned in the aggadah, one simple and the other ornate. In the first, the folklore basis is clearly evident. There is no striving after refinement; no embellishment is added and the language itself is sharp, and even coarse. In the second, the refined and the pleasant, the arresting and the attractive, are consciously sought after. In most aggadic works both styles are indiscriminately represented. Points of contact between the heikhalot literature and rabbinic sources may occasionally be detected in the Talmuds and Midrashim (see:
, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition (1962), 23–27), as well as rudiments of poetry (Mirsky in: YMHSI, 7 (1958), 1–129). The tannaitic homilies may be seen as representing the first stirring of the *piyyut style, the later amoraim refining and polishing until the piyyut form was finally assumed (see:
, ibid., passim).
This category consists of additions and supplements to the Bible narrative and ancient aggadot preserved among the people, some dating back to Bible times themselves. Incidents and deeds only hinted at in Scripture serve as the kernels of dramatic accounts. Minor biblical figures become leading heroes. Biblical heroes become prototypes, for instance Abraham is the archetype of all proselytizers, Esau the fashioner of violence and deceit. In aggadic history, the limitations of space and time are transcended and anachronisms abound. Shem and Eber, for example, founded academies (battei midrash) where Jacob studied Torah (Gen. R. 63:9). Biblical heroes and their deeds are freed from the restraining bonds of time, the aggadic authors striving to discover in them meaning for their own and for their subsequent generations. The verse: "The voice is the voice of Jacob but the hands are the hands of Esau" is seen as the contrast not only between Jacob and Esau but also between their descendants, Israel and Rome, for "the deeds of the fathers are a sign to the children." In the aggadah can be found side by side a tendency to clear national heroes of all guilt, to exalt and glorify the nation and its past, and harsh criticism of even the patriarchs and the prophets. What is more, these two attitudes do not necessarily represent opposing views of different sages, but may even appear in the dicta of the same rabbi. Yet there is no contradiction or lack of consistency. For when they spoke of the past, their eyes were fixed on the present. Just as they desired to comfort and encourage by their words of praise, so were their critical observations intended to reprove and chastise. Yet their attitude to the present did not always determine their outlook on the past (see:
, in: Molad (1961), 368–74). Aggadic literature even preserved stories and legends which were "foreign
growths in the vineyards of Israel." Some of these had traveled far before reaching the Jewish people; others were the creations of propagandizing sects and parties now extinct. Later generations, while still maintaining their fierce hatred of the sects, accepted vestiges of their doctrines without being aware of their origins. Parallels in the apocryphal literature, in Philo and Josephus, and in the early Church Fathers attest to the antiquity of aggadot of this type. In the course of time the historical aggadah was expanded. To the portrayal of the history of Israel in the distant past, was added a description of the sufferings and disasters and the gratifications and consolations of the present. Alongside the stories of Bible heroes, biographical details of the tannaim and amoraim, their deeds, virtues, conduct, and manners, were introduced. With the obvious pleasure taken by the aggadists in the actual telling of a story, it must not be forgotten that their principal motive was not to create works of art, but to aid man, to instruct him "to know how to fear God and walk in His ways."
Systematic philosophies or theological doctrines are not to be found in the aggadah (see:
, The Rabbinic Mind, 280–81). Nevertheless, numerous attempts are made to provide well considered, if fragmentary, answers to questions concerning God, His attributes, the secret of Divine Providence, His rule over man and creation, the nature of idolatry, the source, character, and purpose of human existence, the relationship of man to God and to the world, the problem of the righteous and the wicked, reward and punishment, the position of the Jews among the gentile nations, the mission of the Jews, the Messianic era, and the world-to-come. It is true that the esoteric doctrine of "what is above and below; what came before and will come afterward" only concerned the elect, who were bold enough to enter the world of mysticism and to occupy themselves with the "Creation" and "Chariot" chapters of the Bible (Gen. 1 and Ezek. 1), but many esoteric teachings became part and parcel of the aggadah. The older works of the aggadah are also the most ancient sources of Jewish mysticism (Urbach, in: Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to G. Scholem (1967), Heb. sect. 1–28).
On all other topics most of the tannaim and amoraim expressed their views freely. There is hardly a generation which did not submit contradictory solutions to the problems mentioned above. To mention a few examples: Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel differed on whether the heavens or the earth were created first. Four generations later, R. Simeon delivered his opinion: both were created simultaneously, like a pot and its lid (Gen. R. 1:15). The amora, Resh Lakish, differs and offers a compromise: "When they were created, He created heaven first and afterward the earth; when He stretched them forth, He stretched forth the earth first and afterward the heaven" (Hag. 12a).
Again, in respect to proselytes, the Talmud contrasts Shammai's impatience with them to the well known patience of Hillel (Shab. 31a). These opposing attitudes are ascribed to amoraim as well. R. Eleazar, in the third century, declared: "God dispersed the Jews among the nations only that proselytes should join them" (Pes. 87b). R. Ḥelbo, a generation later, made the biting remark: "Proselytes are as hard for Israel to endure as a scab (sappaḥat), as it is written (Isa. 14:1): 'And the stranger shall join himself with them, and they shall cleave (nispaḥ) to the house of Jacob'" (Yev. 47b).
The verse, "This book of the law shall not depart out of thy mouth all the days of thy life" (Josh. 1:8) was interpreted by R. Ishmael to mean "Make them follow the way of the world" i.e., engage in normal occupations. Simeon b. Yoḥai objected: "Is it possible that man should plow in the proper season, sow in the proper season, reap in the harvest season? What will happen to the Torah? But when Israel obeys the will of the All-Present, its chores are performed by others." On this, the amora Abbaye commented: "Many followed the advice of Ishmael and it worked well, of Simeon b. Yoḥai and failed." Abbaye's colleague, Rava, forbade the sages to gather at the academy during the harvest seasons (Ber. 35b).
R. Eliezer and R. Joshua disagreed as to whether the redemption of Israel is conditional upon its repentance, the controversy reappearing in a different version several generations later, between Rav and Samuel. "Rav said: 'All predestined dates have passed. Everything now depends on repentance and good deeds.' Samuel said: 'lt is sufficient for the mourner to keep his period of mourning'" (i.e., they will be redeemed even without repentance; Sanh. 97b). Special emphasis was given to those derashot dealing with the Messiah, the world to come, resurrection, the redemption of Israel and of the world. Here too, controversies abound, some sages adopting the apocalyptic trend and others a more realistic approach. All, however, share a common conviction – the eventual triumph of the Jewish people over all their sufferings, and the ultimate victory of Judaism over all the world's evils and abominations. All that has been said in this regard revolves around two poles: the nation and its land, on the one hand, and the universal, the perfection of the world on the other. It would be surprising if aggadic literature, which grew over a period of over 1,000 years in lands of different religions and cultures, did not bear the imprint of time and place. Foreign languages (Greek in Ereẓ Israel, Persian in Babylonia) enriched the Hebrew and Aramaic vocabularies; elements of Platonic, Stoic, and Pythagorean philosophies, and concepts which had gained currency in the prevalent Hellenistic culture infiltrated into the aggadah. Political and religious events also influenced trends of beliefs and doctrines in certain areas of the aggadah. On certain issues of religious thought, there were many-sided polemics which persisted for many generations. The later sages revived the discussions of the problems from the changed perspective of their own times (Urbach, in: Y. Kaufmann Jubilee Volume (1960), Heb. sect., 122–48) with even greater vigor and boldness. The editors of the aggadah collected the various views pro and con, and left them side by side, since in their opinion all were "the words of the living
God." The ethical doctrines in the aggadah, the teaching and preaching of virtuous conduct to the public, clearly reflect not only the views and opinions of the sages who strove for human betterment, but also the political, social, and cultural environment of the generations to whom they addressed themselves. They brought all classes, without prejudice, under critical review. Even the sages themselves were not spared. The spiritual trends and the various sects, whether they remained within the Jewish fold or abandoned it, left their impress on the aggadah. Stories, interpretations of verses, and many dicta are eminently polemics against Sadducean, Gnostic, Christian, and especially Judeo-Christian sects. The aggadic sages rebut the charges of emperors, various heretics, and even philosophers against the Torah – and then go over to the attack.
Whatever the Jewish people, including its sages, scribes, teachers, and preachers, thought or felt during a period of more than 1,000 years is reflected in the aggadah. Later generations found in this great treasury the expression of their own deepest feelings. On the one hand they derived support and proofs for their views and concepts, and on the other, they were able, when necessary, to declare that the aggadic view contrary to their own was not binding, or that it constituted a foreign addition. The attitudes of scholars and rabbis toward the aggadah – its literary or free interpretation, its evaluation as binding doctrine or as imaginative, literary creation – differed widely at various periods in history. Even after the aggadah had ceased to grow and other modes of creative expression had replaced it (i.e., piyyut, philosophy, Kabbalah), it remained a perennial source of inspiration and insight.
Although most of the masters of the aggadah excelled in halakhah as well, there were sages, tannaim, and amoraim, who specialized in aggadah. Although it was said of Akiva that he "composed halakhic and aggadic interpretations" (TJ, Shek. 5:1, 48c), the Talmud ascribes to one of his contemporaries, Eleazar b. Azariah, a negative evaluation of his expertise in aggadah: "Akiva, what have you to do with the aggadah? Cease your talk, and turn to the laws of Nega'im and Oholot" (Hag. 14a). R. Tarfon is reported to have said of R. Ishmael: "He is a great scholar and expert in homiletic exposition" (MK 28b). R. Johanan stated in the name of R. Eleazar b. R. Simeon, "Wherever you find the words of R. Eleazar b. R. Yose the Galilean, shape your ear like a funnel" (Hul. 89a). Among the Palestinian amoraim were many masters of the aggadah; R. Jonathan, R. Samuel b. Naḥman, R. Isaac Nappaḥa, R. Levi, R. Abba b. Kahana, R. Berechiah, and R. Tanḥuma are especially famous as aggadists. Some of them apparently, are referred to by the collective name, rabbanan de-aggadeta ("the rabbis of the aggadah," TJ, Ma'as. 1:2, 48d; TJ, Yev. 4:2, 5c). They were not immune to criticism, however. It is told of R. Ze'ira that he used to rebuke the aggadic expositors, calling them "magician scribes" and characterizing their interpretations as turning over and over and conveying nothing (TJ, Ma'as. 3:9, 51a). R. Johanan's thrust, "There is a tradition transmitted by my fathers not to teach aggadah to a Babylonian or a southerner since they are uncouth and not learned in Torah" (TJ, Pes. 5:3, 32a; Pes. 62b), is no more than a rejoinder to remarks such as those expressed by R. Ze'ira.
Women in Aggadah
The many aggadic images of females and the feminine offer a complex, nuanced portrait of women. Through midrashic expansions of biblical narratives and rounding out of biblical characters, biblical women are given a voice, albeit a voice filtered through the minds of men. In aggadah, one hears Sarah protesting her imprisonment in the house of Pharaoh (Gen. Rab. 41:2), Leah praying that her last child will be a daughter (b. Ber. 60a), and Rachel describing how she assisted her father in his deception of Jacob in order to protect her sister from embarrassment (Lam. Rab. Proem 24). Biblical women, like their male counterparts, are constructed in aggadah as paradigms and models for all Jews; thus Tamar's willingness to be burnt unless Judah identified his seal, staff and cord serves to teach that "it is better that a person throw himself into a fiery furnace than shame his fellow in public" (b. Ber. 43b). The range of aggadah illustrates that there is no monolithic rabbinic view of women; classical aggadah includes both accolades and sharp critiques. While the women of the generation of the Exodus are praised for their faith and devotion (Midrash Tanhuma Pinhas 7), Eve is blamed for "corrupting Adam" and "extinguishing his soul" (Gen. Rab. 17:8). Just as there are aggadot that praise the good qualities of the matriarchs, so too there are aggadot that highlight their shortcomings. In many aggadot that describe some aspect of the relationship between God and the people Israel, Israel is portrayed in the feminine. When God is compared in parables to a "flesh and blood king," Israel may be portrayed as the king's consort or his daughter. These parables are used to describe the divine-human relationship as one marked by love, anger, betrayal and reunion. The use of the feminine to symbolize Israel is inconsistent; parables are equally likely to characterize Israel as God's son. It would be incorrect to read the emotional turmoil of the king-parables as an indication of rabbinic dislike of women or as a critique on family life among the ancient rabbis. Instead, these aggadot demonstrate the rabbis' willingness to identify, as part of collective Israel, with the feminine. Scholars who have attempted to compare or contrast attitudes toward women in halakhah and aggadah have drawn no clear-cut conclusions. At times, aggadic traditions attempt to explain or justify women's legal status and obligations. Some discussions of the three commandments especially associated with women (separation of dough, separation during menstruation, and lighting the Sabbath lights) describe these responsibilities as punishment or atonement for the shortcomings of Eve (Gen. Rab. 17:8). In other cases, aggadah may serve to soften or critique a law that touches on the lives of women, as in the case of divorce (Gittin 35a).
[Dvora E. Weisberg (2nd ed.)]
Although aggadic views about women vary, they are generally based on the conviction of women's essential alterity from men. "Women are a separate people" (Shabbat 62a) asserts the predominant supposition that the physical characteristics, innate capacities, and social functions of females are inherently dissimilar and generally less valued than those of males. Niddah 31b points out that males are welcomed at birth because of their physical potential for generativity and because they enter the covenant through circumcision. Females, on the other hand, are not a cause for celebration; they are empty wombs requiring male insemination, their birth delays their parents' resumption of sexual relations by an additional week, and their menstruation requires them to be separated from their husbands for almost half of each month. Woman's otherness is said to originate in the secondary nature of her creation. The final segment of Niddah 31b suggests that the preferred position for sexual intercourse is that in which the man, on top, looks towards his origins in the earth (i.e., to the cosmic substance from which God created him) while the woman, facing upward, looks toward the man from whose body she was created. The assumption that the initial human creation was a solitary male from whose body a woman was subsequently built is the view that most commonly appears in the rabbinic aggadah (e.g., Ketubbot 8a; Gen. Rab. 18:2). Several extended aggadic narratives catalog and justify a series of female disabilities as consequences of the lesser nature of female creation and the first woman's subsequent deleterious moral choices (Gen. Rab. 17:8; ARN B 9; Eruvin 100b). Aggadic passages reflect anxiety regarding women's sexual unreliability; unaccompanied women in the public sphere are suspect and may be divorced (Ketubbot 7:6; Gittin 90b); women gathering in groups are connected with witchcraft (Pesaḥim 8:7; Avot 2:7; Pesaḥim 110a, 111a). Having to wear a veil outside of the domestic sphere (Sotah 3:8) is seen as a female burden connected with guilt and shame (Gen. Rab. 17:8; Eruvin 100b); ARN B 9 comments: "In the same way Eve disgraced herself and caused her daughters to cover their heads." A woman who remains veiled even within the home is truly pious and will be rewarded (Yoma 47a). Foreign women, like Hagar (Gen. 16–21) and Cozbi (Num. 25), are usually understood to exemplify unrestrained sexuality and ill will towards Israel and are represented with particular hostility in aggadic sources (Gen. Rab. 53:13–14; Me'ilah 17b; b. Sanhedrin 82a; Num. Rab. 21:3). Rahab, the noble harlot of Joshua 2 and 5:25, and Ruth, the Moabite ancestress of King David, are among the few women from outside the Israelite community who are praised, essentially because each is understood to have joined herself to the community of Israel through faith and marriage (Zevahim 116a–b; Megillah 14b; Sifre Num. 78; Ruth Rab. 2:1).
[Judith R. Baskin (2nd ed.)]
The Aggadah in Modern Scholarship
's classic work, Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortraege der Juden (1832), marks the beginning of modern research in the field of aggadah. Ever since then, scholars, prominent among them
, and I.
, have concentrated on three tasks: (1) to publish critical and corrected editions and also such material as was still in manuscript, (2) to compile the aggadic treasury in some systematic form; and (3) to examine the contents, ideas, and methods of the midrashim and thus to determine the dates of the various works. An especially significant and original contribution was made by Bacher, who gathered and arranged in chronological order, the aggadic material of all the tannaim and amoraim, thus making the aggadic creation of each sage accessible, and enabling us to assess his particular approach and "world of ideas." Bacher's works: Die Agadah der Tannaiten (1878) and Die Agadah der Palaestinensischen Amoraeer (1892–99) were published in German and translated into Hebrew.
, in his Legends of the Jews (1909–38), arranged the aggadot around a chronology of biblical personalities and events. His collection is extraordinarily rich and broad in scope, and his notes and explanations are a gold mine of information on the history of the aggadah, especially in its relation to the Apocrypha and Patristic Literature. The Sefer ha-Aggadah of
is a popular work which has achieved a very wide circulation. It includes most of the important branches of the aggadah, (in Hebrew translation, where the sources are in Aramaic). The first section is arranged in chronological order, the second, according to topics. The compilers found it necessary to graft versions to one another, and also to omit material offensive to the modern reader. A subject index is appended to the work. First published in 1910, the Sefer ha-Aggadah has gone through eighteen impressions, including an enlarged edition published in 1936.
Since the 1970s, when literary theory emerged as a burgeoning field of interest, intersecting with other areas of inquiry, studies in aggadah have been marked by an increasing awareness of its literary features. Scholars, primarily in North America, but also in Israel, have come to pay less attention to the historical veracity of aggadic texts, and to focus their attention more on the "literariness" of classical rabbinic texts. Underlying this new trend in the study of aggadah is the notion that rabbinic stories not only reflect beliefs, values, and customs, but also possess the earmarks of literature and should thus be examined in light literary motifs, themes, and structure. Many contemporary scholars are thus no longer interested, for example, in how a story about a certain rabbi may be utilized in constructing his historical biography. Instead, rabbinic narratives are analyzed in terms of their literary quality. At the same time, however, they are regarded as artifacts that function as conveyors and mediators of rabbinic culture. The historical import of narratives is therefore undiminished to the extent
that they yield insight into the milieu of those who recorded, transmitted and lived by them.
The following is a précis of some of the many works that have affected contemporary studies of aggadah.
Neusner's The Development of a Legend has proven to be a turning point in the field of rabbinics. Here he methodically demonstrates how stories depicting the life of Rabbi Johanan Ben Zakkai evolved into what is considered the "normative tradition," and how they tell us more about those who produced the narratives or deemed them authoritative than about the actual personage. Rather than viewing the corpus of rabbinic literature as monolithic, Neusner's source and form-critical analyses highlighted the importance of the diachronic, as well as structural aspects of rabbinic texts. More fundamentally, his work called attention to the need to explore basic assumptions about the nature of rabbinic literature. Neusner's underlying assumptions, shared by his compatriots in biblical studies – Hebrew Scriptures and New Testament – provided the basis for much future study in rabbinics.
Advancements in literary studies and theory attracted such scholars as Boyarin and Stern, whose work exemplify the interdisciplinary approach to aggadah and Midrash that broadly speaking characterizes the general trend in North American research into rabbinics today. Boyarin's Intertextuality and the Reading of Midrash, dealing primarily and explicitly with Midrash through a postmodern critical lens, is a significant contribution to the field of academic rabbinic research. Here Boyarin discusses rabbinic interpretation as discourse that is historically and ideologically situated. Through a study of the Mekhilta and its use of quotations, he illustrates how rabbinic interpretation is both the continuation and disruption of tradition. Although the work does not deal with aggadah per se, it provides a methodological framework for analyzing rabbinic narratives, and as such it has been regarded by many scholars as groundbreaking. Stern's Parables in Midrash is an in-depth analysis of the function of the mashal (parable) in rabbinic literature that explores its compositional and exegetical techniques, its rhetoric and role in midrashic discourse. Stern draws the conclusion that parables about kings constitute the preeminent form of narrative in rabbinic texts. Although he emphasizes the mashal, Stern also examines other literary forms such as the petiḥta (the proem of the homiletic Midrash), and the ma'aseh (reportage). Stern's later work, Midrash and Theory, investigates rabbinic texts theoretically and deals squarely with the impact of literary criticism on rabbinic exegesis. Kugel's In Potiphar's House examines a series of stories that elaborate on the Joseph narrative in Genesis. Here he traces the development of aggadah vis-a-vis traditions found in sources as diverse as early Christian writing, piyyut, and the Qur'an, in light of the manner by which exegetical motifs are created and evolve. In addition to examining the historical development of rabbinic narratives, in the final chapter of his book, "Nine Theses," he reflects on several aspects of Midrash and aggadah, and formulates general conclusions about the workings of early biblical exegesis. Kugel's The Bible as it Was, an expansive collection of biblical interpretation, also contributes significantly to the study of rabbinic narratives in so far as it offers erudite commentary on the ancient interpretive traditions, and elucidates how they in turn gave rise to crucial transformations in the meaning of a biblical story.
Talmudic scholars, such as Kalmin and Rubenstein, have focused on the study of aggadah in the Talmud. In The Sage in Jewish Society of Late Antiquity, Kalmin compares stories produced more or less at the same time but in different locations. By doing so, he demonstrates how the differences between Babylonian and Palestinian rabbinic social structures help explain distinctions between depictions of biblical heroes in aggadic texts. In the same vein of attempting to read narratives for their cultural significance, in Talmudic Stories: Narrative Art, Composition and Culture, Rubenstein closely examines six talmudic stories with an eye toward both literary aspects and cultural contexts.
Israeli scholarship has also contributed to the study of aggadah from a literary and interdisciplinary perspective. First and foremost, the comprehensive works of Isaac Heinemann (Darkhei Ha-Aggadah) and Jonah Fraenkel (Darkhei Ha-Aggadah ve-Ha-Midrash and Midrash ve-Aggadah) have shaped the ways in which generations of Israeli scholars and students have approached and understood the aggadic literature (see below). Dov Noy, whose folkloristic approach in general, and his listing of rabbinic folkloric motifs, Motif Index of Talmudic-Midrashic Literature, in particular, signaled a serious shift in the study of aggadah. These scholars in turn paved the way for a new generation of scholars whose are deeply engaged in aggadic studies. Noteworthy Israeli contributors to literary analysis of aggadah include Ofra Meir, who examines the relationship between rabbinic biblical exegesis and narrative from a literary perspective, Avigdor Shinan, who engages the nexus between aggadah and targum, Galit Hasan-Rokem, who approaches the study of rabbinic folktales from a cultural poetics perspective, and Joshua Levinson, who examines rabbinic narrative expansion and reformulation of biblical stories in the light of contemporary critical literary theory.
The tendency toward interdisciplinary methodology and theoretical generalization described above has for the past two decades been accompanied by a parallel and probably related tendency toward the erosion of accepted and authoritative cultural canons in both literary and religious studies. While primarily characteristic of North American scholarship, these trends have also had their followers in Israel (see above). Nevertheless, it would be fair to say that in many Israeli circles the classical literature of the aggadah has largely retained its canonical status as well as much of its cultural and (for some) its religious authority. As a result, the fundamental assumption underlying much study and research into the aggadic literature in Israel (and similar Hebrew language research outside of Israel) is that the study of aggadic texts in their original
languages (Hebrew and Aramaic) and the detailed explication of the form and content of these texts are fully justified for their own sake, and are of interest to a wide audience of professional and non-professional students. This assumption has shaped much of the direction and focus of recent Israeli studies of the aggadah.
By the early 1970s Israeli scholarship had already produced a number of seminal works in the field of aggadah. First of all, Zunz's Gottesdienstlichen Vortraege had been translated into Hebrew, and richly annotated and updated by Hanoch Albeck (1946) thus placing a fairly comprehensive, reliable and accessible introduction to aggadic literature in the hand of every student. Second, Isaac Heineman published in 1950 (second edition 1954) his revolutionary typology of the rabbinic aggadah, Darkhei ha-Aggadah, which provided a detailed description of the methods of rabbinic aggadic under two general headings: "creative historiography" and "creative philology". The significance of this work lay in focusing the reader's attention for the first time on the ways in which the rabbis actually interpreted biblical texts and narratives, thus largely replacing the age-old polemical and apologetic discussions of how the rabbis "should have" interpreted the scripture. Thirdly, Ephraim Urbach published in 1969 his monumental work, Ḥazal (translated: The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs, 1987), which restated the entire theological, ethical, and eschatological content of the world of the aggadah in a modern format easily accessible to student and scholar alike. By 1970 the student of aggadah also possessed, in addition to the classic critical edition of Genesis Rabbah, begun by Theodor and finished by Albeck, critical editions of Levitcus Rabbah (M. Margulies) and Pesikta de-Rav Kahana (B. Mandelbaum), comprising, together with aggadah in the Talmudim, the basic corpus of the classical amoraic aggadic literature. Viewing aggadic literature as an integral part of talmudic rabbinic literature as a whole, the work of J.N. Epstein, H. Albeck, and S. Lieberman was seen to have laid firm foundations for the historical and philological analysis of the textual traditions in which the literature of the aggadah was preserved.
Without a doubt, the most important Israeli figure in the study of aggadah for most of the last three decades has been Jonah Fraenkel. One cannot overestimate the profound and pervasive impact of Fraenkel's work, both as a scholar and as a teacher. His influence is in some ways even stronger today, despite the fact that many of his former students have moved in new and different directions. This is due to the publication of his two comprehensive and synthetic works, Darkhei ha-Aggadah ve-ha-Midrash (1996) and Midrash ve-Aggadah (1996), which have appealed to a wide audience, and are not limited to a small circle of professional scholars. Similarly the recent publication of Sippur ha-Aggadah – Aḥdut shel Tokhen ve-Ẓurah (2001) has made many of his classic studies, along with a number of new articles, easily accessible to the general public. Aside from popularizing the fruits of modern research into the aggadah, Fraenkel's own contribution lies in two areas. First of all, building upon the work of Isaac Heinemann, Fraenkel further developed and elaborated the typology of the aggadah viewed from the perspective of the isolated act of rabbinic scriptural interpretation. More importantly, however, Fraenkel described and analyzed the macro-forms in which these interpretations are imbedded: the expanded biblical narrative, narratives relating to the talmudic sages themselves, the parable, the aggadic memra (amoraic statement), etc. Moreover, he shows the articulation and explication of these forms, understood in the light of modern literary theory, to be essential to the appreciation of the ideational content of the aggadah itself, thus continuing the work of his teacher, Ephraim Urbach. In one respect, however, Fraenkel made a clear break with Urbach's methodolology, a point which he has repeatedly emphasized. Urbach tended to compare and contrast parallel versions of a given tradition, and after philological and higher-critical analysis to posit a reconstructed original, which he then used as the basis for his analysis. Fraenkel's insistence on the unity of form and content in each and every version of a tradition led him to reject Urbach's approach and to refrain from conflating – and even from comparing – alternative versions of a tradition, basing his exposition on a detailed and exhaustive analysis of data present in a given talmudic text.
At the same time the scholarly tradition of Epstein, Albeck, and Lieberman has not been ignored. Scholars such as Jacob Elbaum, Menahem Kister, Chaim Milikowsky, Avigdor Shinan, Menachem Hirshman, Joseph Tabory, Paul Mandel, Menachem Kahana, M.B. Lerner, and Hananel Mack have written hundreds of studies both analyzing particular passages and addressing broader critical and methodological issues. Most of these scholars are also deeply involved in long term projects of preparing the next generation of critical editions and commentaries on the classical and post classical aggadic works. Shamma Friedman's work on the historical aggadah of the Bablylonian Talmud is noteworthy, because, on the one hand, it provides a radical alternative to one of Fraenkel's most fundamental notions, and, on the other hand, it may also be seen as complementary to Fraenkel's approach as a whole.
Friedman has produced a series of studies concerning a wide range of topics within the field of talmudic research, treating both halakhah and aggadah, and frequently of the reciprocal relation between them. One theme runs through all these studies: the notion of "development" or "evolution" – that later talmudic scholars often self-consciously reinterpreted and reformulated earlier versions of a given tradition. Applying the results of these studies to the historical aggadot of the Babylonian Talmud, Friedman has shown that the elaborate and colorful descriptions of events in the lives of both the tannaim and the more significant amoraim do not reflect ancient and independent traditions, but rather are the product of a synthetic literary process of deliberate and considered editorial revision. While Jacob Neusner deserves credit as a pioneer in this field of research, Friedman's exacting philological and higher-critical studies allow one to go beyond the
largely negative conclusions of Neusner and his school, and to proceed to the positive task of reconstructing the substantial and formal considerations which went into this elaborate process of editorial revision. Stories originally told of one sage are transferred to another. Several independent and fragmentary traditions are combined into an extended and integrated whole, whose narrative and ideational aims far transcend the relatively limited scope of the original sources.
On the one hand Friedman's method contrasts with Fraenkel's emphasis on viewing each text as an integral whole – and studying it in isolation from other parallel versions of the tradition. On the other hand Friedman's comparative and developmental analysis of parallel traditions also represents an equally explicit rejection of conflating parallel texts, in that it demands a rigorous distinction and demarking of the boundaries between parallel traditions, in order to determine the causal and interpretive links which hold between them.
[Stephen G. Wald (2nd ed.)]
Aggadic Bible tales and views were disseminated in pre-Islamic *Arabia by Jews.
first showed in his pioneering treatise Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen? (1833) that the aggadah had an important bearing on the shaping of ideas about Allah and the history of mankind held by
and the hanifs, his monotheistic-minded contemporaries (cf. e.g., Koran 22, 32; 30, 79; 98, 4). In the
Muhammad preferred to use vague expressions, often avoiding the mention of names of biblical personalities or even changing them. The earliest commentators endeavored to explain such passages and tales, which they did with the help of the aggadah. Muslim authors prepared special books called Qiṣaṣ Al-Anbiya ("Legends of the Prophets"), something similar to later
, in which aggadic tales from the Bible – which also for the Muslim includes the New Testament – have been gathered. (For further information see: *Bible (in Islam);
; and sections on biblical personalities (such as Abraham) in Islam.)
Aggadah in IlIuminated Manuscripts
Recent investigations have revealed that many aggadic motifs appear in the illuminations of Christian Old Testaments, such as the sixth-century Vienna Genesis, the seventh-century Ashburnham Pentateuch, and the 11th/12th-century Byzantine Octateuchs. These manuscripts are all assumed to be based on lost earlier models. The appearance of these aggadic motifs has led some scholars to put forward the theory that an ancient illustrated Jewish manuscript tradition served as inspirations for the Christian manuscripts. This theory is not conclusive, as no illustrated Jewish manuscripts are known before the ninth century. In addition, knowledge of early Christian biblical illuminations is very limited, since the earliest preserved Christian Old Testament manuscripts date from the sixth century. Furthermore, the writings of the Church Fathers incorporated many aggadic motifs which may have inspired the Christian aggadic illustrations.
Aggadic motifs in the Vienna Genesis include the accounts of how Joseph encounters the angel Gabriel on his way to find his brethren, Potiphar's wife visits Joseph in prison; and Asenath, Joseph's wife, is present at Jacob's blessing.
In the Ashburnham Pentateuch Adam and Eve build a hut after their expulsion; the giants drown during the flood; Rebekah inquires at the academy of Shem and Eber; Joseph and his brothers dine together at the same table in Egypt; and The Angel of Death slays the Egyptian firstborn. In the Octateuchs, the serpent walks upright in the Garden of Eden; Lamech kills Cain and Tubal-Cain; the raven sent out by Noah feeds on human carcass: and God, Himself, intervenes in the sacrifice of Isaac. Some other legends appearing in manuscripts are: Nimrod casting Abraham into the fiery furnace; Pharaoh's daughter, bathing in the nude, finds Moses; the test of Moses, Moses' imprisonment, and his wedding to Zipporah; Pharaoh bathing in the blood of Jewish children; Mount Sinai hovering over the children of Israel; the legendary throne of Solomon; and Mordecai stepping on Haman's back and Haman's daughter emptying a chamberpot on her father. C.O. Nordström has pointed out many Jewish legends in Byzantine, Spanish, and French art, mainly in the life of Moses, and his miracles. In his book on the Alba Bible he refers to many aggadic motifs in this very important manuscript. For a critical analysis of this book, see The Art Bulletin, 51 (1969), 91–96.
AGGADAH: Zunz, Vortraege, Zunz-Albeck, Derashot; Bacher, Bab Amor; Bacher, Tann; Bacher, Pal Amor; Ginzberg, Legends, L. Ginzberg, Die Haggada bei den Kirchenvaetern und in der apokryphischen Literatur (1900); H.L. Strack, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash (1931), 201–34, Graetz, in: MGWJ, 3 (1854), 311–9, 352–5, 381–92, 482–31, 4 (1855), 186–92; Guedemann, in: Jubelschrift… L. Zunz (1884), 111–21; V. Aptowitzer, Kain und Abel in der Agada… (1922), Marmorstein, in: HUCA, 6 (1929), 141–204; Heller, in: J. Bolte and G. Polivka (eds.), Anmerkungen zu den Kinder und Hausmaerchen der Brueder Grimm, 4 (1930), 315–418, Stein, in: HUCA, 8–9 (1931–32), 353–71, I. Heinemann, Altjuedische Allegoristik (1935); idem, Darkhei ha-Aggadah (1954), H.N. Bialik, Halakhah and Aggadah (1944), S. Lieberman, Greek in Jewish Palestine (1942), 144–60, idem, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (1950), 47–82; Seeligmann, in: VT, Suppl., (1953), 150–81 (Ger.), Zeitschrift fuer Theologie und Kirche, 52 (1955), 129–61; B. Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript (1961); G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (1961); A.J. Heschel Torah min ha-Shamayim be-Aspaklaryah shel ha-Dorot, 2 vols. (1962–65), vol. 3 (1995); E.E. Halevi, Sha'arei ha-Aggadah (1963). ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Kadushin, Organic Thinking (1938); idem, The Rabbinic Mind (1952); J. Heinemann, Aggadot Ve-Toldotehen (1974); J. Fraenkel, in: J.W. Welch (ed.), Chiasmus in Antiquity: Structures, Analyses, Exegesis (1981) 183–97; idem, Iyyunim be-Olamo ha-Ruḥani shel Sippur ha-Aggadah (1981); idem, Darkhei ha-Aggadah ve-Hamidrash (Hebrew; 1996); idem, Midrash ve-Aggadah (1996); idem, Sippur ha-Aggadah – Aḥdut shel Tokhen ve-Ẓurah (2001); S. Friedman, BT Bava Meẓi'a VI, Commentary (1990); idem, "The Talmudic Parable in its Cultural Setting," in: JSIJ, 2 (2003), 25–82; idem, "The Historical Aggadah of the Babylonian Talmud" (Hebrew), in: S. Friedmand (ed.), Saul Lieberman
Memorial Volume (1993),119–64; Idem, "A Good Story Deserves Retelling – The Unfolding of the Akiva Legend," in: JSIJ, 3 (2004), 1–39; idem, "The Further Adventures of Rav Kahana – Between Babylonia and Palestine," in: P. Schäfer (ed.), The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman Culture, 3 (2002), 247–71; idem, "History and Aggadah: The Enigma of Dama Ben Netina" (Hebrew), in: Jonah Fraenkel Festschrift (forthcoming); idem, "The Aggadah of Rav Kahana and Rabbi Yohanan (Bava Qamma 117a-b) and the Hamburg-Geniza Recension" (Hebrew), in: Meyer S. Feldblum Memorial Volume (forthcoming); S. Wald, BT Pesahim III (2000), 211–39, 253–68; A. Kosman, in: Hebrew Union College Annual, 73 (2002) 157–90; M.A. Friedman & M.B. Lerner (eds.), Te'uda XI – Studies in the Aggadic Midrashim, in Memory of Zvi Meir Rabinowitz (1996); M. Kister, in: Tarbiz, 67 (1998), 483–529. WOMEN IN AGGADAH: J.R. Baskin, Midrashic Women: Formations of the Feminine in Rabbinic Literature (2002); M.A. Friedman, "Tamar, a Symbol of Life: The 'Killer Wife' Superstition in the Bible and Jewish Tradition," in: AJS Review, 15 (1990), 23–61; D.M. Goodblatt. "The Beruriah Traditions;" in: Persons and Institutions in Early Rabbinic Judaism (1977); D.E. Weisberg, "Men Imagining Women Imagining God: Gender Issues in Classical Midrash," in: Agendas for the Study of Midrash in the Twenty-First Century (1999); T. Ilan, Mine and Yours are Hers: Retrieving Women's History from Rabbinic Literature (1997). LITERARY AND INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES: D. Boyarin, Intertextuality and the Reading of Midrash (1990); M. Fishbane, Biblical Myth and Rabbinic Mythmaking (2003); A. Goshen-Gottstein, The Sinner and the Amnesiac: The Rabbinic Invention of Elisha Ben Abuya and Eleazar Ben Arach (2000); G.H. Hartman and S. Budick (eds.), Midrash and Literature (1986); G. Hasan-Rokem, Web of Life: Folklore and Midrash in Rabbinic Literature, tr. Batya Stein (2000); idem, Tales of the Neighborhood: Jewish Narrative Dialogues in Late Antiquity (2003); J. Kugel, in: Midrash and Literature, G. Hartman and S. Budick (eds.) (1986); idem, In Potiphar's House: The Interpretive Life of Biblical Texts (1990); idem, The Bible as It Was (1997); J. Levinson, "Literary Approaches to Midrash," in: C. Bakhos (ed.), Current Trends in the Study of Midrash (2006); idem, The Untold Story – Art of the Expanded Biblical Narrative in Rabbinic Midrash (Heb., 2005); H. Mack, The Aggadic Midrash Literature (1989); O. Meir, Ha-Sippur ha-Darshani (1987); D. Noy, "Motif Index of Talmudic-Midrashic Literature" (Doctoral diss., Indiana University. Bloomington, 1954); idem, Mavo le-sifrut ammamit (1966); J. Neusner, Development of a Legend: Studies on the Traditions Concerning Yohanan Ben Zakkai (Studia Post-Biblica, vol. 16) (1970); J. Rubenstein, Talmudic Stories: Narrative Art, Composition, and Culture (1999); idem. The Culture of the Babylonian Talmud (2003); R. Sarason, in: Studies in Aggadah, Targum and Jewish Liturgy in Memory of Joseph Heinemann, Ezra Fleischer and Jacob Petuchowski (eds.), (1981); A. Shinan, Targum va-Aggadah Bo (1992); D. Stern, in: Prooftexts, 1 (1981), 261–91; idem, Parables in Midrash (1991); idem, Midrash and Theory: Ancient Jewish Exegesis and Contemporary Literary Studies (1996); D. Stein, Memra, Magyah, Mitos: Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer le-Or Meḥḳar ha-Sifrut ha-Amamit (2004). AGGADAH IN ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS: Mayer, Art, nos. 1809–1901, C.O. Nordström, The Duke of Alba's Castilian Bible (1967), Gutmann, in: Gesta, 5 (1966), 39–44, H.G. Enelow, Significance of the Agada (1914), I. Heinemann, Darkhei ha-Aggadah (19542) L. Ginzberg, On Jewish Law and Lore (1955); S. Spiegel, in: L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Bible (1956), introduction, O. Camhy, in: Judaism, 8 (1959), 68–72, S.M. Lehrman, World of the Midrash (1961); G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (1961), J. Neusner, History and Torah (1965), 17–29 (repr. from Judaism, 9 (1960), 47–54).
Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group.
All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:f92c21ab-722f-4510-9a05-c4c1ee88c90a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0001_0_00525.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94217 | 15,479 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Seneca Rocks, West Virginia
August 21, 2008
Provided and Copyright by: James Van Gundy
Summary Author: James Van Gundy
Seneca Rocks rises over 900 ft (274 m) above the valley of the North Fork of the South Branch of the Potomac River, in eastern West Virginia. These rocks represent a spectacular exposure of the resistant Silurian-aged Tuscarora sandstone that has been rotated into a vertical position along the western limb of the Wills Mountain anticline. This anticline, an extensive upfolded arch of rocks, was formed during the third and last of the great episodes of Appalachian mountain building roughly 300 million years ago in Pennsylvanian and Permian times. This prominent Appalachian fold structure extends for over 200 miles (320 km) through Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. Seneca Rocks is one of the most popular rock climbing destinations in the eastern United States. Photo taken October 6, 2007. | <urn:uuid:924ad6e5-118c-4738-b452-2f883c0bd6ee> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://epod.usra.edu/blog/2008/08/seneca-rocks-west-virginia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921861 | 197 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Study: Minority Students Less Likely to Be Identified With Autism
The rates of autism for students of all races is on the increase, but students who are black, Hispanic, or American Indian are less likely to be identified with the disability compared to white and Asian students, according to a study published this month in The Journal of Special Education.
The study, "A Multiyear National Profile of Racial Disparity in Autism Identification," compiled information collected by the federal government from 1998 to 2006 on the race and disability category of students in special education. Using that information, the researchers were able to calculate a "risk index," or the percentage of all enrolled students from a racial group with a specific disability.
The overall risk of being categorized as having autism increased for all racial groups over that time period, from 0.09 percent to 0.37 percent. That increase reflects the increase in autism prevalence.
However, white students were twice as likely to be identified as having an autism spectrum disorder as students who were Hispanic or American Indian/Alaska Native. For Hispanic and American Indian students, the likelihood of autism diagnosis lagged behind the rate for students overall for every year researchers examined.
In 1998 and 1999, black students were more likely than the overall student population to be categorized as having autism. But for the rest of the years captured by the study, they became less likely than the overall student population to carry that diagnosis. In other words, though every group's rate was going up, the rates of groups other than black students was increasing much faster. That switch from overrepresentation to underrepresentation was "pretty remarkable," said study lead author Jason Travers, an assistant professor at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. The data don't explain why this might be happening, but some hypotheses are that minority students are being diagnosed with disabilities other than autism or they may be getting identified later than their white peers.
Asian students' risk of being diagnosed with autism is also higher than that of the overall student population for all of the years that were studied, coming very close to the risk index for white students.
Potential underrepresentation matters, Travers said, because early identification and treatment of autism is considered essential for best outcomes. (I explored this issue in an April blog post, also on minority underrepresentation.)
Assessing and identifying minority students "requires a great deal of cultural competence, to ensure disadvantaged children are not restricted from early intervention services," he said.
On Special Education is on Twitter! Follow @OnSpecEd. | <urn:uuid:a5c581eb-de1f-47e7-bafa-b65020285c58> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/speced/2013/05/study_minority_students_less_l.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974333 | 515 | 2.796875 | 3 |
In your sewing adventures, have you ever wondered how to sew a zipper into a purse? It looks a bit tricky, but in reality, sewing an exposed zipper in a purse is quite easy.
Whether applied to an inside pocket or as an outside pocket application, when properly done they serve a useful and practical purpose for any handbag. As is the case with most zipper applications, careful preparation before the first stitch is sewn facilitates the insertion and helps to produce a professional looking zipper. Accurate measurements and careful marking are the keys to inserting this simple zipper.
Here's a simple tutorial on how to sew an exposed zipper into a purse:
The process begins with preparing the zipper opening.
In this example, a typical 7-inch polyester zipper is used. With that in mind, stabilize the zipper opening with fusible interfacing. Cut a strip that is equal to or slightly greater than the length of the entire zipper. In other words, the 7-inch zipper plus the portions above the zipper tab and below the zipper stop. In this case, that is approximately 8 ½ inches. The width of the strip should be approximately 2 inches -- enough to sufficiently support the zipper through the wear and tear of use in a handbag.
Fuse the interfacing strip to the wrong side of the pocket fabric.
Now that the zipper opening is well stabilized, it's time to mark the opening.
Draw a line, lengthwise, through the center of the fused interfacing. Draw a line perpendicular to it indicating where the zipper begins and stops.
Next, draw two lines, one ¼ inch above and another ¼ inch below the center line. At each end mark a triangle. These are the cutting lines that create the ½ inch opening for the zipper.
Cut the center line to the points of the triangles at each end, and also cut the triangles as shown. This can be done with either a pair of small (and very sharp) scissors or an X-Acto knife.
Now press the flaps to the wrong side of the fabric, using the ¼-inch marked lines as your guide to create the opening. Take care to make sure the ends are square and the opening is no more than ½ inch wide.
With the right side of the pocket facing up, slide the zipper (right side up as well) under the opening. Position is so it is centered lengthwise and the zipper tab and stop are within the opening. Pin the zipper in place to prepare it for the final stitching.
Using a zipper foot, stitch close to the folded edge, pivoting at each corner to create a stitched rectangle around the zipper. Pull thread tails to the wrong side of the zipper opening. Tie them in place and trim. Give the pocket a final press and complete the pocket construction as required.
Now that you know how to sew a zipper into the purse, why not go the extra mile and design your very own bag from start to finish?
In Design Your Own Handbag, instructor Brett Bara teaches you how to customize your own boutique-quality handbags, including slouchy hobo bags, functional toes and curved top bags complete with hardware and straps.
You might also enjoy our post The Full Monty: Sewing Exposed Zippers. | <urn:uuid:656b09de-141f-4b42-a36f-fbd1bd5588a0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.craftsy.com/blog/2014/01/handbag-pocket-zipper/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933634 | 671 | 2.703125 | 3 |
NASA's contracted three of the biggest names in aircraft design to dream up the kind of airliner we'll see in 2025, and has just shown the initial concepts. They're weird, eco-friendly, and wonderful.
NASA's goal is to invent commercial airliners that can cover the same kind of use cases as current aircraft, but do so with far greater fuel efficiency, less gaseous and noise pollution, and potentially eating up less energy and resources during their fabrication too. This is the sort of long term aeronautical experimentation that NASA funds from time to time, spurring companies to look into long term evolutionary concepts rather than incremental R&D in their usual business areas.
Late in 2010 it contracted Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman and Boeing to imagine an aircraft that could fly as soon as 2025, manage 80% of the speed of sound, with a range of 7,000 miles and a payload of 50,000 to 100,000 pounds—either passengers or cargo. Given how long it usually takes to craft an aircraft from scratch, and bearing in mind how many technical hitches the revolutionary Boeing 787 Dreamliner has suffered, these are the sorts of aircraft that these three firms are probably beginning to design for real right about now. Airbus, the European competitor to these U.S. businesses, has already dreamed up a design for 2050, for example.
Boeing's design (shown above) is the most familiar from this crop. It looks like it's an evolution of earlier Boeing concepts and even test vehicles. It's a part-winged, part lifting-body vehicle, with huge internal volume for carrying hundreds of passengers or many tons of cargo, and it has engines mounted on top of the rear body flap so that their noise is much better shielded from the ground. These engines are either conventional turbofans (presumably with efficiency and noise-suppression tech evolved from that used on the Boeing Dreamliner) or the kind of experimental turbo-screw that's currently a hot-topic research field due to its improved fuel efficiency.
Boeing has many decades of research to draw upon, but will have to persuade passengers to enjoy flying inside a huge room with no windows.
NG has initially gone for a dual-fuselage concept, something that's been contemplated for some time. The idea is that you can produce a much larger cargo volume using more conventional aircraft designs, and that the engines are partly shielded by the twin bodies which will contain noise pollution better. It has the advantage of allowing passengers to have windows, and could allow for mixed-mode uses with part-cargo, part-passenger flights. The design isn't even that unexpected, if you consider the White Knight carrier aircraft that'll be lofting Virgin's SpaceShipTwo into space.
Lockheed's concept is the most aesthetically attractive of the three. It's a development of current aircraft body design, but incorporates unusual aerodynamic advances in the vehicle's wing and engine. The wings look for the most part like a Dreamliner's wing and blended vertical winglet, but the winglet extends upwards and folds back in a loop to connect to the aircraft's tail—this increases the area available for lift. The aircraft has a single giant engine, which will require significant reliability improvements over current turbofan design, but its placement in the tail of the aircraft means it pushes along the centerline and could radiate less noise downward to the ground.
The three concepts will evolve throughout this year as the companies concerned develop and research each project, but there's one thing we can say straightaway: Beautiful, aren't they?
Updated: An earlier version of this article contained a typo saying that new aircraft would fly at 8% of the speed of sound instead of 80%. Thanks to all the commenters who caught this one.
To read more news on this, and similar stuff, keep up with my updates by following me, Kit Eaton, on Twitter. | <urn:uuid:159222f5-56af-4cf3-a1d1-b52ada95bcb1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fastcompany.com/1717176/nasa-reveals-weird-and-wonderful-commercial-airliners-2025 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961615 | 804 | 3.015625 | 3 |
How Allergy Medications Work
Many people who have seasonal allergies suffer along until allergy season ends. Others go to the pharmacy and buy over-the-counter antihistamines, which can be effective in suppressing the symptoms but can also cause drowsiness. It can be hard to get through the day when you’re under the effect of an antihistamine, and those that don’t cause drowsiness are often not strong enough to control symptoms.
One of the most recent developments for allergy suffers is that Claritin, which used to be a prescription medication, is now sold over the counter. People who use Claritin and other allergy medications that still require a prescription usually do so because their symptoms are more extreme. Often, their symptoms cause chronic problems, like sinus infections, ear infections, etc.
There’s a confusing array of choices—once-a-day, twice-a-day, non-drowsy, relief from all symptoms, relief from selected symptoms, approved for people over six, approved for people over 12, nasal spray, tablets and syrup. In general, these medications offer the relief of an antihistamine, sometimes combined with a decongestant.
All antihistamines work by blocking the effects of histamine, which binds to receptor sites on cells to cause congestion, wheezing, sneezing, itching, etc. Once the histamine has bound to a receptor, the antihistamine can’t do much good. It’s most beneficial to take an antihistamine before symptoms begin. Decongestants, on the other hand, can provide relief from symptoms by shrinking swollen blood vessels and decreasing production of mucous.
Probably the biggest benefit of the stronger allergy medications is that they don’t cause drowsiness in most people because the antihistamines cannot bind to receptors on the brain, as they can in less effective allergy drugs. This is quite an individual response though; some patients may experience drowsiness even with the prescription medications.
Determining which medication to take for your allergies can be a challenge. Sometimes, the choice is easy: you use the medication that your healthcare plan covers. Other times, you try the one that is least expensive. But if you do actually have a choice, you’ll need to talk with you doctor about your specific symptoms and your expectations for treatment.
Obviously, the best way to treat allergies is to avoid exposure to the allergen. This can be virtually impossible if you have seasonal allergies, unless you’re able to stay at home all the time with the windows closed. Some healthcare professionals claim that changes in the diet can help—limiting dairy products and animal protein, for example. Allergy shots are another option. But allergy medications have helped millions of people, and if you use them in moderation, they can be highly effective.
American Academy of Asthma, Allergy and Immunology; Asthma and Allergy Advocate, 1999 | <urn:uuid:26e6c7ec-68c4-43b8-8350-69c8f7b59fe5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mercyweb.org/mercy_health_articles_view.aspx?article_id=646 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922157 | 615 | 2.5625 | 3 |
I am trying to evaluate a string entered by the user. I want to do something similar to the eval function in Matlab. For example, if the user enters :
p OR NOT q
I would then prompt them for the values of p and q. The user would enter either a 1 or 0 for each, then I would display if the expression is either true or false. I already know how to use the or, and, and not operators in C. My problem is if I trace through the input string and make a new string which would be:
p | ! q
How do I evaluate this expression if it is still a string? | <urn:uuid:74064d16-b863-45e5-a2e4-c30b88481582> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cboard.cprogramming.com/c-programming/11477-evaluating-strings.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915871 | 133 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Today is World Water Day
World Water Day is an International Event held annually on 22 March, where officials and citizens around the world join together to advocate for more sustainable management of this precious resource. The 2013 theme is cooperation. We are all connected to water, we are all connected to each other through this life-supporting resource.
To celebrate and inspire others around this day, we’re asking you to share what the water looks like near you and photos of actions you might be taking to protect it.
Entries received over the weekend with the tag #water, will be joined together in an image like this. EPA will share the top entries next week as our 2013 global picture of water cooperation.
Enjoy, good luck, and we’ll see you in www.flickr.com/groups/ourenvironment!
World Water Day
An international day to celebrate freshwater was recommended at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). The United Nations General Assembly responded by designating 22 March 1993 as the first World Water Day. Follow the international events at www.unwater.org
These photos above have been contributed to State of the Environment over the past three years. What can we all share in a weekend?
‘Boats on the Mekong, Laos’ by SoBoME, March 1, 2013
Editor's Note: The opinions expressed in Greenversations are those of the author. They do not reflect EPA policy, endorsement, or action, and EPA does not verify the accuracy or science of the contents of the blog. | <urn:uuid:7332b690-7933-4f5a-a98f-fb48ed715717> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.epa.gov/epplocations/2013/03/today-is-world-water-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941004 | 324 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Sunday, February 06, 2011
BBC has a great page here on three proposed ways to spend about a billion euros on upcoming space missions, and the article asks the reader which of the three would be best. The answer to me is quite obvious. The three are:
1) a 20-metre telescope that will be able to see the edge of black holes
2) a trio of satellites that will be able to see ripples in space-time left by the moment of creation itself
3) two satellites (one built by NASA) that would go to Ganymede and Europa
#3 is the obvious choice. Numbers 1 and 2 would be great to have if the budget were three times the size, but neither of them appeal to people that are not already intensely interested in space. Nor do they tell us anything about the locations closest to us in our own solar system. The Ganymede/Europa mission also has a particular importance in understanding planetary moons around gas giants, which we desperately need to know more about as by the time the mission is launched it is very likely that we will know about moons orbiting gas giants in the habitable zones of other stars and the more we know about our own the more we can guess at the conditions there.
Europa and Ganymede have been seen close up before:
but in order to truly understand them we need to view them over long periods of time and in a predictable manner. Flybys are by nature quite random events - the distance from the moon can be controlled to a certain extent but the timing of the flyby cannot, and there's no guarantee that a portion of a moon photographed last time will be visible the next time around. In order to understand the oceans underneath them we need to be able to view the entire surface over and over again.
The pdf explaining the join mission can be seen here. Unfortunately the European side of the mission would be using solar power instead of nuclear, but besides that it is ideal.
Edit: reading the pdf, getting to Jupiter via a Venus (and Earth twice) flyby is another plus. Galileo went to Jupiter in the same way, and also took six years (1989 to 1995). At the time of launch it felt like Galileo would never get there.
Edit 2: even better news, the orbiter will also spend some time (a bit over a year) in between orbiting Jupiter and transferring to Ganymede in a pseudo-orbit around Callisto. Io will be given some attention too but Callisto is especially important in that it is the only Galilean moon that humans could inhabit. The others are far too irradiated for humans to survive. | <urn:uuid:eab34ed8-be8b-4709-a692-ec0a9a3f9682> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pagef30.com/2011/02/one-billion-euros-for-ejsm-laplace.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964059 | 547 | 2.734375 | 3 |
ConvertAll is a unit conversion program in which units can be combined with multiplication and division operators and can be squared, cubed, etc. The interface is graphical, allowing the units to be selected from lists and the conversions to be made in both directions. Non-linear units (such as temperatures and gauge sizes) are supported. The unit data file can be easily modified to add additional units. ConvertAll is based on the PyQt library.
|Operating Systems||POSIX Linux|
Release Notes: ConvertAll has been ported from Python 2 to Python 3. This release also adds an option to load the most-recently-used unit at startup, and adds an introductory tip dialog box which explains combined units. There were also several new units added.
Release Notes: This release adds the microliter volume unit, the galileo acceleration unit, and the stremma land area unit. It changes the method of identifying a "unitless" portion of a unit to avoid falsely reporting incompatibility between some units when using language translations.
Release Notes: The link length unit and US survey variations of the mile and chain length units were added. The centigray radiation dose unit was also added. An incorrect definition of the rad radiation dose unit was fixed.
Release Notes: The precedences of multiplication and division operators are now equal. Parenthesis can be used to group units in the denominator. A recent unit menu has been added. French and German translations are now available. Several new units have been added. A bug stopping commandline use without X11 present has been fixed.
Release Notes: A critical bug that caused ConvertAll to not run with the latest version of PyQt was fixed. Preparations were made for language translation and several new units were added. | <urn:uuid:9fbe8ebe-1c8f-42ea-a3da-d1959dc5fdc3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://freecode.com/projects/convertall | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93503 | 363 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Depression is one of the most significant direct and indirect threats to health and wellness. The negative impact of depression on work, productivity, interpersonal relationships, leisure activities, and a sense of well-being and enjoyment of life cannot be emphasized enough.
With the expansion of treatment choices in both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy, it is becoming increasingly important to monitor patients’ progress using both measurement tools and clinical judgment. Measuring improvement and deterioration is paramount in evaluating the need for changing, adding, or maintaining therapeutic interventions. Measuring progress is becoming a clinical practice reality and is no longer limited to research methodology. However, the past decades have witnessed a sole emphasis on one dimension of outcome measurement—symptom severity.
Time-limited pharmaceutical studies propagated the notion that improvement is somehow equivalent to response, which is defined as a 50% reduction in symptom severity. Not only was symptom remission neglected, but more important, the mere definition of a psychiatric disorder—impairment of social, occupational, and other important areas of functioning—was abandoned. Moreover, quality-of-life assessment was seldom mentioned (it has only gained more attention recently).
Comprehensive outcome assessment and measurement emphasize the importance of incorporating the 3 dimensions—symptom severity, functioning, and quality of life—into both clinical and research outcome assessments. This article emphasizes this multidimensional approach and reviews practical instruments that can be incorporated into daily practice.
To define recovery, a medical analogy is used: imagine a patient who broke her arm in an unfortunate fall. The recovery process is expected to go through 3 stages:
• Symptom reduction: with decreases in pain and limitation of movement through surgical and medical treatments.
• Restoration of functioning: with the ability to gradually go back to work, take care of family needs, and participate in leisure activities through physical therapy and patient education.
• Quality-of-life improvement: with the ability to enjoy work, relationships, fun activities, and having an overall sense of well-being.
The same stages hold true for recovery from depression and other psychiatric illnesses. Granted, there is an expected overlap between the 3 stages, eg, some residual or chronic symptoms might be lagging and might continue to interfere with functioning or quality of life despite the individual’s continuous attempts to function and enjoy life.
Depressive disorders can be chronic and/or relapsing, which strengthens the argument for periodic assessment of intervention outcomes. However, a sole emphasis on symptom reduction seriously limits optimal outcome. The front-line clinician has an obligation to regularly monitor, measure, and optimize interventions.
The implementation of a practical procedure for outcome assessment needs to include measurement tools for symptom severity, functioning, and quality of life. Self-report measures are favored over clinician-rated measures because they save the clinician the effort of scoring and interpreting the results. Clinician-based measures may be added when doubts arise about the reliability of the patient’s self-report (minimization or magnification of symptoms). Although this can be easily applied to symptom severity and functioning measures, quality of life is always in the eye of the beholder and can only be self-reported.
It is rewarding to implement self-report measures (that patients can complete in the waiting room) that are compatible with modern definitions of depression, and to administer them at baseline and at regular intervals (eg, every 3 months).
However, the quest to identify a practical and user-friendly set of measures has proved to be challenging for clinicians.
Table 1 lists some of the measures that are covered most frequently in the clinical literature (PsychINFO and Medline searches). For severity of symptoms, the clinician-rated Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D) and the self-report Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scale, both invented in the 1960s, are probably the most widely studied and used.1,2 However, items rated in these scales are not representative of the definition of depression as we know it today, using DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria.3
The clinician-rated Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale is widely used, especially since its inclusion in Axis V of DSM-IV.
However, there are conflicting reports about inter-rater reliability, especially among clinicians with little or no training with the GAF.4,5
The NIH-funded Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) study focused on naturalistic settings and brought to light measures that are compatible with office and clinic settings. Table 2 lists clinical instruments whose utility and practicality have been demonstrated and constitute a solid foundation for a clinically based outcome assessment system. Selected measures for each of the 3 outcome measurement domains (symptom severity, functioning, and quality of life) are briefly reviewed below.
The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, Self-Report (QIDS-SR) scale is used to measure symptom severity.6 It is a 16-item self-report questionnaire with Likert-style answer options from 0 to 3. The clinician administered version covers the same questions. The scores are:
• 9 or less (no depression).
• 10 to 17 (mild to moderate depression).
• 18 or higher (severe depression).
In a sample of 596 patients, Rush and colleagues7 found high correlations between the QIDS-SR, and the different versions of the HAM-D (17, 21, and 24 items), at the end of 12 weeks of outpatient treatment for acute depression. In a later study, the investigators demonstrated that the QIDS-SR confirmed response and remission rates as measured by the HAM-D-24 items.8
The Work and Social Adjustment Scale (WSAS) is used to measure functioning.9 It is a 5-item, self-report scale that measures impairment on a visual analog ranging from 0 to 8 in 5 areas: work, home management, social activities, private leisure activities, and ability to form/ maintain relationships. The WSAS is widely used in psychotherapy and psychopharmacology research.
The Quality of Life, Enjoyment, and Satisfaction Questionnaire, Short-Form is a 16-item self-report scale with Likert-style answer options from 1 to 5.10 It provides a subjective rating of satisfaction with 14 life activities in addition to 2 items: satisfaction with medication and overall sense of contentment.
Outcome assessment is a multidimensional proposition that incorporates the patient’s subjective report, clinical judgment, and measurement tools. Outcome assessment should incorporate changes in severity of symptoms, functioning, and quality of life. Regular-interval administration of outcome measurement tools has proved to be beneficial in improving the quality of care that we all hope to provide for our patients.
In this Special Report:
Advances in Assesment, by James G. Barbee, MD
Outcome Assessment in Depression, by Waguih William IsHak, MD
The Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy, by James P. McCullough Jr, PhD
Effects of Psychotherapy on Brain Function, by Gabriel S. Dichter, PhD, Jennifer N. Felder, and Moria Smoski, PhD | <urn:uuid:49925045-dd6a-4a7d-958d-18c3b9565eea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/print/157787 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927536 | 1,477 | 2.796875 | 3 |
This year, Hanukkah begins Saturday and ends Dec. 15. It is celebrated on the 25th day of Kislev, which is the third month of the Jewish calendar. Many times, Hanukkah overlaps Christmas, adding to the confusion. The word Hanukkah means "dedication," and commemorates the rededication of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 165 BC, following a victorious rebellion by the Jewish people against their oppressors. It also represents the light of hope in the winter darkness. Today, Jews all over the world celebrate the tradition as a time of joy and peace.
As I said, the Hanukkah holiday lasts eight days, during which eight candles are lit, beginning with one on the first night, two on the second night, three on the third night, and so on. The candleholder is known as the menorah, and it takes many forms from one culture to another. Originally, the menorah had seven candles to reflect the seven days of God's creation of the world, plus the day of rest. The eighth candle was used to light the other seven. Now, the menorah used by Jewish families has eight candles, with a center candle for lighting the others throughout the eight days of the holiday.
An additional item to celebrate Hanukkah is the dreidel. The dreidel is a four-sided children's spinning top. The history of the dreidel goes back to an era when it was used to deceive the guards who spied on the Jews to keep them from worshipping the true god. When soldiers came to check on them, the Jews spun the dreidel as though gambling, when in actuality, each of the four sides held a Hebrew letter with special meaning. Today, Jewish children play a game with the spinning dreidel to win candy or other items in a "pot."
Hanukkah often coincides closely with the Christian holiday of Christmas, and because of that some Jewish parents present wrapped gifts to their children and other family members. It was not unusual in a Jewish household to receive a wrapped gift during each of the eight days of Hanukkah. The first day the gift might be foil wrapped chocolate coins, and each day of the holiday would bring a bigger gift. Typically, during the period children would receive games, books, and clothing, similar to what Christian children would receive at Christmas.
Other items of interest
Foods fried in oil are popular during this period, because it recalls the oil that was used in the temple rededication. The traditional favorite are potato pancakes, or latkes. They are generally served with applesauce or sour cream. Another popular item is a doughnut without a hole, known as a "sufganiyah." Sufganiyot are filled with jelly or custard, and are sprinkled with sugar or cinnamon. In Israel, they are sold by street vendors in the weeks leading up to Hanukkah.
Hanukkah gift wrap can be made by drawing images of a menorah, a dreidel or a Star of David in rows or patterns on background paper. Window or doorway decorations can be hung in the home and are often silver or gold on a blue ornament. If you are giving a Hanukkah gift, two items that are popular are a box of chocolates or a tin of butter cookies.
Locally, there are a number of activities to celebrate the season of Hanukkah presented by Chabad of NW Metro Denver, which is 4505 W. 112th Ave. in Westminster. For more information on these and other activities involving the Jewish faith, you can call Chabad at 303-429-5177 or email [email protected].
At 3:30 p.m. Sunday Chabad will hold a menorah lighting and concert titled "Turning Darkness into Light." The event is dedicated to 10-year-old Jessica Ridgeway, who was abducted and killed in October. The event will be at the Orchard Town Center, at the corner of 144th Avenue and Interstate 25.
A Family Dinner Party will be from 5 to 8 p.m. Wednesday at Boondocks Fun Center, 11425 Community Drive in Northglenn.
At 7 p.m. Dec. 15 there will be menorah lighting with singer Steve Brodsky in Olde Town Arvada.
I learned much about this holiday at lifescript.com, which provided me with much of the information I shared with you. There are numerous Websites that can provide additional information, as can our friends at Chabad of NW Metro Denver.
To all our Jewish friends, I wish you a very happy Hanukkah.
E-mail George McHendry at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:1c34ca28-6c9d-4070-b160-658804ce88f9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.broomfieldenterprise.com/broomfield-features/ci_22124304/mchendry-hanukkah-starts-saturday?source=most_viewed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96069 | 995 | 3.5 | 4 |
Detecting positive selection in species with heterogeneous habitats and complex demography is notoriously difficult and prone to statistical biases. The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana exemplifies this problem: In spite of the large amounts of data, little evidence for classic selective sweeps has been found. Moreover, many aspects of the demography are unclear, which makes it hard to judge whether the few signals are indeed signs of selection, or false positives caused by demographic events. Here, we focus on Swedish A. thaliana and we find that the demography can be approximated as a two-population model. Careful analysis of the data shows that such a two island model is characterized by a very old split time that significantly predates the last glacial maximum followed by secondary contact with strong migration. We evaluate selection based on this demography and find that this secondary contact model strongly affects the power to detect sweeps. Moreover, it affects the power differently for northern Sweden (more false positives) as compared with southern Sweden (more false negatives). However, even when the demographic history is accounted for, sweep signals in northern Sweden are stronger than in southern Sweden, with little or no positional overlap. Further simulations including the complex demography and selection confirm that this is not compatible with global selection acting on both populations, and thus can be taken as evidence for local selection within subpopulations of Swedish A. thaliana. This study demonstrates the necessity of combining demographic analyses and sweep scans for the detection of selection, particularly when selection acts predominantly local.
local adaptation; selective sweeps; demography; Arabidopsis thaliana
Despite advances in sequencing, the goal of obtaining a comprehensive view of genetic variation in populations is still far from reached. We sequenced 180 lines of A. thaliana from Sweden to obtain as complete a picture as possible of variation in a single region. Whereas simple polymorphisms in the unique portion of the genome are readily identified, other polymorphisms are not. The massive variation in genome size identified by flow cytometry seems largely to be due to 45S rDNA copy number variation, with lines from northern Sweden having particularly large numbers of copies. Strong selection is evident in the form of long-range linkage disequilibrium (LD), as well as in LD between nearby compensatory mutations. Many footprints of selective sweeps were found in lines from northern Sweden, and a massive global sweep was shown to have involved a 700-kb transposition.
Life-history traits controlling the duration and timing of developmental phases in the life cycle jointly determine fitness. Therefore, life-history traits studied in isolation provide an incomplete view on the relevance of life-cycle variation for adaptation. In this study, we examine genetic variation in traits covering the major life history events of the annual species Arabidopsis thaliana: seed dormancy, vegetative growth rate and flowering time. In a sample of 112 genotypes collected throughout the European range of the species, both seed dormancy and flowering time follow a latitudinal gradient independent of the major population structure gradient. This finding confirms previous studies reporting the adaptive evolution of these two traits. Here, however, we further analyze patterns of co-variation among traits. We observe that co-variation between primary dormancy, vegetative growth rate and flowering time also follows a latitudinal cline. At higher latitudes, vegetative growth rate is positively correlated with primary dormancy and negatively with flowering time. In the South, this trend disappears. Patterns of trait co-variation change, presumably because major environmental gradients shift with latitude. This pattern appears unrelated to population structure, suggesting that changes in the coordinated evolution of major life history traits is adaptive. Our data suggest that A. thaliana provides a good model for the evolution of trade-offs and their genetic basis.
Variation in human skin and eye color is substantial and especially apparent in admixed populations, yet the underlying genetic architecture is poorly understood because most genome-wide studies are based on individuals of European ancestry. We study pigmentary variation in 699 individuals from Cape Verde, where extensive West African/European admixture has given rise to a broad range in trait values and genomic ancestry proportions. We develop and apply a new approach for measuring eye color, and identify two major loci (HERC2[OCA2] P = 2.3×10−62, SLC24A5 P = 9.6×10−9) that account for both blue versus brown eye color and varying intensities of brown eye color. We identify four major loci (SLC24A5 P = 5.4×10−27, TYR P = 1.1×10−9, APBA2[OCA2] P = 1.5×10−8, SLC45A2 P = 6×10−9) for skin color that together account for 35% of the total variance, but the genetic component with the largest effect (∼44%) is average genomic ancestry. Our results suggest that adjacent cis-acting regulatory loci for OCA2 explain the relationship between skin and eye color, and point to an underlying genetic architecture in which several genes of moderate effect act together with many genes of small effect to explain ∼70% of the estimated heritability.
Differences in skin and eye color are some of the most obvious traits that underlie human diversity, yet most of our knowledge regarding the genetic basis for these traits is based on the limited range of variation represented by individuals of European ancestry. We have studied a unique population in Cape Verde, an archipelago located off the West African coast, in which extensive mixing between individuals of Portuguese and West African ancestry has given rise to a broad range of phenotypes and ancestral genome proportions. Our results help to explain how genes work together to control the full range of pigmentary phenotypic diversity, provide new insight into the evolution of these traits, and provide a model for understanding other types of quantitative variation in admixed populations.
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are a standard approach for studying the genetics of natural variation. A major concern in GWAS is the need to account for the complicated dependence-structure of the data both between loci as well as between individuals. Mixed models have emerged as a general and flexible approach for correcting for population structure in GWAS. Here we extend this linear mixed model approach to carry out GWAS of correlated phenotypes, deriving a fully parameterized multi-trait mixed model (MTMM) that considers both the within-trait and between-trait variance components simultaneously for multiple traits. We apply this to human cohort data for correlated blood lipid traits from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966, and demonstrate greatly increased power to detect pleiotropic loci that affect more than one blood lipid trait. We also apply this to an Arabidopsis dataset for flowering measurements in two different locations, identifying loci whose effect depends on the environment.
Population structure causes genome-wide linkage disequilibrium between unlinked loci, leading to statistical confounding in genome-wide association studies. Mixed models have been shown to handle the confounding effects of a diffuse background of large numbers of loci of small effect well, but do not always account for loci of larger effect. Here we propose a multi-locus mixed model as a general method for mapping complex traits in structured populations. Simulations suggest that our method outperforms existing methods, in terms of power as well as false discovery rate. We apply our method to human and Arabidopsis thaliana data, identifying novel associations in known candidates as well as evidence for allelic heterogeneity. We also demonstrate how a priori knowledge from an A. thaliana linkage mapping study can be integrated into our method using a Bayesian approach. Our implementation is computationally efficient, making the analysis of large datasets (n > 10000) practicable.
Understanding the mechanism of cadmium (Cd) accumulation in plants is important to help reduce its potential toxicity to both plants and humans through dietary and environmental exposure. Here, we report on a study to uncover the genetic basis underlying natural variation in Cd accumulation in a world-wide collection of 349 wild collected Arabidopsis thaliana accessions. We identified a 4-fold variation (0.5–2 µg Cd g−1 dry weight) in leaf Cd accumulation when these accessions were grown in a controlled common garden. By combining genome-wide association mapping, linkage mapping in an experimental F2 population, and transgenic complementation, we reveal that HMA3 is the sole major locus responsible for the variation in leaf Cd accumulation we observe in this diverse population of A. thaliana accessions. Analysis of the predicted amino acid sequence of HMA3 from 149 A. thaliana accessions reveals the existence of 10 major natural protein haplotypes. Association of these haplotypes with leaf Cd accumulation and genetics complementation experiments indicate that 5 of these haplotypes are active and 5 are inactive, and that elevated leaf Cd accumulation is associated with the reduced function of HMA3 caused by a nonsense mutation and polymorphisms that change two specific amino acids.
Cadmium (Cd) is a potentially toxic metal pollutant that threatens food quality and human health in many regions of the world. Plants have evolved mechanisms for the acquisition of essential metals such as zinc and iron from the soil. Though often quite specific, such mechanisms can also lead to the accumulation of Cd by plants. Understanding natural variation in the processes that contribute to Cd accumulation in food crops could help minimize the human health risk posed. We have discovered that DNA sequence changes at a single gene, which encodes the Heavy Metal ATPase 3 (HMA3), drives the variation in Cd accumulation we observe in a world-wide sample of Arabidopsis thaliana. We identified 10 major HMA3 protein variants, of which five contribute to reduce Cd accumulation in leaves of A. thaliana.
Arabidopsis thaliana is native to Eurasia and naturalized across the world due to human disturbance. Its easy propagation and immense phenotypic variability make it an ideal model system for functional, ecological and evolutionary genetics. To date, analyses of its natural variation have involved small numbers of individuals or genetic markers. Here we genotype 1,307 world-wide accessions, including several regional samples, at 250K SNPs, enabling us to describe the global pattern of genetic variation with high resolution. Three complementary tests applied to these data reveal novel targets of selection. Furthermore, we characterize the pattern of historical recombination and observe an enrichment of hotspots in intergenic regions and repetitive DNA, consistent with the pattern observed for humans but strikingly different from other plant species. We are making seeds for this Regional Mapping (RegMap) panel publicly available; they comprise the largest genomic mapping resource available for a naturally occurring, non-human, species.
We present the 207 Mb genome sequence of the outcrosser Arabidopsis lyrata, which diverged from the self-fertilizing species A. thaliana about 10 million years ago. It is generally assumed that the much smaller A. thaliana genome, which is only 125 Mb, constitutes the derived state for the family. Apparent genome reduction in this genus can be partially attributed to the loss of DNA from large-scale rearrangements, but the main cause lies in the hundreds of thousands of small deletions found throughout the genome. These occurred primarily in non-coding DNA and transposons, but protein-coding multi-gene families are smaller in A. thaliana as well. Analysis of deletions and insertions still segregating in A. thaliana indicates that the process of DNA loss is ongoing, suggesting pervasive selection for a smaller genome.
Studies of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana may seem to have little impact on advances in medical research, yet a survey of the scientific literature shows that this is a misconception. Many discoveries with direct relevance to human health and disease have been elaborated using Arabidopsis, and several processes important to human biology are more easily studied in this versatile model plant.
Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic phenomenon leading to parent-of-origin specific differential expression of maternally and paternally inherited alleles. In plants, genomic imprinting has mainly been observed in the endosperm, an ephemeral triploid tissue derived after fertilization of the diploid central cell with a haploid sperm cell. In an effort to identify novel imprinted genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, we generated deep sequencing RNA profiles of F1 hybrid seeds derived after reciprocal crosses of Arabidopsis Col-0 and Bur-0 accessions. Using polymorphic sites to quantify allele-specific expression levels, we could identify more than 60 genes with potential parent-of-origin specific expression. By analyzing the distribution of DNA methylation and epigenetic marks established by Polycomb group (PcG) proteins using publicly available datasets, we suggest that for maternally expressed genes (MEGs) repression of the paternally inherited alleles largely depends on DNA methylation or PcG-mediated repression, whereas repression of the maternal alleles of paternally expressed genes (PEGs) predominantly depends on PcG proteins. While maternal alleles of MEGs are also targeted by PcG proteins, such targeting does not cause complete repression. Candidate MEGs and PEGs are enriched for cis-proximal transposons, suggesting that transposons might be a driving force for the evolution of imprinted genes in Arabidopsis. In addition, we find that MEGs and PEGs are significantly faster evolving when compared to other genes in the genome. In contrast to the predominant location of mammalian imprinted genes in clusters, cluster formation was only detected for few MEGs and PEGs, suggesting that clustering is not a major requirement for imprinted gene regulation in Arabidopsis.
Genomic imprinting poses a violation to the Mendelian rules of inheritance, which state functional equality of maternally and paternally inherited alleles. Imprinted genes are expressed dependent on their parent-of-origin, implicating an epigenetic asymmetry of maternal and paternal alleles. Genomic imprinting occurs in mammals and flowering plants. In both groups of organisms, nourishing of the progeny depends on ephemeral tissues, the placenta and the endosperm, respectively. In plants, genomic imprinting predominantly occurs in the endosperm, which is derived after fertilization of the diploid central cell with a haploid sperm cell. In this study we identify more than 60 potentially imprinted genes and show that there are different epigenetic mechanisms causing maternal and paternal-specific gene expression. We show that maternally expressed genes are regulated by DNA methylation or Polycomb group (PcG)-mediated repression, while paternally expressed genes are predominantly regulated by PcG proteins. From an evolutionary perspective, we also show that imprinted genes are associated with transposons and are more rapidly evolving than other genes in the genome. Many MEGs and PEGs encode for transcriptional regulators, implicating important functional roles of imprinted genes for endosperm and seed development.
We have explored the genetic basis of variation in vernalization requirement and
response in Arabidopsis accessions, selected on the basis of their phenotypic
distinctiveness. Phenotyping of F2 populations in different environments, plus
fine mapping, indicated possible causative genes. Our data support the
identification of FRI and FLC as candidates
for the major-effect QTL underlying variation in vernalization response, and
identify a weak FLC allele, caused by a Mutator-like
transposon, contributing to flowering time variation in two N. American
accessions. They also reveal a number of additional QTL that contribute to
flowering time variation after saturating vernalization. One of these was the
result of expression variation at the FT locus. Overall, our
data suggest that distinct phenotypic variation in the vernalization and
flowering response of Arabidopsis accessions is accounted for by variation that
has arisen independently at relatively few major-effect loci.
Plants can defend themselves against a wide array of enemies, yet one of the most striking observations is the variability in the effectiveness of such defences, both within and between species. Some of this variation can be explained by conflicting pressures from pathogens with different modes of attack1. A second explanation comes from an evolutionary tug of war, in which pathogens adapt to evade detection, until the plant has evolved new recognition capabilities for pathogen invasion2-5. If selection is, however, sufficiently strong, susceptible hosts should remain rare. That this is not the case is best justified by costs incurred from constitutive defences in a pest free environment6-11. Using a combination of forward genetics and genome-wide association analyses, we demonstrate that allelic diversity at a single locus, ACCELERATED CELL DEATH 6 (ACD6)12,13, underpins dramatic pleiotropic differences in both vegetative growth and resistance to microbial infection and herbivory among natural Arabidopsis thaliana strains. A hyperactive ACD6 allele, compared to the reference allele, strongly enhances resistance to a broad range of pathogens from different phyla, but at the same time slows the production of new leaves and greatly reduces the biomass of mature leaves. This allele segregates at intermediate frequency both throughout the worldwide range of A. thaliana and within local populations, consistent with this allele providing substantial fitness benefits despite its drastic impact on growth.
Although pioneered by human geneticists as a potential solution to the challenging problem of finding the genetic basis of common human diseases1,2, advances in genotyping and sequencing technology have made genome-wide association (GWA) studies an obvious general approach for studying the genetics of natural variation and traits of agricultural importance. They are particularly useful when inbred lines are available because once these lines have been genotyped, they can be phenotyped multiple times, making it possible (as well as extremely cost-effective) to study many different traits in many different environments, while replicating the phenotypic measurements to reduce environmental noise. Here we demonstrate the power of this approach by carrying out a GWA study of 107 phenotypes in Arabidopsis thaliana, a widely distributed, predominantly selfing model plant, known to harbor considerable genetic variation for many adaptively important traits3. Our results are dramatically different from those of human GWA studies in that we identify many common alleles with major effect, but they are also, in many cases, harder to interpret because confounding by complex genetics and population structure make it difficult to distinguish true from false associations. However, a priori candidates are significantly overrepresented among these associations as well, making many of them excellent candidates for follow-up experiments by the Arabidopsis community. Our study clearly demonstrates the feasibility of GWA studies in A. thaliana, and suggests that the approach will be appropriate for many other organisms.
With the advance of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, increasingly ambitious applications are becoming feasible. A particularly powerful one is the sequencing of polymorphic, pooled samples. The pool can be naturally occurring, as in the case of multiple pathogen strains in a blood sample, multiple types of cells in a cancerous tissue sample, or multiple isoforms of mRNA in a cell. In these cases, it's difficult or impossible to partition the subtypes experimentally before sequencing, and those subtype frequencies must hence be inferred. In addition, investigators may occasionally want to artificially pool the sample of a large number of individuals for reasons of cost-efficiency, e.g., when carrying out genetic mapping using bulked segregant analysis. Here we describe PoolHap, a computational tool for inferring haplotype frequencies from pooled samples when haplotypes are known. The key insight into why PoolHap works is that the large number of SNPs that come with genome-wide coverage can compensate for the uneven coverage across the genome. The performance of PoolHap is illustrated and discussed using simulated and real data. We show that PoolHap is able to accurately estimate the proportions of haplotypes with less than 2% error for 34-strain mixtures with 2X total coverage Arabidopsis thaliana whole genome polymorphism data. This method should facilitate greater biological insight into heterogeneous samples that are difficult or impossible to isolate experimentally. Software and users manual are freely available at http://arabidopsis.gmi.oeaw.ac.at/quan/poolhap/.
The genetic model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, like many plant species, experiences a range of edaphic conditions across its natural habitat. Such heterogeneity may drive local adaptation, though the molecular genetic basis remains elusive. Here, we describe a study in which we used genome-wide association mapping, genetic complementation, and gene expression studies to identify cis-regulatory expression level polymorphisms at the AtHKT1;1 locus, encoding a known sodium (Na+) transporter, as being a major factor controlling natural variation in leaf Na+ accumulation capacity across the global A. thaliana population. A weak allele of AtHKT1;1 that drives elevated leaf Na+ in this population has been previously linked to elevated salinity tolerance. Inspection of the geographical distribution of this allele revealed its significant enrichment in populations associated with the coast and saline soils in Europe. The fixation of this weak AtHKT1;1 allele in these populations is genetic evidence supporting local adaptation to these potentially saline impacted environments.
The unusual geographical distribution of certain animal and plant species has provided puzzling questions to the scientific community regarding the interrelationship of evolutionary and geographic histories for generations. With DNA sequencing, such puzzles have now extended to the geographical distribution of genetic variation within a species. Here, we explain one such puzzle in the European population of Arabidopsis thaliana, where we find that a version of a gene encoding for a sodium-transporter with reduced function is almost uniquely found in populations of this plant growing close to the coast or on known saline soils. This version of the gene has previously been linked with elevated salinity tolerance, and its unusual distribution in populations of plants growing in coastal regions and on saline soils suggests that it is playing a role in adapting these plants to the elevated salinity of their local environment.
Flowering time is a key life-history trait in the plant life cycle. Most studies to unravel the genetics of flowering time in Arabidopsis thaliana have been performed under greenhouse conditions. Here, we describe a study about the genetics of flowering time that differs from previous studies in two important ways: first, we measure flowering time in a more complex and ecologically realistic environment; and, second, we combine the advantages of genome-wide association (GWA) and traditional linkage (QTL) mapping. Our experiments involved phenotyping nearly 20,000 plants over 2 winters under field conditions, including 184 worldwide natural accessions genotyped for 216,509 SNPs and 4,366 RILs derived from 13 independent crosses chosen to maximize genetic and phenotypic diversity. Based on a photothermal time model, the flowering time variation scored in our field experiment was poorly correlated with the flowering time variation previously obtained under greenhouse conditions, reinforcing previous demonstrations of the importance of genotype by environment interactions in A. thaliana and the need to study adaptive variation under natural conditions. The use of 4,366 RILs provides great power for dissecting the genetic architecture of flowering time in A. thaliana under our specific field conditions. We describe more than 60 additive QTLs, all with relatively small to medium effects and organized in 5 major clusters. We show that QTL mapping increases our power to distinguish true from false associations in GWA mapping. QTL mapping also permits the identification of false negatives, that is, causative SNPs that are lost when applying GWA methods that control for population structure. Major genes underpinning flowering time in the greenhouse were not associated with flowering time in this study. Instead, we found a prevalence of genes involved in the regulation of the plant circadian clock. Furthermore, we identified new genomic regions lacking obvious candidate genes.
Dissecting the genetic bases of adaptive traits is of primary importance in evolutionary biology. In this study, we combined a genome-wide association (GWA) study with traditional linkage mapping in order to detect the genetic bases underlying natural variation in flowering time in ecologically realistic conditions in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Our study involved phenotyping nearly 20,000 plants over 2 winters under field conditions in a temperate climate. We show that combined linkage and association mapping clearly outperforms each method alone when it comes to identifying true associations. This highlights the utility of combining different methods to localize genes involved in complex trait natural variation. Most candidate genes found in this study are involved in the regulation of the plant circadian clock and, surprisingly, were not associated with flowering time scored under greenhouse conditions. While rapid advances have been made in high-throughput genotyping and sequencing, high-throughput phenotyping of complex traits under natural conditions will be the next challenge for dissecting the genetic bases of adaptive variation in “laboratory” model organisms.
The population structure of an organism reflects its evolutionary history and influences its evolutionary trajectory. It constrains the combination of genetic diversity and reveals patterns of past gene flow. Understanding it is a prerequisite for detecting genomic regions under selection, predicting the effect of population disturbances, or modeling gene flow. This paper examines the detailed global population structure of Arabidopsis thaliana. Using a set of 5,707 plants collected from around the globe and genotyped at 149 SNPs, we show that while A. thaliana as a species self-fertilizes 97% of the time, there is considerable variation among local groups. This level of outcrossing greatly limits observed heterozygosity but is sufficient to generate considerable local haplotypic diversity. We also find that in its native Eurasian range A. thaliana exhibits continuous isolation by distance at every geographic scale without natural breaks corresponding to classical notions of populations. By contrast, in North America, where it exists as an exotic species, A. thaliana exhibits little or no population structure at a continental scale but local isolation by distance that extends hundreds of km. This suggests a pattern for the development of isolation by distance that can establish itself shortly after an organism fills a new habitat range. It also raises questions about the general applicability of many standard population genetics models. Any model based on discrete clusters of interchangeable individuals will be an uneasy fit to organisms like A. thaliana which exhibit continuous isolation by distance on many scales.
Much of the modern field of population genetics is premised on particular models of what an organism's population structure is and how it behaves. The classic models generally start with the idea of a single randomly mating population that has reached an evolutionary equilibrium. Many models relax some of these assumptions, allowing for phenomena such as assortative mating, discrete sub-populations with migration, self-fertilization, and sex-ratio distortion. Virtually all models, however, have as their core premise the notion that there exist classes of exchangeable individuals each of which represents an identical, independent sample from that class' distribution. For certain organisms, such as Drosophila melanogaster, these models do an excellent job of describing how populations work. For other organisms, such as humans, these models can be reasonable approximations but require a great deal of care in assembling samples and can begin to break down as sampling becomes locally dense. For the vast majority of organisms the applicability of these models has never been investigated.
Aquilegia formosa and pubescens are two closely related species belonging to the columbine genus. Despite their morphological and ecological differences, previous studies have revealed a large degree of intercompatibility, as well as little sequence divergence between these two taxa , . We compared the inter- and intraspecific patterns of variation for 9 nuclear loci, and found that the two species were practically indistinguishable at the level of DNA sequence polymorphism, indicating either very recent speciation or continued gene flow. As a comparison, we also analyzed variation at two loci across 30 other Aquilegia taxa; this revealed slightly more differentiation among taxa, which seemed best explained by geographic distance. By contrast, we found no evidence for isolation by distance on a more local geographic scale. We conclude that the extremely low levels of genetic differentiation between A. formosa and A.pubescens at neutral loci will facilitate future genome-wide scans for speciation genes.
The domestic dog exhibits greater diversity in body size than any other terrestrial vertebrate. We used a strategy that exploits the breed structure of dogs to investigate the genetic basis of size. First, through a genome-wide scan, we identified a major quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 15 influencing size variation within a single breed. Second, we examined genetic variation in the 15-megabase interval surrounding the QTL in small and giant breeds and found marked evidence for a selective sweep spanning a single gene (IGF1), encoding insulin-like growth factor 1. A single IGF1 single-nucleotide polymorphism haplotype is common to all small breeds and nearly absent from giant breeds, suggesting that the same causal sequence variant is a major contributor to body size in all small dogs.
Studies of nucleotide diversity have found an excess of low-frequency amino acid polymorphisms segregating in Arabidopsis thaliana, suggesting a predominance of weak purifying selection acting on amino acid polymorphism in this inbreeding species. Here, we investigate levels of diversity and divergence at synonymous and nonsynonymous sites in 6 circumpolar populations of the outbreeding Arabidopsis lyrata and compare these results with A. thaliana, to test for differences in mutation and selection parameters across genes, populations, and species. We find that A. lyrata shows an excess of low-frequency nonsynonymous polymorphisms both within populations and species wide, consistent with weak purifying selection similar to the patterns observed in A. thaliana. Furthermore, nonsynonymous polymorphisms tend to be more restricted in their population distribution in A. lyrata, consistent with purifying selection preventing their geographic spread. Highly expressed genes show a reduced ratio of amino acid to synonymous change for both polymorphism and fixed differences, suggesting a general pattern of stronger purifying selection on high-expression proteins.
McDonald–Kreitman test; site-frequency spectrum; Arabidopsis; inbreeding; nonsynonymous; synonymous
Previously, a candidate gene linkage approach on brother pairs affected with prostate cancer identified a locus of prostate cancer susceptibility at D3S1234 within the fragile histidine triad gene (FHIT), a tumor suppressor that induces apoptosis. Subsequent association tests on 16 SNPs spanning approximately 381 kb surrounding D3S1234 in Americans of European descent revealed significant evidence of association for a single SNP within intron 5 of FHIT. In the current study, re-sequencing and genotyping within a 28.5 kb region surrounding this SNP further delineated the association with prostate cancer risk to a 15 kb region. Multiple SNPs in sequences under evolutionary constraint within intron 5 of FHIT defined several related haplotypes with an increased risk of prostate cancer in European-Americans. Strong associations were detected for a risk haplotype defined by SNPs 138543, 142413, and 152494 in all cases (Pearson's χ2 = 12.34, df 1, P = 0.00045) and for the homozygous risk haplotype defined by SNPs 144716, 142413, and 148444 in cases that shared 2 alleles identical by descent with their affected brothers (Pearson's χ2 = 11.50, df 1, P = 0.00070). In addition to highly conserved sequences encompassing SNPs 148444 and 152413, population studies revealed strong signatures of natural selection for a 1 kb window covering the SNP 144716 in two human populations, the European American (π = 0.0072, Tajima's D = 3.31, 14 SNPs) and the Japanese (π = 0.0049, Fay & Wu's H = 8.05, 14 SNPs), as well as in chimpanzees (Fay & Wu's H = 8.62, 12 SNPs). These results strongly support the involvement of the FHIT intronic region in an increased risk of prostate cancer.
A central question in genomic imprinting is how a specific sequence is recognized as the target for epigenetic marking. In both mammals and plants, imprinted genes are often associated with tandem repeats and transposon-related sequences, but the role of these elements in epigenetic gene silencing remains elusive. FWA is an imprinted gene in Arabidopsis thaliana expressed specifically in the female gametophyte and endosperm. Tissue-specific and imprinted expression of FWA depends on DNA methylation in the FWA promoter, which is comprised of two direct repeats containing a sequence related to a SINE retroelement. Methylation of this element causes epigenetic silencing, but it is not known whether the methylation is targeted to the SINE-related sequence itself or the direct repeat structure is also necessary. Here we show that the repeat structure in the FWA promoter is highly diverse in species within the genus Arabidopsis. Four independent tandem repeat formation events were found in three closely related species. Another related species, A. halleri, did not have a tandem repeat in the FWA promoter. Unexpectedly, even in this species, FWA expression was imprinted and the FWA promoter was methylated. In addition, our expression analysis of FWA gene in vegetative tissues revealed high frequency of intra-specific variation in the expression level. In conclusion, we show that the tandem repeat structure is dispensable for the epigenetic silencing of the FWA gene. Rather, SINE-related sequence is sufficient for imprinting, vegetative silencing, and targeting of DNA methylation. Frequent independent tandem repeat formation events in the FWA promoter led us to propose that they may be a consequence, rather than cause, of the epigenetic control. The possible significance of epigenetic variation in reproductive strategies during evolution is also discussed.
Genomic imprinting, mono-allelic gene expression depending on the parent-of-origin, is an epigenetic process known in mammals and flowering plants. A central question in genomic imprinting is how a specific sequence is recognized as the target for epigenetic marking. In both mammals and plants, imprinted genes are often associated with tandem repeats and transposon-related sequences, but the role of these elements in epigenetic gene silencing remains elusive. FWA is an imprinted gene in Arabidopsis thaliana expressed specifically in the female gametophyte and endosperm. The FWA promoter is comprised of two direct repeats containing a sequence related to a SINE retroelement. Methylation of this element causes epigenetic silencing, but it is not known whether the methylation is targeted to the SINE-related sequence itself or the direct repeat structure is necessary. Here we show that the direct repeat structure is highly diverse in species within the genus Arabidopsis. Unexpectedly, we found that the direct repeat structure is dispensable for the epigenetic silencing and methylation of the FWA promoter. Rather, the SINE-related promoter sequence is sufficient for these features. Frequent independent formation of the tandem repeats suggests that they may be a consequence of the epigenetically controlled system.
We apply an analysis based upon mixed-models to the Genetic Analysis Workshop 15, Problem 3 simulated data. Such models are commonly used to mitigate the tendency for population structure, or cryptic relatedness, to inflate the false-positive rate of test statistics. They also allow for explicit modeling of varying degrees of relatedness in samples in which some individuals are related by (possibly unknown) pedigree, whereas others are not. Furthermore, the implementation of the method we describe here is quick enough to be used effectively on genome-wide data. We present an analysis of the data for Genetic Analysis Workshop 15, Problem 3, in which we show that these methods can effectively find signals in this data. Somewhat disappointingly, the false-positive rate does not appear to be reduced, but this is largely because the method used to simulate the data appears not to have encompassed effects, such as population stratification, that might have led to inflation of p-values. | <urn:uuid:971ecd0f-9d6c-4f05-b6b5-815dfc1f0cec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/pmcc/solr/reg?pageSize=25&term=author%3A(%22Chase%2C+Kevin%22)&sortby=score+desc&filterAuthor=author%3A(%22Nordborg%2C+Magnus%22) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913467 | 7,573 | 2.71875 | 3 |
15 Fascinating Facts on Human Attraction. How To Be Brilliant. Blog & Depth Perception.
Social Psychology. Neuropsychology. Learning. Intelligence. Disorders. Parenting tips from neuroscience. Top 10 Mysteries of the Mind. By Jeanna Bryner, Live Science Managing Editor | October 09, 2007 01:25pm ET Credit: NIH, NIDA Much of what we don't understand about being human is simply in our heads.
The brain is a befuddling organ, as are the very questions of life and death, consciousness, sleep, and much more. Improve your Brain Health. How Does the Brain Retain Info? The Consumer Paradox: Scientists Find that Low Self-Esteem and Materialism Goes Hand in Hand. “Advertising has us chasing cars and clothes, working jobs we hate so we can buy shit we don't need.”
~From the movie Fight Club, based on the novel by Chuck Palahniuk Researchers have found that low self-esteem and materialism are not just a correlation, but also a causal relationship where low self esteem increases materialism, and materialism can also create low self-esteem. The also found that as self esteem increases, materialism decreases. The study primarily focused on how this relationship affects children and adolescents. Your Brain Knows a Lot More Than You Realize. Meanwhile, a similar story was unfolding oceans away.
During World War II, under constant threat of bombings, the British had a great need to distinguish incoming aircraft quickly and accurately. Which aircraft were British planes coming home and which were German planes coming to bomb? Several airplane enthusiasts had proved to be excellent “spotters,” so the military eagerly employed their services. These spotters were so valuable that the government quickly tried to enlist more spotters—but they turned out to be rare and difficult to find. The government therefore tasked the spotters with training others. Stuttering Reflects Irregularities in Brain Setup. Put on a pair of headphones and turn up the volume so that you can’t even hear yourself speak.
For those who stutter, this is when the magic happens. Without the ability to hear their own voice, people with this speech impediment no longer stumble over their words—as was recently portrayed in the movie The King’s Speech. This simple trick works because of the unusual way the brain of people who stutter is organized—a neural setup that affects other actions besides speech, according to a new study.
Normal speech requires the brain to control movement of the mouth and vocal chords using the sound of the speaker’s own voice as a guide. This integration of movement and hearing typically happens in the brain’s left hemisphere, in a region of the brain known as the premotor cortex. In the new study, published in the September issue of Cortex, researchers found that the unusual neural organization underlying a stutter also includes motor tasks completely unrelated to speech.
47 Mind-Blowing Psychology-Proven Facts You Should Know About Yourself. Psychological facts. One of your facts says that if you dream about someone, it was because they though of you, but I beg to differ.
Last night I had a dream of me and Austin Powers. (The Mike Meyers character) soooo. yeah. you fail. attention people of the world: stop saying the word “fail” and thinking you’re superior for using a meme from 2004 I don't understand how you're being called a troll for just posting and reblogging facts. I also do not understand why people are spending so much energy saying mean or rude things to you, when if they don't like what you post, they could be looking at a blog that they actually enjoy, or doing something of production. Haha thats a good idea thanks! I got a lot of hate for simply pointing out the fact that these "facts" aren't true. Seven Psychological Principles Con Artists Exploit. The Double Life of Women. Step into any bar or party and it won't take you long to spot her. She's the woman with the ringing laugh, the daring clothes, the magnetic appeal that has drawn a circle of admirers around her.
If the room were a solar system, she would be the sun—and at the outer reaches, you notice, are several other women seated quietly in her shadow. Why does this woman command all the attention? Avoid Distractions! Now! How can we more effectively avoid short-term temptations to achieve long-term goals ?
Two leading researchers argue that framing our goals with "width" and "consistency" makes a big difference. Ayelet Fishbach (University of Chicago) and Benjamin Converse (University of Virginia) argue that the necessary first step to overcoming temptation is to identify a conflict between potential temptations and higher-order (often longer-term) goals. Of course, the notion of a temptation is always relative to current goals. It's a Small World... Don't Burn Bridges.
CHILDHOOD BRAIN MODIFICATION: Do This Now. 47 Mind-Blowing Psychology-Proven Facts You Should Know About Yourself - StumbleUpon. Eyes reveal true hypnotic state for the first time. Does your brain sleep when you do? Answer. In fact, large slow waves show when the brain is in deep sleep.
Wide awake. Billions of brain cells fire separately. Awake and thinking, but with your eyes closed. Dozing off. Your brain's activity starts to change. Scientist Prove DNA Can Be Reprogrammed by Words and Frequencies. By Grazyna Fosar and Franz Bludorf THE HUMAN DNA IS A BIOLOGICAL INTERNET and superior in many aspects to the artificial one.
Russian scientific research directly or indirectly explains phenomena such as clairvoyance, intuition, spontaneous and remote acts of healing, self healing, affirmation techniques, unusual light/auras around people (namely spiritual masters), mind’s influence on weather patterns and much more. 10 Simple Postures That Boost Performance. Psychological research suggests simple actions can project power, persuade others, increase empathy, boost cognitive performance and more… We tend to think of body language as something that expresses our internal states to the outside world.
But it also works the other way around: the position of our body also influences our mind. As the following psychological research shows, how we move can drive both thoughts and feelings and this can boost performance. 30 Very Funny Books. It's a dreary day, so I thought I'd indulge myself and come up with a list of my favorite comedies.
A caveat, however: this is not a fancy English-professor-y list of the finest, most exquisitely crafted, most erudite or intellectually sophisticated works on paper in the language. It’s All In Your Head: How to Take Advantage of Neuroplasticity. A NEW LOOK AT ANXIETY'S MANY FACES. As Sandra Turner described it to her psychiatrist, the severe anxiety attacks she'd been having for the last six months were close to unbearable. ''My chest tightens,'' she said, ''my palms sweat, I have a sense of dread, and it feels like I'm losing control.'' How to live forever….. A few days ago a psychologist named Ulric Neisser died. A brief history of the brain - life - 26 September 2011. Read full article. Field Guide to the Loner: The Real Insiders.
Miina Matsuoka lives by herself in New York City. Keep It Simple, Stupid. Digest - Things you didn't know about lies, liars and detecting lies. The Scientist Who Controlled People with Brain Implants. Why don't we normally hallucinate? Time is More Valuable than Money. Your Inner Voice: A Key To Self-Control? Near-death experiences may be triggered by serotonin - health - 08 September 2011. | <urn:uuid:2a9daf79-87c8-491e-a5f1-301251be92e3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pearltrees.com/pj123/psychology/id3829853 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944124 | 1,628 | 2.859375 | 3 |
The golden child of telecommunication
Communication that takes place via airwaves as opposed to cables or telephone lines. Specifically, wireless communication is enabled by packet radio, spread spectrum, cellular technology, satellites, and microwave towers, and it can be used for voice, data, video, and images. The convergence of wireless networks and computer networks has begun as Internet technology continues to develop and operate over a variety of networks.
Fixed wireless refers to wireless devices or systems that are situated in fixed locations, such as an office or home, as opposed to devices that are mobile, such as cell phones or PDAs. Fixed wireless devices normally derive their electrical power from utility mains, but portable wireless devices normally derive their power from batteries. The advantages of fixed wireless include the ability to connect with users in remote areas without the need for laying new cables. It is estimated that nearly 62 million people will use wireless devices to access the Internet by 2003, an increase of about 728 percent since 2000.
Gaining Perspective: As of October 2000, only about 36 percent of Americans subscribed to wireless phone service, a penetration rate less than half of some European countries and 15 to 20 percentage points lower than other tech-savvy nations (such as Japan and Israel). Finland and Sweden have penetration rates of 80 percent.
As of November 2007, over 250 million Americans now subscribe to a cellular phone service, which places the penetration rate at 82.4 percent (the highest point ever). In ten years, that number has more than quadrupled from 55 million subscribers in 1997.
So why did the U.S. lag so badly in wireless communications? For a number of reasons, including government policies and business rivalries. But most importantly, it's the inability to agree upon a transmission protocol standard (which, for example, prevents phones tuned into Sprint's network to work on AT&T's). American carriers are split among three broadly defined digital technologies: Sprint uses CDMA, AT&T uses TDMA, and VoiceStream uses GSM. GSM is the standard used in Europe (which accounts for the wide compatibility of cell phones that coexist all over the continent). Industry analysts feel the three rival technologies will either converge or a new generation of phones will be capable of accessing more than one system, such as Japan's i-mode system. The other important reason the U.S. continues to lag in wireless calling is that its conventional phone service is much less expensive than that in the rest of the world (which is a good thing).
NetLingo Classification: Net Technology | <urn:uuid:a4f7ca27-e66b-47bf-8990-89f344b80374> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.netlingo.com/word/wireless.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941688 | 519 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Living in New York City really forces one to appreciate the concept of personal space, and ironically, makes people want to share less. According to CNN Money, New Yorkers have an average of 1,010 square feet of personal space per person. That's not very roomy and likely leads to oversharing between housemates and friends.
As we have seen in recent years, this concept carries over to the Internet. Teens are oftentimes major participants within the “sharing community” due to their adoption of social media and their willingness to participate, or even over-participate, online. While these teens might be willing to share, they oftentimes underestimate the reach of their posts. A Stanford study found that 220,000 Facebook users reported they underestimate their posts’ audience size by a factor of three. I covered the shift in social media and waning of Facebook within the teen audience in an article earlier this year. Yet, while their Facebook usage drops, teens still make up a significant portion of its user base. What’s most interesting are the practices teens have adopted and the content they choose to share.
Hitchhiking has climbed aboard the digital age
Getting a car has historically been considered a rite of passage for teenagers. But that seems to be shifting. With fewer teens owning cars, and even fewer getting their own licensees today (60%) versus 30 years ago (80%) by 18, it’s been reported that some teens have even been flocking to Twitter to find rides – long and short. Juliet Schor, a sociology professor at Boston College, attributes this phenomenon to their sharing community. “The sharing economy got big during the recession, especially among young people. It allows them to use technology to access more goods and services, while also allowing them to share costs. And that technology, for me, is what the car was for my mom: a gateway to more freedom.” And with teens, it has become especially popular “because younger generations grew up sharing things online, sharing files, sharing photos, sharing music, so they've been very used to sharing."
A word to parents: you can sleep a bit easier knowing that most teens stay within their social circles for rides and don't branch out beyond friends of friends on Twitter. However, some riders have reported that they are willing to hop in a car with a complete stranger they’ve met on the Internet – especially for longer rides. While there have been a few reported kidnappings, apps and services have been developed to try to mitigate the chance of problems. Regardless, the thought of hopping into a car with a stranger remains a cavalier practice and one I am not sure would have been adopted a few years prior. Yet, it’s not just ride sharing that's seen resurgence à la 1960’s hitchhiking.
Roommates for a weekend?
This new sharing community has also expanded into the rental and hotel marketplace. Users can now rent out rooms or entire homes to visitors for stays as short as one night. Start-up Airbnb is probably best known for this new sharing service. With Airbnb, transactions occur through credit cards and both guests and hosts have to verify their identities by uploading a scan of their driver’s licenses and connecting to Facebook – eliminating any possibility of anonymity. “Airbnb’s real innovation is not online rentals. It’s ‘trust.’ It created a framework that has made tens of thousands of people comfortable renting rooms in their homes to strangers. This framework of trust has unlocked huge value from unused bedrooms,” cites Thomas L. Friedman of the New York Times. And it’s not just Airbnb that's offering this service. While Airbnb charges a fee, websites like couchsurfing.org, a “hospitality-exchange network that pairs travelers looking for a place to crash with locals willing to accommodate them or perhaps just meet for a beverage” doesn’t. Unlike Airbnb, however, couch surfing doesn't have the same robust background checks, making it a bit less safe.
In light of these recent trends, it’s clear that this digitally savvy sharing community is transferring its comfort level with its privacy into the off-line world. While sharing a Spotify playlist or Instagram photo may seem harmless, teens getting into strangers’ cars or apartments is much more nerve-racking. At the same time, I can’t deny the convenience and economics it offers – there’s a surplus of unused bedrooms and car seats – why not fill them with people who demand them? However, as we continue to improve the technology behind these new sharing practices, we will also need to evolve the safety of these tools and educate children on the appropriate way to utilize the digital sharing community in their everyday, offline lives. | <urn:uuid:2d626e00-13c4-4545-9166-c40893cc15b7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/210016/underestimating-the-results-of-oversharing.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965528 | 983 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Guardia Civil Veterana Uniform
1872 to 1898
The Veteran Civil Guard of Manila was formed in 1871-72 as an urban paramilitary police force to assist the regular Guardia Civil in subduing insurgent and criminal activates in the region of Manila. The force was made up of loyal native Filipinos that had served in the Spanish Army, naturally under the command of Spanish officers. Always a small force, the Guardia Civil Veterana began with a Captain, 6 Lieutenants, 6 Alféreces, 12 Sergeants, 12 Corporals, 72 1st Class Guardsmen and 250 2nd Class Guardsmen. By July 1, 1898 the force consisted of a Commander, 14 officers and 325 men.
Their uniform was first described in the 1871 regulations for forces in the Philippines and was updated in 1887and in 1892. It was similar to that of the Civil Guard, blue cotton with red wool collar and cuffs. White with black center stripe collar tabs (sardinetas) with a button at the end point were worn by all the Veteranas, and is the most distinct difference between their tunics and that of the regular Civil Guard. The white twisted shoulder cords with double flat knots were the same as on the Civil Guard uniform. The buttons were silver plated and embossed with the cypher "GCV". Buttons with both a crown over the cypher and without it are known to have been used. A white cord aiguillette was worn on all occasions. The 1887 regulations proscribed a kepi (Teresiana) in place of the pith helmet worn by the Civil Guard, but photographs show its continued use, as well as the straw hat for field service. In the Regulations of 1892 the pith helmet is back for daytime service wear but the Teresiana is to be worn in the evening after 6 pm. Service dress trousers were of matching blue cotton with wide red wool side strips. For Gala dress white trousers were prescribed. The leather belt and machete frog were black, not the yellow color of the Civil Guard, and the regulations call for a belt buckle was a silver plated brass rectangular plate and pierced with the Guardsman's individual number like those worn by the Orden Publico in Cuba and Puerto Rico. A brass buckle also exists with an applied intertwined "GCV" cypher. A brass handled machete of the Model 1843 type was carried as a side arm. The exact designation used by the Spanish for this machete is currently not known to me, but one source refers to it as a "machete tagalo". Foot troops were armed with Remington rolling block rifles and socket bayonet. Leather equipment was of the 1886 Infantry pattern.
A small mounted contingent of the Guardia Civil Veterana also existed. Their uniform was identical to that worn by the foot troops with the exception that they were armed with a saber. Equipment included a Cavalry style cartridge pouch on a shoulder sling, all in black leather, in place of the Infantry accoutrements. Their saddle blanket was dark blue trimmed in red with white intertwined cypher "GCV" in the corners.
Guardia Civil Veterana Tunic
Tunic matching the 1887 regulations for a 1st Class Guardsman of the Guardia Civil Veterana de Manila.
Four views of the tunic. Note the Flapped chest pockets and concealed button closure. The red 1st Class Soldier chevron is displayed on both sleeves and not on just the left sleeve as was the practice in the army. This garment has been stabilized and the three missing "GCV" buttons have been restored with closely matching originals
Collar tabs or sardinetas
Button types found on this garment. The duller button on the left is original to the tunic and was made in Manila. The center button is one of three original period buttons made by the French contractor "T.W.W. / H.M" used to restore the buttons missing when the uniform was acquired. The bone button on the right is one of the original closure buttons concealed under the fly front.
Waist slits on both sides allow the revolver holster and machete frog to be worn without showing the belt, a common Spanish practice during this period.
The owner's initials cross stitched under the front fly.
Guardia Civil Veterana Teresiana
1887 regulation GCV kepi or Teresiana of black oilcloth with tortoise shell visor. The white painted number "207" is the Guardsman's individual number and would also have been on his belt buckle. The cap is shown as found and before any stabilization has been attempted.
Cockade, note the 'crowned' variation of the "GCV" cypher button. This example was made in Barcelona.
Interior view showing the stiffened canvas base and the leather sweatband. Note the damage to the tortoise shell visor.
Guardia Civil Veterana Belt Plate
Although the regulations called for the belt buckle to be a silver plated brass rectangular plate pierced with the Guardsman's individual number, a second pattern was used. This has the "GCV" cypher applied to a cast brass plate. This variant is probably of local manufacture in the Philippines. This example was found among the souvenirs of Lt. J. J. Walsh, Co. K, 13th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry.
Artifact courtesy of Stephen Osman
Spanish Philippines Colonial Machete 'Tagalo'
20.5 inch total length with bowie clip point blade and brass hilt. Photos have recently come to light that show this pattern machete in use with Spanish Guardia Civil, Guardia Civil Veterana and Carabineros personnel in the Philippines. Its use may have also extended to other units.
All material is Copyright 2008 by William K. Combs. No portion may be used without permission. | <urn:uuid:2ce1fcfe-3fb3-4578-b9a1-92d611388346> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.agmohio.com/LRgcv.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95838 | 1,216 | 2.765625 | 3 |
spark of genius
The Step 'N Wash
Joi Sumpton and her retracting step stool
One of Aesop’s fables is about a thirsty crow that dropped pebbles into a water pitcher to raise the water level high enough to get a drink. The moral of this fable is, “necessity is the mother of invention.” This saying is true for Joi Sumpton. She is the inventor of Step ‘n Wash®, a retracting step stool for public restrooms designed to allow children to reach the sink and wash their own hands. Joi’s story parallels the moral of Aesop’s fable, The Crow and the Pitcher. Her necessity was to find a way to let her children wash their hands in a public restroom without her having to pick them up and hold them against the sink. Here is Joi’s story of how she created a solution that has made its way to the marketplace.
Once Joi had her idea she called her husband to let him know. He started to see if he could find anything that was similar to her idea. He checked the Internet using multiple search engines and then searched for patents on the USPTO website. He did not find anything that was similar to Joi’s idea so they decided to move forward with the idea.
It turned out that one of Joi’s coworkers husband was a patent attorney. She contacted him and he found the idea interesting. Joi hired the attorney to prepare a provisional application, which was followed a year later with the filing of a utility application. Her attorney explained the patent process and not to expect to hear anything from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) for quite a while. That did not stop her from moving forward. She contacted a product design engineer. The engineer took Joi’s simple sketch and turned it into reality with a prototype. .
Next, Joi produced her first 200 units and promptly discovered a design flaw that resulted in all 200 units becoming very expensive scrap metal. The stool was redesigned and new units were produced correcting the problem. With new product in hand, Joi set out to make her first sales, but soon learned that no one wanted to be the first to purchase the step stool. After a suggestion from her husband, she give a number of the stools away to local businesses so she could tell potential customers that units were in use elsewhere. This turned out to be a great business decision. She started to sell units and recovered some of the debt she had accumulated with the start of her new business.
Joi received her first office action, nearly four years after filing her non-provisional application, rejecting all of her claims. Her attorney had warned her to expect a rejection. She and her husband amended the claims and then talked with the patent examiner. The examiner suggested they allow him to do an examiner’s amendment to make the application allowable over the prior art and for them to receive a patent. Once the claims were agreed to Joi and her husband contacted their design engineer and asked him to design a stool around the claims in their allowed patent application. He did. Joi filed a continuation to broaden the claims. That application is now patent 7,861,332. Another continuation has been filed to again amend the claims to provide even greater protection of their invention.
Step ‘n Wash® was not an instant success, but with the hard work of Joi and her husband, it is now making serious inroads into the marketplace. None of this would have been possible without the help from a very receptive and hard-working patent attorney willing to generate a great patent application, a fantastic product design engineer and an examiner who went the extra mile to assist an independent inventor with a dream. Joi and her husband do not have enough kind words for the work of the USPTO and the examiner that was assigned to Joi’s application.
Because Joi and her husband had been involved with other business ventures, they did not go into this project with their eyes closed. They had a network of contacts. This is not the case for most first-time inventors who become overwhelmed with the process. They don’t know what help can be provided by the USPTO or a local Patent and Trademark Depository Library. They simply don’t know where to start and many end up seeking the help from a fraudulent invention marketing company.
Some words of advice offered by Joi and her husband for new inventors are to contact and use a good patent attorney. If you don't know a patent attorney, ask for references from other inventors. Know that the inventor is responsible for all the words in the application before it is filed with the USPTO. Work on your invention from day one; don’t wait for the patent to issue. Make sure your invention is fully covered with sound patentable claims that cannot be designed around. If necessary, file additional patent applications to get stronger protection. Determine if the invention should be manufactured by you or someone else. If you want to license the rights to your product to another company, make sure you have a viable product because licensing too soon will put you in an unfavorable position to negotiate. Finally, know when to let go of your dream. Not all inventions or products make it in the marketplace. | <urn:uuid:bb9da90d-545c-4f64-9b9f-95ffccbac4d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uspto.gov/inventors/independent/eye/201101/sparkstepnwash.jsp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980065 | 1,107 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Bringing the Movement Home: The 100-Mile Diet, Local Eating for Global Change
Maggie Stonecash '08
As for-profit globalization plows onward, our local economies, environments, health and food production continue to be left behind in disarray. In the face of the constantly emerging global economy, the green movement is attempting to bring the food revolution back to our backyards. One of the many tactics for promoting local foods in hopes of shrinking the distance between the consumer and producer is the 100 Mile Diet. This simple experiment in local eating was born in 2005 from two Canadian residents, Alisa Smith and James MacKinnon. For one year, they would attempt to live off drink and food from within 100 miles of their apartment in Vancouver . Their simple experiment might not have been so simple but sure was successful. Now hundreds of individuals and grassroots groups are attempting this diet in hopes of reducing their carbon footprint and supporting local farmers and producers.
The 100 Mile Diet is a drastic reduction from the typical 1,500 Mile Diet. Most North Americans participate in this SUV diet when they sit down to eat. Each ingredient has typically traveled 1,500 miles from farm to plate. The misconception is that this is the only way possible. A regional diet consumes 17 times less oil and gas than a typical diet based on food shipped across the country. In addition, money spent at a local food business stays in the local economy and has almost twice the value and contribution in the local economy as the dollar spent at the supermarket chain. Due to the way our food production system has been set up, there is an effort that must be made by the consumer to eat locally but the 100-mile diet is possible and becoming more and more feasible. Yet, we have to use our dollars and mouths to rework the infrastructure to re-develop and utilize the resources that are closest to us. The more consumer support there is, the more possible a local food diet will become for our whole nation.
When the first experimenters were interviewed about their cold turkey 100mile diet they admitted that it was hard and time consuming at first. Due to their location on the West coast it took them seven months to find a rogue local farmer who grows wheat. Those seven months they ate a lot of potatoes! They admitted that this full commitment is the hard way and is not for everyone. A more realistic approach is to start with a totally 100-mile meal and move from there. Once you begin to find local sources, your opportunities will only continue to expand from there. As Alisa and James expressed the 100-Mile Diet is about learning by doing. It is a learning experiment in a new way of living. Local eating is an adventure in getting to know the seasons, the environment around you, the resources and people around you, the foods you eat and how to prepare and cook them, and in self-sufficiency.
The two largest obstacles you hear about are expense and feasibility based on location. The campaigners for the 100-mile diet claim that it was only expensive in the beginning. Most of us pay a big premium for out -of-season foods like cherries in winter or prepared foods like spaghetti sauce, usually with a long list of ingredients we would refer not ingest. Eating locally, they bought fresh ingredients in season and direct from the farmer. They bought mostly in bulk and preserved food for the winter so they rarely had to buy groceries. They indeed bet that most people eating a typical diet could save money by eating locally.
They claim that local eating is never impossible, as they have eaten 100-mile meals in New York City , the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, and at 55 degrees north latitude. Yes, there are places where it is easier and places where it is harder, but with some planning and patience it is possible. And just think if more than individual groups of people were attempting this diet. If this grassroots movement continues to grow and spreads to the large organizations, businesses, schools, and restaurants real change in the infrastructure of our global food systems could happen on a larger scale. You have the ability to change your diet and the world.
Check out www.100milediet,org to find your own 100-mile food shed and to help you get started tracking farmers and markets in your radius. The website has turned into a locus for information and resources for 100 miler individuals and grassroots groups involved in this movement. In addition, the trailblazers, James and Alisa have published a book about their year on the 100-mile diet. Other great online resources include localharvest.org, foodroutes.org, newfarm.org, and specifically in PA; buylocalpa.org.
If you are still not convinced of why it is so important to eat locally you can check out their 13 lucky reasons on the website that will be sure to tip you over the line. | <urn:uuid:3c126dc2-396d-47e4-b973-4d83624383b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.dickinson.edu/storg/sisa/TheDirt08/100milediet.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969496 | 998 | 2.859375 | 3 |
On January 22, 1941, shortly after Camp Polk was activated, construction of a 600-bed station hospital began. Opened on March 17, 1941, as an infirmary commanded by Colonel William Dow, MC, the hospital admitted its first patient in May 1941. In 1942, the hospital continued to expand to accommodate the Soldiers housed in the newly built North Fort Polk and prisoners of war from the camp that was located on what is now Honor Field. Continuing its growth, the hospital was designated a regional hospital in June 1944. The hospital was inactivated on December 31, 1946, at the end of World War II.
The hospital was reactivated with 150 beds in August 1950 when the outbreak of hostilities in Korea occurred. By the end of the year, the hospital had been expanded to 500 beds. In 1954, the post and the hospital were again inactivated. Reactivated in 1956, the hospital was gradually reduced to no activity by June 1959 and closed in August of that same year.
In September 1961, the hospital was reopened and manned by the 829th Station Hospital, an Army Reserve unit from Florida. Five active field units were assigned to the hospital in August 1962 and the capacity was increased to 200 beds. Expanded to 250 beds in 1965, the hospital's staffing was reduced with the deployment of two of the assigned units to Japan and Vietnam.
In 1966, as a result of heightened involvement in Southeast Asia and Fort Polk's role as a major training center, the hospital capacity was increased to 570 beds and nine dispensaries manned by the hospital. Also, that year an accreditation committee was formed and in 1967 the hospital received full accreditation from the Joint Commission.
In June 1973, the hospital was reassigned from the Continental Army Command to the Health Services Command. In February 1980, it was renamed from the U.S. Army Hospital, Fort Polk, to U.S. Army Community Hospital, Fort Polk.
Ground was broken for the new 169-bed Bayne-Jones Army Community Hospital (BJACH) in June 1978. The hospital was dedicated and formally opened on August 12, 1983. The facility was named in honor of Brigadier General Stanhope Bayne-Jones, MC, U.S. Army, a native of New Orleans, Louisiana. A bacteriologist and preventive medicine specialist, General Bayne-Jones achieved worldwide acclaim as the individual responsible for the control of typhus in Europe at the conclusion of World War II. He died in 1970 and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
In 1991, while the Fort Polk MEDDAC was a subordinate command of the U.S. Army Medical Command (MEDCOM), it became one of the elements of the Great Plains Regional Medical Command (GPRMC). In October 2009, under a MEDCOM realignment, BJACH became a member of the Southern Regional Medical Command (SRMC). Both MEDCOM and SRMC, are located at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas.
In 1995, Bayne-Jones Army Community Hospital (BJACH) achieved a 97 percent rating and commendation on the Joint Commission inspection. This achievement was repeated in 1998 placing BJACH in the top three percent of hospitals in the nation. In 2001,2004 and 2007 BJACH again excelled on The Joint Commission inspections.
BJACH has received the prestigious TRICARE award for the highest customer satisfaction in OB care in the Department of Defense; its Logistics Division was name "the best Logistics Division in the AMEDD" by the Command Logistics Review team and the Data Quality Management Program was recognized by the Army Surgeon General's Office as the model for the Army Medical Department. The American Red Cross also presented BJACH with the Regional Level II Good Neighbor Award." BJACH has been awarded the Army Superior Unit Award for meritorious performance.
Bayne-Jones Army Community Hospital has become one of the premiere Army facilities where the staff clearly lives up to their motto, "We Provide the Best."
BJACH Call Center
Open 7:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.
"Closed Federal Holidays
and most Training Holidays"
BJACH Cancellation Line
337-531-3011 Option #2 | <urn:uuid:7d698d42-d52a-47bf-813b-7632a57bb3a0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.polk.amedd.army.mil/content/history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97625 | 867 | 2.53125 | 3 |
This book introduces you to a method of student-centred, collaborative learning called Literature Circles. Literature Circles have the immediate goals of developing independent, reflective and critical thinking, and increasing student understanding and enjoyment of literature. The ultimate goal of this method is enabling students to become life-long readers and, as a result, life-long learners.
The lesson plans in this book are grouped around five themes or basic questions, with the sample works explored in them chosen accordingly:
- Who are your real friends? (Kate DiCamillo, Because of Winn-Dixie and Jay Neugeboren, \"Luther\")
- When do you need family most? (John Updike, \"Separating\" and Lorraine Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun)
- How important is a brother, a sister or a girlfriend in your life? (Carson McCullers, \"Sucker\", Jean Stafford, \"Bad Characters\", William Faulkner, \"Two Soldiers\" and Leo Tolstoy, \"The Two Brothers\")
- How do true leaders inspire followers while false leaders deceive theirs? (George Orwell, Animal Farm and C. S. Lewis, The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe)
- Is technology as much a curse as a blessing? (Isaac Asimov, \"Robbie\" and Ray Bradbury, \"The Veldt\")
Everything in this book is based on the assumption that students, not teachers, are the primary agents in learning. The corollary is that authentic learning is active learning. The process of using Literature Circles to engage students with texts, once learned on the works covered in this book, can be broadened to work with any texts in any English curriculum. The consequence is that students become responsible for their own learning, better readers and, in the end, better learners. | <urn:uuid:1c2250fe-7ff6-4bfb-be89-99aaed778d2e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hbe.com.au/products/books/literature-circles-that-engage-middle-and-high-school-students.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927039 | 383 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Manchester has the United Kingdom's largest Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender community outside London and is renowned for its Gay Village around Canal Street.
The history of Manchester's lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community is an important part of the social and cultural history of the city and the North West. Manchester has the United Kingdom's largest LGBT community outside London and is renowned for its Gay Village around Canal Street. It is the home of festivals such as Pride and queerupnorth and of community organisations like the Lesbian and Gay Foundation and the Albert Kennedy Trust, but it wasn’t always like this. The LGBT community has had to campaign for its rights. Just fifty years ago many homosexual acts were illegal and the community was hidden and discriminated against.
Allan Horsfall (1927-2012) was a gay rights campaigner from Lancashire. When the Wolfenden Report was published in 1957 recommending a relaxation of the law against homosexual acts, Allan started a campaign to raise the issue of homosexual equality in the Labour Party and the media. At that time sex between men was illegal.
In 1964 Allan became one of the founders of the North West Committee for Homosexual Law Reform, which became the Campaign for Homosexual Equality. The Sexual Offences Act of 1967 legalised sex between men aged 21 and above. It was the first legal step in an ongoing struggle against discrimination towards the LGBT community. | <urn:uuid:5a37b84a-b7b1-40c2-87ee-9aa89d32eb22> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.archivesplus.org/history/lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-campaigning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975927 | 284 | 2.96875 | 3 |
With few resources for autistic children, many take matters into their own hands
When her son was 14 months old, Sandy Smith knew something was wrong.
"He was kind of in his own world," the Fargo mother said.
But Smith soon found out she was on her own, too, in trying to care for her newly diagnosed autistic son.
"There is no place to send them," she said about behavioral early intervention programs, ones that would care for children such as her son.
In the past decade or so, autism has emerged as the fastest-growing serious developmental disability in the United States, according to the national advocacy group Autism Speaks. North Dakota's stats mirror that trend, with the number of children diagnosed with autism nearly tripling in the state in the past six years.
And, to the east, Minnesota, which has 13,000 autistic kids, is bracing for the number of autistic high school students to double in the next six years.
But while the public's knowledge of autism has increased, local families and experts say there's much to be done.
"I think we're all grappling with the size of the problem and limited resources," said Lynn Dodge of North Dakota's Department of Public Instruction, who agrees with autism experts who think the rise of autism diagnoses is due to better knowledge. "It's everybody's learning curve."
As families face limited resources and access to services, both North Dakota and Minnesota are trying to help.
A dozen North Dakota officials, experts and parents are putting together a governor-appointed autism task force this summer.
The aim is to develop by July 2010 a state autism plan that would help direct the state on how to better help autistic people and their families with state services.
Across the border, the Minnesota Legislature recently passed a law establishing an ongoing autism task force, too. The goal: to help schools deal with the "escalating epidemic" of high school students with autism.
Minneapolis psychologist Eric Larsson, the advocacy chairman of Minnesota's chapter of Autism Speaks, said the number of high school autistic students will double in the next six years.
"Minnesota has gradually been improving the supports for children with autism," said Larsson, who works with applied behavioral analysis therapy as the director of The Lovaas Institute for Early Intervention. "Minnesota is definitely in the forefront." But is it enough?
Cost to families
Parents like Amy Dawson say no.
The Minneapolis attorney lobbies and advocates for families who have autistic children - often to help them get medical insurance to cover autism-related expenses.
"Most families have to appeal vigorously or hire an attorney in order to get coverage," said Dawson, whose 5-year-old son is autistic.
Because most insurance companies don't cover ABA therapy, which provides intensive early intervention, some families settle for cheaper, less effective treatments, she said. And due to the costs of hiring an attorney, many opt to enroll in Medicaid, "so the whole state ends up paying for it."
In the end, often families still have to pay thousands - if not tens of thousands - of dollars in expenses.
"Families are under a lot of stress financially and otherwise," she said, adding the divorce rate for families with autistic children is 80 percent. "Those costs are hardly ever quantified."
This year, the Minnesota Legislature considered legislation that would've required insurance companies to cover evidence-based, medically necessary autism therapies. The bill failed to pass.
"The state needs a law that requires necessary medical care," Dawson said. "There's absolutely no reason kids with autism shouldn't get insurance coverage for medically necessary care. Not only would they help families ... it would save the state millions of dollars."
On her own
Dawson acknowledges that Minnesota "is better than other states" when it comes to advocating for autism - an assertion Smith, the Fargo mom, backs up.
"In Minnesota, it's quite a bit better (than North Dakota)," she said about insurance.
Her employer, Microsoft, is the only company in the state that provides autism coverage, she claims.But while she had the coverage, "I quickly found out there was no one that was certified," she said.
So she stepped up to help.
Last year, Smith opened the North Dakota Autism Center in south Fargo.
"It was just one of those 'aha' moments," she said. "This is it - this is the only autism-based center in North Dakota."
Balancing her full-time job, the mother of three manages the center that helps her now 7-year-old son and nine other kids.
"I think it's so important to be a part of the solution," she said.
She's so passionate about the need for resources for autistic children that the second job is worth the investment, she said.
"I have the hope Tyler will have a job when he gets older," she said about her son, who excels in school but not in social or functional skills. "I don't think he'd have that (chance) without this."
What is autism?
A neurobiological disorder that affects 1 in 150 people, usually diagnosed by the age of 3
As a spectrum disorder, symptoms range from mild to severe. Essentially, the disorder impairs a person's ability to communicate and relate to others, often associated with rigid routines and repetitive behaviors.
Experts agree that early intervention is key, contending there is no effective means to prevent, treat or cure autism.
Source: Autism Speaks | <urn:uuid:3c1c791b-1db2-44a2-8f80-afd367e55854> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dl-online.com/content/few-resources-autistic-children-many-take-matters-their-own-hands | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977125 | 1,139 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The continent of Africa has a particularly immediate need for clean water. This can be seen on the map below, where countries colored red and yellow have the highest need for clean drinking water.
40% of Africans (over 330 million people) do not have access to safe drinking water, and half of people living in rural areas lack access. The most serious problem is in Sub-Saharan Africa, where over 320 million people lack access. At this time, Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region in the world not on track to reach 2015 UN Millennium Development Goals. | <urn:uuid:f4ba4cd1-9821-469d-a230-df9a485210b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.safewaternow.org/?page_id=71 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943194 | 113 | 3.265625 | 3 |
A new technology is always developed to erase the drawbacks of the previous
one but ... Here we try to find out What are Advantages and Disadvantages of
Disadvantages of Using VoIP - Disadvantages of VoIP include packet loss and
unreliability. Learn why you might not want to call 911 over VoIP and about other
VoIP has lots of advantages over a regular phone service. However, like any
emerging technology, there are still a few kinks in the system. However, as ...
Benefits and disadvantages of VoIP broadband phone service.
Jun 12, 2015 ... It possesses many of the same benefits as a PBX, but it has a lower cost.
However, there are also some disadvantages to a VoIP system, ...
Feb 20, 2014 ... Voiceover IP or VoIP is a technology that allows telephone calls to be made over
local area ... Another advantage VoIP provides is portability. ... The biggest
potential disadvantage to a VoIP phone system is its sound quality.
Nov 22, 2012 ... VoIP is a revolutionary communication technology, all set to replace the
conventional telephony system. VoIP is an acronym for Voice over ...
VoIP (Voice over IP), or Internet Telephony, has so many benefits that few people
care about its drawbacks. Here are the disadvantages of VoIP.
Advantages. 1.The advantage of VOIP using the internet is that at its most basic
the system is essentially free as long as you have an Internet ... Disadvantages.
Jun 2, 2011 ... There are as many advantages and disadvantages of VOIP. VOIP is the acronym
for Voice over Internet Protocol and its function, simply stated, ... | <urn:uuid:7b61cc6b-e6e6-4ace-8fd2-fb266293f19e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ask.com/web?qsrc=6&o=2218&oo=2218&l=dir&gc=1&q=Advantages+Disadvantages+of+VoIP | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90963 | 359 | 2.84375 | 3 |
To know about the benefits of the bird spikes you first need to know about what exactly are they?
What are bird spikes?
These are the equipments with needles on them that help keep the birds like pigeons and other birds away from the area where you have placed them. They are made up of long lasting material and the needles are long enough to stop the birds from landing on the respective area. They are also known as the roosters or the anti-bird spikes.
Benefits of the roosters:
There are many times when the birds plan to land on your roof or near the window. With landing on the area they bring in the danger of contamination with harmful germs and the waste that is their droppings. These are a source of dangerous diseases as well which is why it is necessary to put the spikes in place so that you can stay safe.
The benefits of using the rooster are:
· It avoids the danger of infestation
· As the birds are kept away from the property, the damage which would have otherwise inflicted is prevented
· The diseases spread through birds are prevented | <urn:uuid:57c03c7a-5473-4c58-b3bc-86dd6e9f7b80> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.birdcageeskmills.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974711 | 228 | 2.71875 | 3 |
January 9, 2008
Asteroid Impact on Mars Said Less Likely
An impact with Mars by an approaching asteroid is now believed by scientists to be less likely than before. New estimates of the asteroid's orbit were made using observations from a telescope at the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain, according to the Near-Earth Object Program at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
The probability of impact was reduced to 2.5 percent reported in a January 8 update posted on the NEO website. The distance it is believed to miss Mars by is about 18,600 miles.
Dubbed 2007 WD5, the asteroid was discovered in late November by the NASA-funded Catalina Sky Survey in Arizona.
Scientists were initially excited about the possible impact of the asteroid with the Red Planet. The asteroid, about the size of a football field, could have left a half-mile-wide crater in the Martian surface.
The NEO program looks for and tracks asteroids and comets that could potentially be a hazard to Earth. | <urn:uuid:c920cc5a-a163-484d-801a-c316033ea968> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1210749/asteroid_impact_on_mars_said_less_likely/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966446 | 204 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Mentor: Dr. Susan White
X-ray and NMR Refined structure of Yeast L-30e-mRNA Complex. (Chao, 2004) 1
RNA, like proteins, folds into 3D structures, consisting of motifs such as hairpins, pseudoknots, and internal loops. This research project focuses on visualizing one such motif, which is called the kink-turn. The kink-turn region consists of Watson-Crick base pairs on either end of a short asymmetric bulge that consists of non-base paired nucleotides, which results in a sharp bend in the phosphodiester backbone. This region is of particular interest because it has been found that proteins bind to RNA selectively at this region. The figure above shows the yeast L30e protein binding to the kink-turn region of its m-RNA. The biophysical structure characterization of the kink-turn of RNA would thus give information about the nature of this motif and its importance in protein-RNA interactions. Such research will aid in studying potentially useful protein-RNA interactions as well as construction of RNA molecular units capable of self-assembling into RNA nanostructures. The goal of this research is to use Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) to visualize and characterize RNA molecules that have a kink-turn.
For this purpose, previous work done in the lab involved the construction of a relatively large molecule of double stranded RNA with a kink-turn. Two different sequences of 9 and 6 nucleotides respectively were inserted into commercially provided plasmid using site-directed mutagenesis. Linearization of DNA containing these sequences and subsequent transcription with T7 RNA polymerase resulted in the production of RNA that was approximately 900 nucleotides in length. The region of insertion, because it contained non-complementary sequences, resulted in a kink-turn in the RNA molecule. This molecule is large enough to be visualized with the AFM and to study the degree of bending caused by the kink-turn accurately.
Currently, we are focusing on exploring the technique of atomic force microscopy and using it to visualize DNA samples in order to arrive at a method of sample preparation that is suitable for our goals. The most common way of preparing samples is to use functionalized mica surfaces on which the molecules of interest have been immobilized. This general method has to be made specific to our RNA molecules. Further experiments will involve the visualization of kink-turn and non kink-turn RNA molecules in dry as well as liquid environments, and studying the effect of protein (L30e-Maltose Binding Protein) and metal-ions (Mg2+) on the degree of bending of the kink-turn. It is expected that the protein will bind to the kink-turn region and that this will be visible in the AFM images. It is also anticipated that this will change the degree of bending of the kink-turn and we hope to be able to make accurate measurements of the angle of bending.
1 Chao, J A, Williamson, J R. Joint X-Ray and NMR Refinement of Yeast L-30e-mRNA Complex. Structure. (2004). 12(7): 1165-1176 | <urn:uuid:968e18a0-e029-4455-9b07-824780cb5bff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://summerscience.blogs.brynmawr.edu/2010/05/14/visualization-of-the-kink-turn-structure-of-rna/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942632 | 672 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Cortland County New York is named for Pierre Van Cortlandt, president of the convention at Kingston that wrote the first New York State Constitution in 1777, and first lieutenant governor of the state. The county seat is Cortland. The famed Cortland apple is named for the county. Located in the glaciated Appalachian Plateau area of Central New York State, midway between Syracuse and Binghamton, this predominantly rural county is the southeastern gateway to the Finger Lakes Region. Scattered archaeological evidence indicates three different aboriginal cultures hunted the area beginning about 1500 AD.
Our American County Histories collection contains a detailed history of the area in the form of History Of Cortland County With Illustrations And Biographical Sketches Of Some Of Its Prominent Men And Pioneers by H.P. Smith of Syracuse, New York. This book, and its illustrations, is viewable as page images and as fully searchable text.
Excerpt from the Introduction
While it may seem to the uninitiated a task involving but little difficulty to prepare for publication a work no more comprehensive in character than this volume, and containing merely a history of a single county, still it is not out of place here to assure all such readers that the task is one involving a vast amount of labor and research, watchful care, untiring patience, and fair discrimination. This need not be said to any person who has had experience in similar work.
In attempting the production of a creditable history of Cortland county the publishers and the editor did not underestimate the difficulties of this task, and came to it fully imbued with both a clear idea of its magnitude and determination to execute it in such a manner that it should receive the general commendations of all into whose hands it should fall.
It is the general plan of the publishers in the production of county histories to secure, as far as possible, local assistance in preparing the work, either as writers, or for the purpose of revising all manuscripts; the consequence being that the work bears a local character that could not otherwise be secured, and, moreover, comes from the press far more complete and perfect than could possibly be the case were it entrusted entirely to the hands of a comparative stranger to the locality treated of.
We cannot pass unnoticed the names of a few who have given most generously of their labor and time towards the consummation of the work: To Hon. R. Holland Duell, Hon. A.P. Smith and David E. Smith for aid in preparing the chapter on the bench and bar of the county, most of the writing of which was done by the last named gentleman; to Dr. Caleb Green and Dr. Frederick Hyde, the former for writing and the latter for revising much of the chapter on the medical profession; to George L. Warren, H.W. Blashfield and others for assistance in preparing the history of the Masonic order; to Hon. Wm. H. Clark, B.B. Jones, F.G. Kinney, Wm. O. Bunn, Ed. L. Adams, W.O. Greene and E.P. Fancher, of the county press, for generous aid and the use of their valuable newspaper files; to Mrs. Dr. Frederick Hyde for valuable documents; to Alonzo Blodgett for use of valuable scrap-book; to Charles Kingsbury and T. Mason Loring for valuable historic materials; and many others in the different towns whom we cannot mention for want of space.
Contents by Chapter
- Natural Characteristics — Boundaries and Topography of the Territory now Embraced in Cortland County — Its Rivers, Creeks and Lakes — Geologic Formations — Climatic Features — General Character of the Soil — Timber
- History of the Aborigines — The Iroquois and their Great Confederacy — The Different Tribes and their Limitations — Traditionary Origin of the Confederation — Legend of Taoun-ya-wat-ha — Tribal Relations — The “Clan” System — Social Relations and Personal Peculiarities of the Iroquois — Their Amusements — The Councils — Origin of the Warlike Tendency of the Iroquois — The French Colonists and their Struggles with the Indians — Defeat of the Adirondacks — Military Organization and Characteristics — Treatment of Prisoners — Physical Traits — Their Downfall Foreshadowed
- Indian Relations in Central New York — The Territory of Cortland County with Reference to the Indian Tribes — The Leni Lenape — Their Traditionary Origin — Their Relations with the Iroquois — The Peculiar Office Assigned Them — Final Supremacy of the Iroquois — Indian Villages — Their Personal Habits and Social Customs — Religious Beliefs, Marriages, Festivals, etc.
- European Discoveries and Settlements — Jacob Cabot at Newfoundland — The Brothers Cortreal — Discovery of the St. Lawrence River — Ponce de Leon’s Discovery of Florida — Spanish Discoveries and Conquests — French Acquisitions to the Northward — Settlement of Quebec — English Settlement at Jamestown — Establishment of Dutch Settlements on the Hudson River — Claims of Rival Nations — Arrival of the Jesuits — Champlain’s First Meeting with the Indians — The Expedition — Indian Wars — Extension of the Fur Trade — Jesuit Missionary Work — French and English Rivalry and their Negotiations with the Indians — Attack on Montreal — Expedition Planned by’ Frontenac — Burning of Schenectady—Treaty of Utrecht — The Iroquois in the Carolinas.
- Previous to County Organization — An Indian “Summer Resort” — Early Records and State Divisions — Genealogy of Cortland County—The Military Tract — Its Origin and History — Land Bounties to Soldiers — Proportions of Bounties — Action of Congress in Relation Thereto — The Tract Ordered Surveyed, Mapped and Divided — Conditions Imposed upon Grantees — The “State’s Hundreds” School and Gospel Lots — Division into Townships — Fraudulent Land Titles — Vexatious Litigation — Formation of the Present Towns of the County.
- Formation of the County — A Division of Onondaga County Demanded — The Petition of Southern Residents for that Object — Important Provisions of the Law Organizing Cortland County — Origin of Name, — Changes in the Townships — Organization of the Courts — First County Officers — Early Political Parties — Pioneers of the County — Delays in Early Settlement — Comparative Dates of Other Settlements — Routes of Incoming Pioneers — Privations of Early Settlers — Winter Travel in Olden Times — The First Settlers in Cortland County — Mrs. Beebe’s Lonely Life in the Wilderness — Settlements in the Different Towns Previous to 1810 — Population at that Date — Opening of Early Roads — Turnpike Road Companies — Necessity for Grist-mills — The First Churches — Early Schools.
- The Second Decade — Dwellings and Surroundings of Early Settlers — Household Conveniences — House Raising — The Pioneer’s First Agricultural Work—”Logging bees” — The Settler’s Diet — Scarcity of Money — Advantages of Asheries — The Tioughnioga River as a Highway to Market — The Head of Navigation — Port Watson Village — The First Newspaper in the County — Its Chief Characteristics — Old Advertisements — The First Court House — An Old Building Document — Village Rivalry — Further Organizations of Turnpike Companies — Change of Boundary — The First Newspaper in Cortland Village — An Early Celebration — Struggle over the Site of the Gaol — Its Final Location in Cortland — Newspaper Recrimination — The First Agricultural Society — The Old County Clerk’s Office.
- The Third Decade — Condition of the Community — Abandonment of the Tioughnioga as a Freight Highway — The Erie Canal Project and Its Influence in the County — The Constitutional Convention of 1821 and the Changes Wrought thereby in the County — The First Railroad Charter — Sauna and Port Watson the Terminal Points — More Turnpike Companies Incorporated — The Canal Mania — The Syracuse and Port Watson Canal Project — Other Internal Improvements — Statistics.
- From 1830 to the present time — Beginning of the Third Decade — Condition of the County at Large — New Road Companies Organized — The County Poor House — Building of the New Court House — Railroad Agitation — Incorporation of Two Companies for Lines Through Con-land — Organization of the Second Agricultural Society — Political Reminiscences — The Leaders of Other Days — The Campaign of 1844 — Changes in Congressional and Senatorial Districts — Town Boundaries Altered — Town Genealogy — Development of Dairying Interests — Public Education — The Old Stage Routes — The Railroad Again — A New Charter Obtained — The Road Finished — Public Demonstrations of Satisfaction — Effects on Villages — The First Death Penalty — Political Events — Building of a New Jail — New Railroad Connections — Statistics.
- Military History — The 76th Regiment — “General Training” Days — Military Dignitaries in the Old Militia — Cortland County in the War of the Rebellion — The News from Bull Run — Its Effects at the North — The County Aroused — An Important Meeting—Suggestions for the Organization of a Regiment — Meetings Held Throughout the County — Recruiting—The 76th Regiment Organized — Camp Established on the Fair Grounds — The Green-McNett Trouble — Departure of the Regiment — Reorganization — Line and Staff Officers — Off for New York — Ordered to Washington — Camp Life at Meridian Hill — Ordered to Fredericksburg — Colonel Wainwright Assigned to the Command of the Regiment — The First Battle — Examples of Heroism — The Second Bull Run — South Mountain and the Conflict — At Fredericksburg — The Bloody Field of Gettysburg — An Execution — In the Wilderness — At Spottsylvania — In Petersburg — “Expended in the Service” — Home.
- Military History — The 157th Regiment — Recruiting the 157th Regiment — Sources of the Different Companies — Staff and Line Officers — Camp Mitchell — Ordered to the Front In Camp at Arlington Heights — The Regiment Assigned — The First Death — At Centreville — Christmas in Front of Fredericksburg — In Burn side’s “Mud Campaign” — Battle of Chancellorsville — Severe Marching — Gettysburg — The Roll Call after the Battle — Recruiting and Reorganization — Engagement at Hilton Head — An Incident — Major Place as Provost Marshal — Mustered Out.
- Military History — The 185th Regiment and Other Organizations — Organization of the Regiment — The Cortland County Companies — Their Officers — In Camp at Syracuse — Ordered to the Front — Assignment to the First Brigade, Fifth Corps — A Spy Captured — A Winter Camp — Demonstration on the Weldon Railroad — Winter Quarters Again — Marching Orders — Hatcher’s Run — Under a~ Terrific Fire — Capture of Major Bush and His Detail — Colonel Jenny’s Situation and Resignation—At Fort Steedman — At Quaker Farm — Colonel Sniper’s Bravery — Heavy Losses — The Fate of the Colors — Five Forks — The End Approaching — At Appomattox — Other Organizations — Summary.
- Official Action in the War of the Rebellion — The First Act — An Important Resolution — Action of the Board of Supervisors Relative to Payment of Bounties — The Committee of 1864 — Money Borrowed for the County — The Bounty Committee — Further Sums Raised — A County Bounty Offered — The Call for 500, 000 Men — Bounties Increased — Issue of Bonds — Loans by the County to the Towns — Statistics.
- The Cortland County Press — The First Newspaper — The Pioneer Journalist — Description of the Cortland Courier — Changes in Proprietorship and Names — Dr. Jesse Sean’s Career as a Publisher — Another Change — A Sheet of 1830 — A Glimpse at Its Contents — Rufus A. Reed and His Connection with Cortland Journalism — The Predecessors of the Cortland County Republican — The Oldest Paper in Cortland Village — Ancestors of the Standard — The Western Courier — Establishment of the Democrat — Seth Haight’s Administration — H.G. Crouch Enters the Arena — The Cortland American — C.P. Cole and the Gazette — The Republican Banner — The Cortland Journal — First Issue of the Cortland Standard — The Cortland County Democrat and Its Predecessors — The McGrawville Sentinel — The Otselic Valley Register — The Newspaper Death Roll.
- The Bench and Bar of Cortland County — The Old English Courts — Establishment of Courts in America — Creation of the Court of Appeals — The Supreme Court — Its Judges and Their Duties — The Court of Common Pleas and the County Court — Justice’s Courts and Courts of Special Sessions — Judicial Offices — The Bar of Cortland County — Its Early Eminent Members — Roll of Attorneys’ Oaths — The Present Bar — Biographical Notes.
- The Cortland County Medical Society.
- Secret Societies, etc. — The Free and Accepted Masons of Cortland County — The First Lodge in the County — Its Old Records — Other Lodges Instituted — The Independent Order of Odd Fellows — Lodges and Officers — Other Societies.
- County Societies, Buildings, etc. — The Cortland County Agricultural Society — Its First Fairs—List of its Presidents — The Cortland County Farmers’ Club — Its Organization and First Officers — Value of Its Work — List of Officers — The Cortland County Bible Society — The Young Men’s Christian Association — County Buildings
- History of the Town of Homer
- History of the Town of Cortlandville
- History of the Town of Virgil
- History of the Town of Marathon
- History of the Town of Cincinnatus
- History of the Town of Truxton
- History of the Town of Cuyler
- History of the Town of Preble
- History of the Town of Scott
- History of the Town of Solon
- History of the Town of Freetown
- History of the Town of Taylor
- History of the Town of Willet
- History of the Town of Harford
- History of the Town of Lapeer
- Lewis and Clark in South Dakota
- Missouri’s Participation in Various Military Conflicts during the 19th Century
- The Early Years of Pasadena
- Slavery in the Early Carolina Colony Days
- The Missouri Compromise | <urn:uuid:12816afe-80bc-4755-8d06-c469b4c7da43> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.accessible-archives.com/2012/07/a-look-inside-the-history-of-cortland-county-new-york/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.865269 | 3,083 | 2.875 | 3 |
By Istvan Hargittai
The Los Alamos National Laboratory came to life in 1943 as the concluding segment of the Manhattan Project to produce the atomic bombs for the US Army. In August 1945, these bombs were dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
On the other side of the world to Los Alamos, Soviet scientists started researching nuclear fission right after they heard of its discovery in 1939. But when Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, they had to suspend this work and concentrate on traditional weapons. They resumed their nuclear research in 1943. Eventually the secret installation called Arzamas-16 was established some 230 miles east of Moscow. The scientists of Arzamas-16 nicknamed their laboratory “Los Arzamas” and often referred to their scientific director, Yulii Khariton, as the Soviet Oppenheimer.
The two laboratories had a one-way direct connection through espionage — the first Soviet atomic bomb was a copy of the American plutonium bomb. Only the leadership of the Soviet project was aware of the source of information, the scientists were merely given the tasks of what solutions to work out. It was a frustrating experience since they could not bring in their own ideas. For the hydrogen bomb, with less intelligence, the Soviet physicists could utilize their innovative talents.
At Los Alamos, there was a conspicuous concentration of Jewish refugee scientists from Europe. By the time the laboratory came to life, most other scientists had already been engaged in war-related projects. The refugees were latecomers as was the atomic bomb project among war-related research projects. The physics of nuclear weapons was challenging, and the refugee scientists were dedicated to the fight against Germany.
At Arzamas-16, a number of the prominent Soviet physicists happened to be Jewish. The nuclear weapons project protected the physicists during the difficult period of 1948-1953 when Stalin’s paranoia developed into active anti-science as well as anti-Semitic persecution. When the pioneer nuclear physicist Yakov Zeldovich got into trouble in Moscow, he found refuge at Arzamas.
Khariton’s year of birth and his first name were not the only similarities with Oppenheimer (Yulii being the Russian equivalent of Julius). They both spent years in Western Europe for postgraduate studies. For both, this included Ernest Rutherford’s Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England. Like Oppenheimer, Khariton was Jewish, a life-threatening condition under Stalin and a definite disadvantage under the subsequent Soviet leaders. Khariton’s mother lived in Palestine and his father had been kicked out of the Soviet Union and lived in a Baltic state. When in 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltics, he was arrested and directed to the Gulag.
It was for Khariton’s exceptional talent and abilities that in spite of his circumstances he stayed for forty-six years the scientific leader of the nuclear weapons installation. It was forty-six years of luxurious isolation, a “golden cage,” with his private railway car for travel, other benefits, and the highest decorations.
With few exceptions, the Soviet scientists were dedicated to their nuclear weapons program, at least initially. They were past a bloody war called with good reason the Great Patriotic War, in which their nation literally fought for survival. In the early 1950s, they were taught that a yet more dangerous foreign enemy might attempt their annihilation. This is why even the future human rights fighter Andrei Sakharov could propose murderous schemes to destroy densely populated foreign ports with Soviet thermonuclear devices.
The Soviet scientists worked under the threat of severe punishment in case of failure, but performed impeccably. After the first successful test of nuclear explosion, the regime lavishly rewarded their accomplishments. According to some sources, a simple scheme determined the order of awardees. Those who would have been shot had the test failed, became Heroes of Socialist Labor; those who would have been sentenced to the longest prison terms received the Order of Lenin, and so on.
Gradually, the Soviet scientists realized that placing nuclear weapons into the hands of a dictator could have led to unforeseeable tragedies. Clashes between Sakharov and Nikita Khrushchev demonstrated the blatant recklessness of the Soviet leadership in connection with the nuclear arms race. When during the 1967 war between Israel and its neighbors, Zeldovich heard about the consideration of dropping a nuclear bomb over Israel, he deposited a suicide note in secure hands (he knew the authorities would destroy such a note if they found it) and decided to kill himself if the bombing happened. Fortunately, it did not.
Khariton, on his part, never expressed dissidence. However, when in 1990, amid the great political changes in the Soviet Union, the octogenarian Khariton greeted the first US visitors at Arzamas-16, he told them: “I was waiting for this day for forty years.”
Istvan Hargittai is Professor Emeritus (active) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. He is a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Academia Europaea (London) and foreign member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He has honorary doctorates from Moscow State University, the University of North Carolina, and the Russian Academy of Sciences. His latest book is Buried Glory: Portraits of Soviet Scientists (OUP 2013). One of his previous books is The Martians of Science: Five Physicists Who Changed the Twentieth Century (OUP 2006, 2008). | <urn:uuid:de8c0473-8ec3-43df-9f9b-e597e51bebe9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.oup.com/2013/11/tale-two-laboratories-los-alamos-arzamas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976196 | 1,136 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The Legislative arm of Government is the Parliament of Uganda. The Speaker of Parliament deputized by a Deputy Speaker heads Parliament.
Parliament consists of 303 members when fully constituted. The majority of Members of Parliament are elected through universal suffrage, with a provision for special interest groups namely: women, the armed forces, the disabled and youth elected through Electoral Colleges.
Rebecca Alitwala Kadaga is a Ugandan lawyer and politician. She is the current Speaker of the Ugandan Parliament. She was elected to that position on Thursday 19 May 2011. She is the first female to be elected Speaker in the history of Parliament in Uganda. She succeeds Edward Ssekandi, who served as speaker between 2001 until 2011. She is also the current Member of Parliament (MP) for the Kamuli District Women's Constituency, Busoga Sub-region, a position she has served in since 1989.
The legislature is constitutionally mandated as the institution through which governments are held to account to the electorate. In doing so, the legislature can use several means, including the questioning of senior government officials including ministers, the review and confirmation of executive appointments, impeachment and/or the power to dismiss the government, question period, the establishment of parliamentary committees and the formation of commissions of inquiry.
Legislative oversight is nowhere more important than over the budget. The role of the legislature is to scrutinize and authorize revenues and expenditures, and to ensure that the national budget is properly implemented. How governance affects the wellbeing of the populace depends on tax levels, spending patterns, the impact of policies on investment and on interest rates, as well as on the ways that domestic priorities and choices interact with international economic and financial trends.
For more information: www.parliament.go.ug
Sign up below to get the latest updates from State House Uganda by email. | <urn:uuid:64c86063-b6e7-439e-a941-a362fd36d979> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.statehouse.go.ug/government/legislature | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961316 | 375 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Orthodox Easter Monday in Canada
Easter Monday is the day after Easter Sunday, which celebrates Jesus’ resurrection, according to Christian belief. Many Orthodox Christian churches in Canada often observe Easter Monday at a later date than the Easter Monday date observed by many western churches. The day is also known as Bright Monday.
What Do People Do?
Bright Monday is a day of reflection for many Orthodox Christians in Canada. Many people reflect on the events that occurred during Holy Week and on Easter Sunday. Easter Monday is a day to finish leftover Easter meals that were not eaten the day before. Some Orthodox Christian churches have special Bright Monday liturgies in Canada.
Some public service offices in Canada may allow for their employees to have up to two days of paid leave to observe holy days such as the Orthodox Easter Monday. This policy may apply to people who are members of selected Orthodox Christian churches, including the Greek Orthodox Church, the Macedonian Orthodox Church, the Romanian St George Orthodox Church, and the Russian Orthodox Church.
Orthodox Easter Monday is not a federal public holiday in Canada.
Many Orthodox churches base their Easter date on the Julian calendar, which differs from the Gregorian calendar that is used by many western countries. Therefore the Orthodox Easter period often (but not always) occurs at a different date compared with the Easter date observed by many western churches, which falls after the time of the March equinox.
The term orthodox, derived from Greek, means “right teaching” or “right worship”, according to the National Defence and the Canadian Forces. The eastern Christian churches’ gradual adoption of the term reflects their view of the correctness of their position in doctrinal differences with the Roman Catholic Church.
There are different types of Orthodox churches across Canada. Greek Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, and Russian Orthodox churches spread in Canada as a result of immigration over the years. Other Eastern Orthodox churches include the Armenian Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church.
Easter eggs are often dyed red to symbolize the Jesus Christ’s blood. It was an important symbol connected with spring fertility rituals in many early civilizations. Another important symbol associated with Easter is the lamb. It is often depicted with a banner that bears a cross, and it is known as the Agnus Dei, meaning "Lamb of God" in Latin.
About Orthodox Easter Monday in other countriesRead more about Orthodox Easter Monday.
Orthodox Easter Monday Observances
|Weekday||Date||Year||Name||Holiday Type||Where It is Observed|
|Mon||Apr 5||2010||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 25||2011||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 16||2012||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||May 6||2013||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 21||2014||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 13||2015||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||May 2||2016||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 17||2017||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 9||2018||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 29||2019||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
|Mon||Apr 20||2020||Orthodox Easter Monday||Orthodox|
Quick FactsMany Orthodox churches in Canada observe Easter Monday on the day after the Orthodox Easter Sunday date.
Orthodox Easter Monday 2016Monday, May 2, 2016
Orthodox Easter Monday 2017Monday, April 17, 2017
Name in other languages
|Orthodox Easter Monday||English|
|Lundi de Pâques Orthodoxe||French|
- Orthodox Good Friday – Friday, April 29, 2016
- Orthodox Holy Saturday – Saturday, April 30, 2016
- Orthodox Easter – Sunday, May 1, 2016
Other holidays in May 2016 in Canada
- Orthodox Easter – Sunday, May 1, 2016
- Yom HaShoah – Wednesday, May 4, 2016
- Ascension Day – Thursday, May 5, 2016
- Mother's Day – Sunday, May 8, 2016
- Yom HaAtzmaut – Thursday, May 12, 2016
- Pentecost – Sunday, May 15, 2016
- Whit Monday – Monday, May 16, 2016
- Trinity Sunday – Sunday, May 22, 2016
- Victoria Day – Monday, May 23, 2016
- Corpus Christi – Thursday, May 26, 2016 | <urn:uuid:6308f90d-72f6-4286-a493-b9a07c0f28e0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/canada/orthodox-easter-monday | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910658 | 948 | 2.859375 | 3 |
In a new evolutionary proof of the old adage, 'we are what we eat', Cornell University scientists have found tantalizing evidence that a vegetarian diet has led to a mutation that -- if they stray from a balanced omega-6 to omega-3 diet -- may make people more susceptible to inflammation, and by association, increased risk of heart disease and colon cancer.
The discovery, led by Drs. Tom Brenna, Kumar Kothapalli, and Alon Keinan provides the first evolutionary detective work that traces a higher frequency of a particular mutation to a primarily vegetarian population from Pune, India (about 70 percent), when compared to a traditional meat-eating American population, made up of mostly Kansans (less than 20 percent). It appears in the early online edition of the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution.
By using reference data from the 1000 Genomes Project, the research team provided evolutionary evidence that the vegetarian diet, over many generations, may have driven the higher frequency of a mutation in the Indian population. The mutation, called rs66698963 and found in the FADS2 gene, is an insertion or deletion of a sequence of DNA that regulates the expression of two genes, FADS1 and FADS2. These genes are key to making long chain polyunsaturated fats. Among these, arachidonic acid is a key target of the pharmaceutical industry because it is a central culprit for those at risk for heart disease, colon cancer, and many other inflammation-related conditions. Treating individuals according to whether they carry 0, 1, or 2 copies of the insertion, and their influence on fatty acid metabolites, can be an important consideration for precision medicine and nutrition.
The insertion mutation may be favored in populations subsisting primarily on vegetarian diets and possibly populations having limited access to diets rich in polyunsaturated fats, especially fatty fish. Very interestingly, the deletion of the same sequence might have been adaptive in populations which are based on marine diet, such as the Greenlandic Inuit. The authors will follow up the study with additional worldwide populations to better understand the mutations and these genes as a genetic marker for disease risk.
"With little animal food in the diet, the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids must be made metabolically from plant PUFA precursors. The physiological demand for arachidonic acid, as well as omega-3 EPA and DHA, in vegetarians is likely to have favored genetics that support efficient synthesis of these key metabolites." say Brenna and Kothapalli in a joint comment. "Changes in the dietary omega-6 to omega-3 balance may contribute to the increase in chronic disease seen in some developing countries."
"This is the most unique scenario of local adaptation that I had the pleasure of helping uncover", says Alon Keinan, a population geneticist who led the evolutionary study. "Several previous studies pointed to recent adaptation in this region of the genome. Our analysis points to both previous studies and our results being driven by the same insertion of an additional small piece of DNA, an insertion which has a known function. We showed this insertion to be adaptive, hence of high frequency, in Indian and some African populations, which are vegetarian. However, when it reached the Greenlandic Inuit, with their marine diet, it became maladaptive." Kaixiong Ye, a postdoctoral research fellow at Keinan's lab, further notes that "our results show a global frequency pattern of the insertion mutation adaptive to vegetarian diet (see figure), with highest frequency in Indians who traditionally relied heavily on a plant-based diet." | <urn:uuid:f4e2ff99-a4e3-496b-8b19-c3f879e92f32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2016-03/mbae-aww032416.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933871 | 732 | 3.015625 | 3 |
A correspondent from the Czech Republic asks a powerful question: 'How would you encourage English language learners at secondary and postsecondary schools; what do they have to be careful about and what joys can they expect when dealing with a language of some 2 billion speakers worldwide?'
I would say to them...
In a way, the question answers itself. English enables you to communicate with a third of the world's population, and that has to be a plus on the agenda of anyone with an international outlook. That third, moreover, is hugely diverse. English is present, as a first, second, or foreign language, in every country in the world. So, in using it as a tool, you have an unparallelled opportunity to explore the individuality of nations and peoples.
The metaphor of the tool is important. English is not a prism, through which you see others. It is a tool which enables you to have a close encounter with others. Culture is not wholly dependent on language, but it does need language to explain its uniqueness - an experience all travellers have had, as they watch, say, a local folkdance and wonder what it is all about.
However, the metaphor of the tool only goes so far, because you can change the character of the tool to suit your purposes. If you have adopted English as one of your languages, then you are able to adapt it - to take personal ownership of it. One of the great joys of making headway in a new language is that you can use it to talk about what you want to talk about - and if that means inventing new words, to express your local experience, then do not hesitate to invent them. Just translating the culture of your school and town into English - such as the names of localities and personalities - will immediately add dozens of new expressions. Don't restrict yourself to the words that are already in the dictionaries. English is yours now. The words and expressions you and your fellows invent today might be in the dictionaries of tomorrow, if they catch on.
You're doing nothing that hasn't already been done thousands of times before. New words were added to English within days of the first settlers arriving in America from Britain, and the same pattern has been observed in all countries where a community of users has evolved. What you find yourselves doing you will see being done elsewhere. So - to adopt the motto of the scouting movement - be prepared. Be prepared for linguistic diversity, change, playfulness, and creativity wherever you listen and look - on radio and television, in the press, literature, film, pop music, the internet... Develop a sense of the kind of English that is appropriate to particular circumstances - American, British, Australian..., informal, formal, literary..., scientific, religious, journalistic..., emails, chatrooms, blogs.... And make it your major aim to be so in control of your own English that you can vary it to suit the circumstances in which you find yourself. Your goal is not to learn English, but Englishes. The same principle applies to any language, of course, but it is particularly important in the case of English because of its global reach.
And use English in another way - as a means of appreciating the uniqueness and richness of your own language(s). The critic George Steiner once said, 'Is it not the duty of the critic to avail himself, in some imperfect measure at least, of another language - if only to experience the defining contours of his own?' I think that is exactly right. Each new language-learning experience tells us something about our own linguistic identity.
You ask if there is anything to be careful about. There is one big thing: to remember that a language spoken by 2 people is just as wonderful a creation as a language spoken by 2 billion. Never let your love-affair with English make you dismissive of your own language, lessen your concern for minority and endangered languages, or forget the extraordinary richness of the human linguistic tool-cupboard. | <urn:uuid:323fc720-2d3c-4336-a104-81cf00434b25> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://david-crystal.blogspot.com/2008/01/on-learning-english.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959477 | 816 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Special education programs in the United States were made mandatory in 1975 when the United States Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) in response to discriminatory treatment by public educational agencies against students with disabilities. The EHA was later modified to strengthen protections to people with disabilities and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The IDEA is found in Title 20 of the United States Code, starting at section 1400.
The two most basic rights ensured by the IDEA is that every student is entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE). To ensure a FAPE, a team of professionals from the local educational agency (ie public school) and parents meet to determine the student's unique educational needs, develop annual goals for the student, and determine the placement, program modification, testing accommodations, counseling, and other special services that the student needs through the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP). The educational agency (ie school) is required to develop and implement an IEP that meets the standards of federal and state educational agencies.
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)Edit
- For more details on this topic, see Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE).
Generally speaking, a Free Appropriate Public Education is one which:
- costs the parents of a disabled student the same as what parents of nondisabled students pay,
- results in a reasonable level of educational benefit for each individual, and
- allows the student to attend a government-run school.
Least Restrictive EnvironmentEdit
- For more details on this topic, see Least Restrictive Environment.
The LRE mandate requires that all students' educations be with their nondisabled peers to the greatest extent possible, while still providing FAPE. The LRE requirement is intended to prevent unnecessary segregation of students with disabilities, and is based on Congress' finding that over twenty years of research and experience demonstrates that education of students with disabilities is more effective by having high expectations of the students and ensuring their access to the general curriculum to the maximum extent possible.
Some special education services (such as speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, etc) may be provided within the mainstream class (i.e. inclusion) or in a separate classroom if this is decided to be the LRE. Students receive individualized services to meet their goals, and these services are outlined in each child's IEP. Special equipment may be used, such as a standing frame, to encourage inclusion and achieve multiple IEP goals at once (i.e. standing while working on speech). A transition plan is also an important part of Special Education students' schooling process, which focused on their life after school, and is first developed starting at age 16. The transition plan focuses on the learner's goals for the future, addressing living and employment.
Placement and inclusionEdit
- For more details on this topic, see Inclusive classroom.
Most educators also believe that children with disabilities and nondisabled children should be taught together whenever possible. Isolating children with disabilities may lower their self-esteem and may reduce their ability to deal with other people.[How to reference and link to summary or text] The practice of integrating children with disabilities into regular school programs is called mainstreaming, or inclusion. Students with disabilities attend special classrooms or schools only if their need for very specialized services makes mainstreaming impossible. Many children with disabilities attend regular classes most of the school day: They work with a specially trained teacher for part of each day to improve specific skills. These sessions may be held in a classroom called a resource room, which may be equipped with such materials as braille typewriters and relief maps for blind students. Other students with disabilities attend special classes most of the day but join the rest of the children for certain activities. For example, students with mental retardation (MR) may join other children who do not have MR for art and physical education.
Although the place where instruction occurs (the setting) is seen as important in the field of special education, the types of curricular modifications and interventions may be a more important area to focus on in the future. Special education programming is influenced by behaviorism to a larger extent than general education.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
History of special education in the US Edit
Until the passage of PL-142 in 1975, American schools educated only 1 out of 5 children with disabilities. More than 1 million students were refused access to public schools and another 3.5 million received little or no effective instruction. Many states had laws that explicitly excluded children with certain types of disabilities, including children who were blind, deaf, and children labeled "emotionally disturbed" or "mentally retarded."
In the 1950s and 1960s, family associations began forming and advocating for the rights of children with disabilities. In response, the Federal government began to allocate funds to develop methods of working with children with disabilities and passed several pieces of legislation that supported developing and implementing programs and services to meet their needs and those of their families. Two laws provided training for professionals and teachers who worked with students with mental retardation ( PL 85-926 in 1958 and PL 86-158 in 1959). In 1961, the Teachers of the Deaf Act (PL 87-276) provided for training of teachers to work with the deaf or hard of hearing. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (PL 89-10) and the State Schools Act (PL 89-313) granted funds to states to help educate children with disabilities. In 1968, the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act of 1968 (PL 90-538) funded early childhood intervention for children with disabilities. Several landmark court decisions established the responsibility of states to educate children with disabilities (in particular, Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens v. Commonwealth (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia (1972)).
Rehabilitation Act of 1973Edit
Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act guaranteed civil rights for the disabled in the context of federally funded institutions or any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. It required accommodations in affected schools for the disabled including access to buildings and structures and improved integration into society.
Education for All Handicapped Children's Act of 1975Edit
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) Public Law 94-142 established the right of children with disabilities to receive a free, appropriate public education and provided funds to enable state and local education agencies to comply with the new requirements. The act stated that its purpose was fourfold:
- To assure that all children with disabilities receive a free appropriate public education emphasizing special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs
- To protect the rights of children with disabilities and their parents
- To help state and local education agencies provide for the education of all children with disabilities
- To assess and assure the effectiveness of efforts to educate all children with disabilities
In 1986 EHA was reauthorized as PL 99-457, additionally covering infants and toddlers below age 2 with disabilities, and providing for associated Individual Family Service Plans (IFSP), prepared documents to ensure individualized special service delivery to families of respective infants and toddlers.
Americans with Disabilities ActEdit
Providing Americans with disabilities similar protections against discrimination against as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) barred discrimination in employment (Title 1), public services and transportation (Title 2) public accommodations (Title 3), telecommunications (Title 4) and miscellaneous provisions (Title 5). It was a great step in normalizing the lives of the disabled. Title 3 prohibited disability based discrimination in any place of public accommodation with regard to full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, or accommodations. Public accommodations included most places of education.
EHA becomes IDEAEdit
In 1990 EHA's name was changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) PL-101-476. It added individualized transition plans (ITP) for transitioning individuals from secondary school to adult life or post secondary education. Special education coverage was extended to the categories of autism and traumatic brain injury (TBI). In 1997 IDEA was reauthorized as PL 105-17 and extended coverage to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), functional behavioral assessments and intervention plans were added, and the ITP's were integrated within IEP's. An additional reauthorization was made in 2004 (below).
No Child Left BehindEdit
- For more details on this topic, see No Child Left Behind Act.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2001 (ESEA) PL 107-110, more popularly known as the No Child Left Behind Act required accountability for the academic performance of all school children, including those with disabilities. It called for 100% proficiency in reading and math by the year 2012.
The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 (ATA) PL 108-364 provided support for school-to-work transition projects and created loan programs for the purchase of assistive technology (AT) devices.
The 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act reauthorization PL 108-446 changed learning disability identification procedures, required high qualification standards for special education teachers, stipulated that all students with disabilities participate in annual state or district testing or documented alternate assessments, and allowed in response to activities related to weapons, drugs or violence that a student could be placed in interim alternative educational setting.
Some student disability protections not covered by IDEA may be still covered under Section 504 or ADA due to a broader definitions of what constitutes a disability.
Qualifying students for special educationEdit
The referral Edit
Parents who suspect or know that their child has a problem making adequate school progress should request an evaluation from their local school district. The request, called a "referral for evaluation," should be initiated in writing. The referral should be addressed to the principal of the local public school or the special education coordinator for the district, and should provide the child's name, date of birth, address, current school placement (if applicable), and the suspected area of disability or special need. Upon receipt of the referral, the school district will contact the parent to set up a meeting time in order to explain the process and obtain written consent to perform the necessary evaluations. To prepare for this meeting, parents should be able to describe their child's problems in depth, providing examples of their child's difficulties in the classroom. Parents can request any evaluations they feel are needed to add to the picture of the child's specific educational needs, such as speech and language testing, occupational therapy testing or neurological testing. All evaluations needed to provide a full picture of the child's disabilities must be provided by the school system at no cost to the family.
The evaluation Edit
After the referral process, the district will begin the evaluation. The law requires a comprehensive school evaluation involving all areas of suspected disability. Testing must be in the native language of the child (if feasible). It must be administered by a team of professionals, which must include at least one teacher and a specialist who is knowledgeable in the area of the child's disability. Testing must be administered one-to-one, not in a group. Any tests or other evaluation materials used must be administered by professionals trained and qualified to administer them; i.e., psychological testing must be conducted by a psychologist trained to administer the specific tests utilized. In addition to testing, an observation of the child either in school or in a comparable situation is required for an initial evaluation, and often at later stages as well. It is through the observation that the child can be assessed while interacting with his peers and teachers. To insure objectivity and cross-referencing, this observation must be conducted by a person other than the child's classroom teacher. The observation need not be done exclusively in the child's classroom, especially when the child's suspected area of disability may become manifest in larger settings, such as the lunchroom, hallways or gym. For children over twelve years of age, vocational testing is required. This requirement is in keeping with the spirit of the IDEA 1997 Amendments that encourage preparation of children for useful employment. The vocational testing should identify areas of interest and skills needed to attain employment after graduation from school. During the testing process, the parent is free to provide any privately obtained evaluative material and reports. Although sometimes costly, private evaluations can be very valuable in providing the Special Education Committee with the expertise of specialists trained in the area of the child's disability who may have a more objective view than school system personnel. Experts may include professionals such as psychotherapists, psychiatrists, neurologists, pediatricians, medical personnel, and tutors. Professionals who have been working with the child over time can often provide the district with a long-term view of the child's needs.
Once all the evaluative material is presented and reviewed at the meeting, the IEP team must first determine whether the child is eligible for special education services. An eligible child will require special education intervention in order to enable him/her to receive the benefits of instruction and an education. If the team finds the child eligible for special education, they must then classify the child. The classifications include:
- Learning Disabled (LD)
- Speech Impaired (SI)
- Visually Impaired (VI)
- Traumatic Brain Injured (TBI)
- Mentally Retarded (MR) (now known as Intellectually Disabled)
- Emotionally Disturbed (ED)
- Hearing Impaired (HI)
- Orthopedically Impaired (OI)
- Other Health Impaired (OHI)
The IDEA allows, but does not require, school districts to add the classifications of Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) at their discretion.
Developing the Individual Education Program (IEP) Edit
- For more details on this topic, see Individualized Education Program.
The Individual Education Program is developed by a team (sometimes referred to as the Committee on Special Education) that must include:
- A representative of the school district (not the child's teacher) who is qualified to provide or supervise special education.
- The child's teacher(s). If the child is in a general education class and receives special education services as well, both teachers are required to attend.
- If the program to be recommended includes activities with general education students, even if the child is in a special education class in the school, a general education teacher is required to attend.
- One or both of the child's parents. Consistent with the IDEA's stated policy, parents should expect to be treated as equal participants with school personnel in developing the IEP.
- The child should attend the meeting whenever the parents think it is appropriate.
- Professionals who are qualified to explain the results of the testing. Usually this requires at least the presence of a psychologist and educational evaluator.
- Parents may bring with them any others involved with the child who they feel are important for the IEP team to hear; for example, the child's psychologist or tutor.
- Parents may elect to bring an educational advocate and/or lawyer knowledgeable in the IEP process.
- Although not required, if the child is receiving related services (such as speech therapy or occupational therapy), it is valuable for related service personnel to attend the meeting or at least provide written recommendations concerning the services in their area of specialty .
- In some localities additional members are required. For example, New York State requires the presence of a parent member. A parent member is the parent of a child with a disability (not the parent of the child for whom the IEP is being developed) who has had special training in the workings of the IEP process.
Parents must be notified of the meeting in writing. The notification must indicate the purpose, time and location of the meeting and list the people who will be in attendance, including the name and position of each person. If parents are unable to attend at the appointed time, the meeting should be rescheduled to accommodate the needs of the family.
The Individual Education Program Edit
The IEP must include:
- A statement of the child's present levels of educational performance, which describes the effects of the child's disability on all affected areas of the child's academic and non-academic school performance.
- A statement of annual goals including short-term objectives. Annual goals must describe what the child is expected to accomplish in a 12-month period in the special education program. Short-term objectives should describe the steps required to achieve the goals. Goals and objectives are specific in all areas in which the child is receiving special education services.
- A statement of the specific special education and related services to be provided to the child and the extent to which the child will participate in regular education programs .
- The projected dates for the initiation of services.
Determining the appropriate placementEdit
After the IEP meeting the parents must be given written notice of exactly where and how the services will be provided for their child. Most often, the suggested program will be located within the public school system in the district. When a student's disability is such that his or her needs cannot be met in the district, the school district may suggest a placement in an out-of-district program. These programs can include a Day Treatment Program, a Non-public Special Education School, a Residential School or Home Instruction. In all cases, parents should visit the sites that are recommended to observe the program to determine if the program is appropriate for their child.
- Notice of procedural safeguards
- Required content
- Parental participation in process
- Right to participate in all meetings, including identification, evaluation, placement, and all discussions regarding the educational plan.
- Parent right to review all educational records
- Parent right to an independent evaluation
- Prior written notice
- Prior written notice when a school proposes to initiate a service, conduct an evaluation, change a placement, or modify an IEP; or when the school refuses to provide a parent-requested service, identificaiton, evaluation or change of placement or IEP
- Content of prior written notice
- Right to submit a complaint to SEA
- Voluntary mediation to be provided by SEA at no cost to parents
- Impartial due process hearing
Impartial hearing/mediation Edit
Parents may disagree with the program recommendation of the school district. In that event, parents may reject the district's recommendations by notifying the school district in a clear and concise manner of the reasons for the rejection of the IEP recommendation. This notice must be given in writing within 30 days of receipt of the program recommendation.
The IDEA provides for two methods of resolving disputes between parents and school districts. These include:
1. Mediation that may be a viable means to review small disagreements with the IEP, such as the number of sessions for a related service or the size of a special education class.
2. Impartial Hearing which is a due process-based formal proceeding that allows the parents to challenge the district's individual education plan in whole or in part.
Student conduct and disciplineEdit
A student that has engaged in behavior that is in violating of student conduct codes that is punished with a suspension or change in placement exceeding 10 days must be given a Manifestation Determination Hearing.
For more details on this topic, see Psychoeducational assessment.
Tests of general intelligenceEdit
Gray Oral Reading Diagnostic Test (GORT)[How to reference and link to summary or text]The Gray Oral Reading Test is a norm-referenced, individually administered test for readers ages six to eighteen. It takes 15-45 minutes to administer. Its purpose is to identify students who need help with oral reading and to identify their strengths and weaknesses. It is also used to document progress and for research purposes. The student is asked to read aloud for one minute and the administrator tracks errors, after which the student answers five multiple-choice comprehension questions. Mean standard score is 100, with a norm sample representative of the US school-aged population. It is considered reliable both for internal consistency and test-retest.
Woodcock diagnostic Reading Battery (WDRB)[How to reference and link to summary or text]<p> The Woodcock Reading Mastery Test is a norm-referenced test applicable to readers in kindergarten through age 75. It consists of six individually administered tests to identify strengths and weaknesses in visual-auditory learning, letter identification, word identification, word attack skills, word comprehension, and passage comprehension. during the test, the reader must pronounce words in isolation, read nonsense words, identify synonyms, antonyms, and analogies. The scores from these sub-tests are almost always clustered to derive basic skills or comprehension scores. The norm sample is representative of US School-aged population and the test is reliable for internal consistency with ranges from .8 upward, with most .9 or above. <p> Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test(SDRT)<p> The Stanford Diagnostic Test is a group-administered measure of phonetic analysis, vocabulary, comprehension, and scanning. It is given to readers grades 1.5 through 13. It takes 15 to 45 minutes to administer. The scores can be transformed into progress indicators, percentile ranks, stanines, grade equivalents, and scaled scores. Norm-referenced scores can be used to identify weaknesses and strengths, evaluate progress, and identify trends and class, school, and district levels. The test is norm-referenced to represent US school-aged population. It is considered reliable for both internal consistency and alternate form, making it sufficient for making decisions about individual students. <p> STAR<p> The STAR (Standardized Test of for the Assessment of Reading)is a criterion-based test, not a norm-based test. It is used to provide instructional reading levels for individual students for the purpose of planning initial instruction. During the test, the student will identify correct word choices to place in a sentence with a missing word. The choice must have both the correct meaning and be correct syntactically. Its reliability for instructional reading level ranges from .79 to .91 It comes on software and can produce immediate scores. | <urn:uuid:02de45f5-4693-4af0-9910-c06ee1ea6a68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Special_education_in_the_United_States | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9464 | 4,624 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Amanda asks: “I also read that once you take the fat out of milk, it is difficult to absorb the calcium from it. Marion, can you state whether this is true?”
Oops. No. Where this idea came from, I can only guess. Fat is required for absorption of fat-soluble nutrients like vitamins A and E but minerals like calcium are water-soluble so would be expected to be absorbed better from watery solutions. As it turns out, calcium absorption has been measured under all kinds of fat conditions. The result: about the same proportion is absorbed from dairy products–about 30%–no matter how much fat they have. We tend to absorb smaller proportions of calcium from foods that contain a lot of oxalates (spinach and rhubarb for example). When dairy products are added to spinach, more of the spinach calcium is absorbed, so maybe that’s where the idea came from. Does this help?
And while we are on the subject, how’s this for a proposed solution to the non-problem of calcium absorption: genetically modified carrots! Bet you never thought of that one. | <urn:uuid:46c13d55-4457-4843-9f02-142b5694c540> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foodpolitics.com/2008/01/todays-question-calcium-absorption/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95328 | 237 | 3.21875 | 3 |
THE ILIAD: CAST OF CHARACTERS
PRINCIPAL GODS AND GODDESSES
APHRODITE: goddess of love and
daughter of Zeus, although in later legends she was said to have been
born from the foam of the sea. She protected Helen, to whom she
gave great beauty, and, in book three, she
rescues Paris from Menelaos, and brings him to Helen.
PHOIBOS APOLLO: the archer god,
cause of plagues, god of
prophecy and a divine singer; the son of Zeus and Leto; a partisan of
Trojans. In the opening scene of the Iliad, he sends a plague
the Achaians because Agamemnon has dishonored his priest,
Later, he helps Hektor in the killing of Patroklos, and, in the final
his complaint about the treatment of Hektor’s corpse leads the gods to
the ransom of the body by Priam.
ARES: god of war, son of Zeus, and lover of
Aphrodite. He supports the Trojans, and Zeus describes him as
“the most hateful of all gods who
hold Olympos” (5.890). The comic story of his affair with
is told in book eight of the Odyssey.
ARTEMIS: sister of Apollo, goddess of the
hunt. It is said that Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter,
Iphigeneia, to appease her anger on the Greeks’ expedition to
Troy. In book twenty-one, Hera beats her in
the battle of the gods, and she is a protagonist in two stories told by
warriors: Phoenix’ story of Meleagros (bk. 9), and Achilleus’ story of
PALLAS ATHENE: Zeus' daughter, a warrior
goddess, goddess of wisdom, patroness of the women's craft of weaving,
a powerful ally of the Greeks
and protectress of Odysseus; she hated the Trojans because of the
of Paris. She restrains Achilleus from killing Agamemnon in book
inspires Odysseus to rally the Greek troops in book two; tricks the
warrior, Pandaros, into breaking the truce in book four; and intervenes
support of the Greeks - and particularly on behalf of Odysseus -
HADES: god of the underworld, the realm
assigned to him when the sky, sea and underworld were divided among the
three sons of Kronos. As a figure of unyielding death, he is
described as “most hateful to mortals among all the gods” (9.159).
HEPHAISTOS: the divine smith and god
of fire, son of Zeus and Hera. In book one, he urges Hera not to
provoke Zeus’ anger. In book eighteen, he makes marvelous armor
for Achilleus at Thetis’ request, and, in book
twenty-one, he uses his fire to help rescue Achilleus in his battle
HERA: jealous wife - and sister - of Zeus;
she is a vigorous patron of the Greeks because of her anger at the
Trojans over the judgement of
Paris, and she repeatedly bickers with her husband, Zeus, over his
for the Trojans. In book one, she inspires Achilleus to call an
to deal with the plague, and, in book fourteen, she seduces her husband
Zeus to distract him while the god of the sea, Poseidon, aids the
Greeks on the battlefield.
HERMES: son of Zeus who guides souls to
the Underworld; he is sent to guide Priam on his risky trip to the tent
of Achilleus for the ransom
of the body of his son, Hektor (bk. 24).
KRONOS: father of Zeus, Poseidon, Hades
and Hera; he was overthrown by Zeus.
POSEIDON: son of Kronos, brother of
Zeus and lord of the sea. Though a supporter of the Greeks, he
intervenes in book twenty (20.288-339) to save the Trojan hero,
Aineias, lest he be killed by Achilleus against
THETIS: a sea goddess, wife of the
warrior, Peleus, and divine mother of Achilleus. She foretold
Achilleus' fate, intervened with Zeus on his behalf (bk. 1), mourned
the death of Patroklos (bk. 18), and brought her son divine armor made
by the god, Hephaistos (bk. 18).
ZEUS: the son of Kronos and most powerful
of the gods; brother of Poseidon, Hades and the goddess, Hera, his
wife; as lord of the sky, the
thunderbolt is his most potent weapon. He responds to Thetis’
by turning the battle against the Greeks, so that they will honor
Throughout the Iliad, he acts as an overseer: he ensures that fated
like the deaths of Patroklos and Hektor, take place, and he prevents
from falling at the hands of Achilleus against fate (bk. 20). At
insistence, he even allows his own mortal son, Sarpedon, to die, so
fate will not be overturned (bk. 16).
Greeks (called Argives, Danaans and Achaians by Homer)
ACHILLEUS: leader of the Myrmidons and
central character of the
Iliad; son of the goddess, Thetis, and the warrior, Peleus.
AGAMEMNON: son of Atreus, king of
Mykenai, brother of Menelaos and most powerful Greek king. His
quarrel with Achilleus (bk. 1) sparks
Achilleus’ anger and sets in motion the plot of the Iliad.
spurns his offer of compensation in book nine.
AIAS (Telamonian Aias): duels with Hektor
(bk. 7), forms part of
the embassy to Achilleus (bk. 9), defends the ships (bk 15), and leads
effort to recover Patroklos' body (bk. 17).
AIAS OILEUS: the lesser of the two
men named Aias, leader of the Lokrians, warriors famed as
archers. Later authors tell the story of how he seized and raped
Cassandra, a prophetess and daughter of Priam, during the sack of
Troy. As a result, Poseidon and Athene destroyed his ship and
drowned him on his return from Troy (Odyssey, bk. 4)
DIOMEDES: son of Tydeus, great warrior
whose exploits form the subject of book five; he also accompanies
Odysseus on a bloody spying mission to
the Trojan camp (bk. 10)
HELEN: daughter of Zeus and Leda,
step-daughter of Tyndareus; wife of Menelaos who eloped with Paris,
causing the Trojan war; through the gifts of the goddess, Aphrodite,
she was said to be the most beautiful of all
women. She reflects on her actions in books three and six, and
concludes the lament for Hektor at the end of the Iliad.
KALCHAS: the seer or prophet of the
Greeks; he identifies Agamemnon as the cause of the plague sent by
Apollo in book one, and, in book two, Odysseus
describes how he had interpreted omens and predicted victory - after
years - when the Greeks set out for Troy.
MENELAOS: son of Atreus, brother of
Agamemnon, lord of Lakedaimon (Sparta), husband of Helen.
NESTOR: aged king of Pylos and a wise
counsellor who often uses
stories from the past to advise and instruct the Greek warriors.
tries unsuccessfully to make peace between Achilleus and Agamemnon in
one, and he helps persuade Agamemnon to offer compensation to Achilleus
in book nine. In book eleven, he urges Patroklos to ask Achilleus
let him lead his men into battle, the plan that leads to Patroklos’
ODYSSEUS: son of Laertes, lord of
Ithaka, famed for his wisdom and trickery; he rallies the troops in
book two, forms part of the embassy to Achilleus in book nine, and
urges Achilleus to put aside his grief in book nineteen.
PATROKLOS: son of Menoitios and
companion of Achilleus. He was raised in Achilleus’ household
(23.84-90), and accompanied Achilleus to
Troy (bk 11, lines 764ff). He enters the battle in Achilleus’
place in book sixteen and his death at the hands of Hektor provokes
return to the battle. After his ghost visits Achilleus, Achilleus
splendid funeral games in his honor in book twenty-three.
PHOINIX: aged tutor of Achilleus and one
of the members of the embassy to Achilleus in book nine. He
speaks as a surrogate for Achilleus’
father, and uses the story of Meleagros to try to persuade Achilleus to
to the battle.
Trojans and their allies
SCHEDULE OF READINGS
AINEIAS: leader of the Dardanians, a
Trojan clan, and son of Anchises and the goddess, Aphrodite; he is
rescued from Achilleus' onslaught by Poseidon (20.288-339) because he
was destined to be a survivor who would continue
the Trojan line; his legendary foundation of a kingdom in Italy is the
subject of the Roman epic, the Aeneid, by Virgil.
ANDROMACHE: wife of Hektor; she
describes how her father and brothers were killed by Achilleus in a
raid (6.413-38), and tries to persuade Hektor to be more cautious.
BRISEIS: woman captured by the Greeks in
a raid and given to Achilleus as a slave; Agamemnon took her from him
by force (bk. 1), sparking their
quarrel. She is returned to Achilleus in book nineteen, but
says then that it would have been better if she had died.
CHRYSEIS: daughter of Chryses, a priest
of Apollo (at a place called
Chryse!); she was captured by the Greeks in a raid and given to
as a slave; Agamemnon's refusal to return her to her father led Apollo
send a plague on the Greeks (bk. 1)
GLAUKOS: an ally of the Trojans and
Sarpedon's second-in-command; he exchanged armor with the Greek
warrior, Diomedes, after they discovered that they were bound by ties
of guest-friendship (their ancestors had entertained each other and
exchanged gifts) (6.119-236)
HEKABE: queen of Troy, wife of king Priam
and mother of Hektor. She leads the Trojan women in their (vain)
prayers to Athene (bk. 6), and, later (bk. 22), she begs her son,
Hektor, not to confront Achilleus.
HEKTOR: son of Priam and Hekabe and
leading warrior of the Trojans. He duels with Aias in book seven,
and leads the Trojan onslaught against
the Greek ships in book fifteen. With Apollo’s help, he kills
Patroklos in book sixteen. In book twenty-two, he is slain by
Achilleus outside the walls of Troy before his parents’ eyes, and his
body is brutally abused by Achilleus.
PARIS (Alexandros): a son of Priam;
according to later legend, he had been asked to judge which of the
three goddesses, Hera, Athene or Aphrodite, was the most beautiful;
each goddess tried to bribe him and he accepted
Aphrodite's offer of Helen, the most beautiful mortal woman. In
three, he challenges Menelaos to a duel, but is rescued from the fight
PRIAM: aged king of Troy, married to
Hekabe, father of fifty sons; he ransoms the body of his son, Hektor,
from Achilleus in book twenty-four.
SARPEDON: son of Zeus by a mortal
woman, Laodameia; lord of the
Lykians and the most important ally of the Trojans; in book twelve
310-28) he offers an eloquent summary of the values by which these
lived - and died. Zeus permits him to be killed by Patroklos (bk.
16), as was fated.
SCHEDULE OF READINGS (Tuesday night)
RETURN TO HUM 2211 | <urn:uuid:bc4bee0f-1b79-4d07-9a76-6c1e435e802b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://luna.cas.usf.edu/%7Edemilio/2211unit1/names.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923608 | 2,902 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Pre-diabetes means your blood sugar level is above normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of diabetes. Pre-diabetes increases the risk for developing diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. The good news is, with healthy lifestyle changes, you can prevent or delay the onset of type 2 diabetes. Take action; watch this video to find out more about what you can do.
People can become obese by taking in more calories than they burn. Obesity also appears to be influenced by genetics. This video discusses the health risks associated with obesity and what treatment and lifestyle changes are commonly recommended.
Total Hip Replacement
When the hip joint is injured or develops arthritis, hip replacement surgery may be recommended. This video takes a closer look at hip arthritis and what to expect during hip replacement surgery.
Total Knee Replacement
Degenerative changes or injury to the knee can cause pain, swelling, and immobility. When knee pain affects your quality of life, you may be a candidate for total knee replacement. In this video, you will learn about knee replacement surgery, its benefits, and its potential risks. | <urn:uuid:359292de-270c-4478-9bbb-efcfe25aa6e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://healthlibrary.rsfh.com/YourFamily/OlderAdults/Multimedia/Videos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929816 | 225 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Banja Luka, Bosnia
BANJA LUKA (Banya Luka), city in northern Bosnia. The earliest reference to a Jewish community dates from 1713, when Jewish merchants of Banja Luka appealed to the French government to appoint one of them French mercantile consul in the town. The community had both a Sephardi and an Ashkenazi synagogue and numbered 226 persons in 1875, 336 in 1895, and 457 in 1927. A joint community center was built in 1936. It was damaged by Allied bombing in 1944. Each congregation had its own rabbi: Menachem Romano for the Sephardim, Pinchas Keller and Mavro Frankfurter for the Ashkenazim. There was some Zionist activity under the leadership of Judah Levy and Hans Bramer. Both synagogues were destroyed during the Holocaust, when most of the local Jews perished.
From the 1990s Banja Luka was the seat of the Republika Srpska (Serbian Republic) as part of the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. A small Jewish community was reestablished.
Jevrejski Almanah, 1–2 (1926–27), index. ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Spomenpca 400 (1966); Y. Eventov, Toledot Yehudei Yugoslavia, vol. I (1971), 97–99; Z. Loker (ed.), Toledot Yehudei Yugoslavia, vol. II (1991), 213–15.
Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group.
All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:51ebb720-bb45-4152-bcfa-5f9b2ecaf639> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_01977.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926488 | 335 | 2.875 | 3 |
This is a simple cut and paste paper craft good "just for fun", alphabet practice, or a Valentine's Day theme.
There are different types of boxes you can make: Lower
Case Alphabet or Upper Case Alphabet
- something to colour with if using the B&W version,
- glue, and
- Optional: Stamp Glue
- Print out the Valentine's Day template of choice.
- Colour (where appropriate) and cut out the template pieces.
- Glue the chocolates into the chocolate box in alphabetical order.
- Optional: Instead of gluing the letters onto the chocolates, put Stamp Glue on the back of the letter template pieces and let the children lick and stick the pieces on.
- Close template window when done printing to return to this screen.
- Set page margins to zero if you have trouble fitting the template on one page (FILE, PAGE SETUP or FILE, PRINTER SETUP in most browsers).
Letters - Lower Case:
Letters - Upper Case: | <urn:uuid:4a8616ea-a5f6-483c-9b81-7747c077865d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dltk-holidays.com/valentines/m-chocolates-letters.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.737085 | 214 | 2.5625 | 3 |
| Fly Guts Reveal Animal Inventory|
|The flies that feast on rotting flesh collect a genetic inventory of the animals in their forest homes in their stomachs, according to a study published today (January 7) in Molecular Ecology. Though the researchers originally intended to study whether the flies could transfer the causative agent of anthrax, they soon discovered fly guts contained discernable fragments of mammalian DNA, and realized the flies might serve as a useful way to track the species of inaccessible forests.|
“Detecting mammal DNA from flies could also be an extremely cool tool for assessing biodiversity,” team leader Sébastien Calvignac-Spencer, an evolutionary biologist at the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin, told Nature.
The researchers conducted a series of experiments in which they trapped flies on bait meat in Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire (the Ivory Coast) and the Kirindy Reserve in Madagascar. From the 40 percent of the flies that carried mammalian DNA fragments—some several hundred base pairs long—the team of researchers was able to identify 20 mammals—16 from the Ivory Coast that included 9 primates and an endangered antelope, and four from Madagascar that included two lemur species.
In addition to assessing biodiversity, researchers hope that fly tracking could help monitor endangered species or disease outbreaks in animal populations, such as the Ebola outbreak that killed thousands of gorillas in the Republic of Congo and Gabon a decade ago. | <urn:uuid:aa4dc920-867d-4c30-bbd3-28ee3b4e43d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ecomase.org/news.php?readmore=20 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930633 | 300 | 3.53125 | 4 |
SINCE the Vietnam War ended in 1975 more than a million Vietnamese citizens have sought a less onerous life elsewhere. Their reasons are not hard to fathom. Vietnam has suffered three decades of nearly continuous warfare at home and has been drained by another decade of fighting the genocidal Khmer Rouge in neighboring Cambodia. An overwhelmingly rural country with a top-heavy ratio of people to cropland, Vietnam's ability to export its raw materials and to seek Western aid and investment has been sharply curtailed by an economic embargo imposed by the United States. Appallingly, Vietnam's current per capita income of only $130 is barely half the level of 1980.
Since 1987 increased economic hardships have seen a new wave of Vietnamese leave home. Push-offs, ramming, and ``redirecting'' from Malaysia and Thailand induced more boat people to head instead for Hong Kong. The British colony had long attempted to discourage the boat people through ``humane deterrence'' policies that herded the Vietnamese into crowded and austere camps, but it had never refused the right of asylum.
Yet resentment has been growing toward the boat people in a Hong Kong worried about its own future after reversion to Chinese rule in 1997 - a resentment parallel to the British aversion to more immigrants from Hong Kong. Moderate politicians in Hong Kong now are calling for mandatory repatriation of the Vietnamese; hard-liners want simply to push the boats back into the South China sea.
Last June Hong Kong followed the lead of other Asian nations in declaring that future boat people would be screened for refugee status and subject to mandatory repatriation.
But ``compassion fatigue'' isn't limited to Asia. The West has failed to renew its post-war commitment to admit hundreds of thousands of escaping Vietnamese. The result: a record 57,000 boat people stranded in the Hong Kong detention centers by late 1989. Following many threats of just such action, Hong Kong officials on Dec. 12 sent off to Vietnam a heavily guarded plane carrying the first 51 of some 40,000 Vietnamese slated for mandatory repatriation.
Boat people who recently arrived in Hong Kong came predominately from rural North Vietnam. Lacking ties to the United States or the old Saigon regime, few appear to possess the ``well-founded fear of persecution'' specified in the United Nations (and US) definition of refugee.
No screening program can hope to divide the boat people neatly into categories of persecuted refugees clearly deserving assistance and economic migrants presumably less deserving. And the screening will inevitably be shaped by political considerations of Hong Kong or elsewhere.
The decidedly mixed US record on welcoming refugees - evidenced in our restrictive policies toward non-European refugees from Central America, Haiti, Asia, and Africa - must blunt any US criticism of first-asylum Asian nations. A compassionate US policy towards the Vietnamese boat people must rather take account of the forces behind the Asian policies while exercising real if limited potential for influencing them.
Both ``humane deterrence'' and screening processes inflicted on the boat people have failed to stem the flow of departures from Vietnam. We must assume that thousands of Vietnamese will abandon their homeland each month as long as they are ``pushed'' by deplorable conditions at home and ``pulled'' by a perceived chance of Western resettlement.
If the Vietnamese boat people are to be spared massive refoulement - push-offs into stormy seas, pirate savagery, or forced returns to a homeland they have come to abhor - the West must shift gears to encourage voluntary repatriation for tens of thousands of these courageous people now languishing in prison-like camps in Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. And it must create a partnership with Vietnam to assure the safety of the boat people upon their return home and to ameliorate the political and economic conditions that prompted their departure.
For the boat people seriously to consider voluntary return, they must be provided accurate information and counseling concerning their options: the chances for resettlement in the West, the future conditions in their Asian camps, the situation in Vietnam, and the experiences of their compatriots who have returned home. For its part, Vietnam must be held to its pledge that returnees will not be punished or discriminated against and that their activities can be monitored by international agencies. Hanoi's pragmatic insistence that it will accept only truly voluntary returnees further guards against refoulement of genuine refugees.
Reduced departures of boat people from Vietnam also requires an immediate end to the US-imposed economic embargo on Vietnam. Besides combatting the poverty that has prodded many productive citizens to flee, the end of Vietnam's international isolation should lead towards a more open political system. And the prospect of economic assistance will create new international leverage over Hanoi's human rights practices.
A joint US-Vietnamese effort to encourage voluntary repatriation should actually aid genuine refugees. With far fewer arrivals and many more departures, the Asian countries of first asylum could accept screening procedures that would more fairly distinguish persecution-fleeing from prosperity-seeking boat people - and the Western countries could more easily find room to welcome genuine migrants of conscience. | <urn:uuid:ba7f1f19-0257-4f1e-b3fc-3ac4dfc14b8d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csmonitor.com/1990/0209/efall.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946723 | 1,025 | 2.703125 | 3 |
"No shots fired." In what other modern developed country not at war does someone have to implore that there should be no shots fired for just one day? We already know that about 80 people a day die in America from gunshot injuries including homicides, suicides, and "accidental" shootings. This is not a non-violent society. It is not a non-violent world but many countries go for weeks or months with no gun deaths. But in America, as King's daughter said, we have a "time of school shootings and increasingly violent movies, television shows and video games..." Indeed we do. And our "appetite" for gun violence is unique amongst democratized nations not at war. And she knows that it has to stop. How will we stop it? We can if we have the will. In America, someone has to ask that no shots be fired for just one day."People worldwide should honor the memory of Rev. Dr Martin Luther King Jr. by making Monday a "no shots fired" day and ringing church bells in support of non-violence, urged the daughter of the slain U.S. civil rights leader.Church services and tributes will be held across the United States to commemorate King's 85th birthday on Monday, a federal holiday. At the same time, there is a push for a new monument and possibly a major movie production from director Oliver Stone."Dr. King's philosophy of non-violence is more relevant, I believe, than it was 10 years ago," King's daughter, Bernice, told Reuters.In a time of school shootings and increasingly violent movies, television shows and video games, his message of non-violence should continue to resonate, said his daughter, chief executive officer of the Atlanta-based Martin Luther King Center which promotes his philosophy of non-violence."America has an enormous appetite for violence. I don't know why we have such an affinity for that, but I do know it has to stop," she said."
Martin Luther King Jr. could not have envisioned a country rife with the daily gun violence that continues unabated. He himself, of course, died from a gunshot injury. He was shot and killed in 1968. So was Robert Kennedy, months later. Since 1968, more Americans have died from gunshot injuries than Americans who have died in all wars since the country's beginning. From the linked article:
To absorb the scale of the mayhem, it's worth trying to guess the death toll of all the wars in American history since the War of Independence began in 1775, and follow that by estimating the number killed by firearms in the US since the day that Robert F. Kennedy was shot in 1968 by a .22 Iver-Johnson handgun, wielded by Sirhan Sirhan. The figures from Congressional Research Service, plus recent statistics from icasualties.org, tell us that from the first casualties in the battle of Lexington to recent operations in Afghanistan, the toll is 1,171,177. By contrast, the number killed by firearms, including suicides, since 1968, according to the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention and the FBI, is 1,384,171.
That 212,994 more Americans lost their lives from firearms in the last 45 years than in all wars involving the US is a staggering fact, particularly when you place it in the context of the safety-conscious, "secondary smoke" obsessions that characterise so much of American life. (...)
Everywhere you look in America, people are trying to make life safer. On roads, for example, there has been a huge effort in the past 50 years to enforce speed limits, crack down on drink/drug driving and build safety features into highways, as well as vehicles. The result is a steadily improving record; by 2015, forecasters predict that for first time road deaths will be fewer than those caused by firearms (32,036 to 32,929).
Plainly, there's no equivalent effort in the area of privately owned firearms. Indeed, most politicians do everything they can to make the country less safe. Recently, a Democrat senator from Arkansas named Mark Pryor ran a TV ad against the gun-control campaign funded by NY mayor Michael Bloomberg – one of the few politicians to stand up to the NRA lobby – explaining why he was against enhanced background checks on gun owners yet was committed to "finding real solutions to violence".What are real solutions to violence if not to work to prevent at least some of the daily carnage caused by gun violence? So this is the America we have now. 45 years after the shooting deaths of Dr. Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy, what have we done to prevent at least some of the daily carnage?
Guns just make death all too easy. Of violent deaths in America, firearms injuries are the leading cause. In some states, death by bullets is about to surpass auto accidents as the leading cause of non medical deaths. The corporate gun lobby and its' fear and paranoia campaign has led to the idea that everyone should have guns around at the ready in case of some imagined threat to their freedoms or yes, to their lives. Occasionally it happens that a gun is used in justifiable self defense. But it's rare compared to the number of actual gun deaths caused by even law abiding gun owners in just seconds of rage, anger, fear, depression, while dangerously mentally ill or drunk or irresponsible access to guns by little children or teens. It's amazing really that nothing is done in the face of all of this. Thus, I write about the shootings and lobby for sensible gun laws, and encourage safe storage of guns, asking if there are guns where children play, point out that lots of gun deaths are because people don't think through the risks associated with having loaded guns around and just plain get angry about all of this.
The sermon at my church yesterday noted that it was OK to get angry about something that has affected you or a loved one because often that anger can lead to action for justice. So yes, sometimes I'm angry. When a loved one is taken so suddenly and violently, people are angry over the lost potential of that person, the lost times to spend with that person, the lost love, the lost hugs, the loss of family time, the loss of not getting to know that person into old age and the void left behind.
And so I will continue to write about things that make me angry. Like the incidents from my last blog post. Like the incidents below.
Should a kid who plays "ding dong ditch" be shot for playing a prank? Would that rise to the occasion of shooting in self defense of the home? Why would someone think to shoot an unarmed teen-aged prankster? Could this happen? In Pennsylvania, a man shot at kids who were ringing his bell. He hit one of them in the leg. From the article:
That is just one of many similar comments. A gun was not needed in this situation. But a gun was at the ready and so it was used. That's the American gun culture at its' worst. The shooter was lucky that no one was more seriously harmed. And a gun in the home, ostensibly for self defense, can be used in a senseless shooting such as this one. In some states this shooting could rise to a claim of self defense. But Pennsylvania's "Stand Your Ground" law is fortunately different from Florida's.Herman — who keeps a loaded gun in his house — said it was hard to believe someone would shoot down another person for ringing a doorbell.“I don’t think I would shoot anyone for knocking on my door or ringing my doorbell,” he said. “If they tried to break into my house, that’s a different story.”
The problem with guns is that many people who own them believe they have to be at the ready to take care of all of those burglars, teen-aged door bell ringers and felons who are surely coming to do harm. The problem with guns is that when they are not locked up safely away from those who shouldn't have them, bad things can happen. The problem with guns is that they are often the item(s) stolen from homes during burglaries. It turns out that most home "invasions" or burglaries happen when home owners are not at home. That being the case, having guns around, often loaded ones at that, for fear of a home invasion, doesn't work very often to stop the burglaries. Instead, as the linked story here about 40 guns stolen from a Seattle home, guns are stolen and end up in the illegal gun market for felons and others who shouldn't have them.
Stolen guns is one of the risks of having them around in the home, especially when not locked up safely. There is a definite risk to having guns around the house in general. Some gun owners don't seem to recognize this notion. When I first started writing this blog, I would come across incidents of "accidental" gun discharges and thought they were stupid and dangerous and rare. I have changed my mind. Incidents like this one of a man taking off his pants, where his gun was stored in the pocket of those pants, and being shot in the chin, are more frequently found in news reports. As my readers know I link often to the Ohh Shoot blog where the writer is keeping track of "accidental" gun discharges, almost all of which are by "law abiding" gun owners. Even though these are the folks who are supposed to know about the guns they purchase and own, do they? This is the case I was making in a recent post about requiring training for everyone who buys a gun. It just makes common sense.
In my last post, I wrote about otherwise "law abiding" gun owners shooting and killing people they know and love or even strangers in some cases. But here is yet another domestic shooting, this time in Texas, ending in the mother of two small children dead and her estranged husband also dead by suicide. I wrote about 3 of these in my last post. And now just one more of the many that happen almost on a daily basis. A gun is a danger to its' owner and people who know and love that owner. There is a definite risk to owning a gun. Do people who buy and own the guns recognize this risk? Do they think anything like this could happen to them or by them? I wonder.
This shooting of a Michigan child by a 4 year old cousin who found a rifle under a bed was in the Minnesota news. These are the stories that should make us work together to strengthen our laws and work to prevent senseless shootings however we can. I am hoping that will happen. I believe it is possible if we have the will and are willing to have a national conversation about keeping our communities free from the gun violence that is so devastating to our families.
So today, let us honor the life of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Dealing with differences in a non violent way produces better results. Violent deaths and injuries should not be the result of differences of opinion or anger towards another person. It's time to make us all safe from the gun violence that devastates families and communities all over America. Dr. King's family understands this all too well. Let's get to work to make the changes we want and deserve. | <urn:uuid:0716be70-b667-4d21-b2d9-9471fcee2a05> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.commongunsense.com/2014/01/please-no-shots-fired-today.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978908 | 2,321 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2014 June 5
Explanation: Galaxies like colorful pieces of candy fill the Hubble Ultra Deep Field 2014. The dimmest galaxies are more than 10 billion times fainter than stars visible to the unaided eye and represent the Universe in the extreme past, a few 100 million years after the Big Bang. The image itself was made with the significant addition of ultraviolet data to the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, an update of Hubble's famous most distant gaze toward the southern constellation of Fornax. It now covers the entire range of wavelengths available to Hubble's cameras, from ultraviolet through visible to near-infrared. Ultraviolet data adds the crucial capability of studying star formation in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field galaxies between 5 and 10 billion light-years distant.
Authors & editors:
Jerry Bonnell (UMCP)
NASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply.
A service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U. | <urn:uuid:96193b56-8701-4ec3-9910-f6f779a75fbf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140605.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.871792 | 226 | 3.15625 | 3 |
(1) The Legislature finds that ninety percent of the high-demand, high-wage new economy occupations require education and training beyond high school. Technology has permeated every industry requiring higher skill levels for technician-level occupations. Technician skills, learning capacities and adaptability to changing technologies affect the viability both of individual employers and entire industries. Unless West Virginia takes immediate steps to produce additional skilled workers to replace the aging and retiring work force, the state faces a critical shortage of technician-level workers which it must have to ensure economic growth. State employers must have access to a technically proficient work force able to keep pace with the changing nature of occupations in the global economy and educating and training this technician-level work force is a vital component in the state's plan for economic development.
(2) The Legislature further finds that establishment of advanced technology centers will increase the capacity of West Virginia's community and technical colleges to deliver state-of-the-art technical education and training. The centers will serve as models for the most effective delivery of technician-level education and training with the potential to develop programs of excellence that attract participants from outside the state adding to their value as an economic stimulus. The centers serve as catalysts for state and regional economic development by educating and training a highly skilled technical work force capable of meeting both the current and emerging needs of West Virginia employers.
(b) Legislative intent. --
(1) It is the intent of the Legislature to establish advanced technology centers to provide advanced instruction capable of meeting the current and future demands of occupations requiring technical skills including the following:
(A) Addressing skills sets needed for emerging and high technology businesses and industries which are of vital importance to expanding the economy of the state;
(B) Training and retraining personnel for West Virginia's new and existing business and industries;
(C) Providing instruction in strategic technical program areas that advances the economic development initiatives of the state and regions within the state by providing access to a skilled work force for companies expanding or locating in West Virginia;
(D) Providing a setting for collaboration in the delivery of technical programs among community and technical colleges, secondary career-technical education and baccalaureate institutions;
(E) Invigorating teaching by providing models for program delivery that can be shared and replicated at all state community and technical colleges; and
(F) Developing student interest in pursuing technical occupations through exposure to advanced technologies.
(2) It is further the intent of the Legislature that programming offered by the centers be driven by the needs of state and local employers and economic development considerations. Centers shall be constructed with the flexibility to accommodate various programs simultaneously and to react quickly to adjust programming as employer and economic development demands change. They are furnished with state-of-the-art equipment conducive to delivering advanced technology programs and to providing students with real-world experiences that reflect industry standards. Education and training at the centers includes delivery of credit and noncredit instruction, seminars, skill sets, industry recognized certifications, certificates and associate degree programs. Curricula is designed in modular and other innovative formats allowing for open entry and open exit, compressed time frames, skill upgrades, and easy transfer from career-technical centers and other education providers. Centers shall embrace and promote collaborative programming among community and technical colleges and other providers of education and training programs and serve as receiving sites for programs to be delivered by community and technical colleges utilizing distance education, simulation and other collaborative, innovative approaches to increase the capacity of the community and technical college network to deliver technical education.
(c) Boards of Advisors. --
(1) There is hereby established a board of advisors for each advanced technology center in the state specifically to provide advice, assistance and programmatic oversight to the president of the community and technical college, director of the center, and others involved in its operation in areas relevant to program delivery and general operation of the center. In order to be successful, each center must act assertively to develop collaborative partnerships with employers, community and technical colleges in its service region, and local economic development entities. It is the responsibility of the board of advisors to promote this vital participation.
(A) For a center which has a single participating community and technical college in its service region, the board of governors of the institution is designated as the board of advisors for the center.
(B) For a center which has more than one participating community and technical college in its service region, the board of advisors consists of eleven members, of which a minimum of seven shall represent employers located in the region served by the center.
(i) The advisory board provides guidance to all governing boards and consists of the following members:
(I) Two members from the board of governors of each participating community and technical college which is located in the center's service region, appointed by the board of governors of each institution.
(II) One member representing regional economic development entities, appointed by the council, with advice from the governing boards of the appropriate community and technical colleges; and
(III) Sufficient at-large members appointed by the council, with advice from the governing boards of the appropriate community and technical colleges, to fill the remaining seats equal to a membership of eleven.
(ii) Members of an advisory board serve staggered terms of up to four years beginning on the first day of September, two thousand eight, except that five of the initial appointments to an advisory board are for terms of two years and six of the initial appointments are for terms of four years. Each member who qualifies under the provisions of this section may serve for no more than one additional term. The council shall fill a vacancy in an unexpired term of a member for the unexpired term within thirty days of the occurrence of the vacancy in the same manner as the original appointment.
(iii) The chancellor for community and technical college education shall call the first meeting of the board of advisors and shall serve as chairperson until a permanent chairperson is elected.
(iv) The president of each community and technical college located in the center's service region shall make resources available for conducting the business of the center's board of advisors. The presidents of the institutions shall work collaboratively to provide support for conducting board business.
(2) Each board of advisors, including each board of governors when sitting as a board of advisors, shall hold at least one regular meeting during each quarter of the fiscal year including an annual meeting in June for the purpose of electing a chairperson and other officers as the board considers appropriate.
(A) Additional meetings may be held at the call of the chairperson or upon written request of five or more members of the advisory board.
(B) Officers serve a term of one year beginning on the first day of July and ending on the thirtieth day of June, except for the fiscal year beginning on the first day of July, two thousand eight, terms begin on the first day of September, two thousand eight and end on the thirtieth day of June, two thousand nine.
(C) One of the members representing employers shall be elected to serve as chairperson at the annual meeting in June except, for the fiscal year beginning on the first day of July, two thousand eight, the chairperson and other officers shall be elected in September, two thousand eight, and their terms shall expire on the thirtieth day of June, two thousand nine. A member may not serve as chairperson for more than two consecutive terms.
Note: WV Code updated with legislation passed through the 2015 Regular Session
The WV Code Online is an unofficial copy of the annotated WV Code, provided as a convenience. It has NOT been edited for publication, and is not in any way official or authoritative. | <urn:uuid:a0db1f99-f57e-4da9-b611-5b05b85214a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.legis.state.wv.us/WVCODE/ChapterEntire.cfm?chap=18B&art=3C§ion=14&year=2008&sessiontype=rs&btype=bill&input=3215 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95943 | 1,572 | 2.609375 | 3 |
NASA plans to follow-up its Mars rover Curiosity mission with a duplicate rover that could collect and store samples for return to Earth, the agency's lead scientist have said.
The new rover will use spare parts and engineering models developed for Curiosity, which is four months into a planned $2.5 billion, two-year mission on Mars to look for habitats that could have supported microbial life.
Replicating the rover's chassis, sky-crane landing system and other gear will enable NASA to cut the cost of the new mission to about $1.5 billion.
Budget shortfalls forced NASA to pull out of a series of joint missions with Europe, designed to return rock and soil samples from Mars in the 2020s.
Europe instead will partner with Russia for the launch vehicle and other equipment that was to have been provided by NASA.
Scientists at Astrium in Stevenage have also been testing their own Mars rover for the next Mars mission.
Called 'Bruno', the €1bn European ExoMars programme is due to launch in 2018. | <urn:uuid:cd80c609-90d7-4163-899b-bb016c7042eb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.itv.com/news/update/2012-12-05/nasa-aims-to-launch-mars-rover-twin-in-2020/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95835 | 217 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Cotton root rot (Phymatotrichum omnivorum) affects more then 2,000 plant species, according to Texas A&M University. The fungus thrives in clay loam soil conditions where pH is between 7.0 to 8.5. Cotton root rot requires high heat conditions to flourish, with a soil temperature of about 85 degrees F. The fungus is a widespread problem throughout the southeastern and southwestern United States and is most prevalent from June through September. Plants afflicted die suddenly, but trees and shrubs succumb more slowly. The spores of the disease often appear on the soil surface as a white cotton mass. Control can be difficult.
Avoid planting species of plants, trees and shrubs that are susceptible to cotton root rot. Most fruit and nut trees are at risk. Roses, oleander and pomegranate show extreme susceptibility to cotton root rot. Annuals tend to be safe to plant in an area with cotton root rot. Yucca, evergreens, eucalyptus and citrus appear to be immune to the fungus, even though they have shown signs of infection on their root systems.
Apply 3 to 4 inches of mulch around plants to try to keep the soil cool in the heat of summer. Cotton root rot requires soil to be around 85 degrees F to flourish. Use peat moss, bark chips, recycled mulch, leaf debris, pine needles or other mulch.
Add an abundance of organic matter to clay soils when planting. Peat moss or manure works well. Add it at a ratio of 50 percent organic humus with 50 percent soil. Organic matter is believed to help cut down on the cotton rot fungus spores in the soil.
Plant your plants in raised containers that hold purchased garden soil. Ensure that the containers offer proper drainage so excessive water does not build up in the plant's root system.
Space plants for adequate airflow and so that roots do not become entangled. Ensure that the soil dries out around the plants' root systems between waterings. | <urn:uuid:505fc476-843b-47f6-8586-5e4c5cde7fbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/100419-treat-cotton-root-rot.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925072 | 411 | 3.703125 | 4 |
& Tornado Alley
These two peoples of ancient times both spoke languages in the Iranian language family and lived in the area north of the Black Sea. The languages and cultures of the Scythians and Sarmatians were related but distinct. In particular their styles of warfare were different. The Scythians were noted as mounted archers. They may have been the inventors or one of the inventors of the stirrup. The stirrup enabled mounted archers to fire (shoot) arrows reasonably accurately while riding. The Scythians attacked in a mass firing of arrows. If their adversaries were not overwhelmed by the hail of arrows then the Scythians turned and rode to a safe distance for regrouping to mount another mass attack.
Most adversaries were overwhelmed by the Scythian battle tactics. It was only the Sarmatians who found a successful counter-strategy to withstand the Scythians. The Sarmatian warriors and their mounts were protected with armor. Usually the armor consisted of metal plates of bronze or iron sewn onto leather garments. This armor enabled the Sarmatians to withstand a Scythian attack. After a Scythian onslaught the Sarmatians would attack the Scythians with fifteen-foot-long lances. The Sarmatians were probably the originator of the armored knights of medieval Europe.
For more on surprising role of Sarmatians in world history see Sarmatians.
HOME PAGE OF Thayer Watkins | <urn:uuid:fec14e84-4e96-4b95-8e67-897a03f88bbf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/sarmatians.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960462 | 303 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Who is the Patient?
One may wonder, why the question “Who is the Patient?” Surely, the healthcare worker knows the answer when confronted with an ill person. But, in practice and ethically, the answer may not be so simple or well established. Take for example the young child who is too immature to be competent to understand and make decisions for him/herself. It is the parents who give the clinician the history and are responsible to care for the child. They are the ones sufficiently aware of the nature of the illness to suffer the emotional and financial consequences of their experience with their child and the knowledge of the illness and prognosis. Many pediatricians look to the family and child together as the “patient” and must evaluate and make treatment recommendations accordingly. Here, because the child is not competent, the autonomy rests with the parents.
Another example where the family is considered as the extended patient is in end-of-life hospice care. During the period when the patient is dying, it is often the family who has the potential for suffering, perhaps not in the same way as their ill family member, but suffering non-the-less. Those attending to the needs of the ill person must also attend to the needs of the family. A more prolonged scenario where the family and ill person become clinically integrated would be in Alzheimer’s disease. With Alzheimer’s the family may expend much finances, physical work and emotional attachment involved in the many years of responsibility for care. Other psychiatric illnesses may have similar family involvement but also there may be specific familial dysfunction, which directly contributed to the illness. Again, in these scenarios, the healthcare worker ideally should attend to the family in conjunction with management of the ill person.
In dealing with illness within some cultures, such as American Indians, for example, it is the family or the tribal group who takes the full responsibility for understanding and medical decision-making and thus have been looked upon as the “patient”. In all these examples of adult illness, what has happened to the ill person's autonomy?
As a final example here, genetic counselors consider the family as the patient and must determine why family members seek counseling, not just the person affected or potentially affected with the genetic disease.
Some sociologists and ethicists might even consider society to be included as the patient since it is felt that the physician should consider, in terms of the principle of justice, the effect of their management on, for example, the resources available to others.
The challenge to the practice of medicine by redefining and extending the concept of the patient to include the family and beyond is that it is also extending the limits of the medical responsibility of the physician. For example, while a procedure or treatment may not be medically appropriate for the ill person, if administered for the “whole patient” it could be argued that it might provide some emotional benefit and support for the family component.
Where do you think that a physician’s or other healthcare worker’s responsibility ends? With the ill person? Or with the family or even society? The philosopher Hans Jonas in 1969 had the answer: "the physician is obligated to the patient and to no one else .... We may speak of a sacred trust; strictly by its terms, the doctor is, as it were, alone with his patient and God." But,again, I ask "Who is the Patient?" ..Maurice. | <urn:uuid:c48ed9ef-d6b6-48c8-952d-33a867138399> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bioethicsdiscussion.blogspot.com/2004/07/who-is-patient.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971546 | 705 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Bangladesh is known for its apparel manufacturing industry—and for the conditions faced by garment workers toiling in Dickensian factories for a dollar a day. But according to a report released Sunday, the South Asian nation has become a top hot spot for renewable energy jobs, creating a green workforce as large as Spain’s in 2013.
How? Solar energy.
Bangladeshis are installing small photovoltaic systems at a rate of 80,000 a month, says the report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). In a country where only 47% of the population had access to electricity in 2009, according to the Asian Development Bank, solar is increasingly becoming a way to leapfrog the need to build a bigger power grid.
In the past 10 years, the number of solar systems in Bangladesh has jumped from 25,000 to 2.8 million, according to IRENA. That in turn has created some 114,000 jobs, from assembling solar panels to selling, installing and maintaining them. In fact, the number of solar-related jobs nearly doubled between 2011 and 2013. “The numbers are set to increase further,” wrote the report’s authors. (By comparison some 4 million people work in Bangladesh’s garment industry.)
Solar energy accounted for 2.3 million of the world’s 6.5 million renewable energy-related jobs in 2013, according to the report. About 70% of those solar positions were in China, the biggest green-job generator with 2.6 million people employed in renewable energy overall.
More than 1.1 million green jobs are in the European Union, an early leader in promoting carbon-free energy to fight climate change. The United States came in third with 625,000 renewable energy jobs. Solar, wind and biofuels accounted for most of those jobs. Wind jobs have risen as more manufacturers have moved factories to the U.S. On the other hand, those jobs come and go as Congress allows a key subsidy for wind-generated electricity, the Production Tax Credit, to periodically expire.
Brazil, however, is a biofuels powerhouse. The country is the world’s biggest grower of sugarcane, which is used to make ethanol. About 894,000 people were employed in renewable energy jobs in 2013 with about 70% of those positions related to biofuel production.
India employed nearly 400,000 people in green-energy jobs.
“Regional shifts from developed to emerging countries continued in wind and solar technologies, predominantly in the manufacturing and installation segments of the value chain,” the report stated.
This article originally published at The Atlantic here | <urn:uuid:281213af-a21c-4ff2-bb6a-dd91d5abc376> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mashable.com/2014/05/13/bangladesh-green-jobs-boom/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957713 | 546 | 2.828125 | 3 |
By: William Maisel, M.D., M.P.H.
Duodenoscopes are flexible, lighted tubes that are threaded through the mouth, throat, and stomach into the top of the small intestine (duodenum). Duodenoscopes are used in more than 500,000 procedures, called endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography—or ERCP—in the United States each year. The procedure is the least invasive way of draining fluids from pancreatic and biliary ducts blocked by tumors, gallstones or other conditions. The duodenoscope is different than the endoscopes used for routine upper gastrointestinal endoscopy or colonoscopy. The duodenoscope is a more complex instrument than other endoscopes and can be more difficult to clean and disinfect.
In the fall of 2013, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notified the FDA of a potential association of multidrug resistant bacterial infections and duodenoscopes. This raised a number of issues that needed to be investigated. Which duodenoscopes were involved? Was the problem unique to one model or to different models and manufacturers? Were the proper cleaning and disinfection protocols followed in the hospital where the infections occurred? Are the cleaning and disinfection protocols adequate? If not, what are the alternatives? Which device design features, if any, contributed to the outbreak? What could be done to prevent future outbreaks?
Even before FDA was notified of the infections by the CDC, FDA was working to strengthen cleaning and disinfection protocols of complex instruments like duodenoscopes to maximize patient benefit and reduce safety risks. We held a public meeting to discuss the scientific challenges, published a draft guidance in 2011 on cleaning and disinfecting or sterilizing medical devices in health care settings and collaborated with standards developing organizations working to develop national and international standards. Since becoming aware of the 2013 infections and additional bacterial infections associated with duodenoscopes, we have further accelerated our work in this area. Specifically, we have gathered and reviewed information from facilities where the infections occurred, identified and studied the devices in question, collected and analyzed information from the manufacturers, analyzed medical device adverse event reports submitted to FDA, and reviewed the relevant published scientific literature.
We have been actively working with federal partners, manufacturers, hospitals, medical professional societies, and other stakeholders to better understand the issues that contribute to these infections and what can be done to mitigate them.
The FDA strives to provide the public with evidence-based information that patient and health care providers can use to make informed decisions. Once we developed a sufficient understanding of the issues to provide recommendations to help mitigate the risk, we issued a Safety Communication. The communication raised awareness that transmission of infections associated with duodenoscopes has occurred even when manufacturing reprocessing instructions were followed properly and that the complex design of duodenoscopes may impede effective cleaning. The Safety Communication included recommendations for patients, health care providers, and health care facilities about the steps they can take to minimize the risk of infections associated with these devices. Health care facilities should thoroughly clean and disinfect duodenoscopes between uses and have in place a comprehensive quality program for reprocessing. In addition, a duodenoscope that is suspected of being associated with a patient infection following ERCP should be taken out of service and meticulously cleaned and disinfected until it is verified to be free of pathogens.
The Safety Communication is only one step to address this problem. We continue our work in collaboration with federal partners, health care facilities and manufacturers to evaluate alternative cleaning protocols, test antibiotic-resistant organisms to assess their susceptibility to high-level disinfectants and explore additional strategies to reduce the risk of infections, such as the use of surveillance cultures of duodenoscopes.
So what should a patient do if they are advised to undergo a procedure with a duodenoscope? They should discuss with their health care provider the benefits and risks of the procedure and any alternatives for their condition. Fortunately, the vast majority of ERCPs are conducted without incident and often to the patient’s great benefit. For most patients, the benefits of this potentially life-saving procedure far outweigh the risks of possible infection.
William Maisel, M.D., M.P.H., is FDA’s Deputy Center Director for Science and Chief Scientist for its Center for Devices and Radiological Health. | <urn:uuid:6f87f65b-9f5e-46f1-b6e8-6c3e06b137b1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2015/02/bacterial-infections-associated-with-duodenoscopes-fdas-actions-to-better-understand-the-problem-and-what-can-be-done-to-mitigate-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94285 | 901 | 3.375 | 3 |
Cancer may be colorblind, but statistics show that minorities are most affected. Minorities not only have a higher risk of developing cancers such as prostate, colorectal and breast, but they are also more likely to die from the disease.
For National Minority Cancer Awareness Week, we’re exploring the issue and providing resources for low- or no-cost access to cancer screening exams.
Health disparities exist for a variety of reasons, including access to affordable healthcare. Cost impacts the decisions about when and where to seek care, as well as the type of treatment to have and when to start it. Minorities who lack health insurance and have low incomes oftentimes delay needed medical care.
Breast cancer is the most striking example. More white women are diagnosed with cancer, yet more black women die from the disease. A recent study found that black women are 40 percent more likely to die from breast cancer than white women. Among men, black men have both the highest incidence and death rates, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Regarding cost concerns, another study showed that black and Hispanic breast cancer survivors were more than twice as likely as white women to have medical debt four years after treatment. The research, in the Journal of Clinical Oncology, also found that minority women were more likely to skip doctor appointments and take less medicine than prescribed due to cost.
Unlike in the past, mammography rates are now similar between black and white women. But diagnosis and treatment delays put black women at a disadvantage. According to the CDC:
- 20% of black women, but only 12% of white women, with an abnormal mammogram wait more than 60 days for a diagnosis.
- 31% of black women, but only 18% of white women, wait 30 days to begin treatment.
It may take years to reduce cancer incidence and death rates for minorities. But you can get started today by making healthy changes in your own life. Not only will you feel empowered but you may decrease your risk of cancer.
Several organizations offer low- or no-cost cancer screenings. We encourage you to take advantage of screenings near you.
Explore common cancer types. | <urn:uuid:64d74444-6ca8-4566-ae97-6e2cf9597859> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cancercenter.com/discussions/blog/addressing-health-disparities-in-cancer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966172 | 445 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Babies with three biological parents could be conceived within three years after research that could stop children from inheriting severe diseases.
Scientists at Newcastle University have grown human embryos after merging DNA from two fertilised eggs, with a technique that could soon be used to prevent serious genetic disorders that affect 100 children in Britain a year.
The aim is to correct faulty “cellular batteries” — mitochondria — which can cause fatal heart, liver, neurological and muscle conditions, by replacing them with healthy ones from a donated embryo. A child would inherit genetic material from three parents. The mother and father would | <urn:uuid:30648e61-075b-4886-94b8-de7a6dbba78c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/science/genetics/article2477217.ece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962358 | 121 | 3.078125 | 3 |
A new statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics urges parents to limit their children’s sun exposure, says Parents.com. Skin cancer rates have continued to rise in children exposed to excessive sunshine, as well as in teenagers who use tanning beds. One study estimated a 78 percent drop in skin cancer risk if parents protect their children from significant sun exposure during their first 18 years. To help parents do this, the AAP has issued the following new guidelines:
Know the risk
Only six severe sunburns in a lifetime increases the risk of melanoma, the most common and deadly kind of skin cancer in children, by 50 percent.
Slather on sunscreen
Children need sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30. Look for the Skin Cancer Foundation’s Seal of Recommendation, which means a sunscreen has been independently evaluated for safety and effectiveness. Reapply it every two hours while your child is outdoors.
Get swimsuits that cover arms and legs and provide sun protection. Parents.com recommends the Coolibar UPF 50+ one-piece swimsuit.
Keep hats on
Makes sure the brim covers kids’ faces and the backs of their necks.
Sunglasses aren’t just for grownups
Little eyes, as well as the sensitive tissue around them, need protecting too.
Limit outdoor activities during peak sun hours
Try to keep children out of the sun between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. Babies six months or younger should be kept covered at all times and out of direct sunlight.
Keep your kids away from tanning beds
The AAP supports legislation banning kids under the age of 18 from using tanning beds.
Monitor your children’s moles and freckles for the ABCDEs
Take your child to a dermatologist if you notice asymmetry, border irregularity, color variation, diameter, or evolving in any of their moles or freckles. Any of these changes are a warning sign of skin cancer.
Use extra caution with fair skin
Children with pale skin and light eyes are most at risk of burning.
The bottom line: It’s critical to protect your child’s skin from the sun to prevent skin cancer. Also, check your child’s moles and freckles regularly for any changes.
Read the AAP’s full policy statement, “Ultraviolet Radiation: A Hazard to Children and Adolescents” | <urn:uuid:2f9a686e-2d5a-48cf-aa8d-394ef8f014f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rd.com/advice/parenting/how-to-protect-your-child-from-skin-cancer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931325 | 504 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Alzheimer's Expert Explains Its Causes, Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment
Jun 20, 2012 - 10:51:58 AM
(HealthNewsDigest.com) - Alzheimer’s disease is a chronic brain disease that gradually erodes an individual’s memory, intellectual abilities and personality. As of 2012, an estimated 5.2 million Americans -- one in eight people age 65 or older -- have Alzheimer’s, according to the Alzheimer’s Association. And this number is expected to increase rapidly as America’s baby boomers reach retirement age. Psychologists play an important role in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of this disease, which is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States.
Glenn E. Smith, PhD, is a consultant in the Division of Neurocognitive Disorders, Department of Psychiatry & Psychology at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn. He is associate director of Clinical and Translational Sciences Education Programs at the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research and clinical director of Alzheimer’s disease resources on MayoClinic.com. Smith received his PhD in clinical psychology from the University of Nebraska. He completed an internship in neuropsychology-geropsychology at UCLA’s Neuropsychiatric Institute and a post-doctoral fellowship in clinical neuropsychology and rehabilitation at the Mayo Medical School. He is past president of APA’s Div. 40 (Clinical Neuropsychology) and the American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology.
APA recently asked him the following questions:
APA: News about Alzheimer’s frequently focuses on the use of medications to treat the disease. Are there behavioral treatments that can help without medication?
Dr. Smith: Outcomes of clinical trials with medications for treating Alzheimer’s have been disappointing. Historically, these clinical trials involved patients with dementia because the presence of dementia was required for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. There is a growing concern that by the time dementia is present, the brain may be so ravaged that treatment at that point cannot be effective. Recently, substantial progress has been made in the ability to detect Alzheimer’s before dementia is present. For example, we can now reliably diagnose mild cognitive impairment. This ability has given rise to secondary prevention strategies that seek to prevent or delay progression to full dementia. A variety of behavioral treatments show promise as secondary prevention strategies. At the Mayo Clinic, we have launched an intensive multi-component intervention that combines daily physical activity, cognitive exercise, a memory compensation strategy, wellness education and support groups. We’ve observed that this intervention produces short-term improvement and longer-term stabilization of a patient’s ability to function.
APA: What is early-onset Alzheimer’s and do the symptoms differ between early-onset and when it occurs at a later age?
Dr. Smith: In normal aging, processing speed declines and word finding may worsen, but memory is relatively spared. By contrast, the hallmark first sign of Alzheimer’s disease is forgetting. Indications of the illness first appear in brain structures that are critical for new learning and delayed recall of information. The disease soon spreads to regions supporting more complex understanding of language and executive function, which covers basic mental tasks such as planning, strategizing, organizing and setting goals. Simple attention (including processing speed), visual-spatial reasoning and other aspects of speech and language are generally spared early on. In distinction, with another form of dementia known as Lewy Body disease, organizing visual information and understanding how it can change if movement occurs and other aspects of attention are impaired early. Attention is also compromised early in vascular-based cognitive impairment. By recognizing these cognitive differences, neuropsychological assessment can contribute to early diagnosis among the various types of dementia.
Early-onset dementia is a label applied when the diagnosis is before age 65. Clinically, Alzheimer’s disease presents pretty much the same at age 63 as at age 83. But Alzheimer’s disease is highly associated with advancing age. For other causes of dementia, like fronto-temporal dementia and Lewy Body disease, peak incidence is at a younger age. So, early-onset dementia has a greater probability of not being caused by Alzheimer’s. Thus, differences between early- and late-onset dementias are based more in the different age-specific incidences of the various causes for dementia.
APA: If someone has parents and grandparents diagnosed with Alzheimer’s, is it inevitable that person will someday also suffer from the disease? In other words, what is the role of genetics in the development of Alzheimer’s?
Dr. Smith: There are three major genes known to cause dementia and these genes follow what is known as the Mendelian inheritance pattern, in which the genetic trait displayed results from one parent's gene dominating over a gene inherited from the other parent. But these three genes are present in less than 5 percent of all dementia cases. There are also genes that increase susceptibility to develop Alzheimer’s. The most notable of the susceptibility genes is the Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene. Carrying one copy of the ε4 form of the ApoE gene increases your risk up to four times. But you can carry the risky form of this gene and still not develop dementia, and many people develop the disease without carrying the ε4 gene. Finally, a family history of Alzheimer’s irrespective of ε4 status does increase your risk of developing the disease. Yet even with a family history, the chances are still greater that you will die without developing Alzheimer’s disease than with the disease, provided you do not carry a causative gene.
APA: What are the most important steps a person can take to prevent onset of the disease?
Dr. Smith: Physical and mental inactivity, smoking, obesity, diabetes, hypertension and depression (each modifiable by behavioral intervention) have been shown to be risk factors for the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Barnes and Yaffee, (Lancet Neurology, 2011) suggest that 25 percent improvement in these conditions among the general population would prevent as many as 16.5 percent of Alzheimer’s disease cases in the United States.
APA: How will the Obama administration’s National Alzheimer’s Plan incorporate behavioral health as part of a strategy to bring about a cure for Alzheimer’s disease?
Dr. Smith: The National Alzheimer’s Plan, released in May, involves five major strategies:
· prevent and effectively treat Alzheimer’s disease by 2025
· optimize care, quality and efficiency
· expand support for people with Alzheimer’s disease and their families
· enhance public awareness and engagement
· track progress and drive improvement
Each strategy is associated with several actions. With smoking, eating unhealthy foods and not getting enough physical or mental exercise among preventable risk factors for development of Alzheimer’s, behavior change strategies will play a critical role in the development and implementation of prevention programs. These treatment programs will include daily physical activity, cognitive and memory exercises and support groups.
To ensure timely and accurate diagnoses, psychologists, especially those who specialize in aging or cognition science, are particularly well positioned to recognize, formally assess and explain the implications of cognitive changes associated with the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment. Additionally, as more people find themselves in the role of caregiver for a family member with Alzheimer’s, psychologists are responding by developing state-of-the-art interventions to enhance caregiver resilience.
The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States and is the world's largest association of psychologists. APA's membership includes more than 137,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance psychology as a science, as a profession and as a means of promoting health, education and human welfare.
For advertising and promotion on HealthNewsDigest.com please contact Mike McCurdy: [email protected] or 877-634-9180
HealthNewsDigest.com is syndicated worldwide, to thousands of journalists and health-related websites. www.HealthNewsDigest.com
© Copyright by HealthNewsDigest.com | <urn:uuid:fea892fa-0687-4d0d-a585-663cefca983d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthnewsdigest.com/news/Alzheimer_Issues_680/Alzheimer_s_Expert_Explains_Its_Causes_Prevention_Diagnosis_and_Treatment_printer.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928304 | 1,732 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Our Mission: The mission of the Positive Psychology Center is to promote research, training, education, and the dissemination of Positive Psychology. Positive Psychology is the scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Dr. Martin E.P. Seligman is the Director of the Center and Zellerbach Family Professor of Psychology.
The Rationale: During its first century, psychology justifiably focused most of its attention on human suffering. Marked progress as been made in understanding and treating numerous psychological disorders - depression, anxiety, and phobias, to name a few. While alleviating suffering, however, psychology has not paid much attention to what makes life most worth living. Positive Psychology is founded on the belief that people want more than an end to suffering. People want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play. We have the opportunity to create a science and a profession that not only heals psychological damage but also builds strengths to enable people to achieve the best things in life.
The Three Pillars: Positive Psychology has three central concerns: positive experiences, positive individual traits, and positive institutions. Understanding positive emotions entails the study of contentment with the past, happiness in the present, and hope for the future. Understanding positive individual traits involves the study of strengths, such as the capacity for love and work, courage, compassion, resilience, creativity, curiosity, integrity, self-knowledge, moderation, self-control, and wisdom. Understanding positive institutions entails the study of the strengths that foster better communities, such as justice, responsibility, civility, parenting, nurturance, work ethic, leadership, teamwork, purpose, and tolerance.
Our Goals: Some of the goals of Positive Psychology are to build a science that supports:
- Families and schools that allow children to flourish
- Workplaces that foster satisfaction and high productivity
- Communities that encourage civic engagement
- Therapists who nurture their patients' strengths
- The teaching of Positive Psychology
- Dissemination of Positive Psychology interventions in schools, organizations, and communities.
Current Activities: Activities at the Center include:
- Empirical research in Positive Psychology, resilience, grit, Positive Neuroscience, Positive Health, Prospective Psychology, and science of imagination.
- Master of Applied Positive Psychology program (MAPP), in which students learn to apply the principles of Positive Psychology to professional domains, or prepare for further study in a Ph.D., M.D., or J.D. program.
- Develop and empirically validate curricula and train-the-trainer programs designed to enhance resilience, well-being and performance.
- Deliver resilience programs and Positive Psychology programs using the train-the-trainer model. These programs have shown efficacy in the prevention of depression and anxiety, and to increase well-being and resilience. We currently conduct large-scale resilience programs for educational institutions around the world and for the U.S. Army’s Comprehensive Soldier and Family Fitness program.
- Disseminate research findings through academic publications in peer-reviewed journals, which are listed throughout this website.
- Host conferences and meetings where scholars share and discuss the latest empirical findings in Positive Psychology.
- Collaborate with numerous scholars around the world on research studies, teaching, and conferences.
Management and Support: Martin E.P. Seligman, Ph.D., is director of the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania.He is currently Zellerbach Family Professor of Psychology and former president of the American Psychological Association. He has written more than 275 articles and 20 books. Peter Schulman is the Executive Director of the Center. Since the 1970s, research at the Center has been funded by the generous support of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the U.S. Department of Education, the John Templeton Foundation, the Templeton Religion Trust, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Atlantic Philanthropies, the Gates Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trusts, the Annenberg Foundation, the Mayerson Foundation, the Hovey Foundation, among others.
Contact Us : | <urn:uuid:40494fd4-72a7-4f23-9269-e5942e54c0cd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.positivepsychology.org/our-mission | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918563 | 849 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Map of the Transvaal and the Surrounding Territories.
1878 (dated) 23.5 x 25 in (59.69 x 63.5 cm)
1 : 850000
This is a beautiful and scarce 1878 map of the Transvaal or the South African Republic by F. Jeppe. It covers the Boer ruled country in South Africa from modern day Zimbabwe south as far as Durban and depicts the Transvaal, Orange Free State and Griqualand West as well as parts of Natal, Zululand and Basutoland. The map renders the region in extraordinary detail, noting native tribes, goldfields, mines, roads, towns, farms, bushes, forests, lakes and a host of important topographical features. The routes of various travelers, including Erskine, Sanderson, Hope, Mauch and several others are noted throughout. A table of postal routes in included near the left margin. A table showing distances and altitudes of projected railway lines is also included. The upper right quadrant of the map features two insets featuring the 'Plan of Lourenco Marques (Del. Bay)' and a 'Continuation of Mauch's route to the ruins of Zimbabwe' along with a 'View of the ruins.' Another inset in the left lower quadrant features a 'Plan of Pretoria.'
This map was made two years before the First Boer War or the First Anglo-Boer War. The Transvaal and the Orange Free State were recognized as independent states by the British since 1852 and 1854 respectively. The region became the center of attention in 1867 with the discovery of diamonds near the Vaal River, which would lead the British to annex West Griqualand despite Boer protests. In 1877, despite a treaty granting its independence, the British annexed the Transvaal, which led to the First Boer War fought between the British Empire and the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic. The war would end with the Pretoria Convention where the Transvaal Republic and the Orange Free State would regain independence.
This map was compiled from all the available official and private information and the latest observations and exploring Routes of C. Mauch, E. Mohr, A. Hubner, T. Baines, S. V. Erskine, Capt. Elton, Col. Colley, Capt. Bawden, R. T. Hall, Dr. E. Cohen, and combined with his own observations during fifteen years residence in the country, by F. Jeppe, F.R.G.S. in 1878. The map was engraved Edward Weller and published by S. W. Silver and Co.
Very good. Dissected and mounted on linen. Map exhibits red stains along left fold lines, where map is attached to binder. Folds into original cardboard binder. | <urn:uuid:78df30a1-55ec-49a0-a93a-6105a5a58f95> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/Transvaal-jeppe-1878 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945268 | 603 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.