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his Social Rights and Duties (London, 1896) and is quoted by Henry Salt
in 'The Logic of the Larder', which appeared in Salt's The Humanities
of Diet (Manchester, 1914) and has been reprinted in the first edition
of T. Regan and P. Singer (eds.), Animal Rights and Human Obligations
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1976). Salt's reply is in the same article. My
own earlier discussion of this issue is in Chapter 6 of the first edition
366
Notes and References
of Animal Liberation (New York, 1975). For the example of the two
women, see Derek Parfir, 'Rights, Interests and Possible People', in S.
Gorovitz et al. (eds.), Moral Problems in Medicine (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 1976); a variation expressed in terms of a choice between two
different medical programs can be found in Parfir s Reasons and Persons
(Oxford, 1984), p. 367. James Rachels's distinction between a biological
and a biographical life comes from his The End of Life (Oxford,
1987). Hart's discussion of this topic in his review of the first edition
of this book was entitled 'Death and Utility' and appeared in The New
York Review of Books, 15 May 1980. My initial response appeared as a
letter in the same publication, 14 August 1980. I develop the metaphor
of life as a journey in 'Life's Uncertain Voyage', in P. Pettit, R. Sylvan,
and J. Norman (eds.), Metaphysics and Morality: Essays in Honour of J.
J. C. Smart (Oxford, 1987).
Chapter 6: Taking life: The embryo and fetus
The most important sections of the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court
in Roe v. Wade are reprinted in J.Feinberg (ed.), The Problem of Abortion.
Robert Edwards's speculations about taking stem cells from embryos
at around seventeen days after fertilisation are from his essay 'The case
for studying human embryos and their constituent tissues in vitro', in
R. G. Edwards and J. M. Purdy (eds.), Human Conception in Vitro (London,
1982). The government committee referred to in the sub-section
'Not the Law's Business?' - the Wolfenden Committee - issued the
Report of the Committee on Homosexual Offences and Prostitution, Command
Paper 247 (London, 1957). The quotation is from p. 24. J. S. Mill's
'very simple principle' is stated in the introductory chapter of On Liberty,
3d ed. (London, 1864). Edwin Schur's Crimes without Victims was published
in Englewood Cliffs, N.J., in 1965. Judith Jarvis Thomson's 'A
Defense of Abortion' appeared in Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. I
(1971) and has been reprinted in P. Singer (ed.), Applied Ethics.
Paul Ramsey uses the genetic uniqueness ofthe fetus as an argument
against abortion in 'The Morality of Abortion', in D. H. Labby (ed.),
Life or Death: Ethics and Options (London, 1968) and reprinted in J.
Rachels (ed.), Moral Problems, 2d ed. (New York, 1975), p. 40.
On scientific, ethical and legal aspects of embryo experimentation,
see P. Singer, H. Kuhse, S. Buckle, K. Dawson, and P. Kasimba (eds.),
Embryo Experimentation (Cambridge, England, 1990). lowe my speculations
about the identity of the splitting embryo to Helga Kuhse, with
whom I co-authored 'Individuals, Humans and Persons: The Issue of
367
Notes and References
Moral Status', in that volume. We were both indebted to a remarkable
book by a Roman Catholic theologian that challenges the view that
conception marks the beginning of the human individual: Norman
Ford, When Did I Begin? (Cambridge, 1988). The argument about potentiality
in the context of IVF was first published in P. Singer and K.
Dawson, :IVF T~chnology and the Argument from Potential', Philosophy
and Publzc AffaIrs, vol. 17 (1988) and is reprinted in Embryo Experimentation.
Stephen Buckle takes a different approach in 'Arguing from
Potential', Bioethics, vol. 2 (1988) and reprinted in Embryo Experimentation.
The quotation from John Noonan in the section 'The Status of
the Embryo in the Laboratory' is from his 'An Almost Absolute Value
in History', in John Noonan (ed.), The Morality of Abortion (Cambridge,
Mass., 1970) pp. 56-7. On the feminist argument about IVF, see Beth
Gaze and Karen Dawson, 'Who Is the Subject of Research?' and Mary
Anne Warren, 'Is IVF Research a Threat to Women's Autonomy?' both
in Embryo Experimentation.
On the use of fetuses in research and potential clinical uses, see
Karen Dawson 'Overview of Fetal Tissue Transplantation', in Lynn
Gillam (ed.), The Fetus as Tissue Donor: Use or Abuse (Clayton, Victoria,
1990). My account of the development of fetal sentience draws on
research carried out by Susan Taiwa at the Centre for Human Bioethics,
Monash University, and published as 'When Is the Capacity for Sentience
Acquired during Human Fetal Development?' Journal of Maternal-
Fetal Medicine, vol. 1 (1992). An earlier expert opinion came from
the British government advisory group on fetal research, chaired by
Sir John Peel, published as The Use of Fetuses and Fetal Materials for
Research (London, 1972). See also Clifford Grobstein, Science and the
Unborn (New York 1988).
Bentham's reassuring comment on infanticide, quoted in the section
:Abortion and Infanticide' is from his Theory of Legislation, p. 264, and
IS quoted by E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas
(London, 1924), vol. 1, p. 413n. In the final part of Abortion and Infanticide
Michael Tooley discusses the available evidence on the development
in the infant of the sense of being a continuing self.
For historical material on the prevalence of infanticide see Maria
Piers, Infanticide (New York, 1978); and W. L. Langer, 'Infanticide: A
Historical Survey', History of Childhood Quarterly, vol. 1 (1974). An
older, but still valuable survey is in Edward Westennarck, The Origin
and Development of Moral Ideas, vol. 1, pp. 394-413. An interesting study
of the use of infanticide as a form of family planning is Nakahara:
Family Farming and Population in a Japanese Village, 1717-1830, by
368
Notes and References
Thomas C. Smith (Palo Alto, Calif., 1977). References for Plato and
Aristotle were given in the notes to Chapter 4. For Seneca, see De Ira,
1, 15, cited by Westermarck, The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas,
vol. 1, p. 419. Marvin Kohl (ed.), Infanticide and the Value of Life (Buffalo,
N.Y., 1978) is a collection of essays on infanticide. A powerful
argument on public policy grounds for birth as the place to draw the
line, can be found (by readers of German) in Norbert Hoerster,
'Kindstotung und das Lebensrecht von Personen', Analyse & Kritik, vol.

his Social Rights and Duties (London, 1896) and is quoted by Henry Salt

in 'The Logic of the Larder', which appeared in Salt's The Humanities

of Diet (Manchester, 1914) and has been reprinted in the first edition

of T. Regan and P. Singer (eds.), Animal Rights and Human Obligations

(Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1976). Salt's reply is in the same article. My

own earlier discussion of this issue is in Chapter 6 of the first edition

366

Notes and References

of Animal Liberation (New York, 1975). For the example of the two

women, see Derek Parfir, 'Rights, Interests and Possible People', in S.

Gorovitz et al. (eds.), Moral Problems in Medicine (Englewood Cliffs,

N.J., 1976); a variation expressed in terms of a choice between two

different medical programs can be found in Parfir s Reasons and Persons

(Oxford, 1984), p. 367. James Rachels's distinction between a biological

and a biographical life comes from his The End of Life (Oxford,

1987). Hart's discussion of this topic in his review of the first edition

of this book was entitled 'Death and Utility' and appeared in The New

York Review of Books, 15 May 1980. My initial response appeared as a

letter in the same publication, 14 August 1980. I develop the metaphor

of life as a journey in 'Life's Uncertain Voyage', in P. Pettit, R. Sylvan,

and J. Norman (eds.), Metaphysics and Morality: Essays in Honour of J.

J. C. Smart (Oxford, 1987).

Chapter 6: Taking life: The embryo and fetus

The most important sections of the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court

in Roe v. Wade are reprinted in J.Feinberg (ed.), The Problem of Abortion.

Robert Edwards's speculations about taking stem cells from embryos

at around seventeen days after fertilisation are from his essay 'The case

for studying human embryos and their constituent tissues in vitro', in

R. G. Edwards and J. M. Purdy (eds.), Human Conception in Vitro (London,

1982). The government committee referred to in the sub-section

'Not the Law's Business?' - the Wolfenden Committee - issued the

Report of the Committee on Homosexual Offences and Prostitution, Command

Paper 247 (London, 1957). The quotation is from p. 24. J. S. Mill's

'very simple principle' is stated in the introductory chapter of On Liberty,

3d ed. (London, 1864). Edwin Schur's Crimes without Victims was published

in Englewood Cliffs, N.J., in 1965. Judith Jarvis Thomson's 'A

Defense of Abortion' appeared in Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. I

(1971) and has been reprinted in P. Singer (ed.), Applied Ethics.

Paul Ramsey uses the genetic uniqueness ofthe fetus as an argument

against abortion in 'The Morality of Abortion', in D. H. Labby (ed.),

Life or Death: Ethics and Options (London, 1968) and reprinted in J.

Rachels (ed.), Moral Problems, 2d ed. (New York, 1975), p. 40.

On scientific, ethical and legal aspects of embryo experimentation,

see P. Singer, H. Kuhse, S. Buckle, K. Dawson, and P. Kasimba (eds.),

Embryo Experimentation (Cambridge, England, 1990). lowe my speculations

about the identity of the splitting embryo to Helga Kuhse, with

whom I co-authored 'Individuals, Humans and Persons: The Issue of

367

Notes and References

Moral Status', in that volume. We were both indebted to a remarkable

book by a Roman Catholic theologian that challenges the view that

conception marks the beginning of the human individual: Norman

Ford, When Did I Begin? (Cambridge, 1988). The argument about potentiality

in the context of IVF was first published in P. Singer and K.

Dawson, :IVF T~chnology and the Argument from Potential', Philosophy

and Publzc AffaIrs, vol. 17 (1988) and is reprinted in Embryo Experimentation.

Stephen Buckle takes a different approach in 'Arguing from

Potential', Bioethics, vol. 2 (1988) and reprinted in Embryo Experimentation.

The quotation from John Noonan in the section 'The Status of

the Embryo in the Laboratory' is from his 'An Almost Absolute Value

in History', in John Noonan (ed.), The Morality of Abortion (Cambridge,

Mass., 1970) pp. 56-7. On the feminist argument about IVF, see Beth

Gaze and Karen Dawson, 'Who Is the Subject of Research?' and Mary

Anne Warren, 'Is IVF Research a Threat to Women's Autonomy?' both

in Embryo Experimentation.

On the use of fetuses in research and potential clinical uses, see

Karen Dawson 'Overview of Fetal Tissue Transplantation', in Lynn

Gillam (ed.), The Fetus as Tissue Donor: Use or Abuse (Clayton, Victoria,

1990). My account of the development of fetal sentience draws on

research carried out by Susan Taiwa at the Centre for Human Bioethics,

Monash University, and published as 'When Is the Capacity for Sentience

Acquired during Human Fetal Development?' Journal of Maternal-

Fetal Medicine, vol. 1 (1992). An earlier expert opinion came from

the British government advisory group on fetal research, chaired by

Sir John Peel, published as The Use of Fetuses and Fetal Materials for

Research (London, 1972). See also Clifford Grobstein, Science and the

Unborn (New York 1988).

Bentham's reassuring comment on infanticide, quoted in the section

:Abortion and Infanticide' is from his Theory of Legislation, p. 264, and

IS quoted by E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas

(London, 1924), vol. 1, p. 413n. In the final part of Abortion and Infanticide

Michael Tooley discusses the available evidence on the development

in the infant of the sense of being a continuing self.

For historical material on the prevalence of infanticide see Maria

Piers, Infanticide (New York, 1978); and W. L. Langer, 'Infanticide: A

Historical Survey', History of Childhood Quarterly, vol. 1 (1974). An

older, but still valuable survey is in Edward Westennarck, The Origin

and Development of Moral Ideas, vol. 1, pp. 394-413. An interesting study

of the use of infanticide as a form of family planning is Nakahara:

Family Farming and Population in a Japanese Village, 1717-1830, by

368

Notes and References

Thomas C. Smith (Palo Alto, Calif., 1977). References for Plato and

Aristotle were given in the notes to Chapter 4. For Seneca, see De Ira,

1, 15, cited by Westermarck, The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas,

vol. 1, p. 419. Marvin Kohl (ed.), Infanticide and the Value of Life (Buffalo,

N.Y., 1978) is a collection of essays on infanticide. A powerful

argument on public policy grounds for birth as the place to draw the

line, can be found (by readers of German) in Norbert Hoerster,

'Kindstotung und das Lebensrecht von Personen', Analyse & Kritik, vol.